title: New Trier High School

text: In 2017, the school neared completion of a $104.9 million renovation and addition project at its East Campus, which replaced three aging buildings on the west side of the campus with the addition of a new student cafeteria, a new library, more than two dozen classrooms for core English, math, social studies, language and business program classes, new art labs, applied arts classroom spaces in the basement for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) programming, space for the school's radio and broadcasting programming, two green roofs, and two new theaters.


title: New Trier High School

text: Jonathan Kozol wrote a book called "Savage Inequalities" in 1991 that discussed the harsh conditions in the poorest school districts in the United States, making a correlation between inequality and racial separation and segregation. In the book, Kozol contrasted New Trier High School's spending per student to impoverished schools within Chicago.


title: New Trier High School

text: In 2016, "Newsweek" magazine ranked New Trier as the top open-enrollment high school in Illinois and the 17th best high school in the country.


title: New Trier High School

text: , the New Trier Township High School Board of Education's members are mostly from Glencoe and Wilmette. As of September 1, 2017, the current superintendent of New Trier Township High School District 203 is Dr. Paul Sally. He replaced Dr. Linda L. Yonke, the first woman to hold the position, at the end of June 2017.


title: New Trier High School

text: New Trier spends more than $15,000 yearly per student, well above the state average of $8,786. It has been included in the "Top Hundred" and "Most Successful" lists of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, "The New York Times", "The Washington Post", and "Parade" magazine. The school was identified as "quite possibly the best public school in America" by "Town & Country", in a six-page article on New Trier that cited the "rich" and "demanding" curriculum, extensive arts and activities, strong participation in athletics, and faculty of the caliber typically found teaching at good colleges. "Life" also recognized New Trier as one of the best high schools in America with cover stories in 1950 and 1998.


title: New Trier High School

text: In the class of 2017, 23 students were National Merit finalists, 27 were National Merit semifinalists, 71 received letters of commendation and 442 were Illinois State Scholars. For this same class, the average composite ACT score was 27.8, the highest in Illinois for an open enrollment public school and among the top school scores in the United States. The class of 2018 scored an average 28.0 composite on the ACT, the highest ever for New Trier, and the highest in Illinois for open enrollment schools. According to an article by the University of Michigan Department of Psychology, "New Trier students outperform their Illinois classmates on every conceivable measure." The article also points out that 92% of the school's funding comes from the high property taxes of its affluent surroundings. Approximately 98% of the class of 2014 went on to enroll in college.


title: New Trier High School

text: New Trier ensembles or individuals have received 39 awards in the Downbeat Student Music Awards program. A record-setting seven of these were achieved in 2007 alone. More than 1,100 students participate in the music department. The student-run Soundtraks Club produces all 24 concerts a year, webcast live on the internet at ntjazz.com, on local cable television, and in stereo on WNTH radio.


title: New Trier High School

text: New Trier was named a Grammy Signature School Gold recipient by the Grammy Foundation in 2000 for its commitment to music education, and was named the National Signature School in 2007 as the nation's top high school music program. In April 2006, the school's Concert Choir and Symphony Orchestra performed in New York City at Carnegie Hall. In the summer of 2000, the school's Jazz Ensemble, Chamber Orchestra and Bluegrass Band enjoyed a successful two-week concert tour of China.


title: New Trier High School

text: New Trier has practiced subject-level grouping for over fifty years. In this system, up to four different levels of difficulty are offered for each academic subject. Level 2E is considered a general level. Levels 2, 3 and 4 are college preparatory, honors, and high honors levels, respectively. Level 5 was reserved for Advanced Placement classes and other college-level classes, such as multivariable calculus and linear algebra, but the level was phased out beginning with the class of 2011. (All 5-level courses are currently counted as 4-level.) Students may work at different levels in different subjects. Other levels include 8 and 9. Level 8 classes are counted for elective credit and level 9 classes, a combination of level 2, 3, and 4 students (i.e. 2+3+4=9) are graded as level 3 classes.


title: New Trier High School

text: New Trier offers both unweighted and weighted grade point averages (GPA), and plus and minus grades are reported on transcripts. In calculating a weighted GPA, grades in a student's coursework are given different values depending on the level in which the grade is earned. For example, an "A" in a 2-level course is weighted at 4.00, while in levels 3 and 4 the values are 4.67 and 5.33, respectively (an "A" in a 5-level AP class is worth 5.67). In 2009, New Trier announced that for the 2010–2011 school year the level 5 will be eliminated. A.P. classes will be weighted to level 4.


title: New Trier High School

text: With more than 120 state championships, New Trier High School currently has more than any other high school in Illinois. New Trier also leads the state in both boys' and girls' state titles. The sports in which New Trier has the most IHSA-sponsored state titles are boys' swimming and diving (24), boys' tennis (19), girls' swimming and diving (14), boys' golf (9), girls' tennis (9), and girls' badminton (8). New Trier has been strong in the sport of baseball, twice as state champions, winning in 2000 and 2009. New Trier has also historically been strong at non-IHSA sponsored sports, including 18 Great Lakes High School Fencing Conference (formerly Midwest High School Fencing) championships in men's fencing and 10 in women's fencing, fifteen state titles (Blackhawk Cup) in boys' ice hockey, twelve state championships in boys' lacrosse, 1995, 1998, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2019 six state titles in girls' ice hockey, six state titles in girls' golf (2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2010, 2012, 2017) and six runners up in girls' golf, 20 national championships in boys' rowing, 7 national championships in girls' rowing, nine state championships in girls' field hockey, six state championships in girls' lacrosse, and one state championship in girls' cross country. The top varsity ice hockey team for boys, New Trier Green, won the first ever USA Hockey High School National Championship title in 2010, and repeated as champions in 2011.


title: New Trier High School

text: In May 2005, New Trier was ranked #12 in "Sports Illustrated"s list of the "Top 25 High School Sports Programs in America," and first in Illinois.


title: New Trier High School

text: The New Trier Swim Club (NTSC) is nationally recognized for swimming excellence and the development of young adult leaders in athletics and education. NTSC swimmers compete at the national level of swimming, including the 2004 and 2008 Olympic Trials. The NTSC has consistently placed in the top 5 of all teams in the state of Illinois, and has been recognized by USA Swimming as a Silver Medal Club for the past four years.


title: New Trier High School

text: There are over 150 different extracurricular activities at New Trier, including the student-loved "Cereal Club".


title: New Trier High School

text: New Trier's Lagniappe-Potpourri is an annual student-written, student-choreographed, student-composed, student-directed, student-managed, student-built and student-performed variety show. The show began as two separate productions, Lagniappe and Potpourri, at the east and west campuses respectively. In 1981, the two campuses combined, causing the two shows to merge into Lagniappe-Potpourri.


title: New Trier High School

text: New Trier has several student publications, including the New Trier Political Journal, Calliope, the school's art magazine and Logos, the school's literary magazine.


title: New Trier High School

text: New Trier's debate program has flourished in recent years, with two students receiving the top speaker award at the Tournament of Champions, which only allows the top 72 teams in the nation to compete through a system of qualifiers. The school has also had teams placed in the top 16 in recent years. New Trier has had students either go to the final or win in the Illinois High School Association's state debate tournament in all four divisions, winning the 2011 and 2013 championship in Public Forum. In 2017 they won the championship in Lincoln-Douglas debate.


title: New Trier High School

text: Each of the four official class governments (Sophomore and Junior Steering Committees and the Freshman and Senior Senates) makes significant annual donations to various philanthropic causes throughout the community, state, country, and world. Every year since 2001, the Senior Senate has fully funded the construction of a house in conjunction with Habitat for Humanity of Lake County, Illinois, a non-profit organization that fights homelessness and substandard housing. A recent goal of the campaign was 10 houses in 10 years, and the class of 2010 fulfilled that goal. New Trier is the only school so far to build 10 houses with Habitat. Many fundraisers contribute to this and various other causes over the course of the academic year. The New Trier Tsunami Relief Committee donated more than $18,000 to relief organizations to save people who were affected by the tsunami, and also helped victims of the Indian Ocean tsunami in December 2004.


title: New Trier High School

text: The jazz festival began in 1983 and takes place on the first Saturday of February. Each year, the event brings in around fifty high school and junior high jazz ensembles from the Great Lakes region and Canada to perform during the day. The high school groups attend clinics with jazz educators and composers from around the country. Seminars are also held throughout the day on improvisation, transcription, and music business, as well as instrument masterclasses. A jazz combo and college big band perform in the afternoon, while the evening concert features New Trier's top jazz ensemble and a professional big band. Past groups have included the Buddy Rich Big Band (led by Dave Weckl), the Woody Herman Orchestra, the Count Basie Orchestra, the Artie Shaw Orchestra, the Duke Ellington Orchestra, the Toshiko Akiyoshi-Lew Tabackin Jazz Orchestra, the Vanguard Jazz Orchestra, the Chicago Jazz Ensemble (led by Jon Faddis), the Bob Mintzer Big Band, Gordon Goodwin's Big Phat Band, the Mingus Big Band, Maynard Ferguson, and Dizzy Gillespie. The festival was renamed in 2005 after Frank Mantooth when the jazz musician, educator, and composer died just days before the 2004 festival.


title: New Trier High School

text: Every year, New Trier holds a seminar day on a topic, with the 2021-2022 school year seminar day being about mental health. In 2017, New Trier held a Seminar day on race. There was significant backlash, especially from conservative publications. For example, the Wall Street Journal ran an article about the day titled "It’s Racial Indoctrination Day at an Upscale Chicagoland School". It is now seen as the beginning to a backlash against so-called "Critical Race Theory" in education.


title: Rhinestone (film)

text: Rhinestone is a 1984 American musical comedy film directed by Bob Clark from a screenplay by Sylvester Stallone and Phil Alden Robinson and starring Stallone, Dolly Parton, Richard Farnsworth and Ron Leibman. It is based on the 1975 hit song "Rhinestone Cowboy" written by Larry Weiss. Although a critical and financial failure, the film spawned two top 10 country hits for Parton.


title: Rhinestone (film)

text: Jake Farris, a down home country singer stuck in a long-term contract performing at "The Rhinestone", a sleazy urban cowboy nightclub in New York City, boasts to the club's manager, Freddie, that she can make anybody into a country sensation, insisting that she can turn any normal guy into a country singer in just two weeks. Freddie accepts Jake's bet, putting up the remainder of Jake's contract (if she wins the bet, the contract becomes void; if she loses, another five years will be added). He then ups the ante: if Jake loses, she must also sleep with him.


