text: In a few studies, homosexual subjects have occasionally displayed both a larger number of older brothers and a larger number of older sisters in comparison to heterosexual men. This is because a person's number of older brothers and number of older sisters tend to be positively correlated. So, if Proband A has more older brothers than Proband B, chances are that Proband A also has more older sisters than Proband B. These findings of excess of older sisters are hence occasional by-products of homosexual men having an excess of older brothers, are not found as consistently as the excess of older brothers, and thus need not detract from the significance of the fraternal birth order effect. When samples are drawn from populations with relatively high fertility rates, the positive correlation between number of older brothers and older sisters may give the false impression that both the number of older brothers and the number of older sisters are associated with male sexual orientation. Indeed, two samples from the high fertility Samoan population displayed simultaneous fraternal and 'sororal' birth order effects. However, direct comparison of the magnitudes of these two effects showed that the fraternal birth order effect took precedence in the studies. Various studies and meta-analyses have confirmed that only the older brother effect is consistently associated with homosexuality:


title: Fraternal birth order and male sexual orientation

text: The fraternal birth order effect is independent of potential confounding factors such as age, year of birth, and socioeconomic status. It has also been found that the fraternal birth order effect can be demonstrated whether the homosexual and heterosexual groups being compared on older brothers both have large or small family sizes, so long as both groups have the same family size (or can be adjusted to simulate that condition). Additionally, to detect the fraternal birth order effect, it is necessary that family size of homosexual and heterosexual groups are not strongly affected by the various parental strategies (so-called 'stopping rules') of ceasing reproduction after one child, after one male child, or after a child of each sex, because in these particular situations, neither homosexual nor heterosexual males have enough older brothers to make comparisons meaningful. For example, a study done in mainland China did not find any fraternal birth order effect, which the authors attributed to the one-child policy.


text: The relation between number of older brothers and male homosexuality is not an artifact of higher maternal or paternal age at the time of the proband's birth. This implies that the birth order phenomenon cannot be explained by increased mutation rates in the ova or sperm cells of aging mothers or fathers, respectively.


text: The relation between number of older brothers and male homosexuality is also not an artifact of birth interval. Blanchard and Bogaert (1997) conducted a study to investigate whether homosexual men are, on average, born a shorter time after their next-older siblings than are heterosexual men. They found that mean birth intervals preceding heterosexual and homosexual males were virtually identical.


text: No type of sibling (i.e., older brothers, older sisters, younger brothers or younger sisters) is reliably related to women's sexual orientation.


text: Research on the fraternal birth order effect has shown that for every older brother a male child has, there is a 33% increase in the naturally occurring odds that the male child being homosexual. The naturally occurring odds of a male child (without any older brothers) being homosexual are estimated to be 2%. Thus, if a male with no older brothers has a 2% chance of being homosexual and the fraternal birth order effect increases those chances by 33% for each older brother, then a male with one older brother has a 2.6% chance of being homosexual; a male with two older brothers has a 3.5% chance, and males with three and four older brothers have a 4.6%, and 6.0% chance, respectively.


text: Estimates of the proportion of homosexual men who owe their sexual orientation to the fraternal birth order effect have ranged from 15.1% to 28.6%. Cantor et al. (2002) found that 0% of homosexual men with no older brothers, 24% of homosexual men with one older brother, 43% of homosexual men with two older brothers, and so on, can attribute their homosexual orientation to the fraternal birth order effect. They also showed that the effect of fraternal birth order would exceed all other causes of homosexuality combined in groups of gay men with 3 or more older brothers and would precisely equal all other causes combined in a theoretical group with 2.5 older brothers. Homosexual men who did not acquire their sexual orientation via the fraternal birth order effect (for example, homosexual men with no older brothers) owe their homosexuality to other causes such as certain polymorphic genes (colloquially called "gay genes") or prenatal hormone levels during fetal development.


text: Both direct and indirect evidence have demonstrated that the mechanism by which the fraternal birth order effect operates is prenatal in timing and biological in nature, rather than postnatal in timing or psychosocial in nature. Indirect evidence was found first when it was discovered that the fraternal birth order effect interacts with birth weight. Then, Bogaert (2006) produced direct evidence that the fraternal birth order mechanism is prenatal. Subsequent research related to handedness has further reinforced these findings. Evidence that the fraternal birth order effect reflects events during prenatal life is generally consistent with a lack of evidence that it reflects events during postnatal life.


text: The finding that the fraternal birth order mechanism operates during a male's prenatal development in the mother's womb arose unexpectedly, in a study of sexual orientation, birth order, and birth weight. Blanchard and Ellis (2001) studied 3229 adult, homosexual and heterosexual, men and women (the probands) whose mothers knew the sex of every child (or fetus) that they were pregnant with prior to the proband. Information on birth weight, maternal gravidity, and other demographic variables was reported on questionnaires completed by the probands' mothers. The study yielded three main observations:


text: Each of these three findings has since been replicated in other studies (and the general finding that boys with older brothers have smaller birth weights than boys with older sisters is in line with earlier studies). These findings suggest that prior male pregnancies influence the development of subsequent male fetuses; that this influence is felt to varying degrees by individual fetuses; and that those fetuses who are most strongly affected by this process, as indicated by their comparatively lower birth weights, are also those most likely to be homosexual. The interaction of fraternal birth order with birth weight (an obviously prenatally determined trait) suggests that the mechanism of the fraternal birth order effect operates before the individual's birth (i.e., in utero). It also shows that, even at the time of birth, there is a physical marker of sexual orientation (i.e., birth weight) that is related to the number of older brothers.


text: Blanchard et al. (2006) produced indirect evidence that the fraternal birth order effect is biological rather than psychosocial in nature: They found, in a sample of 3146 men, that the fraternal birth order effect was contingent on handedness: The effect of older brothers on the likelihood of homosexuality only occurred in right-handed males; the effect of older brothers did not alter the likelihood of being gay in left-handed and ambidextrous men. Later, another study found the fraternal birth order effect may be limited to only moderately right-handed men, as extreme right-handers also did not display a fraternal birth order effect. The finding that fraternal birth order interacts with handedness has been confirmed by subsequent research. As handedness is developed during prenatal life, this suggests that a prenatal mechanism causes increased homosexuality in right-handed male fetuses with older brothers.


text: In a 2017 study, researchers found an association between a maternal immune response to neuroligin 4 Y-linked protein (NLGN4Y) and subsequent sexual orientation in their sons. NLGN4Y is important in male brain development; maternal immune reaction to it, in the form of anti-NLGN4Y antibodies, is thought to alter the brain structures underlying sexual orientation in the male fetus. The study found that women had significantly higher anti-NLGN4Y levels than men. The result also indicates that mothers of gay sons, particularly those with older brothers, had significantly higher anti-NLGN4Y levels than did the control samples of women, including mothers of heterosexual sons.


text: Bogaert (2006) provided a direct test pitting prenatal against postnatal (e.g., social/rearing) mechanisms and sought to determine which of the two account for the fraternal birth order effect. He examined the association between male sexual orientation and biological siblings (i.e., born from the same mother) and non-biological siblings (i.e., adoptive siblings, step-siblings or paternal half-siblings). Whether and how long participants were reared with these siblings was also examined.


