title: Kenneth Clark

text: Among his books is "the best introduction to the art of Leonardo da Vinci ever written". Piper singles out, in addition to the Leonardo monograph, Clark's "Piero della Francesca" (1951), "The Nude" (1956, based on his Mellon lectures in Washington in 1953), and "Rembrandt and the Italian Renaissance" (1966 from his Wrightsman lectures in New York). The critic Jackie Wullschlager wrote in 2014 that it was as a writer rather than a collector that Clark excelled: "unrivalled since Ruskin for lucidity, erudition, moral conviction". James Hall, in "The Guardian", expressed a similar view, calling Clark "the most seductive writer on art since Ruskin and Pater ... Today, when most art historians write as joylessly as lawyers and accountants, such verve is sorely needed."


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: The R46 is a New York City Subway car model that was built by the Pullman Standard Company from 1975 to 1978 for the IND/BMT B Division. They replaced all remaining Arnine cars and General Electric-powered R16s, and some R10s. The R46 order initially consisted of 754 single cars, each long, and was the largest single order of passenger cars in United States railroad history at the point of the fleet's completion. The R46 was the second order of 75-foot cars to be ordered for the New York City Subway, after the R44s.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: The first R46s ran in passenger service on July 14, 1975. The fleet was initially slated to be delivered between 1973 and 1975, but a strike at Pullman's factory delayed final deliveries until 1978. Several hundred cracks were found in the R46 trucks during their first few years of service, leading them to be referred to as "the most troubled cars ever purchased". Morrison–Knudsen rebuilt the R46s in 1990–1992. They are expected to remain in service until the mid-2020s, when they will be replaced by the R211s.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: The R46s are numbered 5482–6207 and 6208–6258 (even numbers only). 5482–6207 were originally numbered 500–1227 (except numbers 941 & 1054, as those two cars were scrapped prior to overhaul), and 6208–6258 were originally numbered 1228–1278 (even numbers only). The R46 order consisted of 754 single cars, originally planned to be 745, that were numbered from 500 to 1278. Even cars with cabs are A cars; odd cars without cabs are B cars. The cars cost about $285,000 each. Like the previous R44s, the R46s are long. Due to their length, they cannot run on the BMT Jamaica Line.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: The R46s were constructed with sheet rubber floors, plastic seats, fluorescent lighting, spaces for ceiling advertisements, and the use of air springs instead of heavy metal springs. The change in springs reduced noisy and bumpy rides. The cars were not equipped with straphangers like previous models. Instead, horizontal bars that passengers could hold on to were installed. The cars were built with air-conditioning.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: Currently, the cars maintained at Pitkin Yard run on the , , and Rockaway Park Shuttle, while those maintained at Coney Island Yard run on the , , and .


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: On April 7, 1972, Pullman Standard bid on the contract for 900 subway cars, and it was the highest bidder. It put in a bid of $273,000 per car, or $246 million for the entire contract. Other bidders included General Electric, Rohr Industries, and Westinghouse Electric Corporation. The cars were to be constructed almost identically to the R44s. Once the order was awarded to Pullman Standard, the cars were constructed at the company's shops on the South Side of Chicago. The subway car order was the largest single order of passenger cars in United States railroad history at the point of the fleet's completion.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: Once the order was reduced to 754 cars, the entire cost of the order was reduced to $210.5 million. The first cars were expected to be testing in the NYC Subway by October 1973, and all of the cars were expected to be delivered by October 15, 1975. However, the first two trains of R46s were placed in service on the and on July 14, 1975, with a brief ceremony at 34th Street–Herald Square, attended by Mayor Abraham Beame and MTA Chairman David Yunich. Due to a strike at the Pullman Standard on October 1, 1977, along with other problems, the final R46s entered service in December 1978, three years behind schedule.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: In March 1977, there was a crack found in the frame of one of the lightweight trucks built by Rockwell International, which resulted in a motor breaking loose from the truck's transom arms, striking an axle. By 1978, cracks were found in 264 R46 trucks. Because of these problems, all R46s had to be checked three times per week for truck cracks. In February 1978, 889 cracks were found in 547 of the trucks. The cracking was such a bad problem that on June 14, 1979, New York City Mayor Koch ordered R46s with trucks that had two or more cracks out of service. Then, more than 1,200 cracks had been found by that day, and they were classified into seven types. There was an account that called the R46s "the most troubled cars ever purchased". By this time, the number of cracks had almost doubled, from 889 cracks found in February 1979 to 1,700 in March 1980. In order to keep track of the R46s' structural issues, they were inspected several times a week. In September 1980, two types of cracks that were not seen before were found on the trucks. As a result, the NYCTA tried to minimize usage of the R46 fleet, until their trucks were replaced with new R44 type standard trucks ordered from General Steel Industries and Buckeye Industries.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: In July 1979, Pullman Standard informed the MTA that the hand brake assemblies for the R46 were problematic. In late July 1979, inspections revealed that the steel where the car body was joined to the truck was wearing away, a severe safety issue. At the end of 1979, many other flaws were discovered in the R46 fleet, and the Transit Authority filed another US$80 million charge against Pullman Standard and a number of other subcontractors. This lawsuit invalidated an agreement made with Pullman by executive director John G. DeRoos for US$1.5 million in spare parts to remedy the defects.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: In 1983, organizations for the blind stated that the gaps in between R44 and R46 cars were dangerous, since the blind could mistake the spaces for doorways.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: On April 26, 1986, cars 1054 and 941 were heavily damaged when an E train hit the tunnel wall near Jamaica–179th Street. The accident occurred because the 54-year old motorman, Alick Williams of Saint Albans, had a heart attack; he died at the scene. The two damaged cars were scrapped on June 4, 1987.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: From 1990 to 1992, Morrison–Knudsen of Hornell, New York, rebuilt the remaining 752 R46s through the NYCTA's General Overhaul Program (GOH). During the GOH, the fleet received the same LCD destination signs as the R44s, replacing the older rollsigns. The blue stripes on the side of the cars were removed, resulting in the appearance of an entirely unpainted car body (the fiberglass ends remain painted silver to match the stainless sides). Other improvements included the rebuilding of all mechanical systems and making the R46 more compatible with other car types. Also, their trouble-prone WABCO RT-5 or P-Wire braking system was removed, and replaced with a more reliable NYAB Newtran SMEE braking/control system.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: After their overhaul, the R46s were renumbered 5482–6258 in the mid-1990s. Cars 5482–6205 were linked in sets of four, cars 6208–6258 (even only) were linked up as A-A pairs, and cars 6206–6207 were configured as one A-B married pair. Like the R44s, their original two-note warning tones were replaced with the same ones found on the R62, R62A, R68, and R68A; however, some cars kept their pre-GOH door chimes. Due to the overhaul, the fleet's reliability has vastly improved, and the R46 is no longer considered to be the lemon that it once was.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: In 1981, the New York Transit Authority's car replacement program estimated that the R46s would be replaced in 2011. However, the MTA now estimates the cars to remain in service until the mid-2020s, when they will be replaced by the R211s. Since the late 2000s, the R46s have undergone intermittent rounds of scheduled maintenance as their parts age over time to extend their usefulness until their retirement.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: On May 2, 2014, set 5742–5745 was involved in a derailment due to track defects while running on the F. The whole set was pulled from service, but was repaired and returned to service in February 2016.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: On June 27, 2017, set 6150–6153 was involved in a derailment north of 125th Street while in service on the A. The whole set was taken out of service. Cars 6150–6151 suffered body damage as they collided with tunnel columns and were retired; however, 6151 was retained and fitted with strip maps, colored wraps, and had some seats removed to serve as a non-operational mockup for future retrofits, all as a part of the 2017 action plan. Meanwhile, cars 6152–6153 were linked with cars 6206–6207 to create and re-entered service.


title: R46 (New York City Subway car)

text: On September 20, 2020, set 6062–6065 was involved in a derailment at 14th Street when a man placed track tie plates onto the main rails, causing the train to derail. The whole set was taken out of service. Car 6062 suffered body damage as it collided with track-side columns and was retired. Meanwhile, cars 6063–6065 were linked with car 6212 to create a new four-car set and re-entered service, and car 6214 was taken out of service.


title: Homebrew (package manager)

text: Homebrew is a free and open-source software package management system that simplifies the installation of software on Apple's operating system, macOS, as well as Linux. The name is intended to suggest the idea of building software on the Mac depending on the user's taste. Originally written by Max Howell, the package manager has gained popularity in the Ruby on Rails community and earned praise for its extensibility. Homebrew has been recommended for its ease of use as well as its integration into the command line interface. Homebrew is a non-profit project member of the Software Freedom Conservancy, and is run entirely by unpaid volunteers.


title: Homebrew (package manager)

text: Homebrew has made extensive use of GitHub to expand the support of several packages through user contributions. In 2010, Homebrew was the third-most-forked repository on GitHub. In 2012, Homebrew had the largest number of new contributors on GitHub. In 2013, Homebrew had both the largest number of contributors and issues closed of any project on GitHub.


title: Homebrew (package manager)

text: Homebrew has spawned several sub-projects such as Linuxbrew, a Linux port now officially merged into Homebrew; Homebrew Cask, which builds upon Homebrew and focuses on the installation of GUI applications; and "taps" dedicated to specific areas or programming languages like PHP.


title: Homebrew (package manager)

text: Homebrew was written by Max Howell in 2009. In March 2013, Homebrew successfully completed a Kickstarter campaign to raise funds for servers to test and build formulae and managed to raise . On December 13, 2013, the Homebrew repository migrated from Howell's GitHub account to its own project account. In February 2015, due to downtime at SourceForge which resulted in binaries being unavailable, Homebrew moved their hosting to Bintray. On September 21, 2016, Homebrew version 1.0.0 was released. As of February 2021, Homebrew is maintained by a team of 34 people. In January 2019, Linuxbrew was merged back into Homebrew, adding beta support for Linux and the Windows Subsystem for Linux to the Homebrew feature set. On February 2, 2019, Homebrew version 2.0.0 was released. On September 21, 2020, Homebrew version 2.5.2 was released with support for bottle taps (binary package repositories) via GitHub Releases. Version 3.0.0 was released almost exactly two years after 2.0.0, on February 5, 2021, and added official support for Macs with Apple silicon. On April 12, 2021, Homebrew version 3.1.0 was released completing their migration of bottles (binary packages) to GitHub Packages before the May 1, 2021 shutdown of Bintray as previously announced by JFrog.