title: Rhinestone (film)

text: The problem is that Freddie can select the man, and he selects an obnoxious New York City cabbie named Nick Martinelli. Nick not only has no musical talent whatsoever, he claims to hate country music "worse than liver". Realizing she is stuck with Nick, she takes him back to her home in Tennessee to teach him how to walk, talk and behave like a real country star. While there, he has to put up with Jake's constant nagging and berating him about his behavior, the culture-shock of not knowing anything about the South, and Jake's ex-fiancée Barnett Kale who befriends Nick, then turns on him when he realizes that he and Jake have developed feelings for one another.


title: Rhinestone (film)

text: It all leads to Nick performing a song at The Rhinestone where the crowd is a crazed group of hecklers and are "out for blood." After Nick's first attempt to sing bombs, he turns to the band and says, "Okay guys, let's pick up the beat" and the band begins playing the song in a more Rock n' Roll version and he wins the crowd over. In the end, Jake gets her contract back and she and Nick begin to sing another song with the implication that they will continue their budding relationship together.


title: Rhinestone (film)

text: Stallone reportedly turned down "Romancing the Stone" and "Beverly Hills Cop" (1984) to make "Rhinestone". He was paid $5 million and a percentage of the gross.


title: Rhinestone (film)

text: Original screenwriter Phil Alden Robinson was so offended by Stallone's reworking of his original screenplay that he briefly considered having his name removed from the film's credits. He was later convinced that having his name on a film of this "caliber" would look good on his resume.


title: Rhinestone (film)

text: The most fun I ever had on a movie was with Dolly Parton on RHINESTONE. I must tell everyone right now that originally the director was supposed to be Mike Nichols, that was the intention and it was supposed to be shot in New York, down and dirty with Dolly and I with gutsy mannerisms performed like two antagonists brought together by fate. I wanted the music at that time to be written by people who would give it sort of a bizarre edge. Believe it or not, I contacted Whitesnake's management and they were ready to write some very interesting songs alongside Dolly's. But, I was asked to come down to Fox and out steps the director, Bob Clark. Bob is a nice guy, but the film went in a direction that literally shattered my internal corn meter into smithereens. I would have done many things differently. I certainly would've steered clear of comedy unless it was dark, Belgian chocolate dark. Silly comedy didn't work for me. I mean, would anybody pay to see John Wayne in a whimsical farce? Not likely. I would stay more true to who I am and what the audience would prefer rather than trying to stretch out and waste a lot of time and people's patience.


title: Rhinestone (film)

text: The film was panned upon its release, and is generally regarded as a commercial and critical flop. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 14% based on reviews from 14 critics. On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 36 out of 100, based on 9 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Nonetheless, the soundtrack album gave Dolly Parton two top ten country singles: "Tennessee Homesick Blues" and "God Won't Get You".


title: Rhinestone (film)

text: Variety magazine wrote: "Effortlessly living up to its title, "Rhinestone" is as artificial and synthetic a concoction as has ever made its way to the screen."


title: Rhinestone (film)

text: Phil Alden Robinson publicly distanced himself from the film during its release, writing to critics for the purpose of complaining about changes made to his script.


title: Cotoneaster

text: Cotoneaster is a genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, native to the Palaearctic region (temperate Asia, Europe, north Africa), with a strong concentration of diversity in the genus in the mountains of southwestern China and the Himalayas. They are related to hawthorns ("Crataegus"), firethorns ("Pyracantha"), photinias ("Photinia"), and rowans ("Sorbus").


title: Cotoneaster

text: Depending on the species definition used, between 70 and 300 different species of "Cotoneaster" are described, with many apomictic microspecies treated as species by some authors, but only as varieties by others.


title: Cotoneaster

text: The majority of species are shrubs from tall, varying from ground-hugging prostrate plants to erect shrubs; a few, notably "C. frigidus", are small trees up to tall and trunk diameter. The prostrate species are mostly alpine plants growing at high altitudes (e.g. "C. integrifolius", which grows at in the Himalayas), while the larger species occur in scrub and woodland gaps at lower altitudes.


title: Cotoneaster

text: The shoots are dimorphic, with long shoots ( long) producing structural branch growth, and short shoots ( long) bearing the flowers; this pattern often developing a 'herringbone' form of branching. The leaves are arranged alternately, long, ovate to lanceolate in shape, entire; both evergreen and deciduous species occur.


title: Cotoneaster

text: The flowers are produced in late spring through early summer, solitary or in corymbs of up to 100 together. The flower is either fully open or has its five petals half open diameter. They may be any shade from white through creamy white to light pink to dark pink to almost red, 10–20 stamens and up to five styles. The fruit is a small pome diameter, pink or bright red, orange or even maroon or black when mature, containing one to three (rarely up to five) seeds. Fruit on some species stays on until the following year.


title: Cotoneaster

text: "Cotoneaster" species are used as larval food plants by some Lepidoptera species including grey dagger, mottled umber, short-cloaked moth, winter moth, and hawthorn moth. The flowers attract bees and butterflies and the fruits are eaten by birds.


title: Cotoneaster

text: Although relatively few species are native there, in the UK and Ireland, "Cotoneaster" species are used, along with the related genus "Pyracantha", as a valuable source of nectar when often the bees have little other forage in the June gap. Bees adore "Cotoneaster". The red berries are also highly attractive to blackbirds and other thrushes.


title: Cotoneaster

text: Cotoneasters are very popular garden shrubs, grown for their attractive habit and decorative fruit. Some cultivars are of known parentage, such as the very popular "Cotoneaster" × "watereri" (Waterer's cotoneaster; "C. frigidus" × "C. salicifolius"), while others are of mixed or unknown heritage.


title: Cotoneaster

text: Cotoneaster are also popular in the cultivation of bonsai trees, thanks to their hardiness, ability to fruit and flower, and their small leaf size.


title: Cotoneaster

text: The following species and cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-


title: Cotoneaster

text: Many species have escaped from cultivation and become invasive weeds where climatic conditions are suitable for them, such as the many Chinese species naturalised in northwestern Europe. "C. glaucophyllus" has become an invasive weed in Australia and California. "C. simonsii" is listed on the New Zealand National Pest Plant Accord preventing its sale and distribution because of its invasiveness. On Portland, Dorset, UK, it has become invasive and is regularly culled to prevent damage to the Jurassic Coast.


title: Cotoneaster

text: The genus name "Cotoneaster" derives from "cotoneum", a Latin name for the quince, and the suffix "-aster", 'resembling'. The name is correctly masculine, though in some older works it was wrongly treated as feminine, resulting in different name endings for many of the species (e.g."Cotoneaster integerrima" instead of "Cotoneaster integerrimus").


title: Cotoneaster

text: The genus is often divided into two or more sections, though the situation is complicated by hybridisation:


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: 23 skidoo (sometimes 23 skiddoo) is an American slang phrase generally referring to leaving quickly, being forced to leave quickly by someone else, or taking advantage of a propitious opportunity to leave. Popularized during the early 20th century, the exact origin of the phrase is uncertain.


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: "23 skidoo" has been described as "perhaps the first truly national fad expression and one of the most popular fad expressions to appear in the U.S", to the extent that "Pennants and arm-bands at shore resorts, parks, and county fairs bore either [23] or the word 'Skiddoo'."


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: "23 skidoo" combines two earlier expressions, "twenty-three" (1899) and "skidoo" (1901), both of which, independently and separately, referred to leaving, being kicked out, or the end of something. "23 skidoo" quickly became a popular catchphrase after its appearance in early 1906.


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: Although there are a number of stories suggesting the possible origin of the phrase, none has been universally accepted.


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: Perhaps the most widely known story of the origin of the expression concerns the area around the triangular-shaped Flatiron Building at Madison Square in New York City. The building is located on 23rd Street at the intersection of Fifth Avenue and Broadway, the latter two of which intersect at an acute angle. Because of the shape of the building, winds swirl around it. During the early 1900s, groups of men reportedly gathered to watch women walking by have their skirts blown up, revealing legs, which were seldom seen publicly at that time. Local constables, when sometimes telling such groups of men to leave the area, were said to be "giving them the 23 Skidoo". An early nickelodeon film, "What Happened on Twenty-third Street", which dates from 1901, shows a woman's skirt being lifted by the updraft from a ventilation grate, exposing her knees.


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: Some consider the Flatiron Building origin claim dubious because the slang expressions "23" and "skidoo" were already in use before 1902, the year in which the Flatiron Building was built.


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: The earliest-known report of the slang expression "23" (or "twenty-three") as a code word for asking someone to leave is a newspaper reference on March 17, 1899:


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: At the time, a stage version of "A Tale of Two Cities", "The Only Way", was playing in London. The production moved to New York City later that year; it opened at the Herald Square Theatre on September 16, 1899. Less than two months later, popular slang author George Ade described having heard a new slang expression, "twenty-three":


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: In the same interview, Ade described two purported origin stories he had heard: that it was "from the English race tracks, twenty-three being the limit on the number of horses allowed to start in one race" or that it had been a signal used in a plot to free a Mexican embezzler from custody in New Orleans.


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: "Webster's New World Dictionary" derives "skiddoo" (with two d's) as probably from "skedaddle", meaning "to leave", with an imperative sense.


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: The word "Skidoo" was the name of a "Lark"-class racing sailboat that competed in races on Long Island Sound during the 1901 racing season. The "Skidoo" competed every summer through at least 1904.


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: "Skidoo" is attested, in its conventional, slang sense, by 1904. "Skidoo-wagon" (as well as "skidoodle wagon" and "skedaddle wagon") was a short-lived euphemism for automobiles during 1904–1905.


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: The word "skidoo", used by itself as a noun denoting a supposed bringer of bad luck, is attested in the early 1910s, in P. G. Wodehouse's "Psmith, Journalist". It appeared in newspapers as early as 1906.


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: Both of the slang expressions, "23" and "skidoo", were used in George M. Cohan's 1904 musical play "Little Johnny Jones". Numerous news items from the period credited either Cohan or Tom Lewis (the actor performing the role that spoke those lines in the play) with creating or popularizing one or both of the expressions. Even before the expression ""23, skidoo!"" became popular in its own right, "23" (or "twenty-three") and "skidoo" were frequently used in conjunction with, or near, one another in the same sentence or paragraph; "23" often as part of the phrase "23 for you [or yours]." For example, "Skiddoo! Git! Twenty-three for yours!", or "Twenty-three for his! Skidoo."