text: If rearing or social factors associated with older brothers underlie the fraternal birth order effect, then all older brothers (both biological and non-biological) reared with the participant should predict sexual orientation because all of these older brothers share the social/rearing environment with their younger brothers. If a prenatal factor underlies the fraternal birth order effect, then only biological older brothers should predict sexual orientation because only biological older brothers share prenatal characteristics (e.g., gestation by the same biological mother) with their younger brothers. The study found that only biological older brothers predicted sexual orientation. Even when the number of non-biological older brothers significantly exceeded the number of biological older brothers, and hence the opportunity for an effect via being reared with (non-biological) older brothers was high, only the number of biological older brothers and not non-biological older brothers predicted sexual orientation in men.


text: Further, if rearing or social factors underlie the fraternal birth order effect, then the amount of time reared with older brothers, either biological or non-biological, should predict sexual orientation because rearing time determines the relative opportunity that older brothers have to affect their younger sibling's (postnatal) sociosexual development. If a prenatal factor underlies the fraternal birth order effect, then a postnatal factor such as rearing time with older siblings (be they biological or non-biological) should have no impact on the sexual orientation of younger male siblings. The study found that the amount of time reared with older brothers, either biological or non-biological, neither predicted sexual orientation nor affected the relationship between older brothers and sexual orientation, thereby pointing to a prenatal origin of the fraternal birth order effect.


text: Finally, if rearing or social factors underlie the fraternal birth order effect, then the number of biological older brothers with whom the participants were not reared should not predict sexual orientation because they should have no impact on the (postnatal) sociosexual environment of their younger brothers. If a prenatal factor underlies the fraternal birth order effect, then biological older brothers with whom the participants were not reared should still predict sexual orientation because all biological older brothers, even those not reared with the participants, share prenatal characteristics (e.g., gestation by the same mother) with their younger brothers. The study found that the number of biological brothers does predict men's sexual orientation even if the participants were not reared with the biological older brothers.


text: In summation, it was found that biological older brothers significantly predicted male sexual orientation regardless of whether or how long participants were reared with these brothers whereas the remaining sibling categories, including non-biological older brothers, did not. These results thus support a prenatal origin to sexual orientation development in men and indicate that the fraternal birth order effect is probably the result of the mother's body's "memory" for both male births as well as male gestations (i.e., every instance of being pregnant with a male fetus). So even if a male fetus was not carried to term, he still increases the likelihood of homosexuality in any subsequent male fetuses gestated by the same mother.


text: The existence of the fraternal birth order effect on male sexual orientation has been confirmed many times. One approach for establishing the ubiquity of this effect has been to search for it in a variety of sample types. The repeated finding of the fraternal birth order effect in diverse samples shows that the effect is nearly ubiquitous – with the exception of populations where people do not have older brothers.


text: The fraternal birth order effect has been found in homosexual males from different races, including White, Black, Hispanic, East Indian, Asian, Middle Eastern and Polynesian. The effect has also been found in homosexual males from different historical eras, ranging from participants examined in recent years to participants examined decades ago.


text: The effect has also been demonstrated in homosexual males from different cultures: Despite how variable cultures can be, cross-cultural universals in the development of homosexual males appear to exist. For example, in Western cultures, homosexual males exhibit comparatively more gender-nonconforming behavior during childhood than heterosexual males. Retrospective studies conducted in Brazil, Guatemala, Independent Samoa, the Philippines, Thailand, and Turkey have found that the same is true of homosexual males raised in these non-Western cultures. Such cross-cultural similarities in childhood behavior support the idea that similar biological influences, which transcend cultural differences, play a role in the development of male homosexuality. This idea would be further supported if it could be demonstrated that causal biological factors, such as the fraternal birth order mechanism (which is biological in nature), are likely to influence the development of male homosexuality in non-Western cultures. Thus, establishing the existence of the fraternal birth order effect — a hypothesized outcome of the fraternal birth order mechanism — in a non-Western culture would further substantiate arguments that similar biological influences underlie the development of homosexuality across cultures. Studies in Western as well as non-Western cultures have demonstrated fraternal birth order effect (as well as fecundity effects) in relation to male homosexuality. The cross-cultural consistency with which these effects have been documented is consistent with the conclusion that culturally invariant, biological processes underlie the development of homosexuality in males.


text: The fraternal birth order effect has also been demonstrated in widely separated geographic regions and in countries such as Brazil, Canada, Finland, Iran, Italy, The Netherlands, Independent Samoa, Spain,


text: Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The effect has additionally been observed in participants examined during childhood as well as adulthood and in patients as well as in non-patient volunteers. The fraternal birth order effect has been demonstrated by Blanchard and colleagues as well as by independent researchers. The demonstration of the fraternal birth order effect in meta-analysis of studies by Blanchard and colleagues, meta-analysis of studies by independent investigators and studies by both Blanchard and other investigators shows that studies of the fraternal birth order effect have been free from experimenter bias. The effect has also been demonstrated in homosexual men from convenience samples and in representative, national probability samples.


text: Most research on the fraternal birth order effect has been carried out on gay men. However, the fraternal birth order effect has been observed in androphilic transgender women (who were assigned male at birth). Trans women who are exclusively sexually oriented towards men have a greater number of older brothers than trans women who are sexually interested in women. This has been reported in samples from Canada, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Polynesia.


text: Three studies have investigated whether sexual orientation also correlates with fraternal birth order in men attracted to physically immature males. One study (Bogaert et al., 1997) found that homosexual-bisexual male pedophiles had a later general birth order than heterosexual male pedophiles and this late birth order was primarily due to the homosexual-bisexual group being born later among their brothers than later among their sisters. Another study (Blanchard and Bogaert, 1998) did not confirm a later fraternal birth order for men with sexual offenses against prepubescent boys or girls, but did confirm it for men with offenses against pubescent boys or girls. The inconsistency of these findings regarding the correlation of sexual orientation and fraternal birth order in pedophiles may be related to methodological problems in the two studies. The first study was a retrospective study of sex offenders, which included only those subjects whose clinical charts happened to contain birth order data so the results of the study may have been affected by selection bias. The second study was a reanalysis of archived data from a classic study of sexual offenders from the year 1965. There was minimal recoverable information regarding the subjects' offense histories, and there is a possibility that the sexual preferences of the pedophiles in the study were not accurately classified from the available information.