title: Homebrew (package manager)

text: Homebrew is written in the Ruby programming language and targets the version of Ruby that comes installed with the macOS operating system. By default, it is installed into codice_1 on Intel-based machines and codice_2 on Apple silicon. The installation consists of a git repository that allows users to update Homebrew by pulling an updated repository from GitHub. The package manager builds software from source using "formulae", Ruby scripts constructed with the Homebrew domain-specific language (DSL) for managing dependencies, downloading source files, and configuring and compiling software. Binary packages called "bottles" provide pre-built formulae with default options.


title: Homebrew (package manager)

text: Homebrew does not honor the default privileges of codice_1; directory ownership is changed from root with group permissions for the wheel group to the installing user and the "admin" group. Specifically, the mode changes from codice_4 to codice_5. All files, not just the directories, have their ownership changed by the installer. This is considered by some as a major security flaw.


title: Homebrew (package manager)

text: Homebrew collects installation, build error, and operating system version statistics via Google Analytics. It is possible to opt out with the command codice_6.


title: Francis I of the Two Sicilies

text: Francis I of the Two Sicilies (; 19 August 1777 – 8 November 1830) was King of the Two Sicilies from 1825 to 1830 and regent of the Kingdom of Sicily from 1806 to 1814.


title: Francis I of the Two Sicilies

text: Francis was born the son of Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies and his wife Archduchess Maria Carolina of Austria in Naples. He was also the nephew of Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI, the last King and Queen of France before the first French Republic.


title: Francis I of the Two Sicilies

text: At the death of his older brother Carlo, Duke of Calabria, Francis became the heir-apparent to the throne and "Duke of Calabria", the traditional title of the heir apparent to the Neapolitan throne.


title: Francis I of the Two Sicilies

text: In 1796 Francis married his double first cousin Archduchess Maria Clementina of Austria, daughter of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor. When she died, he married his first cousin María Isabella, daughter of King Charles IV of Spain.


title: Francis I of the Two Sicilies

text: After the Bourbon family fled from Naples to Sicily in 1806, Lord William Bentinck, the British resident, had drafted a new constitution along British and French lines. Ferdinand agreed to abdicate his throne, with Francis being appointed regent in 1812.


title: Francis I of the Two Sicilies

text: On the abdication of Napoleon I, his father returned to Naples and suppressed the Sicilian constitution, incorporating his two kingdoms into that of the Two Sicilies (1816); Francis then assumed the revived title of duke of Calabria. While still heir apparent he professed liberal ideas, and on the outbreak of the revolution of 1820 he accepted the regency, apparently in a friendly spirit towards the new constitution, although he was actually as conservative as his father.


title: Francis I of the Two Sicilies

text: On succeeding to the throne in 1825, however, he pursued a conservative course. He took little part in the government, which he left in the hands of favourites and police officials, and lived with his mistresses, surrounded by soldiers, ever in dread of assassination. During his reign the only revolutionary movement was the outbreak on the Cilento (1828), repressed by the Marquis Delcarretto, an ex-Liberal. He was, however, successful in having the Austrian occupation force withdrawn (1827), thereby relieving a large financial burden on the treasury.


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: Within the petroleum industry, proven oil reserves in the United States were of crude oil as of the end of 2018, excluding the Strategic Petroleum Reserve. The 2018 reserves represent the largest US proven reserves since 1972. The Energy Information Administration estimates US undiscovered, technically recoverable oil resources to be an additional 198 billion barrels.


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: US proven oil reserves were as of 2018. The 2018 data is higher than the of proven reserves in 1970, when the supergiant Prudhoe Bay field was found in Alaska.


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: United States crude oil production declined since reaching a smaller secondary production peak in 1988 (caused by Alaskan production), but increased again from 2016 to 2020. Total production of crude oil from 1970 through 2006 was , or roughly five and a half times the decline in proved reserves.


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: Since the oil price peaked about US$147.50 in summer 2008 many projects have been brought online, and domestic production increased from 2016 to 2020. In 2012 the oil production of the USA increased by 800,000 barrels, the highest ever recorded increase in one year since oil drilling began in 1859. The US had recently increased its oil drilling location as it has passed Saudi Arabia and Russia Oil-bearing shales in North Dakota and Montana are producing increasing amounts of oil. As of April 2013, US crude production was at a more than 20-year high, since the shale gas and tight oil boom; production was near 7.2 million barrels per day. Experts think that the USA could pass Saudi Arabia as the largest oil producer. Peak production was 10,044 MMbbl per day in November 1970. A second, but lower peak of 9,627 MMbbl per day was achieved in April 2015.


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: The reserves-to-production ratio (R/P) equaled 11.26 years in 2007. The ratio was 11.08 years in 1970. It hit a trough of 8.49 years in 1986 as oil pumped through the Alaska pipeline began to peak.


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: The US consumption of petroleum products peaked in 2005; by 2012, consumption had declined 11% from the peak.


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: Net imports of oil and products account for nearly half of the US trade deficit. Because of declining production and increasing demand, net US imports of oil and petroleum products increased from in 1970 to in 2007, before declining. Its largest net suppliers of petroleum products in 2007 were Canada and Mexico, which supplied , respectively. As of 2011, the US consumed 18.8 million barrels of petroleum products per day, and imported a net 8.4 million barrels per day; the EIA reported the United States "Dependence on Net Petroleum Imports" in 2011 as 45%. During 2008-2009 the USA became a net exporter of refined oil products; before the US bought gasoline, diesel and kerosene in Europe, and smaller amounts from other countries.


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: The United States maintains a Strategic Petroleum Reserve at four sites on the Gulf of Mexico, with a total capacity of of crude oil. The maximum total withdrawal capability from the United States Strategic Petroleum Reserve is per day. This is roughly 32% of US oil imports, or 75% of imports from OPEC.


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: Services under the U.S. Department of the Interior estimate the total volume of undiscovered, technically recoverable oil in the United States to be roughly . Over 1 million exploratory and developmental crude oil wells have already been drilled in the US since 1949.


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimates undiscovered technically recoverable crude oil onshore in United States to be


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: The Minerals Management Service (MMS) estimates the Federal Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) contains between of undiscovered technically recoverable crude oil, with a mean estimate of . The Gulf of Mexico OCS ranks first with a mean estimate of , followed by Alaska OCS with . At $80/bbl crude prices, the MMS estimates that are economically recoverable. As of 2008, a total of about of the OCS are off-limits to leasing and development. The moratoria and presidential withdrawal cover about 85 percent of OCS area offshore the lower 48 states. The MMS estimates that the resources in OCS areas currently off limits to leasing and development total (mean estimate).


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: In 1998, the USGS estimated that the 1002 area of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge contains a total of between 5.7 and of undiscovered, technically recoverable oil, with a mean estimate of , of which falls within the Federal portion of the ANWR 1002 Area. In May 2008 the EIA used this assessment to estimate the potential cumulative production of the 1002 area of ANWR to be a maximum of from 2018 to 2030. This estimate is a best case scenario of technically recoverable oil during the area's primary production years if legislation were passed in 2008 to allow drilling.


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: A 2002 assessment concluded that the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska contains between 6.7 and of oil, with a mean (expected) value of . The quantity of undiscovered oil beneath Federal lands (excluding State and Native areas) is estimated to range between 5.9 and 13.2 BBO, with a mean value of 9.3 BBO. Most oil accumulations are expected to be of moderate size, on the order of 30 to each. Large accumulations like the Prudhoe Bay oil field (whose ultimate recovery is approximately ), are not expected to occur. The volumes of undiscovered, technically recoverable oil estimated for NPRA are similar to the volumes estimated for ANWR. However, because of differences in accumulation sizes (the ANWR study area is estimated to contain more accumulations in larger size classes) and differences in assessment area (the NPRA study area is more than 12 times larger than the ANWR study area), economically recoverable resources are different at low oil prices. But at market prices above $40 per barrel, estimates of economically recoverable oil for NPRA are similar to ANWR.


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: In April 2008, the USGS released a report giving a new resource assessment of the Bakken Formation underlying portions of Montana and North Dakota. The USGS believes that with new horizontal drilling technology there is somewhere between of undiscovered, technically recoverable oil in this formation that was initially discovered in 1951. If accurate, this reassessment would make it the largest "continuous" oil accumulation (The USGS uses "continuous" to describe accumulations requiring extensive artificial fracturing to allow the oil to flow to the borehole) ever discovered in the U.S. The formation is estimated to contain significantly more—figures in excess of have been reported—but it is yet uncertain how much of this oil is recoverable using current technology. In 2011, Harold Hamm claimed that the recoverable share may reach ; this would mean that Bakken contains more extractable petroleum than all other known oil fields in the country, combined.