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: The earliest known use of the expression, in the familiar ""23, skidoo!"" form, is an advertisement for Billy B. Van's show "The Errand Boy": The phrase quickly became a ubiquitous catchphrase, and Google Books has many examples of commercial advertisements using "23-Skidoo" that begin in 1906. For example, the edition of "The Shoe Retailer" for August 4, 1906, volume 59, No. 5 (Boston, MA), has a full-page ad for a "23-Skidoo" sale, with blurbs such as "23-Skidoo/Says Low Price to the Shoe/Now It's Up to You".


title: 23 skidoo (phrase)

text: On the RMS "Titanic" there was a watertight door on E Deck numbered 23 which was informally called the "skidoo door" according to the testimony of the Chief Baker Charles John Joughin.


title: Spinalonga

text: Spinalonga () is an island located in the Gulf of Elounda in north-eastern Crete, in Lasithi, next to the town of Plaka. The island is further assigned to the area of Kalydon.


title: Spinalonga

text: It is near the Spinalonga peninsula ("large Spinalonga") – which often causes confusion as the same name is used for both.


title: Spinalonga

text: During Venetian rule, salt was harvested from salt pans around the island. The island has also been used as a leper colony. Spinalonga has appeared in novels, television series, and a short film.


title: Spinalonga

text: According to Venetian documents, the name of the island originated in the Greek expression στην Ελούντα "stin Elounda" (meaning "to Elounda"). The Venetians could not understand the expression, so they familiarized it using their own language, and called it "spina" "thorn" "longa" "long", an expression that was also maintained by the locals. The Venetians were inspired for this expression by the name of an island near Venice called by the same name and which is known today as the island of Giudecca.


title: Spinalonga

text: Because of its position, the island was fortified from its earliest years in order to protect the entranceway of the port of Ancient Olous.


title: Spinalonga

text: Olous, and accordingly the wider region, were depopulated at the middle of the 7th century because of the raids of the Arab pirates in the Mediterranean. Olous remained deserted until the mid-15th century, when the Venetians began to construct salt-pans in the shallow and salty waters of the gulf. Subsequently, the region acquired commercial value and became inhabited. This, in combination with the emergent Turkish threat, particularly after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the continuous pirate raids, forced the Venetians to fortify the island.


title: Spinalonga

text: In 1578 the Venetians charged the engineer Genese Bressani to plan the island's fortifications. He created blockhouses at the highest points of the northern and southern side of the island, as well as a fortification ring along the coast that closed out any hostile disembarkation. In 1579, the "Provveditore generale di Candia", Luca Michiel, put the foundation stone of the fortifications, built over the ruins of an acropolis. There are two inscriptions that cite this event, one on the transom of the main gate of the castle and the other on the base of the rampart at the north side of the castle. In 1584, the Venetians, realising that the coastal fortifications were easy to conquer by the enemies attacking from the nearby hills, decided to strengthen their defense by constructing new fortifications at the top of the hill. The Venetian fire would thus have bigger range, rendering Spinalonga an impregnable sea fortress, one of the most important in the Mediterranean basin.


title: Spinalonga

text: Spinalonga, along with Gramvousa and Souda, remained in Venetian hands even after the rest of Crete fell to the Ottomans in the Cretan War (1645–1669) and until 1715, when they fell to the Ottomans during the last Ottoman–Venetian War. These three forts defended Venetian trade routes and were also useful bases in the event of a new Venetian-Turkish war for Crete. Many Christians found refuge in these fortresses to escape persecution from the Ottoman Turks.


title: Spinalonga

text: In 1715, the Ottoman Turks captured Spinalonga, taking over the last remaining Venetian fortress and removing the last trace of Venetian military presence from the island of Crete.


title: Spinalonga

text: At the end of the Ottoman occupation the island, together with the fort at Ierapetra, was the refuge of many Ottoman families that feared Christian reprisals. After the revolution of 1866 other Ottoman families came to the island from all the region of Mirabello. During the Cretan revolt of 1878, only Spinalonga and the fortress at Ierapetra were not taken by the Christian Cretan insurgents. In 1881 the 1112 Ottomans formed their own community and later, in 1903, the last Turks left the island.


title: Spinalonga

text: The island was subsequently used as a leper colony from 1903 to 1957. The last inhabitant, a priest, did not leave the island till 1962, in order to maintain the Greek Orthodox tradition of commemorating a buried person 40 days, 6 months, 1 year, 3 years, and 5 years after their death.


title: Spinalonga

text: There were two entrances to Spinalonga, one being the lepers entrance, a tunnel known as "Dante's Gate". This was so named because the patients did not know what was going to happen to them once they arrived. However, once on the island they received food, water, medical attention and social security payments. Previously, such amenities had been unavailable to Crete's leprosy patients, as they mostly lived in the area's caves, away from civilization.


title: Spinalonga

text: After the leper colony was dissolved, Spinalonga sank into oblivion; interest in it was revived by the work of people like Maurice Born.


title: Spinalonga

text: Spinalonga was one of the last active leper colonies in Europe; others that have survived Spinalonga include Tichileşti in eastern Romania, Fontilles in Spain and Talsi in Latvia. As of 2002, few lazarettos remain in Europe.


title: Spinalonga

text: Today, the uninhabited island is a popular tourist attraction in Crete. In addition to the abandoned leper colony and the fortress, Spinalonga is known for its small pebble beaches and shallow waters. The island can easily be accessed from Plaka, Elounda and Agios Nikolaos. Tourist boats depart from all three towns on a daily basis (every 30 minutes from Elounda). Since there is no accommodation on Spinalonga, the tours last only a few hours.


title: Spinalonga

text: "L'Ordre", released in 1973, is a documentary by Jean-Daniel Pollet that focuses on the abandoned leper colony, and in particular of the colony's articulate and compelling leader, Raimondakis. Spinalonga featured in the 1977 British television series "Who Pays the Ferryman?" and Werner Herzog's experimental short film "Last Words". It is the (unnamed) setting of Ali Smith's short story "The Touching of Wood" (in "Free Love and Other Stories", 1995). It is also the setting for the 2005 novel "The Island" by Victoria Hislop, the story of a family's ties to the leper colony; the book was adapted for television in the television series "To Nisi" by Mega Channel Greece.


title: Spinalonga

text: The short story "Spinalonga" by John Ware, about a tourist group that visits the island, was included in the 13th Pan Book of Horror.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: The Alfa Romeo GTV and the Alfa Romeo Spider (Type 916) were sports cars produced by the Italian manufacturer Alfa Romeo from 1993 to 2004. The GTV is a 2+2 coupé, and the Spider is a two-seater roadster version of the GTV. Around 39,000 Spiders and 41,700 GTVs were built.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: The GTV's name (Gran Turismo Veloce—) placed it as the successor to the long-discontinued Alfetta GTV coupé, whereas the Spider was effectively the replacement for the then 30-year-old 105-series Giulia Spider. The GTV was available until the launch of the Brera in 2005, while the Spider lasted another year until the launch of its Brera-based successor in 2006.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: The Alfa Romeo GTV was described as "one of the best sports cars of its time" by Jeremy Clarkson in 1998 and was listed at number 29 in Top 100 Cars in 2001.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Both cars were designed by Enrico Fumia at Pininfarina. The GTV was planned to re-establish Alfa Romeo's sporty coupe tradition for the 1990s. The design dates back to initial renderings in September 1987; the first 1:1 scale clay models were completed in July 1988. After Vittorio Ghidella (Fiat CEO) accepted the design, Centro Stile Alfa Romeo under Walter de Silva was responsible for the completion of the detail work and the design of the interiors, as Pininfarina's proposal was not accepted. The Spider and GTV were based on the then current Fiat Group compact car platform, called "Tipo Due" (or Type 2) - in this case a heavily modified version with an all new multilink rear suspension. The front suspension and drivetrain was based on the 1992 Alfa Romeo 155 saloon. The chief engineer at that time was Bruno Cena. The Drag coefficient was 0.33 for the GTV and 0.38 for the Spider.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: The Alfa Romeo grille with dual round headlights was a motif later used on the Alfa Romeo Proteo. The car is wedge-shaped with a low nose. The back of the car is "cut-off" with a "Kamm tail" giving improved aerodynamics. The Spider shares these traits with the GTV except that the rear is rounded. The Spider featured a folding soft-top with five hoop frame, which disappears from sight under a flush fitting cover. An electric folding mechanism was an option.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Details included a rear lamp/fog lamp/indicator strip across the rear of the body and minor instruments in the centre console being angled towards the driver. At its launch, many journalists commented that Alfa had improved overall build quality considerably and that it came very close to equaling its German rivals.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: The exterior design was finished in July 1988. Production began in late 1993 with four cars, all 3.0 V6 Spiders, assembled at the Alfa Romeo Arese Plant in Milan. In early 1994 the first GTV was produced, with 2.0 Twin Spark engine. The first premiere was then held at the Paris Motor Show in 1994. The GTV and Spider were officially launched at the Geneva Motor Show in March 1995 and sales began the same year. V6 Turbo GTVs had two air intakes on the lower lip, one for oil cooler and other for intercooler. Early V6 Spiders lacked any additional intakes as the oil cooler was mounted in front of the radiator. The car was produced in three distinct phases. The Phase 1 cars had a black plastic grille in the nose of the bonnet, without the chrome edging and black-painted sills all round.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: In 1997 (Phase 1b) a new engine, a 24-valve 3.0 litre V6, was available for the GTV, The new 24V car also came equipped with a new 16" 5 hole 'teledial' wheel design to provide extra clearance for the larger, brakes and red four-pot calipers from Brembo. Further exterior changes were new rear badging 'V6 24V' denoting the fitment of the new engine, and V6 Turbo-sourced front bumper lip with just one intake on the right hand side to allow air flow to front mounted oil cooler. Some versions were upgraded with different front bumper mesh to bring the wind noise down to 74 dBA.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: On the interior, pleated leather seats from MOMO were offered in White, Red or Tan. These seats came with respective matching coloured carpet, pleated leather door card inserts as well as optional colour coded stitching around, hand brake, gear lever and the stitching of an all new three-spoke steering wheel. First RHD cars from this generation retained the original, four-spoke, steering wheel.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: In May 1998 the cars were revamped for the first time (Phase 2), mainly the interior was changed with new center console, painted letters on skirt seals, changed controls and switches arrangement and different instrument cluster. On the exterior main changes included chrome frame around the grille and color-coded side skirts and bumpers. A new engine was introduced, the 1.8 Twin Spark, and others were changed: the 2.0 Twin Spark was updated with a modular intake manifold with different length intakes and a different plastic cover. Power output of the 2.0 TS was raised to . Engines changed engine management units and have a nomenclature of CF2. The dashboard was available in two new colours in addition to the standard black: Red Style and Blue Style, and with it new colour-coded upholstery and carpets. 3.0 24V got a six-speed manual gearbox as an optional extra. The 2.0 V6 TB engine was now also available for the Spider. From this generation every V6-engined car had additional air intakes on the lower lip.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: In August 2000 (Phase 2b), engines were revamped to comply with new Euro3 emission standards. The units were slightly detuned and have a new identification code "CF3". The 3.0 V6 12V was discontinued for the Spider and replaced with the 24V version from the GTV, now only with 6-speed manual gearbox. The 2.0 V6 Turbo and 1.8 T.Spark were discontinued also and, for MY 2001, the engine range comprised only the 2.0 T.Spark and 3.0 V6 24V, until the "Phase 3" engine range arrived. The GTV/Spider were the last Alfa Romeo cars made at the Arese plant, which closed with production moving to Pininfarina, at its Giorgio Canavese plant in Turin, in October 2000.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: In 2003 a new and last revamp arrived (Phase 3), also designed in Pininfarina but not by Enrico Fumia. Main changes are focused on the front with new 147-style grille and different front bumpers with offset numberplate holder. Change in interior was minimal with different center console and upholstery pattern and colours available. Instrument illumination colour was changed from green to red. Main specification change is an ASR traction control, not available for 2.0 TS Base model. New engines were introduced: 2.0 JTS with direct petrol injection and 3.2 V6 24V allowing top speed.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: By the end of 2004 production ended at Pininfarina's plant. Some cars were still available for purchase until 2006.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: The turbocharged 2.0-litre V6, called V6 TB, was developed because of Italy's fiscal policy imposing a higher sales taxes on cars powered by engines with a capacity of more than 2.0-litre. It is basically a sleeved-down version of the 3.0-litre V6 engine. The turbo provided extra power while avoiding the higher tax. Both the 12-valve V6 engines have a redline of about 6,500 rpm, while 16 and 24-valve engines have 7,000 rpm.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: The 2.0-litre 16-valve Twin Spark engine of the 2.0 TS model was based on the Fiat SuperFIRE-family block, featuring an Alfa Romeo-developed cylinder head with two spark plugs per cylinder. Variable inlet cam timing, which allowed for 25 degrees of variation, was designed to improve torque and give a more linear power delivery. In addition, this engine has two belt driven balance shafts rotating at twice the engine speed, to eliminate engine vibrations. The base 1.8-litre engine did not feature balance shafts. The TS was the best-selling version of the GTV and Spider. CF2 and CF3 engines have plastic valve cover and variable-length intake manifold.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: At its time, the 3.2 V6 24V GTV was fastest road going Alfa Romeo, capable of 0–100 km/h in just over six seconds and a top speed of .