text: Blanchard et al. (2000) therefore conducted a study in which data were collected with the specific purpose of examining the relation of fraternal birth order to sexual orientation in homosexual, bisexual and heterosexual pedophiles. Each type of pedophilic group was compared with a control group that consisted of gynephilic men (i.e., men attracted to adult females). The study found that homosexual pedophiles had more older brothers than the gynephilic control group while the bisexual and heterosexual pedophiles did not. These results confirm that fraternal birth order correlates with sexual orientation in pedophiles, as it does in teleiophiles (i.e., people exclusively attracted to adults). The results also confirm that fraternal birth order does not correlate with pedophilia per se: Previous studies had established that the fraternal birth order effect affects what gender a man is sexually attracted to; Blanchard et al. (2000) additionally investigated if fraternal birth order also affects the age of persons to whom a man is attracted. Results from the study indicate that fraternal birth order does not affect the age of preferred erotic targets and that fraternal birth order does not correlate with pedophilia. So the fraternal birth order mechanism only causes males to be attracted to other males; whatever mechanism causes males to be pedophilic as opposed to teleiophilic (i.e., attracted to adults) is different from the fraternal birth order mechanism itself.


text: Other than fraternal birth order, no common feature has been identified in the developmental histories or family demographics of androphiles and pedophiles, while key features distinguish the two groups, for example, most androphilic males display gender non-conformity during childhood whereas same-sex attracted pedophiles do not. To prevent misunderstanding or misuse of their studies on fraternal birth order in pedophiles, researchers have stressed that any conclusion that homosexual pedophilia shares an etiological factor with androphilia does not imply that ordinary homosexual men (androphiles) are likely to molest boys, any more than the conclusion that heterosexual pedophilia shares an etiological factor with gynephilia would imply that ordinary heterosexual men (gynephiles) are likely to molest girls.


text: The finding of the fraternal birth order effect in cisgender and transgender male androphiles, men attracted to boys and those attracted to adult men—same-sex attracted groups who differ as widely as possible in their own characteristics and in the characteristics of their desired partners—would suggest that fraternal birth order (or the underlying variable it reflects) may be the first universal factor to be identified in development of same-sex attraction in males.


text: Bearman and Brückner (2002) argued that studies showing a fraternal birth order effect have used nonrepresentative samples and/or indirect reports on siblings' sexual orientation. Their analysis, focusing on opposite-sex twins, did not find an association "between same-sex attraction and number of older siblings, older brothers, or older sisters". A study by Francis (2008), using the same Add Health survey but with broader analysis, saw a very weak correlation of male same-sex attraction with having multiple older brothers (but did find a significant negative correlation of male same-sex attraction with having older sisters i.e., those who experienced a non-zero level of same-sex attraction were significantly less likely to have older sisters).


text: The failure of these studies to demonstrate the fraternal birth order effect has been attributed to their methodological flaws. Although they utilized large adolescent samples, the low base rates of same-sex attraction and behaviour in the population resulted in sample sizes that were too small for assessing the relation of birth order to sexual orientation. The fraternal birth order effect may also have been obscured in these studies due to their use of different methods of sexual orientation classification and their imprecise measures of sibships. Ray Blanchard explained that the demonstrability of the fraternal birth order effect depends partly on the adequate matching of the mean family size of the homosexual and heterosexual study groups and noted that in the two studies above, the mean family size of the homosexual groups was significantly smaller than that of the heterosexual comparison groups. Specifically, heterosexual males had larger numbers of siblings overall than the homosexual males which may have obscured the analyses of group differences in older brothers and prevented the demonstration of the fraternal birth order effect. Researchers have thus emphasized the necessity of comparing groups on measures of mean family size and have suggested that, in the two studies, an alternative birth order metric that controlled for sibship size would have produced findings consistent with the fraternal birth order effect. Since the publication of Bearman and Bruckner's study in 2002, studies that used representative national probability samples and direct reports on siblings' sexual orientation have found the fraternal birth order effect.


text: Currin et al. (2015) carried out a study investigating the existence of the fraternal birth order effect in a variety of sexual orientation dimensions – namely, identity, attraction, fantasies, and behavior – whereas previous research studied only one such dimension (identity). Participants in the study were split into two groups: a "heterosexual group" and a "non-heterosexual" group. To determine what label participants used to identify their sexual orientation, participants were asked, "How would you classify your sexual orientation?" and selected from one of five options (heterosexual, mostly heterosexual, bisexual, mostly gay/lesbian, gay/lesbian). People who selected "heterosexual" were place in the heterosexual group, whereas people selecting "gay/lesbian" were placed in the non-heterosexual group. To assess sexual attraction, participants were asked, "How sexually attracted are you to men?" and selected from a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (very much). Participants were also asked "How sexually attracted are you to women?" and were presented with the same Likert scale. People who selected 1 (not at all) when answering the same sex sexual attraction question were placed in the heterosexual group. People who selected 2 or greater were placed in the non-heterosexual group.


text: To assess sexual behavior, participants were asked, "What is the total number of male sexual partners you have had?" and "What is the total number of female sexual partners you have had?" "Sexual partner" was defined as someone with whom the participant had penile–vaginal penetration, oral sex, anal sex, and/or mutual masturbation. Individuals who identified having any same-sex sexual partner (i.e., 1 or more) were placed in the non-heterosexual group while individuals who did not identify having a same-sex sexual partner were placed in the heterosexual group. To assess sexual fantasy, participants were asked "What percent of your sexual fantasies during masturbation involve men?" and rated the question from 0% to 100%. Each participant was also asked "What percent of your sexual fantasies during masturbation involve women?" and rated the question from 0% to 100%. If an individual endorsed having any same-sex sexual fantasies at all (i.e., 1% or greater), they were placed in the non-heterosexual group, otherwise they were placed in the heterosexual group. Using these criteria for sexual orientation identity, attraction, fantasies, and behavior, Currin et al. (2015) were unable to demonstrate the effect for any dimensions in their sample of 722 right-handed men (of which 500 were classified as heterosexual and 122 were classified as non-heterosexual), although the study did adjust for family size differences between the two groups. A 2017 meta-analysis analyzed studies about the fraternal birth order effect including Currin et al. (2015). The meta-analysis had a total sample of 7140 homosexual males and 12,837 heterosexual males. The results of the meta-analysis confirmed the reliability of the fraternal birth order effect.


text: Frisch et al. (2006) did not find a correlation between older brothers and same-sex unions between men in a sample of over 2 million Danes. Instead, researchers found a correlation between such unions and having an excess of older sisters. Frisch cautioned that one cannot interpret findings about the correlates of heterosexual and homosexual marriage as if they were findings about the correlates of heterosexual and homosexual orientation. Ray Blanchard performed a reanalysis of Frisch's data using procedures that have been used in prior studies of fraternal birth order. According to his analysis, "the only group whose data resembled data from previous studies was the homosexually married males", reaffirming the birth order effect. He further criticized drawing conclusions from data of married persons, since heterosexually married persons also have "markedly different older-sibling sex ratios" than heterosexually oriented persons.


text: Anthony Bogaert's work involving adoptees concludes that the effect is not due to being raised with older brothers, but is hypothesized to have something to do with changes induced in the mother's body when gestating a boy that affects subsequent sons. This is because the effect is present regardless of whether or not the older brothers are raised in the same family environment with the boy. There is no effect when the number of older brothers is increased by adopted brothers or stepbrothers. It has been hypothesized that this is caused by an in-utero maternal alloimmune response, specifically, the mother's immune system becoming sensitized to H-Y antigens involved in the sexual differentiation of male vertebrates, and producing antibodies that attack these antigens. Specifically, maternal antigens to the neuroligin NLGN4Y protein, Y-chromosone protein important in male fetal brain development, have been found to be involved in the fraternal birth order effect.