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: The United States has the largest known deposits of oil shale in the world, according to the Bureau of Land Management and holds an estimated of potentially recoverable oil. Oil shale does not actually contain oil, but a waxy oil precursor known as kerogen. There is significant commercial production of oil from oil shale in the United States.


title: Oil reserves in the United States

text: There are significant volumes of heavy oil in the oil sands of northeast Utah. There has yet to be any significant production from these deposits.


title: Unity (Russian political party)

text: Unity () was a Russian political party that was created in September 1999 and registered on 15 October 1999, supported by Russia’s President Boris Yeltsin, Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and dozens of Russian governors to counter the threat which the Kremlin perceived from the Fatherland-All Russia alliance. It was also unofficially dubbed "Medved’" (the bear) or "Medvedi" (bears), as "MeDvEd" was an acronym of its full name (Mezhregionalnoye Dvizheniye "Edinstvo"; Interregional movement "Unity"). Later the party adopted a brown bear for its symbol.


title: Unity (Russian political party)

text: The rise of Unity was meteoric given the short time period it had to create an identity, plan its campaign strategy and carry out its ambitious objectives. The establishment of the movement followed a declaration signed by 39 governors expressing their dissatisfaction with the political battles being fought in Russia. The initial meeting of these governors to form a new electoral movement was held on 24 September 1999. It was at this meeting that Minister of Emergency Situations Sergey Shoygu was selected as Unity’s leader.


title: Unity (Russian political party)

text: Prime Minister Putin immediately pledged support for the new bloc, saying it could help stabilize the political situation in Russia. On November 24, 1999 he told reporters that in his capacity as premier, he "should not define his political preferences" with respect to election blocs but "as an ordinary citizen" he will vote for Unity. The party’s leading candidates in 1999 State Duma elections were Sergey Shoygu, nine-times world wrestling champion Alexander Karelin and former senior police official Alexander Gurov. Unity, backed up by popular support for the Second Chechen War, relied on a campaign of verbal attacks to discredit the Fatherland-All Russia alliance. It was also heavily promoted by the ORT TV channel and especially "Sergey Dorenko's Program".


title: Unity (Russian political party)

text: In the 1999, State Duma elections on December 19, Unity received 23.32 percent of the vote and won 72 of 441 seats (second result after the Communist Party of the Russian Federation). Later ten more seats joined the faction. Shoygu remained Emergencies Minister and did not go into the new State Duma. On January 12, 2000 the party elected Boris Gryzlov leader of its faction.


title: Unity (Russian political party)

text: In April 2001, the Unity party and the Fatherland - All Russia movement took the decision to unite into a single political party, United Russia.


title: Angry young men

text: The "angry young men" were a group of mostly working- and middle-class British playwrights and novelists who became prominent in the 1950s. The group's leading figures included John Osborne and Kingsley Amis; other popular figures included John Braine, Alan Sillitoe, and John Wain. The phrase was originally coined by the Royal Court Theatre's press officer in order to promote Osborne's 1956 play "Look Back in Anger". It is thought to be derived from the autobiography of Leslie Paul, founder of the Woodcraft Folk, whose "Angry Young Man" was published in 1951.


title: Angry young men

text: Following the success of the Osborne play, the label "angry young men" was later applied by British media to describe young writers who were characterised by a disillusionment with traditional British society. The term, always imprecise, began to have less meaning over the years as the writers to whom it was originally applied became more divergent, and many of them dismissed the label as useless.


title: Angry young men

text: The playwright John Osborne was the archetypal example, and his signature play "Look Back in Anger" (1956) attracted attention to a style of drama contrasting strongly with the genteel and understated works of Terence Rattigan that had been in fashion. Osborne's "The Entertainer" (1957) secured his reputation, with Laurence Olivier playing the protagonist Archie Rice. Osborne became a successful entrepreneur, partnering with Tony Richardson to form the film production company Woodfall. In addition to being seen as archetypal, Osborne was claimed to be one of the leading literary figures of the Angry Young Men "movement". This "movement" was identified after the Second World War as some British intellectuals began to question orthodox mores. Osborne expressed his own concerns through his plays and could be relied upon to provide controversial “angry” pronouncements, delivered with an immaturity compared to impatient youth.


title: Angry young men

text: Some critics ridiculed Osborne for a lack of maturity in his statements, and fuelled a debate about his politics and those of the "movement". Osborne also had consistent and often sarcastic criticism of the British Left. In 1961, he made public headlines with "Letter to my Fellow Countrymen" that represented a "damn you, England" mentality. and protested against Britain's decision to join the arms race. Osborne strongly expressed anger at what Britain had become at that time, but also at what he felt it had failed to become.


title: Angry young men

text: Osborne's play "Look Back in Anger" was the monumental literary work that influenced the concept of the Angry Young Man. He wrote the play to express what it felt like to live in England during the 1950s. The main issues that Angry Young Men had were "impatience with the status quo, refusal to be co-opted by a bankrupt society, an instinctive solidarity with the lower classes". Referred to as "kitchen sink realism", literary works began to deal with lower class themes. In the decades prior to Osborne and other authors, less attention had been given to literature that illuminated the treatment and living circumstances experienced by the lower classes. As the Angry Young Men movement began to articulate these themes, the acceptance of related issues was more widespread. Osborne depicted these issues within his play through the eyes of his protagonist, Jimmy. Throughout the play, Jimmy was seeing "the wrong people go hungry, the wrong people be loved, the wrong people dying".


title: Angry young men

text: In Britain, following the Second World War, the quality of life for lower-class citizens was still poor; Osborne used this theme to demonstrate how the state of Britain was guilty of neglect towards those that needed assistance the most. In the play there are comparisons of educated people with savages, illuminating the major difference between classes. Alison remarks on this issue while she, Jimmy and Cliff are sharing an apartment, stating how "she felt she had been placed into a jungle". Jimmy was represented as an embodiment of the young, rebellious post-war generation that questioned the state and its actions. "Look Back in Anger" provided some of its audience with the hope that Osborne's work would revitalise the British theatre and enable it to act as a "harbinger of the New Left".


title: Angry young men

text: As a catchphrase, the term was applied to a large, incoherently defined group, and was rejected by most of the writers to whom it was applied: see, for example, "Answer to a Letter from Joe" by John Wain ("Essays on Literature and Ideas", 1963). Publisher Tom Maschler, who edited a collection of political-literary essays by the 'Angries' ("Declaration", 1957), commented: "(T)hey do "not" belong to a united movement. Far from it; they attack one another directly or indirectly in these pages. Some were even reluctant to appear between the same covers with others whose views they violently oppose."


title: Angry young men

text: Their political views were usually seen as identifying with the left, sometimes anarchistic, and they described social alienation of different kinds. They also often expressed their critical views on society as a whole, criticising certain behaviours or groups in different ways. On television, their writings were often expressed in plays in anthology drama series such as "Armchair Theatre" (ITV, 1956–68) and "The Wednesday Play" (BBC, 1964–70); this leads to a confusion with the kitchen sink drama category of the early 1960s.


title: Angry young men

text: Throughout the late 1950s and into the 1960s, the "Angries" often met at or were nurtured by the Royal Shakespeare Company, and through this venue other such emerging playwrights as Edward Bond and Wole Soyinka were exposed to the AYM movement directly.


title: Angry young men

text: The New University Wits (a term applied by William Van O'Connor in his 1963 study "The New University Wits and the End of Modernism") refers to Oxbridge malcontents who explored the contrast between their upper-class university privilege and their middle-class upbringings. These included Kingsley Amis, Philip Larkin and John Wain, all of whom were also part of the poetic circle known as "The Movement".


title: Angry young men

text: Also included among the Angry Young Men was a small group of young existentialist philosophers, led by Colin Wilson and also including Stuart Holroyd and Bill Hopkins.


title: Angry young men

text: Outside of these subgroupings, the 'Angries' included writers mostly of lower-class origin concerned with their political and economic aspirations. Apart from John Osborne, these included Harold Pinter, John Braine, Arnold Wesker and Alan Sillitoe. Some of these (e.g., Pinter) were left-wing and some (e.g., Braine) later became right-wing. William Cooper, the early-model Angry Young Man, though Cambridge-educated, was a "provincial" writer in his frankness and material and is included in this group.


title: Angry young men

text: Friendships, rivalries, and acknowledgments of common literary aims within each of these groups could be intense (the relationship between Amis and Larkin is considered one of the great literary friendships of the 20th century). However, the writers in each group tended to view the other groups with bewilderment and incomprehension. Observers and critics could find no common thread between them all. They were contemporaries by age. They were not of the upper-class establishment, nor were they protégés of existing literary circles. It was essentially a male "movement". Shelagh Delaney, author of "A Taste of Honey" (1958), was described as an "angry young woman".


title: Angry young men

text: In the song "Where Are They Now" from the 1973 album "Preservation Act 1" by The Kinks, the following lines appear: "Where have all the angry young men gone?/ Barstow and Osborne, Waterhouse and Sillitoe/ Where on earth did they all go?"


title: Cupboard

text: A cupboard is a piece of furniture for enclosing dishware or grocery items that are stored in a home. The term gradually evolved from its original meaning: an open-shelved side table for displaying dishware, more specifically plates, cups and saucers. These open cupboards typically had between one and three display tiers, and at the time, a drawer or multiple drawers fitted to them.


title: Cupboard

text: An airing cupboard (or hot press) is a built-in storage space, sometimes of walk-in dimensions, containing a water heater, either an immersion heater for hot running water or a boiler for central heating water (hence, also "boiler cupboard"), or a hot water storage tank. Shelves, usually slatted to allow for circulation of heat, are positioned above or around the heater to provide room for clothing. The purpose is to allow air to circulate around the stored fabrics to prevent damp forming.


title: Cupboard

text: Some variants of airing cupboards also serve as the linen cupboard, the storing area of the household's clean sheets and towels.


title: Cupboard

text: In another version, the airing cupboard serves as a temporary drying space, either for laundry or for wet outdoor clothes and shoes. Its shelves can be used to fully remove traces of damp from dried clothing before the items are put away elsewhere in drawers and wardrobes. A moveable electrical version of this is a drying cabinet.


title: Cupboard

text: A built-in cupboard is a storage space that forms part of the design of the room and is not free-standing or moving. It is not the same as a cabinet. In the United Kingdom houses often have a built-in cupboard under the stairs.


title: Cupboard

text: A linen cupboard is an enclosed recess of a room used for storing household linen (e.g. sheets, towels, tablecloths) and other things for storage, usually with shelves, or a free-standing piece of furniture for this purpose.


title: Cupboard

text: Most offices have a lockable repository for valuables. The heart of this is usually the supply of stationery.


title: Less (novel)

text: Less is a 2017 satirical comedy novel by American author Andrew Sean Greer. The plot follows writer Arthur Less as he travels the world on a literary tour to numb his loss of the man he loves.