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: The last restyle of the GTV in 2003 saw the introduction of new 4-cylinder engines, in the form of the 2.0-litre JTS, with a power output of and featuring direct fuel injection, similar to systems used on diesel engines. The JTS engine uses only one spark plug per cylinder but retained variable-length inlet manifold and variable valve timing on intake camshaft.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: The GTV/Spider was equipped as standard with power steering, driver and passenger airbag, automatic air conditioning, front seatbelt pretensioners, Bosch ABS (with EBD from 1998), electric heated door mirrors, electric frameless windows with one-touch operation for the driver's side, height adjustable headlamps, front and rear foglights, third brake light, fire prevention system, reach and rake adjustable leather clad steering wheel, stitched leather gear knob, an automatic electric aerial, a stereo radio/cassette with six speakers and central locking with Alfa-CODE immobiliser, internal electric release for the bootlid and filler flap. The additional options were: alarm system, passenger-side airbag installation/removal, electric heated seats (GTV only), metallic paint, iridescent paint (only with Lusso trim), leather MOMO seats (only with Lusso trim) and electric sunroof (GTV only). For the Spider some cars could be equipped with an electric hood folding mechanism.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: The Lusso was a separate trim rather than an option pack and the standard car was renamed the "Turismo" from "Medio" in the UK. Medio and Lusso trims on phase 1 and 2 cars were available with almost any engine, except for Medio-only 1.8 L TS. Phase 3 cars were divided into Medio-only 2.0 L JTS and Lusso-only 3.2 L V6, also available was "Base" M.Y. 2003 2.0 L TS.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Blue Style and Red Style interiors were available with Lusso trim on Phase 2 and on all Phase 3 cars. Blue Style consisted of blue dashboard and white or blue leather MOMO seats, while Red Style had red dashboard with red or black leather MOMO seats. Rest of the equipment and options remain unchanged. With standard black dashboard there were 4 leather MOMO seat colours to choose from (excluding limited editions): black, red and tan. Also light-grey but only for Spider. On Phase 1 cars the leather MOMO seats were available in 3 colours: red, tan and white.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: All CF3 versions have three catalytic converters installed, two of them at the exhaust manifold. Previous CF1 and CF2 engines had only one catalytic converter.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: The fuel tank has a capacity of . The battery is located in the boot of the GTV or in the storage compartment behind the seats of the Spider. The optional CD auto changer is located in the boot, and the fuel tank is ahead of the rear axle line, behind the rear seats for increased safety. The power assisted steering has a very high ratio, giving 2.2 turns lock-to-lock. The bonnet and bootlid are supported on nitrogen filled struts. A spacesaver spare wheel was supplied, and there was a no-cost option of an aerosol can of tyre repair sealant. This was a factory standard from 1998 as it increased the usable size of the very small boot to .


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: To save weight the bonnet was made from a composite material called KMC (composed of polyester and fiberglass, and using epoxi adhesives also), while front wings were made in PUR plastic. At the time, the bonnet was the largest single composite moulding on a production car. When the bonnet is opened, two rectangular Hella headlamps are revealed with separate bulbs for dip and main beam, behind the four round holes in the bonnet. The bodyshell was galvanised with full plastic wheelarch liners and is therefore rustproof. Weight distribution for four cylinder engined car is 61% front/39% rear and for a V6 is 63% front/37% rear


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: As would be expected, the GTV has a much more rigid chassis, up to 64% stiffer, although considerable work was done on the Spider to reduce the traditional convertible problem of scuttle shake. Spider also features a reinforced A-pillars.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Wheels are 15 inch perforated steel as standard, 16 inch teardrop alloy wheels with 205/50 tyres were part of the Lusso option package. From Phase 2 and 3 16 inch teardrop alloy wheels became standard with factory option of 17 inch alloy wheels and 225/45 tyres. Only from Phase 3 (not including earlier limited editions) did Spider receive 17 inch wheels option.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Criticisms of the model have been that it is hard to park due to its large turning circle (11,2 m on most cars) and low seating position, which mean that the end of the bonnet and corners are outside the driver's line of sight. The doors are very long and need plenty of space in a car park.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: The front suspension utilises a fairly conventional set-up that comprises MacPherson struts, offset coil springs, lower wishbones and an anti-roll bar.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: The independent, multiple arm rear suspension comprises quadrilateral geometry with an upper triangle, double lower arms, coil springs and anti-roll bar secured to a light alloy subframe which is, in turn, mounted onto the car's body. The design of this geometry, and the fine tuning of the bushes, is such that during initial stages of a turn, the centrifugal forces create a small 'rear wheel steer' effect in the opposite direction to the way the front wheels are being pointed. Then, as the centrifugal forces build up through the corner, the rear wheels start steering in the same direction as the front wheels. The result is a more positive 'attack' into the first stages of cornering and increased stability in the later stages. This multilink rear suspension was designed by Gianclaudio Travaglio.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Cars have disc brakes all round, while most versions had Lucas or ATE system ventilated-discs at the front, some Spiders (1.8 TS and 2.0 TS) had Altecna-system. 3.0 V6 24V GTV and Spider had Brembo-system ventilated-discs with 4-pot calipers painted red with white 'Alfa Romeo" lettering. 3.2 V6 cars had the same 305 mm discs, even though GTA cars were later upgraded to 330 mm. All cars had Lucas-system solid-discs at the back.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: There were numerous limited edition GTV and Spider available. All can be categorized into 4 groups: Edizione Sportiva GTV 2001, Special Series 2001, Limited Editions 2002 and Special Series 2004. Almost all have the titanium-like finished center console without the Alfa Romeo script. All Special Series (except for some German-market Edizione Classica) cars have a silver numbered plaque on the side of the center console. All of the cars except for the first have unique version codes. All Spiders have electrically operated hood. All cars are in Lusso-trim equipment. Total numbers for each limited edition vary from as little as 8 or 10 to 419 or 700. Apart from producer sanctioned editions there were also few importer exclusive editions made for particular markets like Australia or Japan.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: The GTV Cup is a limited edition inspired by the mono-make Alfa GTV Cup race series in Italy. Only 419 cars were built in total, with 264 LHD versions and 155 RHD versions. Two different engines were used in the production: 180 cars were built with the 3.0 V6 24V (all 155 RHD versions were 3.0 models) and 239 cars with 2.0 Twin Sparks. The 3.0 V6 cars were only painted in Alfa Romeo Red while 2.0 TS cars were almost exclusively painted in Grigio Chiaro (there are just a few examples in red). Limited edition plaques, that were made of silver, differed for the RHD and LHD versions, having red and black texts accordingly and each run was separately numbered (i.e. there is both a LHD 001 and a RHD 001). Differences between the standard GTV and the Cup version are factory fitted rear spoiler, front spoiler, side skirts, wheel arch side vents and titanium-like finish 17-inch 'telephone dial' alloys;, although mechanically they are the same as the regular specifications. The Cup exclusive interior offers half-leather upholstery and the plastic centre console fascias were finished in a darker shade of grey. 2.0 TS GTV Cups have 4-pot Brembo callipers as have 3.0 V6 GTVs.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: German-market GTV available as a limited edition "Edizione Sportiva". Cars were only available with 2.0 TS or 3.0 V6 24V CF3 engines and produced in 2001.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: GTV Edizione Sportiva differed from the standard car by having black leather upholstery with red stitching, red carpets, front wings from Zender, Blaupunkt radio/navi with 10-CD changer in the boot, electric seats, 17-inch 'teledial' alloys and was available only in Nero Met. Edizione Sportiva was limited to 500 cars, but around 200 were made. This is the only limited edition to have the Alfa Romeo script on the center console and the only edition to lack the unique version code.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: GTV 'Elegant' was available in Blu Vela Met. or Nero Met. and had brown leather upholstery, darker than the standard tanned leather; and black carpets. Also there were additional leather strips underneath the door armrest, as have most limited editions. It also has a "Serie Limitata" numbered plaque on the titanium-like finished center console. Available with CF3 engines: 2.0 TS and 3.0 V6 24V.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Spider only, 2001 limited edition with either a 2.0 TS or 3.0 V6 24V engine. Sold only in Nero Met. with 17-inch high-gloss 'teledial' alloys and electric hood. Center console with limited edition numbered plaque and without the "Alfa Romeo" script. The interior is light grey upholstery combined with black carpets, although German-market cars appear as regular cars with light grey carpets and regular center console.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Spider, available in Giallo Ginestra or Grigio Chiaro Met. with Blue Style dashboard and matching blue leather Momo seats and carpets. Blue electric hood, high-gloss finished 'teledial' alloys and limited edition numbered plaque on the center console. Only 600 cars offered with 2.0 TS or 3.0 V6 24V but around 300 were made.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: GTV only, Nero Met. exterior with two-part Zender kit, perforated black upholstery interior with red leather Momo seats, titanium-like finished center console without limited edition plaque, 17-inch alloys. Other combination features Rosso Miro Pearl. exterior and perforated black leather interior. Available with 2.0 TS and Nero Met. also with 3.0 V6 24V.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Two different GTV editions. Grigio Chiaro Met. exterior and 'tango' leather interior with black carpets. Azzurro Nuvola Pearl. exterior and Black Leather interior. 2.0 TS only.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Spider Edizione Sportiva was equipped with side skirts and front wings from Zender, available only in Grigio Chiaro Met. with perforated black leather upholstery with red stitching. All limited-edition Spiders had titanium-like finished center consoles, without the "Alfa Romeo" sign and unlike serie speciales didn't have a limited edition plaque. All were offered with 17-inch alloys and electrically folded hood.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Spider Edizione Elegante was available only in Nero Met. and had two-tone leather seats, either black-light grey or black-red with matching side panels upholstery, equipped with 2.0 TS or 3.0 V6 24V.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Three different Spider editions. Blue Lightning Met. exterior and 'tango' leather interior with blue electric hood. Grigio Chiaro Met. exterior and Black-Lys Grey Leather interior with black hood. Rosso Miro Pearl. exterior and Red-Black Leather interior with black hood. 2.0 TS only with Blue Lightning Met. available also with 3.0 V6 24V.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Spider available only in Nero Met. and Motus-like interior with black carpets, black upholstery and perforated red leather seats, equipped with 2.0 TS or 3.0 V6 24V.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Spider available only in Grigio Chiaro Met. with two-tone interior: black-tango leather, equipped with 2.0 TS or 3.0 V6 24V.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Spider available only in Blu Lightning Met. and Lys Grey Leather interior, equipped only with 3.0 V6 24V.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Phase 3 Spider only, available from March 2004, limited to 30 cars in Austria with total 150 cars. Black metallic with black/silver cloth interior 2.0 JTS engine.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Phase 3 Spider only, available in Rosso Miro Pearl. or Blu Reims Met. only with 2.0 JTS engine. Interior either Red or Blue Cloth or Black Leather. Limited to 350 cars total. Limited to Medio trim.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Twin cars, coupé and spider, made as a preview of upcoming 916-series. Styled in 1986 by Diego Ottina at Pininfarina with cues from then-ready Alfa Romeo 164.