title: Chelsea Halfpenny

text: Chelsea Halfpenny (born 26 September 1991) is an English actress, known for her roles as Amy Wyatt in the ITV soap opera "Emmerdale" and Alicia Munroe in the BBC drama "Casualty". She played Jenna Hunterson in the 2022 UK Tour of "Waitress."


title: Chelsea Halfpenny

text: Halfpenny attended St Augustine's Primary School in Leam Lane, Gateshead and then went on to attend St Edmund Campion Catholic School in Wrekenton, both of which her aunt, Jill Halfpenny, attended. She also attended Saturday fame school classes at the Reavley Theatre School, Gateshead. Halfpenny lived on the Leam Lane Estate, in Gateshead.


title: Chelsea Halfpenny

text: Halfpenny's professional acting career began in 2004 when she appeared in the "Casualty" episode "What Parents Do", Playing an eleven-year-old girl called Karine. In the same year, she booked role as Lucy Summerbee in popular children's television series "Byker Grove". Halfpenny secured the role after answering an advertisement in the Newcastle Evening Chronicle. after leaving "Byker Grove" in 2006, Halfpenny continued to work in the North East. She featured In an independent short film for Sham Films, called "Cherry Pop".


title: Chelsea Halfpenny

text: Halfpenny featured in the 2010 short film "Compulsion", directed by Andy McVicar. She Played the female lead Kelly, In Story of young adolescent love. The film was funded by Northern Film and Media's Digital Nation initiative fund. Made for £20,000, "Compulsion" won the British Council award for "Best New Short Film'" at the London Film Festival. On 8 October 2010, Halfpenny made her first appearance on Yorkshire-based soap opera "Emmerdale" as runaway teenager Amy Wyatt, who became a regular character. On 11 October 2013, Halfpenny confirmed that she was to leave "Emmerdale". Her last episode was shown on 14 November 2013. Later in 2013, Halfpenny portrayed Sarah in a short film called "Lilium", a production by students at Teesside University.


title: Chelsea Halfpenny

text: In 2015, Halfpenny joined the cast of BBC medical drama "Casualty". She portrayed the role of Alicia Munroe, a year 1 foundation officer doctor. Halfpenny's first episode aired on 19 September 2015. Halfpenny had signed for eight episodes and departed the show on 14 November 2015, but in May 2016, it was announced that Halfpenny would return to "Casualty", with her return episode airing on 30 July 2016. On 15 January 2019, it was confirmed that Halfpenny would be leaving "Casualty" after four years.


title: Chelsea Halfpenny

text: In 2009, Halfpenny progressed to the Open Mic UK national finals with Newcastle-based girl-band Vevo. In 2011, Halfpenny featured on a DVD release by MWM Records, called "Big River Big Songs". She sang a solo of "I Still Love Him" and sang a duet, "The Shoe Makker" with fellow "Emmerdale" cast member Charlie Hardwick. Both songs sung by Halfpenny were made for paid download on iTunes on 12 March 2012.


title: Chelsea Halfpenny

text: In 2012, Halfpenny took part in Sunday for Sammy, a biannual charity concert held in aid of the Sammy Johnson Memorial Fund, which benefits young performers in the Newcastle area. Starring alongside Angela Lonsdale and Denise Welch, Halfpenny played Lambrini, a young Newcastle woman on community service. In 2014, she appeared in a variety of roles in the West Yorkshire Playhouse production of Maxine Peake's "Beryl" – celebrating the sporting achievements of cyclist Beryl Burton. In 2019, it was announced that she would be taking over the role of Judy in "", as part of the West End theatre production. In late 2020 it was announced Halfpenny would star in the UK Wide Tour of Waitress in the role of Jenna.


title: Chelsea Halfpenny

text: Halfpenny is the daughter of Newcastle DJ Paula Halfpenny and the niece of actress Jill Halfpenny. In 2018, she began dating actor James Baxter, and they announced their engagement on 13 June 2021.


title: New Math

text: New Mathematics or New Math was a dramatic but temporary change in the way mathematics was taught in American grade schools, and to a lesser extent in European countries and elsewhere, during the 1950s1970s. Curriculum topics and teaching practices were changed in the U.S. shortly after the Sputnik crisis. The goal was to boost students' science education and mathematical skill to meet the technological threat of Soviet engineers, reputedly highly skilled mathematicians.


title: New Math

text: After the Sputnik launch in 1957, the U.S. National Science Foundation funded the development of several new curricula in the sciences, such as the Physical Science Study Committee high school physics curriculum, Biological Sciences Curriculum Study in biology, and CHEM Study in chemistry. Several mathematics curriculum development efforts were also funded as part of the same initiative, such as the Madison Project, School Mathematics Study Group, and University of Illinois Committee on School Mathematics.


title: New Math

text: These curricula were quite different from one another, yet shared the idea that children's learning of arithmetic algorithms would last past the exam only if memorization and practice were paired with teaching for "understanding." More specifically, elementary school arithmetic beyond single digits makes sense only on the basis of understanding place value. This goal was the reason for teaching arithmetic in bases other than ten in the New Math, despite critics' derision: In that unfamiliar context, students couldn't just mindlessly follow an algorithm, but had to think why the place value of the "hundreds" digit in base seven is 49. Keeping track of non-decimal notation also explains the need to distinguish "numbers" (values) from the "numerals" that represent them, a distinction some critics considered fetishistic.


title: New Math

text: Topics introduced in the New Math include set theory, modular arithmetic, algebraic inequalities, bases other than 10, matrices, symbolic logic, Boolean algebra, and abstract algebra.


title: New Math

text: All of the New Math projects emphasized some form of "discovery learning." Students worked in groups to invent theories about problems posed in the textbooks. Materials for teachers described the classroom as "noisy." Part of the job of the teacher was to move from table to table assessing the theory that each group of students had developed and "torpedoing" wrong theories by providing counterexamples. For that style of teaching to be tolerable for students, they had to experience the teacher as a colleague rather than as an adversary or as someone concerned mainly with grading. New Math workshops for teachers, therefore, spent as much effort on the pedagogy as on the mathematics.


title: New Math

text: Parents and teachers who opposed the New Math in the U.S. complained that the new curriculum was too far outside of students' ordinary experience and was not worth taking time away from more traditional topics, such as arithmetic. The material also put new demands on teachers, many of whom were required to teach material they did not fully understand. Parents were concerned that they did not understand what their children were learning and could not help them with their studies. In an effort to learn the material, many parents attended their children's classes. In the end, it was concluded that the experiment was not working, and New Math fell out of favor before the end of the 1960s, though it continued to be taught for years thereafter in some school districts.


title: New Math

text: In the Algebra preface of his book, "Precalculus Mathematics in a Nutshell", Professor George F. Simmons wrote that the New Math produced students who had "heard of the commutative law, but did not know the multiplication table".