title: Less (novel)

text: Arthur Less is a 49-year-old gay writer of middling success from San Francisco, known primarily for having once been in a relationship with an older gentleman, Robert Brownburn, a Pulitzer Prize-winning poet. He first experienced moderate success with his debut novel, but in the decades since has struggled to garner the same success. His most recent novel, "Swift", has recently been rejected by his publisher. Arthur, who is dreading his 50th birthday, is suddenly invited to the wedding of his ex-sweetheart, Freddy Pelu. In attempt to avoid the wedding, Arthur goes on an extensive overseas trip after accepting invitations to the numerous literary engagements which he typically declines.


title: Less (novel)

text: He first travels to New York City to interview writer H.H.H. Mandern, and then to Mexico City for a conference about Robert. In Turin, Arthur attends an award ceremony where, to his surprise, he wins. He later accepts a teaching offer for a creative writing seminar in Berlin. After a layover in Paris where he meets an old friend, Arthur travels to Morocco to celebrate his 50th birthday in the Sahara. He eventually arrives in India, where he accepts a writer-in-residence at a Christian retreat community in Kerala. Finally, he travels to Japan to write as a food critic. After hearing that Robert has suffered a stroke, Arthur returns home to San Francisco where he finds Freddy there waiting for him.


title: Less (novel)

text: The book covers themes such as romantic love, relationships, aging, and travel. Greer began writing "Less" as a "very serious novel" but found that "the only way to write about [being gay and aging] is to make it a funny story. And I found that by making fun of myself, I could actually get closer to real emotion – closer to what I wanted in my more serious books."


title: Less (novel)

text: "Less" won the 2018 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. In reporting the award, the Associated Press accidentally wrote the novel's title as "Fearless." The book also was a "New York Times" best seller, won the Northern California Book Award, and was a finalist for the Lambda Literary Award for Gay Fiction. In May 2019, "Less" won the Australian Book Industry Award for International Book of the Year, awarded by the Australian Publishers Association.


title: Vijayendra Kumeria

text: Kumeria was born on 12 October 1986. his hometown is Ludhiana,Punjab ,He was brought up in Ahmedabad.. He is married to Preeti Bhatia. In October 2016, they had a daughter.


title: Vijayendra Kumeria

text: Kumeria quit his civil aviation job after working for years to pursue acting, having convinced his parents.


title: Vijayendra Kumeria

text: Initially, he faced rejections while doing rounds in production houses at Mumbai. In 2011, he bagged the role of Jolly Bhardwaj in "Chotti Bahu", making his television debut. In 2014 Colors TV's Shastri Sisters got him a lead role opposite Ishita Ganguly.


title: John Ruddy

text: John Thomas Gordon Ruddy (born 24 October 1986) is an English professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for club Birmingham City.


title: John Ruddy

text: Ruddy began his career at Cambridge United, before signing for Everton as a 19-year-old. He spent five years with Everton, but made just one appearance, while playing on loan at nine different clubs. Ruddy was signed by Paul Lambert to play for Norwich City in 2010 and, in his first season, was part of the team that finished second in the Championship, gaining promotion to the Premier League.


title: John Ruddy

text: The following year, Norwich finished twelfth in the Premier League, and Ruddy was selected by new England manager Roy Hodgson for the squad for Euro 2012. However, on 25 May 2012, he was ruled out after breaking his finger during training. He made his debut in a 2–1 win against Italy in August 2012. He suffered a long term thigh injury in November 2012, but returned to help Norwich to an 11th-place finish at the end of the 2012–13 Premier League season. After 243 appearances for Norwich, he moved to Wolverhampton Wanderers in 2017. After one season as first choice as Wolves gained promotion to the Premier League, he spent four years as backup, and left the club at the end of the 2021–22 season. He then joined Birmingham City.


title: John Ruddy

text: Born in St Ives, Cambridgeshire, Ruddy grew up as a fan of Manchester United. He began his career at Cambridge United and made his professional debut in the final match of the 2003–04 season at Leyton Orient's Brisbane Road stadium on 8 May 2004, keeping a clean sheet and saving a penalty. Ruddy earned his place as Cambridge's first-choice keeper in the 2004–05 season, making 38 appearances in a season that saw the U's relegated from League Two after finishing bottom with 30 points. This was despite Ruddy's efforts, which included keeping nine clean sheets and conceding just 45 goals.


title: John Ruddy

text: Ruddy had two trials at Manchester United in November 2004, before moving to Everton in the summer of 2005 for a fee of around £250,000 that would rise depending on appearances. He was called into the England Under-19 squad in 2005 after being scouted by England goalkeeping coach Ray Clemence and was touted by his manager David Moyes as a future England goalkeeper.


title: John Ruddy

text: In September 2005, Ruddy signed for Walsall on loan; he made five appearances in League One before returning to Everton. Loan spells with Rushden & Diamonds and Chester City followed.


title: John Ruddy

text: Ruddy made his first and only appearance for Everton in February 2006 in unusual circumstances. Nine minutes into the match against Blackburn Rovers, Iain Turner was sent off for handling outside the area. Since Turner was substituting for injured first- and second-choice keepers Nigel Martyn and Richard Wright, it meant that Ruddy was the only keeper left who could play. He kept a clean sheet in a 1–0 victory.


title: John Ruddy

text: In September 2006, Ruddy went on loan again. A one-month deal was agreed with Stockport County, which was twice extended after some impressive performances. He then agreed a one-month loan with Wrexham in February 2007, but failed to establish a place in the team during his time at the Racecourse Ground and manager Brian Carey decided against extending the loan beyond the initial month. Ruddy spent a week's emergency loan at League One club Bristol City in April, and helped them move closer to promotion, by playing one match – a 3–1 win over Carlisle United. He later joked that he would ask if he were eligible for a runners-up medal as City finished second and won promotion. In January 2009, he went out on loan until the end of the season to Crewe Alexandra.


title: John Ruddy

text: On 24 July 2009, Ruddy joined Scottish Premier League club Motherwell on a six-month loan, to vie with Michael Fraser and Sebastian Kosiorowski for a place in goal. Ruddy kept clean sheets during goalless draws at home to Rangers on 12 September and away to Celtic on 17 October. He also saved a Barry Robson penalty in a 3–2 loss to Celtic on 12 December. When the original loan expired in January 2010, the Fir Park club decided that they wanted to keep Ruddy and fellow Everton loanee Lukas Jutkiewicz for longer; an initial one-month extension was agreed, followed on 27 January by confirmation that both would stay at Motherwell for the rest of the season. Ruddy finished the Scottish Premier League season with 15 clean sheets from 34 appearances.


title: John Ruddy

text: On 5 July 2010, Ruddy signed for Championship club Norwich City for an undisclosed fee, which Ruddy revealed in 2017 to have been £250,000. In 2012, Paul Lambert revealed that on two earlier occasions he had considered signing Ruddy for clubs he'd previously managed: "It is funny but ... [we] ... went to watch him for Crewe at MK Dons ... but he had an absolute stinker. We also saw him when he was at Stockport and ... I decided against him at that time, but when Fraser [Forster] went and it was clear we wouldn't be able to get him back again I knew John had had a really good season at Motherwell. There was that clamour to sign Fraser, but with the finances we just couldn't do that. I wanted somebody with the same stature, a big goalkeeper, and John had that."


title: John Ruddy

text: Ruddy made his debut for City against Watford in the opening fixture of the 2010–11 season which Norwich lost 3–2 at Carrow Road. He kept his first clean sheet of the season in a 1–0 away win against Scunthorpe United on 14 August, followed by another against Swansea City a week later which included a penalty save that atoned for his error that led to it. In Ruddy's first season for Norwich, he played 45 out of the 46 league matches and kept a clean sheet during the 1–0 away win against Portsmouth on 2 May 2011 that confirmed promotion to the Premier League.


title: John Ruddy

text: Ruddy started the 2011–12 season as the first-choice keeper again for Norwich in the 1–1 draw at the DW Stadium against Wigan Athletic. He followed this up during Norwich's first home Premier League match in seven years, a 1–1 draw against Stoke City, with a penalty stop against Jon Walters and a save denying Matthew Etherington from a direct free kick. During the next match, he received his only red card of the season in the match against Chelsea after a foul on Ramires that led to a penalty. However, Ruddy's fortunes were reversed during the return fixture against Chelsea in January 2012 when he kept his first clean sheet of the season during a 0–0 draw at Carrow Road, making several impressive stops from Fernando Torres and others. Norwich finished in 12th place, and Ruddy was voted Player's Player of the Season, a testament to Ruddy's performances that led to calls for his inclusion in Roy Hodgson's England Euro 2012 squad which were answered in the affirmative.


title: John Ruddy

text: For the 2012–13 season Ruddy found himself first choice again ahead of Declan Rudd, Jed Steer and newcomer Mark Bunn. Once again, he saved a penalty during Norwich's first home Premier League fixture of the season, a 1–1 draw with Queens Park Rangers, although Bobby Zamora scored from the rebound. He kept clean sheets in 1–0 wins against Arsenal and Manchester United, both during a run of form that saw him keep four clean sheets and concede just two goals in six matches, in the last of which, against his former club, Everton, he suffered a thigh injury. He required surgery and was expected to be out for three months, but was unable to return to action until 12 May 2013, in a 4–0 defeat of West Bromwich Albion that confirmed Norwich's Premier League status for a further season


title: John Ruddy

text: Ruddy was ever-present in Norwich's league matches throughout the 2013–14 season, at the end of which they were relegated to the Championship, and, despite interest from top-flight clubs, he stayed with Norwich and was ever-present in league matches as they bounced back to the Premier League via the play-offs.


title: John Ruddy

text: In May 2017, it was announced that Ruddy would be released when his contract expired. All seven players who were being released were given the option of whether or not they chose to be available for selection in the one remaining match of the season. In the end, Ruddy was the only one who played. He was made team captain for the day (he had previously captained the side for one match in the 2013–14 season when Sébastien Bassong and Russell Martin were both absent) and saw out his time with the club by keeping a clean sheet in a 4–0 win over Queens Park Rangers.