title: Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider

text: Alfa 164-based concept from 1991, designed by Walter de Silva with styling cues from then-ready GTV/Spider design.


title: Nuer people

text: The Nuer people are a Nilotic ethnic group concentrated in the Greater Upper Nile region of South Sudan. They also live in the Ethiopian region of Gambella. The Nuer speak the Nuer language, which belongs to the Nilotic language family. They are the second largest ethnic group in South Sudan. The Nuer people are pastoralists who herd cattle for a living. Their cattle serve as companions and define their lifestyle. The Nuer call themselves "Naath".


title: Nuer people

text: The Nuer people have historically been undercounted because of the semi-nomadic lifestyle. They also have a culture of counting only older members of the family. For example, the Nuer believe that counting the number of cattle one has could result in misfortune and prefer to report fewer children than they have. Their South Sudan counterparts are the Horn peninsula's westernmost Horners.


title: Nuer people

text: The Nuer people are said to have originally been a section of the Dinka people that migrated out of the Gezira south into a barren dry land that they called "Kwer Kwong", which was in southern Kordofan. Centuries of isolation and influence from Luo peoples caused them to be a distinct ethnic group from the Naath. The arrival of the Baggara and their subsequent slave raids in the late 1700s caused the Nuer to migrate en masse from southern Kordofan into what is now Bentiu. In around 1850, further slave raids as well as flooding and overpopulation caused them to migrate even further out of Bentiu and eastwards all the way into the western fringes of Ethiopia, displacing and absorbing many Dinka, Anyuak and Burun in the process.


title: Nuer people

text: British colonial expansion in the region during the 19th century greatly halted the Nuers aggressive territorial expansion against the Dinka and Anyuak.


title: Nuer people

text: There are different accounts of the origin of the conflict between the Nuer and the Dinka, South Sudan's two largest ethnic groups. Anthropologist Peter J. Newcomer suggests that the Nuer and Dinka are actually similar. He argues that hundreds of years of population growth created expansion, which eventually led to raids and wars.


title: Nuer people

text: In 2006 the Nuer and Murle were the tribes that resisted disarmament most strongly; members of the Nuer White Army, a group of armed youths often autonomous from tribal elders' authority, refused to lay down their weapons, which led SPLA soldiers to confiscate Nuer cattle, destroying their economy. The White Army was finally put down in mid-2006, though a successor organisation self-styling itself as a White Army formed in 2011 to fight the Murle tribe (see 2011–2012 South Sudan tribal clashes), as well as the Dinka and UNMISS.


title: Nuer people

text: Cattle have historically been of the highest symbolic, religious and economic value to the Nuer. Sharon Hutchinson writes that "among Nuer people the difference between people and cattle was continually underplayed." Cattle are particularly important in their role as bride wealth, where they are given by a husband's lineage to his wife's lineage. This exchange of cattle ensures that the children will be considered to belong to the husband's lineage. The classical Nuer institution of ghost marriage, in which a man can "father" children after his death, is based on this definition of relations of kinship and descent by cattle exchange. In their turn, cattle given over to the wife's patrilineage enable the male children of that patrilineage to marry and thereby ensure the continuity of her patrilineage. An infertile woman can even take a wife of her own, whose children, biologically fathered by men from other unions, then become members of her patrilineage, and she is legally and culturally their father, allowing her to metaphorically participate in reproduction.


title: Nuer people

text: Nuer life revolves around cattle, which has made them pastoralist, but they are known to sometimes resort to horticulture as well, especially when their cattle are threatened by disease. Due to seasonal harsh weather, the Nuer move around to ensure that their livelihood is safe. They tend to travel when heavy seasons of rainfall come to protect the cattle from hoof disease, and when resources for the cattle are scarce. British anthropologist E. E. Evans-Pritchard wrote, "They depend on the herds for their very existence...Cattle are the thread that runs through Nuer institutions, language, rites of passage, politics, economy, and allegiances."


title: Nuer people

text: The Nuer are able to structure their entire culture around cattle and still have what they need. Before development, the Nuer used every single piece of cattle to their advantage. According to Evans-Pritchard, cattle helped evolve the Nuer culture into what it is today. They shaped the Nuer's daily duties, as they dedicate themselves to protecting the cattle. For example, each month they blow air into their cattle's rectums to relieve or prevent constipation. Cattle are no good to the Nuer if constipated because they are restricted from producing primary resources that families need to survive. Evans-Pritchard wrote, "The importance of cattle in Nuer life and thought is further exemplified in personal names." They form their children's names from the biological features of the cattle.


title: Nuer people

text: Evans-Pritchard wrote, "I have already indicated that this obsession—for such it seems to an outsider is due not only to the great economic value of cattle but also to the fact that they are links in numerous social relationships." All their raw materials come from cattle, including drums, rugs, clothing, spears, shields, containers, and leather goods. Even daily essentials like toothpaste and mouthwash are created from the cattle's dung and urine. The dung is chopped into pieces and left out to harden, then used for containers, toothpaste, or even to protect the cattle themselves by burning it to produce more smoke, keeping insects away to prevent disease.


title: Nuer people

text: The Nuer people never eat cattle just because they want to. Cattle are very sacred to them, therefore when they do eat cattle they honor its ghost. They typically just eat the cattle that are up in age or dying because of sickness. But even if they do so, they all gather together to perform rituals, dances, or songs before and after they slaughter the cattle. Never do they just kill cattle for the fun of it. "Never do Nuer slaughter animals solely because of the desire to eat meat. There is the danger of the ox’s spirit visiting a curse on any individual who would slaughter it without ritual intent, aiming only to use it for food. Any animal that dies of natural causes is eaten". Many times it may not even just be cattle that they consume, it could be any animal they have scavenged upon that has died because of natural causes. There are a few other food sources that are available for the Nuer to consume. The Nuer diet primarily consists of fish and millet. "Their staple crop is millet." Millet is formally consumed as porridge or beer. The Nuer turn to this staple product in seasons of rainfall when they move their cattle up to the higher ground. They might also turn to millet when the cattle are performing well enough to support their family.


title: Nuer people

text: To a Nuer individual, his parents and siblings are not considered mar (blood relatives) kin. He doesn't refer to them as kin. To him they are considered gol which is far more intimate and significant. There are kinship categories in the Nuer society. Those categories depend on the payment to them. There is a balance between the mother and father's side that is acknowledged through particular formal occasions such as marriage.


title: Nuer people

text: Nuer girls usually marry at 17 or 18. If a young girl gets engaged at an early age, the wedding and consummation ceremonies are essentially delayed. Women generally give birth to their first children when they are mature enough to bear them. As long as a girl marries a man with cattle, she is able to freely choose her husband, however her parents may choose a spouse for her.