title: New Math

text: In his book "" (1973), Morris Kline says that certain advocates of the new topics "ignored completely the fact that mathematics is a cumulative development and that it is practically impossible to learn the newer creations, if one does not know the older ones". Furthermore, noting the trend to abstraction in New Math, Kline says "abstraction is not the first stage, but the last stage, in a mathematical development".


title: New Math

text: As a result of this controversy, and despite the ongoing influence of the New Math, the phrase "new math" is often used now to describe any short-lived fad that quickly becomes discredited. In 1999, "Time" placed it on a list of the 100 worst ideas of the 20th century.


title: New Math

text: In the broader context, reform of school mathematics curricula was also pursued in European countries, such as the United Kingdom (particularly by the School Mathematics Project), and France due to concerns that mathematics as taught in schools was becoming too disconnected from mathematics research, in particular that of the Bourbaki group. In West Germany the changes were seen as part of a larger process of "Bildungsreform". Beyond the use of set theory and different approach to arithmetic, characteristic changes were transformation geometry in place of the traditional deductive Euclidean geometry, and an approach to calculus that was based on greater insight, rather than emphasis on facility.


title: New Math

text: Again, the changes were met with a mixed reception, but for different reasons. For example, the end-users of mathematics studies were at that time mostly in the physical sciences and engineering; and they expected manipulative skill in calculus, rather than more abstract ideas. Some compromises have since been required, given that discrete mathematics is the basic language of computing.


title: New Math

text: Teaching in the USSR did not experience such extreme upheavals, while being kept in tune, both with the applications and academic trends:


title: New Math

text: In Japan, New Math was supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), but not without encountering problems, leading to student-centred approaches.


title: Secant line

text: The word "secant" comes from the Latin word "secare", meaning "to cut". In the case of a circle, a secant intersects the circle at exactly two points. A chord is the line segment determined by the two points, that is, the interval on the secant whose ends are the two points.


title: Secant line

text: A straight line can intersect a circle at zero, one, or two points. A line with intersections at two points is called a "secant line", at one point a "tangent line" and at no points an "exterior line". A "chord" is the line segment that joins two distinct points of a circle. A chord is therefore contained in a unique secant line and each secant line determines a unique chord.


title: Secant line

text: In rigorous modern treatments of plane geometry, results that seem obvious and were assumed (without statement) by Euclid in his treatment, are usually proved.


title: Secant line

text: For example, "Theorem (Elementary Circular Continuity)": If formula_1 is a circle and formula_2 a line that contains a point that is inside formula_1 and a point that is outside of formula_1 then formula_2 is a secant line for formula_1.


title: Secant line

text: In some situations phrasing results in terms of secant lines instead of chords can help to unify statements. As an example of this consider the result:


title: Secant line

text: If the point lies inside the circle this is Euclid III.35, but if the point is outside the circle the result is not contained in the Elements. However, Robert Simson following Christopher Clavius demonstrated this result, sometimes called the intersecting secants theorem, in their commentaries on Euclid.


title: Secant line

text: For curves more complicated than simple circles, the possibility that a line that intersects a curve in more than two distinct points arises. Some authors define a secant line to a curve as a line that intersects the curve in two distinct points. This definition leaves open the possibility that the line may have other points of intersection with the curve. When phrased this way the definitions of a secant line for circles and curves are identical and the possibility of additional points of intersection just does not occur for a circle.


title: Secant line

text: Secants may be used to approximate the tangent line to a curve, at some point , if it exists. Define a secant to a curve by two points, and , with fixed and variable. As approaches along the curve, if the slope of the secant approaches a limit value, then that limit defines the slope of the tangent line at . The secant lines are the approximations to the tangent line. In calculus, this idea is the geometric definition of the derivative.


title: Secant line

text: A tangent line to a curve at a point may be a secant line to that curve if it intersects the curve in at least one point other than . Another way to look at this is to realize that being a tangent line at a point is a "local" property, depending only on the curve in the immediate neighborhood of , while being a secant line is a "global" property since the entire domain of the function producing the curve needs to be examined.


title: Secant line

text: The concept of a secant line can be applied in a more general setting than Euclidean space. Let be a finite set of points in some geometric setting. A line will be called an -secant of if it contains exactly points of . For example, if is a set of 50 points arranged on a circle in the Euclidean plane, a line joining two of them would be a 2-secant (or "bisecant") and a line passing through only one of them would be a 1-secant (or "unisecant"). A unisecant in this example need not be a tangent line to the circle.


title: Secant line

text: This terminology is often used in incidence geometry and discrete geometry. For instance, the Sylvester–Gallai theorem of incidence geometry states that if points of Euclidean geometry are not collinear then there must exist a 2-secant of them. And the original orchard-planting problem of discrete geometry asks for a bound on the number of 3-secants of a finite set of points.


title: Secant line

text: Finiteness of the set of points is not essential in this definition, as long as each line can intersect the set in only a finite number of points.


title: Higher Brothers

text: Higher Brothers are a Chinese hip hop group from Chengdu consisting of four members: MaSiWei (马思唯 Siwei Ma), DZknow (丁震 Zhen Ding), Psy.P (杨俊逸 Junyi Yang), and Melo (谢宇杰 Yujie Xie). They are signed with the record label 88rising, whose roster of artists includes Asian and Asian-American artists. The group is known for their songs in Standard Mandarin and Sichuanese, such as "Made in China", "Black Cab" and "WeChat".


title: Higher Brothers

text: Higher Brothers are part of the much larger rap collective Chengdu Rap House (成都说唱会馆), also known as CDC (an abbreviation of Chengdu City), which was formed in the early 2010s. Melo, who was the earliest of the Higher Brothers to join the Rap House, performed in a cypher video in 2012 alongside original Rap House members such as Fat Shady and Sleepy Cat.


title: Higher Brothers

text: Meanwhile, Masiwei began rapping around 2013, releasing three solo mixtapes in 2013, 2014, and 2015, and Melo and Psy.P performed as a duo called 天地会 (TianDi Clan, or TDC), releasing a mixtape in 2015.


title: Higher Brothers

text: In 2015, DZknow, who had recently arrived from Nanjing, released a song with Masiwei and Psy.P called "Haier Brothers" (海爾兄弟) after the old logo of the Chinese electronics company Haier, which features a pair of brothers. After the song received a positive reception, the members decided to form a group and name it after the song. Over time, the English form of the name became "Higher Brothers". The group's music is inspired by 50 Cent, A$AP Rocky, Kendrick Lamar, J. Cole and Migos.


title: Higher Brothers

text: The quick cycles of media consumerism in China allowed the Higher Brothers to enter the underground Chinese hip-hop scene and explode in popularity within a matter of months, and their international success would soon follow after signing with multinational label 88rising.


title: Higher Brothers

text: The Higher Brothers joined 88rising in 2016 and are managed by Sean Miyashiro and Lana Larkin. Larkin also appeared on a few of their tracks. The group first appeared on 88rising's YouTube channel in 2016 with the song "Black Cab". A video published by 88rising shows prominent hip-hop figures like Kyle, Lil' Yachty, Migos, and Playboi Carti reacting extremely positively to Higher Brothers' hit music video "Made in China" skyrocketed their popularity and helped push them into the public eye internationally. The video currently has over 22 million views. The Higher Brothers also appeared in both Adidas Originals and Beats by Dre commercials, and were involved in a photo shoot with Russel Westbrook to promote the opening of a Jordan flagship store in Shanghai.