title: John Ruddy

text: On 10 July 2017, Ruddy signed a two-year contract with Championship club Wolverhampton Wanderers. His signing came days after the club's previous number one Carl Ikeme was diagnosed with acute leukaemia. On 6 April 2018, Ruddy saved an injury-time penalty from Gary Madine away at Cardiff City in a 1–0 win, in a victory that took Wolves nine points clear of Cardiff. Ruddy became the team's main goalkeeper and was part of the team that won promotion to the Premier League as champions. He was named in the division's PFA Team of the Year and was awarded the EFL's Golden Glove Award for the most clean sheets with 24.


title: John Ruddy

text: In August 2018 he extended his contract with Wolves, signing a deal due to last until summer 2020, despite having fallen behind new addition Rui Patrício as the club's first-choice goalkeeper. Ahead of its expiry, the club triggered their option to keep him for the 2020–21 season. Playing against Liverpool in March 2021, Patrício collided with his own captain, Conor Coady, and was stretchered off after receiving 15 minutes' treatment on the pitch. Ruddy came on as a concussion substitute and played the remaining few minutes of the game.


title: John Ruddy

text: Ruddy signed on again with Wolves for the 2021–22 season, but confirmed in May 2022 that he would be leaving when his contract expired, after five years with the club.


title: John Ruddy

text: Ruddy signed a one-year contract with Championship club Birmingham City on 14 July 2022. He was expected to provide competition for Neil Etheridge, but went straight into the starting eleven, was ever-present up to the mid-season break, and kept seven clean sheets during that time. In November 2022, his contract was extended to run until the end of the 2023–24 season.


title: John Ruddy

text: On 16 May 2012, Ruddy received his first senior international call-up when Roy Hodgson selected him as a member of the England squad for UEFA Euro 2012. However, a broken finger ruled him out of the tournament, and Jack Butland was called up to replace him. Ruddy was called up for the friendly against Italy in Bern, Switzerland, on 10 August 2012, along with Butland and Joe Hart. He came on for Butland at half-time to make his senior England debut, and made some key saves as England won the match 2–1, keeping a clean sheet in his first England appearance after Butland conceded in the first half.


title: John Ruddy

text: Ruddy was not included in Hodgson's 2014 World Cup squad, with Joe Hart, Fraser Forster and Ben Foster selected instead. However, he was named on the seven-man standby list.


title: John Ruddy

text: Ruddy married his wife Laura on 2 June 2012. Prior to the Euro 2012 tournament, he jokingly cited breaking his finger as the reason he was able to have his wedding on that date. He is nicknamed "The Iceman".


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: A multiplex is a movie theater complex with multiple screens within a single complex. They are usually housed in a specially designed building. Sometimes, an existing venue undergoes a renovation where the existing auditoriums are split into smaller ones, or more auditoriums are added in an extension or expansion of the building. The largest of these complexes can sit thousands of people and are sometimes referred to as a megaplex.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: The difference between a multiplex and a megaplex is related to the number of screens, but the dividing line is not well-defined. Some say that 16 screens and stadium seating make a megaplex, while others say that at least 24 screens are required. Megaplex theaters may have stadium seating or normal seating, and may have other amenities often not found at smaller movie theaters; multiplex theatres often feature regular seating.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: The Kinepolis-Madrid megaplex in Spain is the largest movie theater in the world, with 25 screens and a seating capacity of 9,200, including one 996-seat auditorium.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: The question of who was the inventor of the multiplex is "one of the longest-running debates in movie theater history." In a 2004 book, Ross Melnick and Andreas Fuchs identified five leading candidates: James Edwards, Sumner Redstone, Stanley Durwood, Charles Porter, and Nat Taylor.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In 1915, exhibitor Charles Porter opened the Duplex Theatre in Detroit, Michigan, the first known instance of a dual-auditorium movie theater. It had twin 750-seat auditoriums in a single building, sharing a common box office and entrance. The Duplex Theatre's history is poorly documented and it is unknown why Porter built his theater that way, though it was apparently a bit too advanced for its time. It closed in 1922.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In about 1915 two adjacent theatres in Moncton, New Brunswick, under the same ownership were converted to share a single entrance on Main Street. After patrons entered the door, there were separate ticket booths for each theatre, and different programs were shown. The arrangement was so unusual that it was featured by Robert Ripley in his "Believe It or Not!" comic strip. Before multiplexes, some cinemas did show different films at the same time in one auditorium, such as in Cairo, Egypt, reported in 1926.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In 1930, the Regal Twins in Manchester, England became the world's first multiplex followed by Studio 1 and 2 in Oxford Street in London in 1936.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In 1937 James Edwards twinned his Alhambra Theater in the Los Angeles area by converting an adjacent storefront into a second "annex" screen. While both screens would show the same feature movie, one would also offer a double bill. It did not convert to showing different movies on both screens until some time after Nat Taylor (see below). On February 25, 1940, the Patricia Theater in Aiken, South Carolina made news by becoming what is believed to be the first two-screen theater in the United States showing different movies when operator H. Bert Ram added a screen to an adjoining building and shared a common box office. The main screen remained the Patricia Theatre and the Patricia Annex became known as the Little Patricia.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In December 1947 Nat Taylor, the operator of the Elgin Theatre in Ottawa, Canada, opened a smaller second theater ("Little Elgin") next door to his first theater. It was not until 1957, however, that Taylor decided to run different movies in each theater, when he became annoyed at having to replace films that were still making money with new releases. Taylor opened dual-screen theaters in 1962 in Place Ville Marie in Montreal, Quebec, and at Yorkdale Plaza in Toronto, Ontario, in 1964.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: Also in late 1947, but in Havana, Cuba, the Duplex movie theater was built to share the vestibule and ancillary facilities with the previously existing Rex Cinema (open since 1938); they were both designed by the same architect, Luis Bonich. The programming was coordinated, so that one of them showed documentary and news reels. while the other was showing feature films. They were in use at least until the 1990s.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In 1963 AMC Theatres opened the two-screen Parkway Twin at the Ward Parkway Shopping Center in Kansas City, a concept which company president Stanley Durwood later claimed to have come up with in 1962, realizing he could double the revenue of a single theater "by adding a second screen and still operate with the same size staff". Also, the shopping center structure where the Parkway was located could not support a large theater, so two small theaters were built to avoid that issue, and at first both theaters played the same film.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In 1965, the first triplex was opened in Burnaby, Canada by Taylor Twentieth Century Theaters. AMC followed up on the Parkway Twin with a four-screen theater in Kansas City, the Metro Plaza, in 1966 and a six-screen theater in 1969. Durwood's insight was that one box office and one concession stand could easily serve two (or more) attached auditoriums. Another AMC innovation was to offset the starting times of films, so that staff members who previously had downtime while films were playing at a single-auditorium theater would now be kept continuously busy servicing other auditoriums. Over the next two decades, AMC Theatres under Durwood's leadership continued to innovate as it built one multiplex after another with more screens and more spacious auditoriums across the United States. According to Melnick and Fuchs, although Durwood was technically not the first person to build a multi-auditorium movie theater, he was "the man perhaps most responsible for driving the industry into 'splitsville'".


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In 1965 Martin's Westgate Cinemas became one of the first indoor two-screen theaters in Atlanta, Georgia. Located in East Point, Georgia, it was later converted into a three-screen venue after a fire partially destroyed one of the theaters. The Disney family film "Those Calloways" had its world premiere at the Westgate, the only film to have been so honored at that theater.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In 1973, Sumner Redstone, as the head of National Amusements, was the first film exhibitor to trademark and regularly use the term "multiplex."


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: Opening in April 1979, the 18-screen Cineplex, co-founded by Nat Taylor in Toronto's Eaton Centre, became the world's largest multitheatre complex under one roof. It was expanded to 21 screens by at least 1981.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In November 1988, Kinepolis Brussels opened with 25 screens, and is often credited as being the first "megaplex".


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: On December 13, 1996, AMC Ontario Mills 30, a 30-screen theater, opened in Ontario, California, and became the theater with the most screens in the world. This was eventually tied by other AMC 30-screen theaters.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: During the 1980s and 1990s, AMC Theatres was at the forefront of a massive boom in multiplex and megaplex construction across the United States. From 1988 to 2000, the number of screens in the United States exploded from roughly 23,000 to 37,000. By the end of 1997, the United States was home to 149 megaplexes with over 2,800 screens. The newer venues, especially the megaplexes, often wiped out smaller theaters and led to market consolidation. Aging single-screen movie houses in congested downtown areas simply could not compete against the new suburban megaplexes with their profusion of convenient choices (in terms of films and showtimes), gigantic screens, stadium seating, spacious parking lots, and state-of-the-art projection and surround sound technology. From 1995 to 2004, the total number of theaters in the United States fell from 7,151 to 5,629.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: Multiplexes and megaplexes supposedly have two major advantages over traditional single-screen movie theaters: they can share common infrastructure and staff across multiple auditoriums, and variations in auditorium size enable them to better match capacity to demand. However, movie theater operators eventually discovered the problem with stadium-size movie theaters is that they share the same flawed business model as stadiums: high fixed operating costs, combined with the fact that very few films in any given year can actually fill all those seats (average occupancy is around 10-15%). Nearly all major U.S. movie theater companies ultimately went bankrupt as a result of this hasty development process. Among the few that were able to avoid bankruptcy were AMC Theatres and Cinemark Theatres.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: The boom in new screens in the U.S. in the late 1990s and early 2000s pushed Hollywood to change its distribution model. As multiplex and megaplex owners realized they could screen blockbuster hits all day by staggering showtimes across multiple screens, movie studios leaned into the trend and shifted towards blockbuster content.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: Kinepolis Madrid opened in Spain on 17 September 1998; it is the world's largest cinema complex in terms of number of seats and has a total seating capacity of 9,200 with 25 screens, each seating between 211 and 996 people. The world's tallest cinema complex is the Cineworld Glasgow Renfrew Street in Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom at 203 feet. Opened in 2001, it has 18 screens and seats 4,300 people.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: The largest megaplex in the Southern Hemisphere is the 26-screen Marion MEGAPLEX in Adelaide, South Australia. The megaplex was originally a 30-screen megaplex branded as Greater Union but was modified to accommodate Gold Class and V-Max screens and was re-branded as Event Cinemas. The auditoriums sit on top of Westfield Marion, which is the largest shopping complex in Adelaide.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In 1999, the 18-screen UCI New York City Center multiplex was opened in Barra da Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro to become the largest in Brazil.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: Canada's largest movie theaters over the years have been located in Toronto. As mentioned above the 18- (later 21-) screen Cineplex was the movie theater with the most screens in the world until the late 1980s, but remained the largest movie theater in Canada until it was closed at the turn of the 21st century. In 1998, AMC expanded to Canada, building large movie theatres with as many as 24 screens before opening a 30-plex there in 1999, which is the AMC Interchange 30. Then in 2008, the 24-screen AMC Yonge Dundas 24, adjacent to the Eaton Centre, was completed. Cineplex Entertainment purchased the theater in 2012, along with several other Canadian AMC megaplexes, bringing the company full circle. After that, some more were closed or sold to Empire Theatres. AMC exited Canada by closing the AMC Interchange 30 in 2014.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: France's largest movie theaters are: 27-screen UGC Ciné Cité Les Halles (3,913 seats) in Paris, 23-screen Kinépolis - Château du Cinéma in Lomme (7,286 seats), 22-screen UGC Ciné Cité Strasbourg (5,275 seats) and 20-screen MK2 Bibliothèque in Paris (3,500 seats).