title: Nuer people

text: Kinship among the Nuer is very important to them, they refer to their blood relatives as "gol". Kinship within the Nuer is formed off of one's neighbors or their entire culture. During E.E.Evans-Pritchard's ethnographic observation, he described the role of kinship as: "Kinship obligations include caring for the children of one’s kin and neighbors. He also observed that,"The network of kinship ties which links members of local communities is brought about by the operation of exogamous rules, often stated in terms of cattle." This is never thought to be the sole responsibility of the child's parents." Cattle are judged by how much milk they can produce which is a necessity in their culture. If possible they create the excess of milk into cheese. But if a family’s herd cannot produce the amount of milk a family needs then they turn to others around them to give them what they need. It’s seen as their responsibility to step in and help the family since it’s not really their fault on how much their cattle can produce. The entire Nuer society is basically watching after each other, for example, as Evans-Pritchard noted that,"When one household has a surplus, it is shared with neighbors. Amassing wealth is not an aim. Although a man who owns a large herd of cattle may be envied, his possession of numerous animals does not garner him any special privilege or treatment". In this tribe there is no special treatment for how one is treated because of their abundance in cattle. Just because one might have more cattle than another doesn't mean they have a higher prestige. If one might have more than enough to provide for themselves then they also provide that to other kin that are in need, as it is a part of their role in kinship.


title: Nuer people

text: E. E. Evans-Pritchard studied the Nuer and made very detailed accounts of his interactions. He also describes Nuer cosmology and religion in his books.


title: Nuer people

text: Nuer Online indicates that, "Nuer (Nuäär) believes that God is the spirit of the sky or the spirit who is in the sky" Kuoth Nhial" (God in Heaven) the creator, but Nuers believe in the coming of God through rain, lightning and thunder, and that the rainbow is the necklace of God. The sun and the moon as well as other material entities are also manifestation or sign of God, who after all is a spirit.


title: Nuer people

text: The spirits of the air above are believed to be the most powerful of the lesser spirits, while there are also spirits associated with clan-spears names such as WiW, a spirit of war, associated with thunder. Nuers believe that when a man or a woman dies, the flesh, the life and the soul separate. The flesh is committed to the earth, while the breath or life goes back to God (Kuoth). The soul that signifies the human individuality and personality remains alive as a shadow or a reflection, and departs together with the ox sacrificed, to the place of the ghosts.".


title: Nuer people

text: In the 1940s, missionaries began to attempt to evangelize the Nuer. The book of Genesis was translated and published in 1954, with the whole New Testament following in 1968. By the 1970s, there were nearly 200 Nuer congregations established. However, reporting indicates that only around 1% of Nuer identify as Christian.


title: Nuer people

text: In the 1990s, Sharon Hutchinson returned to Nuerland to update E.E. Evans-Pritchard's account. She found that the Nuer had placed strict limits on the convertibility of money and cattle in order to preserve the special status of cattle as objects of bride wealth exchange and as mediators to the divine. She also found that as a result of endemic warfare with the Sudanese state, guns had acquired much of the symbolic and ritual importance previously held by cattle.


title: Nuer people

text: The pattern of Nuer scarification varies within specific subgroups. The most common initiation pattern among males consists of six parallel horizontal lines which are cut across the forehead with a razor, often with a dip in the lines above the nose. Dotted patterns are also common (especially among the Bul Nuer and among females).


title: Nuer people

text: Some Nuer have begun practicing circumcision after being assimilated or partially assimilated in other ethnic groups. The Nuer are not historically known to circumcise, but sometimes circumcise people who have engaged in incest.


title: Nuer people

text: Typical foods eaten by the Nuer tribe include beef, goat, cow's milk, mangos, and sorghum in one of three forms: "ko̱p" finely ground, handled until balled and boiled, "walwal" ground, lightly balled and boiled to a solid porridge, and injera / Yɔtyɔt, a large, pancake-like yeast-risen flatbread.


title: Nuer people

text: In the early 1990s about 25,000 African refugees were resettled in the United States throughout different locations such as South Dakota, Tennessee and Minnesota. In particular, 4,288 refugees from Sudan were resettled among 36 different states between 1990 and 1997 with the highest number in Texas at 17 percent of the refugee population from Sudan.


title: Nuer people

text: The Nuer refugees in the United States and those in Africa continue to observe their social obligations to one another. They use different means ranging from letters to new technologically advanced communication methods in order to stay connected to their families in Africa. Nuer in the United States provide assistance for family members' paperwork to help their migration process to the United States. Furthermore, Nuer in the United States observe family obligations by sending money for those still in Africa.


title: Nuer people

text: Some important Nuer politicians were, Both DiuBöth Diew who was the first Nuer, and South Sudan Politician from 1947 followed by Gai Tut. In the Military is Bol Nyawan who fought against the Khartoum government in Bentiu; he was killed in 1985 by the current president of Sudan. Commander Ruai and Liah Diu Deng were responsible for the attack that forced Chevron to suspend activities in the oil field around 1982.


title: Nuer people

text: Most Nuer people are nicknamed after their cattle. The boys usually chose the name of their favorite cattle based on the form and color of the ox. The girls are named after the cows that they milk. Sometimes the cow names are passed down.


title: Nuer people

text: Oil exploration and drilling began in 1975 and 1976 by companies such as Chevron. In 1979 the first oil production took place in the southern regions of Darfur. In the early 1980s when the north–south war was happening, Chevron was interested in the reserves in the south. In 1984 guerrillas of SPLA (Sudan People's Liberation Army) attacked the drilling site of the north at Bentiu. In return, Chevron cleared Nuer and Dinka people in the oil fields area to ensure security for their operations.


title: Nuer people

text: The Nuer-Dinka struggle in oil fields continued in late 1990s into the early 2000s. The struggle for oil production was not only manifested in north–south fight, but also in Nuer-Dinka and many internal conflicts among Nuer.


title: Nuer people

text: As part of Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), 50 percent of net revenues of southern oil fields were given to the government of southern Sudan as a solution to one of the sources of decades of civil conflict.


title: Nuer people

text: • Katarzyna Grabska 2014 "Gender, identity home: Nuer repatriation to Southern Sudan," James Currey: Oxford.


title: Dyēus

text: While its existence is not directly attested by archaeological or written materials, "*Dyēus" is considered by scholars the most securely reconstructed deity of the Indo-European pantheon, as identical formulas referring to him can be found among the subsequent Indo-European languages and myths of the Vedic Indo-Aryans, Latins, Greeks, Phrygians, Messapians, Thracians, Illyrians, Albanians and Hittites.


title: Dyēus

text: The divine name "*Dyēus" stems from the root "*dyeu-," denoting the "diurnal sky" or the "brightness of the day" (in contrast to the darkness of the night), ultimately deriving from *"di" or "dei"- ("to shine, be bright"). Cognates in Indo-European languages revolving around the concepts of "day", "sky" and "deity" and sharing the root "*dyeu"- as an etymon suggest that Dyēus was the vast and bright sky of the day conceived as a divine entity, such as Sanskrit "dyumán-" 'heavenly, shining, radiant'.


title: Dyēus

text: A vṛddhi-derivative appears in *"deywós" ("celestial"), the common word for "god" in Proto-Indo-European. In classic Indo-European, associated with the late Khvalynsk culture (3900–3500), "*Dyēus" also had the meaning of "Heaven", whereas it denoted "god" in general (or the Sun-god in particular) in the Anatolian tradition. The suffix-derivative "*diwyós" ("divine") is also attested in Latin, Greek and Sanskrit.


title: Dyēus

text: The noun ("day"), interpreted as a back-formation of *"deywós", has descendant cognates in Vedic Sanskrit "divé-dive" ("day by day"), Latin "Dies", goddess of the day and counterpart to Greek Hemera, Hittite "siwat" ("day"), Palaic "Tīyat-" ("Sun, day"), Ancient Greek "endios" ("midday"), Old Armenian "tiw" (տիւ, "bright day"), Old Irish ("nine-day period"), Welsh ("today"), or Slavic "Poludnitsa" ("Lady Midday").


title: Dyēus

text: While the Greek goddess Pandeia or Pandia (, "all brightness") may have been another name for the Moon Goddess Selene, her name still preserves the root "*di"-/"*dei"-, meaning "to shine, be bright".


title: Dyēus

text: The most constant epithet associated with *"Dyēus" is "father" ("*phtḗr"). The term "Father Dyēus" was inherited in the Vedic "Dyáuṣ Pitṛ́", Greek "Zeus Patēr", Illyrian "Dei-pátrous", Roman "Jupiter" (*), even in the form of "dad" or "papa" in the Scythian "Papaios" for Zeus"," or the Palaic expression "Tiyaz" "papaz". The epithet "*Phtḗr Ǵenh-tōr" ("Father Procreator") is also attested in the Vedic, Iranian, Greek, and perhaps the Roman ritual traditions.


title: Dyēus

text: "*Dyēus" was the Sky or Day conceived as a divine entity, and thus the dwelling of the gods, the Heaven. As the gateway to the deities and the father of both the Divine Twins and the goddess of the Dawn ("*Héwsōs"), "*Dyēus" was a prominent deity in the Proto-Indo-European pantheon. He was however likely not their ruler or the holder of the supreme power like Zeus and Jupiter.


title: Dyēus

text: "*Dyēus" was associated with the bright and vast sky, but also to the cloudy weather in the Vedic and Greek formulas "*Dyēus' rain." Although several reflexes of Dyēus are storm deities, such as Zeus and Jupiter, this is thought to be a late development exclusive to Mediterranean traditions, probably derived from syncretism with Canaanite deities and the Proto-Indo-European god "*Perkunos".


title: Dyēus

text: Due to his celestial nature, "*Dyēus" is often described as "all-seeing" or "with wide vision" in Indo-European myths. It is unlikely however that he was in charge of the supervision of justice and righteousness, as it was the case for Zeus or the Indo-Iranian Mithra–Varuna duo; but he was suited to serve at least as a witness to oaths and treaties. Proto-Indo-Europeans also visualized the sun as the "lamp of Dyēus" or the "eye of Dyēus", as seen in various reflexes: "the god's lamp" in Euripides' "Medes", "heaven's candle" in "Beowulf", "the land of Hatti's torch" (the Sun-goddess of Arinna) in a Hittite prayer, Helios as the eye of Zeus, Hvare-khshaeta as the eye of Ahura Mazda, and the sun as "God's eye" in Romanian folklore.