title: Higher Brothers

text: Due to the success of songs like "Made in China" and "Franklin", the Higher Brothers embarked on a tour through Asia alongside 88rising artists Joji and Rich Brian in late 2017. In 2018 the group embarked on their North American Tour "Journey to the West", named after their EP of the same name which was released in January 2018. The group released their second album "Five Stars" in 2019, and embarked on their worldwide "Wish You Rich" tour starting May 2019. At the end of 2019 the group announced that each member would release a solo album. DZknow released his album "Mr. Enjoy Da Money" on December 12, 2019, and also started a street wear brand of the same name. On February 28, 2020, MaSiWei released his solo album "Prince Charming," named after the 1999 movie of the same name. Melo's solo album "Old Master" came out in April 2020 and revolved around the theme of paying homage to old guard rappers. Psy.P released his album "PSYLIFE.25" in May 2020, featuring the singles "Chanel", "Tongzilin" and "Bad Habits".


title: Higher Brothers

text: The group released a mixtape in 2016 entitled "Higher Brothers Mixtape". It consists of 19 tracks including the "original" versions of two songs also featured on "Black Cab" - "7/11" and "WeChat". The original version of "7/11" featured a beat that was produced by Deko, while "Wechat" used the beat from Speaker Knockerz's song "Count Up". These beats were most likely changed for the re-released versions due to copyright concerns.


title: Higher Brothers

text: Their debut album "Black Cab" was released on May 31, 2017. It features collaborations with Keith Ape, Famous Dex, Jay Park and more. The album was named for the unlicensed black cab drivers of the group's native Chengdu. Despite its success, the album is almost entirely in Sichuanese, which made it almost unintelligible for a majority of Chinese listeners. It features songs from the groups pre-88rising days, as well as new songs written after signing with the label. The album contains the Higher Brother's song "Made In China", which "Noisey" describes as their "most famous track to date". The video for the song went viral, receiving over 15 million views as of March 2019.


title: Higher Brothers

text: Higher Brothers released a new EP on January 17, 2018, during their North American tour with the same name accompanied by other artists from 88rising. There are four tracks in the EP, one of them being "Flo Rida". Originally just a single before the official announcement of the rest of the "Journey to the West" EP, the song blends both the Chinese and English languages. The song is produced by Florida rapper and producer Smokepurpp and features Ski Mask the Slump God. The EP is named after the popular Chinese novel of the same name.


title: Higher Brothers

text: The group released their second album "Five Stars" on February 22, 2019. It features collaborations with American rappers, like Soulja Boy, Ski Mask the Slump God, Denzel Curry and many more.


title: Higher Brothers

text: The Higher Brothers became part of a wider phenomenon in China that ventured from the traditional ways of the past generation. For many in the younger generation in China, the cutthroat housing market and job and marriage markets are extremely competitive and present a lot of obstacles for young Chinese. Higher Brothers are the first Chinese rap group to achieve international recognition, rivaling the overseas popularity of Chinese pop stars like Kris Wu, Jackson Wang and Lay Zhang.


title: Higher Brothers

text: The group has been able to circumvent Chinese censorship, believed largely due to the unmet need in cultural product of exportable quality. In an older song, Melo rapped "I don't write political hip-hop. But if any politicians try to shut me up, I'll cut off their heads and lay them at their corpses' feet." This line caused him to be brought into the Public Security Bureau for further questioning, but he was ultimately let go.


title: Higher Brothers

text: The Higher Brothers bring energy and crowd involvement into their performances through multilingual integration of their music: speaking to the crowd in mandarin while rapping in English, Mandarin, and Sichuanese. This kind of higher level participation from the crowd was largely unseen in the hip-hop scene during the Higher Brothers' come up, but has since become more prevalent.


title: (You Drive Me) Crazy

text: "(You Drive Me) Crazy" is a song by American singer Britney Spears from her debut studio album, "...Baby One More Time" (1999). Written and produced by Max Martin, Per Magnusson and David Kreuger with additional writing by Jörgen Elofsson and remix by Martin and Rami Yacoub, it was released as the album's third single on August 24, 1999, by Jive Records. It was featured on the soundtrack of the 1999 teen romantic comedy film "Drive Me Crazy". The song garnered positive reviews from music critics, some of whom praised its simple formula and noted similarities to Spears's debut single, "...Baby One More Time".


title: (You Drive Me) Crazy

text: "(You Drive Me) Crazy" was a commercial success and peaked inside the top ten on the singles charts of seventeen countries. In the United Kingdom, it became Spears's third consecutive single to peak inside the top five, while it reached number 10 in the United States' "Billboard" Hot 100 and peaked at number one in Belgium (Wallonia) and Iceland. An accompanying music video, directed by Nigel Dick, portrays Spears as a waitress of a dance club and she performs a highly choreographed dance routine with the other waitresses. The video premiered on MTV's "Making the Video" special. It features cameo appearances of actors Melissa Joan Hart and Adrian Grenier, who star in the movie "Drive Me Crazy," which is named for the song. As part of promotion for the song, Spears performed the song at the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards and 1999 "Billboard" Music Awards. It has also been included on five of her concert tours.


title: (You Drive Me) Crazy

text: Before recording her debut album, Spears had originally envisioned it in style of "Sheryl Crow music, but younger [and] more adult contemporary". However, the singer agreed with her label's appointment of producers, who had the objective to target a teenage audience at the time. She flew to Cheiron Studios in Stockholm, Sweden, where half of the album was recorded in May 1998, with producers Max Martin, Denniz Pop and Rami Yacoub, among others. "(You Drive Me) Crazy" was written by Jörgen Elofsson, while song production and additional songwriting was done by Martin, Per Magnusson and David Kreuger. Spears recorded the vocals for the song in March 1998, at Cheiron Studios in Stockholm, Sweden. It was also mixed at Cheiron Studios by Martin. Esbjörn Öhrwall and Johan Carlberg played the guitar, while bass guitar was done by Thomas Lindberg. Keyboards and programming was done by Kreuger, and additional keyboards by Magnusson. Background vocals were provided by Jeanette Söderholm, Martin, Yacoub and THE FANCHOIR, formed by Chatrin Nyström, Jeanette Stenhammar, Johanna Stenhammar, Charlotte Björkman and Therese Ancker. In May 1999, Martin and Spears went to the Battery Studios in New York City, New York, to re-record the vocals of the track, due to the fact that a remixed version called "The Stop Remix!" was going to be included on the original motion picture soundtrack of the film "Drive Me Crazy" (1999). "(You Drive Me) Crazy" was released as a remix package as the third single from "...Baby One More Time" on August 23, 1999.