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: Greece' s largest multiplex is Village Rentis, that features 18 mainstream screens, two comfort (special type of a mainstream screen, better seating and less auditorium), three RealD 3D screens and one summer screen. In total it features 21 screens.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In India, the mushrooming of multiplexes started since the mid-1990s. Cinema chains such as INOX, PVR, Carnival Cinemas, SPI Cinemas,Asian Cinemas, Cinepolis and Big Cinemas operate multiplexes across the country. The largest multiplex in India is the 16-screen megaplex Mayajaal in Chennai.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: The first multiplex in Japan was built by Warner Bros. in 1993 but the multiplexes were outside Japan's nine largest cities until Shochiku built Cinema World to the west of Tokyo in 1995. By 2000, multiplexes accounted for 44% of the market with the number of screens in Japan increasing rapidly from less than 2,000 in 1998 to nearly 3,000 in 2001. The expansion in screens and multiplexes also reduced the reliance on the grosses from the nine key cities, with over half of a film's Japanese gross now coming from outside those markets.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In the Netherlands there weren't many multiplexes until the millennial change. In April 2000 Pathé ArenA opened its doors in the ArenAPoort area in Amsterdam. It's the largest multiplex in the Netherlands and features 14 screens and 3250 seats in total. Nowadays a lot of other multiplexes are being set up, but so far none of them have surpassed Pathé ArenA's capacity.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: Multiplexes ("multicines") are very popular in Spain and they can be found in or close to most cities, displacing the traditional single-screen theaters. Many middle-sized and large cities have several of them, and they are also common in malls. The average number of screens per theater was 5.2 in 2016.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: The Kinepolis-Madrid megaplex has been the largest movie theater in the world since 1998, with 25 screens and a seating capacity of 9,200 including a 996-seat auditorium. Kinepolis-Valencia, built in 2001, boasts 24 screens and 8,000 seats.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: As noted above, the world's first multiplex, the Regal Twins, opened in Manchester in 1930. The first triplex in the UK was the ABC Cinema in Lothian Road, Edinburgh which opened 29 November 1969. The Regal Twins were converted in 1972 to a five screen complex (Studios 1 to 5) by Star Group, as the first five-cinema complex in Britain.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In 1985, AMC Cinemas opened a ten-screen cinema at The Point in Milton Keynes. This was AMC's first multiplex outside of the United States and saw a turnaround in the decline of the UK cinema industry. Cannon followed it with an eight-screen cinema in Salford Quays in 1986. The success of the cinema at Milton Keynes led to further expansion by AMC in the UK to the MetroCentre in Gateshead and then to Dudley, Telford, Warrington and by royal appointment to London, before it eventually sold its UK division to a joint venture which it had formed with United Artists and Cinema International Corporation, which later became UCI Cinemas in 1989. By the end of 1992, the 5 major exhibitors (UCI, MGM, Warner, National Amusements and Odeon Cinemas) had built 525 multiplex screens in the last eight years in the UK, with cinema admissions increasing from an all-time low of 54 million in 1984 to over 100 million. The increase in multiplexes led to 77% of the UK's screens being owned by the 5 major exhibitors. The increase in multiplexes around the country also reduced the importance of London from a revenue standpoint. Non-multiplex cinemas are now rare in the UK. In July 2000, Star City, Birmingham opened with a 30-screen Warner Village Cinemas (now a 25-screen Vue Cinemas with 5,079 seats), at the time the largest cinema in Europe.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: The first triplex in the United States was created with the addition of a third screen to the Cheri theater in Boston in June 1967 owned by Ben Sack.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In the United States, only 10% of the 16,712 indoor movie theaters in 1981 had more than one screen, with 80% of the 10% only having two screens. The largest had 7 screens.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In 1982, the 14-screen Cineplex in the Beverly Center Mall in West Hollywood, California, became the country's largest upon opening. The Beverly Center Cinemas closed in June 2010.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: Cineplex joined with Universal Studios to build an 18-screen multiplex in Universal City, California (now part of Universal CityWalk Hollywood), which opened July 4, 1987.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: In December 1988, Studio 28 in Grand Rapids, Michigan, expanded from 12 to 20 screens with a seating capacity of 6,000. Studio 28 closed in November 2008.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: By 1994, building of multiplexes with 14-24 screens with 2,500 to 3,500 seats was the norm. The expansion of multiplexes also concentrated the market with the top ten exhibitors controlling 47% of the nation's screens compared to 27% in 1986. The AMC Grand 24 opened in Dallas, Texas, on May 19, 1995, as the first 24-screen megaplex built from the ground up in the United States and the largest theater complex in the U.S. A 21-screen Edwards Theater opened at the Irvine Spectrum Center in Irvine, California, the same year. After a lease renewal dispute with the property owner, the AMC Grand 24 closed in November 2010. The building has been divided and reopened in 2012 as a Toby Keith–owned nightclub and a 14-screen first-run movie theater operated by Southern Theatres as the "AmStar 14". This theatre is now the Studio Movie Grill Northwest Highway .


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: AMC Theatres has since built many megaplexes with up to 30 screens, starting with the AMC Ontario Mills 30 in 1996, which was the largest theater in the world when it opened. Three months after the AMC opened in Ontario, California, Edwards built their biggest theater across the street, the 22-screen Ontario Palace 22.


title: Multiplex (movie theater)

text: By 2004, only 25% of movie theaters in the United States had one screen and there were over 500 multiplexes with more than 16 screens.


title: House of Hesse

text: The House of Hesse is a European dynasty, directly descended from the House of Brabant. They ruled the region of Hesse, one branch as prince-electors until 1866, and another branch as grand dukes until 1918.


title: House of Hesse

text: The origins of the House of Hesse begin with the marriage of Sophie of Thuringia (daughter of Louis IV, Landgrave of Thuringia, and Elizabeth of Hungary) with Henry II, Duke of Brabant, from the House of Reginar. Sophie was the heiress of Hesse, which she passed on to her son, Henry, upon her retention of the territory following her partial victory in the War of the Thuringian Succession, in which she was one of the belligerents.


title: House of Hesse

text: Originally the western part of the Landgraviate of Thuringia, in the mid 13th century, it was inherited by the younger son of Henry II, Duke of Brabant, and became a distinct political entity. From the late 16th century, it was generally divided into several branches, the most important of which were those of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) and Hesse-Darmstadt.


title: House of Hesse

text: In the early 19th century, the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel was elevated to Elector of Hesse (1803), while the Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt became the Grand Duke of Hesse (1806), later the Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine. The Electorate of Hesse (Hesse-Kassel) was annexed by Prussia in 1866, while the Grand Duchy of Hesse (Hesse-Darmstadt) remained a sovereign realm until the end of the German monarchies in 1918.


title: House of Hesse

text: Since 23 May 2013, the head of the house has been Donatus, Landgrave of Hesse. He descends from the Hesse-Kassel branch of the family, which has been the genealogically senior male line since the house's major partition in 1567. He is married to Countess Floria-Franziska of Faber-Castell. They have three children together.


title: House of Hesse

text: Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, died in 1567. Hesse was then divided between his four sons, thus four main branches arose: Hesse-Kassel, Hesse-Marburg, Hesse-Rheinfels and Hesse-Darmstadt.


title: House of Hesse

text: The Battenberg family are morganatic descendants in the male-line of the House of Hesse, issuing from the marriage of Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine with Countess Julia Hauke who, along with her children and agnatic descendants, were made princes and princesses of Battenberg and Serene Highnesses. The Battenbergs who later settled in England changed that name to Mountbatten after World War I at the behest of George V, who substituted British peerages for their former German princely title. Those descended from the marriage of Alexander of Battenberg, Prince of Bulgaria, contracted with a commoner after the loss of his throne, were granted the title Count von Hartenau.


title: House of Hesse

text: Hesse-Kassel and its junior lines were annexed by Prussia in 1866. Hesse-Darmstadt became the People's State of Hesse when the monarchy was abolished in 1918. Hesse-Philippsthal died out in the male line in 1925, and Hesse-Darmstadt in 1968. The male-line heirs of Hesse-Kassel and Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld continue to exist to the present day.


title: PAGASA

text: The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (, abbreviated as PAGASA , which means "hope" as in the Tagalog word "pag-asa") is the National Meteorological and Hydrological Services (NMHS) agency of the Philippines mandated to provide protection against natural calamities and to insure the safety, well-being and economic security of all the people, and for the promotion of national progress by undertaking scientific and technological services in meteorology, hydrology, climatology, astronomy and other geophysical sciences. Created on December 8, 1972, by reorganizing the Weather Bureau, PAGASA now serves as one of the Scientific and Technological Services Institutes of the Department of Science and Technology.