title: Dyēus

text: "*Dyēus" is often paired with "*Déǵōm", the Earth goddess, and described as uniting with her to ensure the growth and sustenance of terrestrial life; the earth becomes pregnant as the rain falls from the sky. The relationship between Father Sky (*"Dyēus Phtḗr") and Mother Earth ("*Déǵōm Méhtēr") is also of contrast: the latter is portrayed as the vast and dark dwelling of mortals, located below the bright seat of the gods. According to Jackson however, as the thunder-god is frequently associated with the fructifying rains, she may be a more fitting partner of "*Perkunos" than of "*Dyēus".


title: Dyēus

text: While Hausos and the Divine Twins are generally considered the offsprings of "*Dyēus" alone, some scholars have proposed a spouse-goddess reconstructed as "*Diwōnā" or "*Diuōneh", with a possible descendant in Zeus's consort Dione. A thematic echo occurs in the Vedic tradition as Indra's wife Indrānī displays a similar jealous and quarrelsome disposition under provocation. A second descendant may be found in Dia, a mortal said to unite with Zeus in a Greek myth. The story leads ultimately to the birth of the Centaurs after the mating of Dia's husband Ixion with the phantom of Hera, the spouse of Zeus. Another reflex may be found in the Mycenaean Greek "Diwia", possibly a feminine counterpart of Zeus attested in the second part of the 2nd millennium BC and which may have survived in the Pamphylian dialect of Asia Minor. The reconstruction is however only based upon the Greek—and to a lesser extent the Vedic—tradition, and it remains therefore not secured.


title: Dyēus

text: If the female goddesses Hera, Juno, Frigg and Shakti share a common association with marriage and fertility, Mallory and Adams note however that "these functions are much too generic to support the supposition of a distinct PIE 'consort goddess' and many of the 'consorts' probably represent assimilations of earlier goddesses who may have had nothing to do with marriage."


title: Dyēus

text: Cognates stemming either from the root "*dyeu" ("daylight, bright sky"), the epithet "*Dyēus Phter" ("Father Sky"), the vṛddhi-derivative "*deiwós" ("celestial", a "god"), the derivative "*diwyós" ("divine"), or the back-formation (a "day") are among the most widely attested in Indo-European languages.


title: Dyēus

text: Ritual and formulaic expressions stemming from the form *"Dyēus Phter" ("Father Dyēus") were inherited in the following liturgic and poetic traditions:


title: Dyēus

text: Other reflexes are variants that have retained both descendants of the root "*dyeu-" ("sky") and the original structure "Father God". Some traditions have replaced the epithet "*phter" with the nursery word "papa" ("dad, daddy"):


title: Dyēus

text: Cognates stemming from *"deywós", a vṛddhi-derivation of *"dyēus" (the sky-god) are attested in the following traditions:


title: Dyēus

text: Other cognates deriving from the word "*diwyós" ("*dyeu" "sky" + "yós", a thematic suffix) are attested in the following traditions:


title: Dyēus

text: As the pantheons of the individual mythologies related to Proto-Indo-European religion evolved, attributes of "*Dyēus" seem to have been redistributed to other deities. In Greek and Roman mythology, "*Dyēus" was the chief god, while the etymological continuant of Dyēus became a very abstract god in Vedic mythology, and his original prominence over other gods largely diluted.


title: Dyēus

text: At one point, early Slavs, like some Iranian peoples after the Zoroastrian religious reformation, demonized the Slavic successor of "*Dyēus" (abandoning this word in the sense of "heaven" at the same time, keeping the word for "day", however, and abandoning many of the names of the other Proto-Indo-European gods, replacing them with new Slavic or Iranian names), while not replacing it with any other specific god, as a result of cultural contacts with Iranian peoples in the first millennium BC. Hence, after the process of demonization by the Slavs, "*Dyēus" is considered to have originated two continuations: "*divo" ("strange, odd thing") and "*divъ" ("demon"). The result of this demonization may be Pan-Slavic demons, e.g. Polish and Czech dziwożona, or Div occurring in "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".


title: Dyēus

text: According to some researchers, at least some of "*Dyēus"'s traits could have been taken over by Svarog (Urbańczyk: Sun-Dažbóg – heavenly fire, Svarožič – earthly fire, Svarog – heaven, lightning). Helmold recalls that the Slavs were also supposed to believe in a god in heaven, who only deals with heavenly matters and commands other gods.


title: Dyēus

text: Various loanwords of *"deiwós" were introduced in non-Indo-European languages, such as Estonian "taevas or" Finnish "taivas" ("sky"), borrowed from Proto-Indo-Iranian.


title: Hugh McDonald (American musician)

text: Hugh John McDonald (born December 28, 1950) is an American musician who is best known for his session work and for being the current bassist and backup singer of American rock band Bon Jovi, which he joined as an unofficial band member in November 1994, before becoming an official band member in 2016. Before joining Bon Jovi, he was the bass guitarist for the David Bromberg Band, touring extensively worldwide and playing on many Bromberg albums. He has played with many other artists, both live and in the studio, including Willie Nelson, Steve Goodman, Ringo Starr, Lita Ford, Michael Bolton, Cher, Alice Cooper, Ricky Martin, Gavin Whittaker, Michael Bublé, Poison, and did a few dates during Shania Twain's the Woman in Me TV tour.


title: Hugh McDonald (American musician)

text: He has worked with Bon Jovi in the studio since its inception and has been their bass guitarist since original bass guitarist Alec John Such's departure after "Cross Road"which was released in 1994but was still regarded as an 'unofficial' member of Bon Jovi until 2016. At this time, McDonald was left out of most publicity shoots and album covers but did appear in some of the band's promo videos. The band members said they never agreed to officially replace Such. Regardless, his work with the band earned him a 1995 "Metal Edge" Readers' Choice Award for "Best Bassist" (tying with White Zombie's Sean Yseult).


title: Hugh McDonald (American musician)

text: McDonald was one of the studio musicians that recorded Jon Bon Jovi's original first demo for the song "Runaway". When the song became a local hit, Jon Bon Jovi nevertheless assembled a band without McDonald in order to record a full band album around the hit song. He has also appeared on Jon Bon Jovi's solo album "Destination Anywhere" and was part of Jon Bon Jovi's backing group, The Big Dogs.


title: Hugh McDonald (American musician)

text: In 2004, McDonald married Kelli, a horse trainer and jewelry designer. McDonald has two children, one of whom, a stepson, is also a musician. In 2018, McDonald was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Bon Jovi.


title: Rondale Moore

text: Rondale DaSean Moore (born June 9, 2000) is an American football wide receiver for the Arizona Cardinals of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Purdue, and was drafted by the Cardinals in the second round of the 2021 NFL Draft.


title: Rondale Moore

text: Moore was born in New Albany, Indiana on June 9, 2000. He grew up on the same block as NBA player Romeo Langford and the two played basketball together until their sophomore year of high school. He attended New Albany High School where he was part of the 2016 4A Indiana State basketball championship team with Langford before transferring to Trinity High School where he was a four-star football recruit. In June 2017, he committed to play at the University of Texas at Austin but later chose to attend Purdue University.


title: Rondale Moore

text: In his first game with the Boilermakers, and his first game overall, Moore's 313-yard all-purpose yards was the record for most in program history, higher than Otis Armstrong, who had 312 in 1972. In that same game, Moore had a 76-yard rush to score a touchdown that evened the score at 14–14. The Boilermakers eventually lost the game, 31–27. On September 3, 2018, Moore was named the Co-Freshman of the Week in the Big Ten Conference. On September 24, 2018, Moore was once again named Big Ten Freshman of the Week. On October 22, 2018, Moore was once again named the Big Ten Freshman of the Week. On November 25, 2018, Moore was named the Big Ten Freshman of the Week for a fourth time.


title: Rondale Moore

text: At the conclusion of the 2018 regular season, Moore had recorded 1,164 receiving yards and 203 rushing yards to go along with thirteen combined touchdowns. Moore's 2,048 all-purpose yards were the most since Dorien Bryant recorded 2,121 in 2007, and the second most in school history.


title: Rondale Moore

text: At the end of the 2018 season, Moore was the recipient of the Paul Hornung Award, given to the most versatile player in all of college football. Moore was also named a First-Team All-American by The Athletic, a well-regarded sporting website but not one of the members of the All-American voting process.


title: Rondale Moore

text: On December 10, 2018, Moore was named a First-Team All-American by the Associated Press as an all-purpose back. On December 11, 2018, Moore was named a First-Team All-American by the Football Writers' Association of America. On December 12, 2018, The Sporting News named Moore to their second-team, making Moore a consensus All-American.


title: Rondale Moore

text: Moore was selected by the Arizona Cardinals in the second round with the 49th overall pick in the 2021 NFL Draft. He signed his four-year rookie contract with Arizona on June 9, 2021.


title: Rondale Moore

text: Moore entered the 2021 season fourth on the Cardinals wide receiver depth chart. In his second career game, Moore scored his first NFL touchdown on a 77-yard pass from Kyler Murray in the second quarter against the Minnesota Vikings. He finished the season with 54 catches for 435 yards and one touchdown.


title: Rondale Moore

text: After missing the first three games due to a hamstring injury, Moore made his 2022 debut in Week 4. He started the next eight games before being placed on injured reserve on December 14, 2022.


title: First Epistle to the Thessalonians

text: The First Epistle to the Thessalonians is a Pauline epistle of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle, and is addressed to the church in Thessalonica, in modern-day Greece. It is likely among the first of Paul's letters, probably written by the end of AD 52, though some scholars believe the Epistle to the Galatians may have been written by AD 48.


title: First Epistle to the Thessalonians

text: Thessalonica is a city on the Thermaic Gulf, which at the time of Paul was within the Roman Empire. Paul visited Thessalonica and preached to the local population, winning converts who became a Christian community. There is debate as to whether or not Paul's converts were originally Jewish. The Acts of the Apostles describes Paul preaching in a Jewish synagogue and persuaded people who were already Jewish that Jesus was the Messiah, but in 1 Thessalonians itself Paul says that the converts had turned from idols, suggesting that they were not Jewish before Paul arrived.