title: (You Drive Me) Crazy

text: "(You Drive Me) Crazy" is a pop song. The song's composition follows a simple formula and infuses drums, guitar, and edgy synthesized instruments, including a recurring cowbell, and having a roughly similar sound to Spears's debut single "...Baby One More Time" (1999). According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group, "(You Drive Me) Crazy" is composed in the key of C minor and runs through a moderately slow dance beat infused metronome of 101 beats per minute. Spears's vocals were deemed as heavily processed when compared to the ones of her previous single, "Sometimes". Her vocal range spans over an octave, from the low-key of G to the high-note of D. The song's primary chord progression is Cm–A-G (vi-IV-III), with a few deviations.


title: (You Drive Me) Crazy

text: The song garnered positive reviews from music critics. Kyle Anderson for MTV considered "(You Drive Me) Crazy" as "a similar-sounding anthem [to '...Baby One More Time'] with some streamlined rock guitar taking center stage (there's even a solo). It's catchy enough". Spence D. of IGN considered "(You Drive Me) Crazy" a "[Max] Martin's glossy grown-up pop" song, while Caryn Ganz of "Rolling Stone" called "(You Drive Me) Crazy" a "further hit" from "...Baby One More Time", along with "From the Bottom of My Broken Heart" and "Sometimes". Music critic Walt Mueller wrote "When Spears starts to sing on this one, she sounds a lot like Janet Jackson". Christy Lemire of the Associated Press noted that the song and "Stronger" are "so lamely feel-good" tracks that they "could have been the theme song to a 'Karate Kid' sequel". Evan Sawdey of "PopMatters" called it a "lightly dorky" song, and Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic deemed it as a "fluffy dance-pop at its best". In a list compiled by Sara Anderson of AOL Radio, "(You Drive Me) Crazy" was ranked ninth in a list of Spears's best songs. During the 2001 BMI Pop Awards, "(You Drive Me) Crazy" was honored with the award of Most Performed BMI Song.


title: (You Drive Me) Crazy

text: While reviewing "...Baby One More Time" on its 20th anniversary, "Billboard"s Chuck Arnold felt that "sparkling with the Midas touch of Max Martin, 'Crazy' perfectly captures the crazy giddiness of young love -- the kind that keeps you up all night". The staff from "Entertainment Weekly" placed it at number 22 on their ranking of Spears's songs and wrote: "highlighted by her overpronunciation of "you", bell rings, and a backup choir that turns the chorus into a massive singalong. ['(You Drive Me) Crazy'] captures Spears at full force, with a robust vocal performance and an ab-emphasizing choreographed dance, remembered best through its music video". "Bustle"s Alex Kritelis Reilly preferred the Stop remix over the original album version. Nayer Nissim, from "Pink News", deemed it "another perfect bit of late '90s pop. Very nearly as catchy as her debut". Shannon Barbour from "Cosmopolitan" opined that it was "not her best song, but it's insanely addictive". Nicholas Hautman, from "Us Weekly", deemed it the singer's ninth greatest single and said: "This quasi-dorky dance track can be easily summed up using just three words: pure ear candy". For Digital Spy's Alim Kheraj the most notable thing was the song's prominent use of cowbells; "backed up by rock guitars and flawless Max Martin production, Britney sounds confident, her vocals clear and powerful". In 2019, the staff of "Billboard" ranked the "Stop Remix!" as the 39th greatest song of 1999; Nolan Feeney said that although it was "hardly unrecognizable", Spears's re-recorded vocals, the song's new intro and "her headline 'Stop!' interjection in the reimagined bridge made it something truly worth losing your mind over".


title: (You Drive Me) Crazy

text: "(You Drive Me) Crazy" was a commercial success. The song peaked at number two on the European Hot 100 Singles, being held off the top spot by R. Kelly's "If I Could Turn Back the Hands of Time". In the United Kingdom, it was Spears' third consecutive single to reach a top five position. The track debuted and peaked at number five on the chart issue dated October 2, 1999, and stayed on the chart for a total of eleven weeks. It was eventually certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), for sales and streams of over 400,000 units. According to the Official Charts Company, "(You Drive Me) Crazy" is Spears' seventh best-selling single in the United Kingdom, with sales over 275,000 physical units. The song peaked at number two in France and number four in Germany, being certified gold in both countries for shipping over 250,000 units. It also peaked at number one in Belgium (Wallonia), finishing the year of 1999 as the 17th best-selling single. "(You Drive Me) Crazy" was also able to peak inside the top five in Belgium (Flanders), Finland, Ireland, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland, while reaching top ten positions in Denmark and Italy. Later in 2012, the song managed to peak at number 65 in Czech Republic due to high airplay.


title: (You Drive Me) Crazy

text: In the United States, "(You Drive Me) Crazy" peaked at number ten on "Billboard" Hot 100 on the chart issue dated November 13, 1999, and became Spears' second single to peak inside the top ten in the country. On the same week, it peaked at number four on the Pop Songs component chart. On the chart compiled by "RPM" magazine, the song peaked at number three in Canada. However, on the Canadian Singles Chart compiled by Nielsen Soundscan, it peaked at number 13. The latter revealed that "(You Drive Me) Crazy" was the 44th best-selling single of 1999 in the country. The track peaked at number five in New Zealand, but failed to reach the top ten in Australia, where it peaked at number 12 on the chart issue dated November 12, 1999. However, the single was later certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), and was one of the best-selling singles of 2000 in the country. "(You Drive Me) Crazy" performed poorly in Japan, where it peaked at number 80, and stayed on the chart for two weeks only. Despite the low sales, it is Spears' 12th best-selling CD release in the country.


title: (You Drive Me) Crazy

text: The song's accompanying music video (which uses The Stop Remix!) was directed by Nigel Dick and filmed on June 14 and 15, 1999 at the AES Power Station in Redondo Beach, California. Spears conceptualized the video's treatment, and explained during an interview with MTV in 1999 that "it would be cool to be in a club, and we're dorky waitresses, and we break out and start dancing." At the time, Spears expected that the video would take her "to the next level". To promote the film "Drive Me Crazy", actors Adrian Grenier and Melissa Joan Hart were invited to make cameo appearances in the video, since the song had been included on the film's soundtrack, however, Grenier did not want to participate. Dick commented on the issue, saying, "I was given instructions to ring him up and make sure he appeared in the video. I said, 'You know what, Adrian, I just think it would be great for your career, and Britney's a great girl and she's fun to work with.' Eventually he came around." Dick also revealed that he was impressed by the singer's work ethic, adding that she "came to the set completely rehearsed." The music video premiered on MTV's "Making the Video" special that aired on July 18, 1999. Due to Hart's appearance in the music video, parts of it were featured in the credits of the season 4 premiere of "Sabrina the Teenage Witch", an episode that guest starred Spears.