title: PAGASA

text: Formal meteorological and astronomical services in the Philippines began in 1865 with the establishment of the "Observatorio Meteorológico de Manila" (Manila Meteorological Observatory) in Padre Faura St., Manila when Francisco Colina, a young Jesuit scholastic and professor at the Ateneo Municipal de Manila started a systematic observation and recording of the weather two or three times a day. Jaime Nonell, another Jesuit scholastic, wrote a brief treatise on these observations, which was printed by the "Diario de Manila". The treatise attracted the attention of businessmen in Manila and a request was made to the Jesuit director, Fr. Juan Vidal, SJ, for regular observations for the purpose of warning the public against approaching typhoons. The businessmen financed the procurement and acquisition of an instrument called the universal meteorograph (an invention of another Jesuit, Fr. Angelo Seechi, SJ of the Vatican Observatory in Rome) which would greatly aid in the day and night observations of the weather.


title: PAGASA

text: In 1866, Federico Faura, SJ became the director of the observatory in recognition of his scientific abilities. During this time, the observatory was engaged in the systematic observation of Philippine weather. On July 7, 1879, after data comparison with another Jesuit cleric in the West Indies, the observatory issued a warning indicating that a tropical cyclone was crossing northern Luzon. The colonial government took every possible precaution based on the reliability of the warning and the slight losses from the typhoon finally and permanently cemented the reputation of the observatory. This was followed by a prediction in November of the same year that a tropical cyclone would pass by Manila. The observatory began conducting seismological and terrestrial magnetism observations in 1880. In 1885, the observatory started time service and a system of visual (semaphore) weather warnings for merchant shipping. In 1886, the Faura Aneroid barometer was released. In 1887, a section devoted to the study of terrestrial magnetism was set up and six years later, the first maps of terrestrial magnetism in the Philippines was published. In 1890, the seismological service was officially established, and in 1899, the astronomical section was opened.


title: PAGASA

text: This reputation reached foreign shores and other observatories began requesting for the monthly "Boletin del Observatorio de Manila". The growing demand for the services of the observatory led to the issuance of a Spanish royal decree on April 21, 1894, that recognized the observatory as an official institution under the Jesuit order, with full support from the Spanish Crown. This led to the establishment of a network of secondary stations in various points of Luzon.


title: PAGASA

text: Following the Spanish-American War and under the Treaty of Paris, on December 10, 1898, Spain ceded the Philippine Islands to the United States. After a period of great political turbulence that climaxed in the outbreak of Philippine–American War in 1899, an Insular Government was established. On May 22, 1901, the Philippine Commission enacted Act No. 131, reorganizing the Manila Observatory into the Weather Bureau under the Department of Interior. With the establishment of the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources (DANR) on January 1, 1917, the Weather Bureau was transferred from the Department of Interior to the DANR. With the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, the DANR was reorganized into the Department of Agriculture and Commerce.


title: PAGASA

text: For nearly 45 years, the Weather Bureau remained active and famous in international expositions and scientific expeditions, and continued to be well known for its accurate typhoon forecasts and scientific works in the field of meteorology, geomagnetism, and astronomy. The first weather map in the Far East (released in 1908 by Fr. Coronas) became an important tool in tropical cyclone forecasting thereon. The bureau's published works on meteorology, terrestrial magnetism, and astronomy were well known and had later proven to be of great value to the American forces in the liberation of the Philippines from the Japanese during the Second World War.


title: PAGASA

text: On October 4, 1943, with the establishment of the Second Philippine Republic as a puppet state of Japan during its occupation, the Weather Bureau was transferred to the Department of Public Works and Communications. The bureau was removed from the direction of the Jesuits and for the first time, the bureau had an all-Filipino staff headed by Mr. Maximo Lachica, head of the Department of Geodetic Engineering of the University of the Philippines. The Japanese occupation period marked limited activity in the Central Office. However, in the field, bureau personnel were instrumental in bringing accurate weather information over enemy-occupied territory to the combined liberation forces of the American and Filipino soldiers. In February 1945, the Second World War brought the operations of the Weather Bureau to a halt when its offices were destroyed during the Battle of Manila. Nothing but the burnt-out shell of its astronomical dome in Padre Faura St bore testimony to its once glorious past. All the instruments, records, mass of scientific knowledge accumulated through the decades were lost. After the war, the "Observatorio" ceased to function as the Weather Bureau. The former would later resume independent operations in 1951 as the Manila Observatory.


title: PAGASA

text: The rebirth of the Weather Bureau began on July 24, 1945, when it was reestablished by seven constituent personnel under the leadership of Edilberto Parulan as Officer-in-Charge. In 1946, pursuant to the Tydings War Damage Act (Philippine Rehabilitation Act of 1946), a US Weather Bureau mission was sent to Manila by the United States government to undertake a survey of the needs of the Weather Bureau. As a result, the Bureau was able to acquire meteorological equipment and technical assistance from the United States that paved the way for the establishment of standard weather services patterned after similar meteorological institutions in more technically-advanced countries. Furthermore, the Weather Bureau was transferred to the Department of Commerce and Industry. The Bureau's functions were then carried out by five divisions (Synoptic, Climatological, Geophysical, Astronomical, and Administrative).


title: PAGASA

text: In 1947, the central office of the Weather Bureau was moved to Marsman Building (opposite Pier 15 at the Port Area of Manila), while the Forecasting Center was transferred to the old Balagbag terminal (site of the first terminal of the Manila International Airport) and became the Manila Main Meteorological Office (MMMO). The first post-war geophysical observatory of the bureau was established in 1949 behind the campus of the University of the Philippines in Diliman. In 1948, a set of electromagnetic photorecording seismographs was installed to improve its seismological services. On April 5, 1949, the Philippines was admitted into the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), with the Weather Bureau as its national meteorological service. In the same year, temperature, relative humility and pressure observations in the upper atmosphere were made twice daily by the Laoag, Cebu and Zamboanga field stations.


title: PAGASA

text: In 1950, a teletype service connected the MMMO to Clark Air Force Base, US Naval Station Sangley Point and the Bureau of Telecommunications (precursor to the current National Telecommunications Commission. Moreover, exchange of weather reports with foreign countries, aircraft-in-flight and four aeronautical stations in the country – Laoag, Legazpi, Cebu & Zamboanga began at this year. Private radio systems and the then National Civil Defense Administration also helped to facilitate the reception of data and dissemination of the forecasts and warnings. In 1954, radio transmissions of time signals (which were done seven times daily) began in the geophysical observatory (which was now called Astronomical Observatory at this time).


title: PAGASA

text: Weather surveillance radar was first installed in the Philippines in 1963 atop the Central Office of the Weather Bureau (but this was destroyed beyond repair by a fire in 1978).In 1965, on its centenary, half of the weather stations across the country were already linked with each other by single side-band radio transceivers, forming an independent meteorological communication system. In 1968, the Philippines joined the Typhoon Committee formed by the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE, now Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific or ESCAP) and the WMO. The following year saw the transfer of the central office from the Marsman Building to 1424, Quezon Boulevard Extension in Quezon City. The same year also ushered the 5-year "WMO Training and Research Project, Manila". Composed of the Institute of Meteorology in the Weather Bureau and the Department of Meteorology in the University of the Philippines, the project aimed to meet the training needs of the country's meteorological personnel and to carry out research in various fields of meteorology. The institute provided technical in-service training in various levels while the Department offered a post-graduate course leading to a Master of Science degree in meteorology. With the implementation of the project, the acquisition of an IBM 1130 was realized and computerization in the bureau came of age. A telemetry system in the Marikina River Basin was then set up which led to the bureau's initial efforts in flood forecasting.


title: PAGASA

text: Satellite meteorology came to the Philippines in 1970 when an Automatic Picture Transmission system was set-up to intercept phototransmission of the upper atmosphere by weather satellites. The first post-war major research initiative of the bureau was launched in the same year. Called the "Typhoon Research Project, its launch in 1970 was made possible through the financial assistance of the National Science Development Board. In 1971, upon invitation of the Philippines, the ECAFE/WMO Joint Unit was reallocated in Manila and was rechristened as the Typhoon Committee Secretariat. In the same year, the linking of five weather surveillance radars installed across different parts of the country and the Manila radar station (it was not yet destroyed until 1978) paved the way for the Weather Radar Surveillance Network of the bureau.


title: PAGASA

text: In 1970, several typhoons, including super typhoons Sening, Titang and Yoling, battered the Philippines, leaving thousands dead and millions of dollars worth of damage in their wake. As a response, in 1972, during the martial law rule of President Ferdinand Marcos, the Weather Bureau was abolished and a new agency, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) was established pursuant to the Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Science Act of 1972 (Presidential Decree No. 78, s. 1972) as part of the Integrated Reorganization Plan (Presidential Decree No. 1, s. 1972) of the Philippine government. This new agency was placed under the authority of the Department of National Defense (DND). Through Executive Order No. 387, s. 1972, Marcos also established the Presidential Committee on Typhoon Moderation in order to coordinate, plan and implement programs intended to curb the severe effects of weather. Separately, the Typhoon Moderation and Flood Control Research and Development Council (later becoming the Typhoon Moderation Research and Development Office) was created to allow research and utilization of modern scientific methods to moderate typhoons and minimizing damage.


title: PAGASA

text: After further destruction to the Philippines during the 1973 typhoon season, the Typhoon Moderation Program began exploring the Cloud Seeding Program as a means of minimizing the dangers of typhoons. As detailed by PAGASA director Roman Kintanar, they sought to weaken typhoons by 'seeding' it with various elements, most notably silver iodide, to increase the width of the eye, therefore increasing the diameter of the typhoon in order to increase the cover of the landfall but consequently reduce the intensity of rainfall. Such undertakings have been seen previously when the US launched the infamous Operation Popeye, which attempted to extend the monsoon season in Vietnam in 1967, and Project Stormfury, which, similar to the Typhoon Moderation Program, sought to weaken typhoons in the early 1960s. Kintanar detailed Weather Modification Experiments (WEMEX), such as WEMEX I, which was initiated over Central Visayas in 1975, and WEMEX II, which was initiated over Central Luzon the following year. Results were inconclusive, but as with both Popeye and Stormfury, the data gathered ultimately proved helpful for meteorologists in future tracking of weather patterns and typhoon forecast.