title: First Epistle to the Thessalonians

text: Most New Testament scholars believe Paul wrote this letter from Corinth only months after he left Thessalonica, although information appended to this work in many early manuscripts (e.g., Codices Alexandrinus, Mosquensis, and Angelicus) state that Paul wrote it in Athens after Timothy had returned from Macedonia with news of the state of the church in Thessalonica.


title: First Epistle to the Thessalonians

text: It is widely agreed that 1 Thessalonians is the first book of the New Testament to be written, and the earliest extant Christian text. A majority of modern New Testament scholars date 1 Thessalonians to 49-51 AD, during Paul's 18-month stay in Corinth coinciding with his second missionary journey. A minority of scholars who do not recognize the historicity of Acts date it in the early 40s AD. The Delphi Inscription dates Gallio's proconsulship of Achaia to 51-52 AD, and Acts 18:12-17 mentions Gallio, toward the end of Paul's stay in Corinth.


title: First Epistle to the Thessalonians

text: 1 Thessalonians does not focus on justification by faith or questions of Jewish–Gentile relations, themes that are covered in all other letters. Because of this, some scholars see this as an indication that this letter was written before the Epistle to the Galatians, where Paul's positions on these matters were formed and elucidated.


title: First Epistle to the Thessalonians

text: The majority of New Testament scholars hold 1 Thessalonians to be authentic, although a number of scholars in the mid-19th century contested its authenticity, most notably Clement Schrader and F.C. Baur. 1 Thessalonians matches other accepted Pauline letters, both in style and in content, and its authorship is also affirmed by 2 Thessalonians.


title: First Epistle to the Thessalonians

text: The authenticity of 1 Thessalonians 2:13–16 is disputed because its content appears at odds with the surrounding passages and Paul's theology in other epistles. It is also sometimes suggested that 1 Thessalonians 5:1–11 is a post-Pauline insertion that has many features of Lukan language and theology that serves as an apologetic correction to Paul's imminent expectation of the Second Coming in 1 Thessalonians 4:13–18. Some scholars, such as Schmithals, Eckhart, Demke and Munro, have developed complicated theories involving redaction and interpolation in 1 and 2 Thessalonians.


title: First Epistle to the Thessalonians

text: Paul, speaking for himself, Silas, and Timothy, gives thanks for the news about their faith and love; he reminds them of the kind of life he had lived while he was with them. Paul stresses how honorably he conducted himself, reminding them that he had worked to earn his keep, taking great pains not to burden anyone. He did this, he says, even though he could have used his status as an apostle to impose upon them.


title: First Epistle to the Thessalonians

text: Paul goes on to explain that the dead will be resurrected prior to those still living, and both groups will greet the Lord in the air.


title: Takt time

text: Takt time, or simply Takt, is a manufacturing term to describe the required product assembly duration that is needed to match the demand. Often confused with cycle time, takt time is a tool used to design work and it measures the average time interval between the start of production of one unit and the start of production of the next unit when items are produced sequentially. For calculations, it is the time to produce parts divided by the number of parts demanded in that time interval. The takt time is based on customer demand; if a process or a production line are unable to produce at takt time, either demand leveling, additional resources, or process re-engineering is needed to ensure on-time delivery.


title: Takt time

text: For example, if the customer demand is 10 units per week, then, given a 40-hour workweek and steady flow through the production line, the average duration between production starts should be 4 hours, ideally. This interval is further reduced to account for things like machine downtime and scheduled employee breaks.


title: Takt time

text: Takt time is a borrowing of the Japanese word , which in turn was borrowed from the German word "", meaning 'cycle time'. The word was likely introduced to Japan by German engineers in the 1930s.


title: Takt time

text: The word originates from the Latin word "tactus" meaning "touch, sense of touch, feeling". Some earlier meanings include: (16th century) "beat triggered by regular contact, clock beat", then in music "beat indicating the rhythm" and (18th century) "regular unit of note values".


title: Takt time

text: Takt time has played an important role in production systems even before the industrial revolution. From 16th-century shipbuilding in Venice, mass-production of Model T by Henry Ford, synchronizing airframe movement in the German aviation industry and many more. Cooperation between the German aviation industry and Mitsubishi brought Takt to Japan, where Toyota incorporated it in the Toyota Production System (TPS).


title: Takt time

text: James P. Womack and Daniel T. Jones in "The Machine That Changed the World" (1990) and "Lean Thinking" (1996) introduced the world to the concept of "lean". Through this, Takt was connected to lean systems. In the Toyota Production System (TPS), takt time is a central element of the just-in-time pillar (JIT) of this production system.


title: Takt time

text: Assuming a product is made one unit at a time at a constant rate during the net available work time, the takt time is the amount of time that must elapse between two consecutive unit completions in order to meet the demand.


title: Takt time

text: Net available time is the amount of time available for work to be done. This excludes break times and any expected stoppage time (for example scheduled maintenance, team briefings, etc.).


title: Takt time

text: Example:<br>If there are a total of 8 hours (or 480 minutes) in a shift (gross time) less 30 minutes lunch, 30 minutes for breaks (2 × 15 mins), 10 minutes for a team briefing and 10 minutes for basic maintenance checks, then the net "Available Time to Work" = 480 - 30 - 30 - 10 - 10 = 400 minutes.


title: Takt time

text: If customer demand were 400 units a day and one shift was being run, then the line would be required to output at a minimum rate of one part per minute in order to be able to keep up with customer demand.


title: Takt time

text: Takt time may be adjusted according to requirements within a company. For example, if one department delivers parts to several manufacturing lines, it often makes sense to use similar takt times on all lines to smooth outflow from the preceding station. Customer demand can still be met by adjusting daily working time, reducing down times on machines, and so on.


title: Takt time

text: Takt time is common in production lines that move a product along a line of stations that each performs a set of predefined tasks.


title: Takt time

text: With the adoption of lean thinking in the construction industry, takt time has found its way into the project-based production systems of the industry. Starting with construction methods that have highly repetitive products like bridge construction, tunnel construction, and repetitive buildings like hotels and residential high-rises, implementation of takt is increasing.


title: Takt time

text: According to Koskela (1992), an ideal production system has continuous flow and creates value for the customer while transforming raw materials into products. Construction projects use critical path method (CPM) or program evaluation and review technique (PERT) for planning and scheduling. These methods do not generate flow in the production and tend to be vulnerable to variation in the system. Due to common cost and schedule overruns, industry professionals and academia have started to regard CPM and PERT as outdated methods that often fail to anticipate uncertainties and allocate resources accurately and optimally in a dynamic construction environment. This has led to increasing developments and implementation of takt.


title: Takt time

text: Takt, as used in takt planning or takt-time planning (TTP) for construction, is considered one of the several ways of planning and scheduling construction projects based on their utilization of space rather than just time, as done traditionally in the critical path method. Also, to visualize and create flow of work on a construction site, utilization of space becomes essential. Some other space scheduling methods include:


title: Takt time

text: In manufacturing, the product being built keeps moving on the assembly line, while the workstations are stationary. On contrary, construction product, i.e. the building or infrastructure facilities being constructed, is stationary and the workers move from one location to another.


title: Takt time

text: Takt planning needs an accurate definition of work at each workstation, which in construction is done through defining spaces, called "zones". Due to the non-repetitive distribution of work in construction, achieving work completion within the defined takt for each zone, becomes difficult. Capacity buffer is used to deal with this variability in the system.


title: Takt time

text: The rationale behind defining these zones and setting the takt is not standardized and varies as per the style of the planner. Work density method (WDM) is one of the methods being used to assist in this process. Work density is expressed as a unit of time per unit of area. For a certain work area, work density describes how much time a trade will require to do their work in that area (zone), based on:


title: Zipcar

text: Zipcar is an American car-sharing company and a subsidiary of Avis Budget Group. Zipcar provides vehicle reservations to its members, billable by the minute, hour or day; members may have to pay a monthly or annual membership fee in addition to car reservations charges. Gas, maintenance, insurance options, and a dedicated parking spot are included. Zipcar was founded in 2000 by Antje Danielson and Robin Chase.


title: Zipcar

text: On March 14, 2013, Avis Budget Group acquired Zipcar for approximately million. Scott Griffith, who had run the company for the previous 10 years, resigned the day after the acquisition closed and passed the reins to a new company president, Mark Norman. In early 2014, Kaye Ceille took over as Zipcar's North American President. In the summer of 2016, Kaye Ceille became a managing director of Avis Budget Group International and in 2017, Tracey Zhen was appointed as President. Angelo Adams was announced as the head of Zipcar in 2022.


title: Zipcar

text: In September 2016, Zipcar announced that it had 1 million members across 500 cities in 9 countries, and offers nearly 10,000 vehicles.


title: Zipcar

text: Members can instantly join and reserve vehicles via Zipcar's Android or iPhone mobile app or online, and once approved, immediately or up to a year in advance book Zipcars. Zipcar members have 24/7 on-demand access to the cars by enabling bluetooth on their Zipcar mobile app or, if needed, an access card which unlocks the door; the keys are already located inside. Members can also use Zipcar's app to search, book and locate a Zipcar by honking its horn, extend, end and cancel a reservation.


title: Zipcar

text: In the third quarter of 2007, Zipcar merged with Seattle-based rival Flexcar to create a nationwide car rental company. The company's IPO was in April 2011. Zipcar common stock traded on NASDAQ under the ticker symbol "ZIP" until it was acquired by Avis in 2013.


title: Zipcar

text: Zipcar was co-founded by Antje Danielson and Robin Chase based on existing German and Swiss companies in January 2000. In June 2000, the first Zipcars hit the road around Boston, Massachusetts. In January 2001, Antje was fired after Robin Chase petitioned Zipcar's board for the ability to make hiring and firing decisions without consulting them.


title: Zipcar

text: In September 2001, the Washington, D.C. office opened, with the branch in New York City following in February 2002. In February 2003, after difficulties in securing additional rounds of funding, the Zipcar board replaced Robin Chase as CEO with Scott Griffith. In July 2005, Zipcar secured $10 million in funding led by Benchmark Capital. In August 2005, San Francisco office opened. In May 2006, the Toronto office opened. In May 2006, General Electric's Commercial Finance Fleet Services () gave Zipcar $20 million in lease line financing. In September 2006, the Toronto market was named the fastest growing new market in company history.


title: Zipcar

text: In November 2006, the London office opened. In April 2007, the Vancouver office opened. In October 2007, Zipcar and Flexcar executives announced a merger of the two companies, with the Zipcar brand and headquarters replacing that of Flexcar.