title: PAGASA

text: Four organization units initially comprised PAGASA. The National Weather Service undertakes the preparation and subsequent prompt issuance of forecasts and warnings of weather and flood conditions. The National Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Data Service undertakes the acquisition, collection, quality control, processing, and archiving of atmospheric and allied data. The National Geophysical and Astronomical Service undertakes observations and studies of seismological and astronomical phenomena, as well as provides the official time for the country. The National Institute of Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Sciences is responsible for the training of scientists and technical personnel with respect to atmospheric, geophysical and astronomical sciences. Later on in 1977, the Typhoon Moderation Research and Development Office and the National Flood Forecasting Office were placed under administrative supervision of PAGASA, pursuant to Presidential Decree No. 1149, s. 1977.


title: PAGASA

text: PAGASA saw a lot of accomplishments during the Marcos regime. In 1973, the Pampanga River Basin Flood Forecasting and Warning Project, a joint undertaking of the PAGASA and the Ministry of Public Works, Transportation and Communications, was inaugurated, and upon recommendations of a survey mission, the Japanese Government provided the equipment and training of personnel for the project. Early in 1974, PAGASA, in cooperation with the Office of Civil Defense, put up a radio station with callsign DZCA. Through a network of automatic stations situated at strategic points along the Pampanga River and its major tributaries, data on the rise and fall of the river levels are sent to the Flood Forecasting Center in the Central Office via existing telemetry system. Impressed with the success of the Flood Forecasting System in the Pampanga River Basin, President Marcos instructed PAGASA to explore the possibility of putting up a similar system in the Agno, Bicol and Cagayan River Basins. The UNESCO-sponsored Regional Seismological Network in Southeast Asia set up an office in the PAGASA Geophysical Observatory in 1974. It sought to standardize the training of personnel and seismological equipment, as well as to improve the accuracy of determining the epicenters of earthquakes in the region. Subsequently, in 1977, a strong motion accelerograph network was put up in Metro Manila. The network was designed to record strong earthquake vibrations in the area. On April 18, 1979, the Science Garden Planetarium was opened to the public. Equipped with a Minolta planetarium projector, it has a seating capacity of 90 people. In June 1981, the Bicol flood forecasting sub-system based on the Pampanga River system was inaugurated. In May of the following year, all three sub-systems (Agno, Bicol and Cagayan) became fully operational. On the same occasion, the Ground Receiving Station for the Geostationary Meteorological Satellite was inaugurated, bringing the satellite meteorology of the Philippines to a giant leap forward.


title: PAGASA

text: In April 1983, Flood Forecasting and Warning System for Dam Operations was jointly undertaken by PAGASA, the National Power Corporation, and the National Irrigation Administration, with financial assistance in the form of loans from the Japanese government. Phase 1 of the project covered Angat and Pantabangan Dams, while Phase II covered the Magat, Binga, and Ambuklao Dams, as well as the Data Information Center for the project.


title: PAGASA

text: The subsequent efforts of the government to centrally direct the integration of all government scientific and technological efforts led to the transfer of PAGASA to the National Science and Technology Authority through Executive Order No. 984, s. 1984. The reorganization also transferred the seismological services of PAGASA to the Philippine Institute of Volcanology (PHIVOLC), now Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS).


title: PAGASA

text: Following the reestablishment of the democratic government after the ouster of Ferdinand Marcos (see People Power Revolution) in 1986, President Corazon C. Aquino ordered the reorganization of the National Science and Technology Authority (now called Department of Science and Technology) and all agencies under its authority, pursuant to Executive Order 128, s. 1987 Five major branches (Weather, Flood Forecasting, Climatology & Agrometeorology, Astronomical, Geophysical & Space Science, and National Disaster Reduction) and three support divisions (Administrative, Finance & Management, and Engineering & Maintenance) now constitute PAGASA. This organizational structure remained until October 2008, when the agency went under a Rationalization Program pursuant to Executive Order 366, s. 2004 issued by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. The Rationalization Program of the government was aimed at making the government focus its efforts on vital/core functions and enhance effectiveness and efficiency of public service.


title: PAGASA

text: On January 15, 2003, PAGASA transferred its central office from 1424 Quezon Avenue to its permanent headquarters at the Science Garden, located along Agham Road in Diliman, Quezon City. Meanwhile, scientific and technical operations are currently being undertaken in its Weather and Flood Forecasting Center, a facility located just in front of its current headquarters.


title: PAGASA

text: On November 3, 2015, Republic Act No. 10692, or the PAGASA Modernization Act of 2015, was signed into law by President Benigno Aquino III. The government initially spent three billion pesos from PAGCOR's revenues (with a three-year span) for the modernization fund of the state weather bureau, which included the upgrading and acquisition of equipment, new salary scheme for the employees, manpower training for future weathercasters and the creation of PAGASA Data Center, among other plans.


title: PAGASA

text: On August 8, 2019, Republic Act No. 11363, or the Philippine Space Act, was signed by President Rodrigo Duterte, creating the Philippine Space Agency, also known as PhilSA, to manage the operate the Philippine space program which was previously handled by PAGASA.


title: PAGASA

text: PAGASA monitors daily rainfall and temperature data together with monthly observation of standard precipitation index, soil moisture, runoff and vegetation. Also, PAGASA is involved in the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Regional Climate Centres (RCC) network node for climate monitoring in Southeast Asia. Climate prediction is also offered by PAGASA such as subseasonal to seasonal forecasting from ten-day running to one-month probabilistic forecasting with special emphasis on high-impact weather events. Specialized forecasts are also done by PAGASA like data gathering on regional rainfall outlook at locations of dams, watersheds, river basins, other important water reservoirs and flood-prone areas. PAGASA monitors and assesses monthly climate, with regular advisories on regional to global climate phenomena like El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) or La Niña, and seasonal climate projections like for dry spell, drought, and Habagat and Amihan monsoon together with their dynamic and statistical downscaling.


title: PAGASA

text: PAGASA through its Climatology and Agrometeorology Division, also offers services for the availment of climate data composed of various climatic elements which are routinely observed at PAGASA's network with meteorological observations and quality control procedures are done following the recommended best practices of the WMO.


title: PAGASA

text: PAGASA monitors tropical cyclone activity and issues warnings if they fall within the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR). This area is bound by an imaginary line drawn along the following coordinates:


title: PAGASA

text: Tropical cyclone bulletins are issued by PAGASA every three hours for all tropical cyclones within this area that are currently affecting the country, six hours when cyclones are anticipated to make landfall within the Philippines, or twelve hours when cyclones are not affecting land.


title: PAGASA

text: On August 27, 2007, PAGASA announced that it was putting up a tornado warning system, days after several more powerful and destructive tornadoes damaged houses in Central Luzon. On August 23, 2007, a second tornado destroyed 30 houses in 4 villages in San Miguel, Bulacan, the first tornado having damaged 27 houses in San Rafael, Bulacan on August 8, 2007.


title: PAGASA

text: PAGASA installed its first Doppler weather radar station in Baler, Aurora and another in Baguio. The new weather radars can monitor the typhoon and its movements, amount of rainfall either moderate or heavy and real-time atmospheric forecasts using a visual radar monitor, an example was that of Typhoon Basyang in 2010. Data are used for warnings (such as rainfall) through Project NOAH since June 2012.


title: PAGASA

text: PAGASA has installed at least sixteen Doppler weather radars in the country, currently operational stations are as follows:


title: PAGASA

text: Moreover, the weather bureau is now planning to construct at least three more Doppler weather radar stations in Agno (Pangasinan), Cataingan (Masbate) and in Laoang (Northern Samar). It aims to have twenty operational radar stations nationwide by the end of 2020.


title: PAGASA

text: Before Nilo's leave, an automated rain gauge was also installed in a telecommunications cellsite in Montalban, Rizal (in cooperation with Smart Communications) to monitor excess rainfall as a warning signal to avert the effects of flashfloods and landslides by using cellphones, the weather bureau plans to adopt its swift transfer of data from ground forecasting stations to main headquarters utilizing its automated data acquisition system modeled after Japan Meteorological Agency's AMeDAS in the near future as a solution to forecast inaccuracy and their problems. The Japan International Cooperation Agency will provide modernization programs to enhance the services of PAGASA include meteorology and flood forecasting, and tornado warnings as precautionary measures. Seven new Doppler weather radars placed in different locations are scheduled to operate in June 2011.


title: PAGASA

text: In addition, the weather bureau introduced its Landslide Early Warning Sensor (LEWS) (recently invented by the University of the Philippines) to reduce landslide casualties in case of landslides. Using this new device, the sensor picks out signals in the form of computer data to show soil and ground movements and is transferred to the ground station immediately in an event of a landslide, and in order to launch forced evacuation. PAGASA hopes to install 10 sensors in five landslide prone areas by 2012, when it is tested and ready to bury on ground.


title: PAGASA

text: Another innovation to flood alerts was the adoption of an Automated Weather Station (AWS) designed to monitor amounts of rainfall and flood levels in case of an incoming warning, the AWS can be controlled by a computer even it is unmanned and a siren to evacuate people for emergencies. Few of the AWS units are installed in few points of the country and many more units will be installed to extend its coverage.


title: PAGASA

text: In 2011, Taiwan donated fifteen weather stations to the Philippines' Department of Science and Technology, and it has been reported that "The Philippines weather bureau will also share information from the new weather stations with Taiwan's Central Weather Bureau, helping expand the range of Taiwan's weather forecasts." PAGASA and the Philippines Department of Science and Technology work jointly in the implementation of weather stations.