title: (You Drive Me) Crazy

text: The video opens with Spears as a waitress of a dance club. She then goes with other waitresses to their dressing room, where they finish their makeup and change costumes. Spears, now wearing a sexy, green sequined outfit, goes through the corridor to the dance floor with her friends, and starts to perform a high-profile choreography, including a chair dance sequence referencing Janet Jackson's "Miss You Much" video, which Spears also referenced in live performances of the song on the Crazy 2k Tour. Scenes of Spears singing in front of a shining orange sign with the word "CRAZY" are also seen throughout the video. On August 24, 1999, the music video debuted at number four on "Total Request Live". It is the longest running by a female artist on "TRL", staying on the top ten for seventy-three days. The video was nominated on the category of Best Dance Video on the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards; it lost, however, to Jennifer Lopez's "Waiting for Tonight" (1999). An alternate footage of the video can be found on the DVD of Spears' first compilation album "" (2004). Jennifer Vineyard of MTV commented, "the alternate audio gives the feel of Spears singing the song as a round, where the beat is in sync but one layer of her vocals is just slightly ahead of the other." The music video for "(You Drive Me) Crazy" was re-created by Australian actress Rebel Wilson, in one of the scenes in the Netflix film "Senior Year" (2022).


title: (You Drive Me) Crazy

text: Spears performed the song for the very first time at her L'Oreal Hair Zone Mall Tour in New York City, USA on July 1, 1998. As part of promotion for "(You Drive Me) Crazy"s release as a single, Spears performed it at the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards and at the 1999 "Billboard" Music Awards. It was also performed on five concert tours, the first being the ...Baby One More Time Tour (1999). The show began with a dance introduction by Spears' dancers among smoke effects. She appeared shortly after at the top of the staircase wearing a hot pink vinyl tube top and white vinyl pants with pink knee patches. During the 2000 leg of the tour, entitled Crazy 2k Tour, Spears changed the opening sequence of the show; the show started with a skit in which the dancers came out of lockers and stayed in the stage until a bell rang. They all sat until a female teacher voice started calling their names. After the teacher called Spears, she emerged at the top of the staircase in a cloud of smoke, wearing a top and white stretch pants, to perform a short dance mix of "...Baby One More Time". She then entered one of the lockers and appeared in another one on the opposite side of the stage to perform "(You Drive Me) Crazy", which included a chair dance sequence referencing Janet Jackson's "Miss You Much" music video that ended with Spears saying "Is that the end?", quoting Jackson's phrase from the video. The song was once again performed in a dance-oriented form on the Oops!... I Did It Again Tour (2000–2001), while on the Dream Within a Dream Tour (2001–2002), the performance featured Spears being captured by her dancers. "(You Drive Me) Crazy" was also performed on The Onyx Hotel Tour (2004). For the tour, the song was remixed with elements of latin percussion. "Crazy" would not be performed by Spears for another nine years until it was included on the setlist of her Las Vegas residency show, (2013–2017).


title: (You Drive Me) Crazy

text: In 2002, British nu metal band SugarComa covered "(You Drive Me) Crazy" and included it on their album "Becoming Something Else". American musician Richard Cheese also covered the song in 2003 and included it on his album "Tuxicity". American pop band Selena Gomez & the Scene performed a homage to Spears during their 2011 We Own the Night Tour. They performed "(You Drive Me) Crazy" along with a medley of hits that included "...Baby One More Time", "Oops!... I Did It Again", "I'm a Slave 4 U", "Toxic" and "Hold It Against Me", mixed similar to the Chris Cox Megamix included in "Greatest Hits: My Prerogative". In the 2012 "Glee" episode "Britney 2.0", the characters of Marley Rose and Jake Puckerman performed a medley of the track with Aerosmith's "Crazy" (1993).


title: The Little Friend

text: The Little Friend is the second novel by the American author, Donna Tartt. The novel was initially published by Alfred A. Knopf on October 22, 2002, a decade after her first novel, "The Secret History."


title: The Little Friend

text: "The Little Friend " is a mystery adventure, centered on a young girl, Harriet Cleve Dufresnes, living in Mississippi in the early 1970s. The story follows Harriet's anxiety surrounding the unexplained death of her brother, Robin, who was killed by hanging in 1964 at the age of nine. As well, the dynamics of Harriet's extended family–particularly her aunts–are a strong focus of the novel, as are the lifestyles and customs of contrasting Southerners.


title: The Little Friend

text: In an interview with "The Guardian in" 2002, Tartt described "The Little Friend" as "a frightening, scary book about children coming into contact with the world of adults in a frightening way." Tartt told the interviewer that "The Little Friend" was intentionally different from "The Secret History", stating: "I wanted to take on a completely different set of technical problems. "The Secret History" was all from the point of view of Richard, a single camera, but the new book is symphonic, like "War And Peace". That's widely thought to be the most difficult form."


title: The Little Friend

text: In the mid-1960s, on Mother's Day, Robin, the eldest child and only son of the Dufresnes, a white family living in Mississippi, is found hanging from a tree on the family property. Only nine years old at the time of his death, Robin's murder causes his mother, Charlotte, to sink into a listless depression and his father, Dixon, to abandon the family on the pretext of work.


title: The Little Friend

text: Twelve years later Robin's two younger sisters, Allison and Harriet, are now sixteen and twelve years old, respectively. Harriet, the younger child, is considered particularly difficult as she is intensely smart but uncompromising. Harriet has developed a morbid fascination with her brother and with the past of her matrilineal family, the Cleves. Her great-grandfather, Judge Cleve, once owned the local mansion, "Tribulation", but lost the family's wealth in his declining years.


title: The Little Friend

text: Harriet's fascination with her brother's death leads her to decide to find the murderer with the reluctant help of her younger but devoted friend, a boy, Hely Hull. The Dufresnes' stalwart black maid, Ida Rhew, reveals that Robin had a fight with another boy shortly before his death. Harriet discovers that the boy is Danny Ratliff, the son of a highly dysfunctional local methamphetamine producing family. Farish Ratliff, an elder brother, runs the drug business with the help of Danny and the connivance of his grandmother, Gum. Farish, not a particularly intelligent man, is planning a drug shipment hidden within a truck transporting venomous snakes, which another brother, Eugene, uses to support his Evangelical preaching.


title: The Little Friend

text: Harriet believes that Danny is the murderer and resolves to exact revenge by stealing a cobra kept by Eugene, and dropping it into Danny's Trans Am vehicle. Harriet is also distraught at her parent's mean-spirited dismissal of the much loved Ida. After a near disastrous encounter with the Ratliffs when the brothers attempt to transport the drugs, Harriet and Hely manage to steal the cobra from Eugene's office. They proceed to drop the snake into the Trans Am from an abandoned road bridge but discover that the car was driven not by Danny but by his grandmother, Gum, who is severely bitten and hospitalized. The Ratliffs deduce that Harriet had been involved in the attack and seek her out after she returns early from summer camp following the death of her favourite great-aunt.


title: The Little Friend

text: Danny resolves to steal some of his own family's drugs and use them to buy his way out of town. Danny knows that drugs were hidden by his brother, after the failed shipment, in a water tower where they are also discovered by Harriet who throws them into the water. Farish becomes increasingly deranged by the consumption of his own product and violently forces Danny to take him for a drive. Danny drives towards the water tower where he fatally shoots Farish.


title: The Little Friend

text: After killing his brother, Danny discovers Harriet in the water tower and attempts to drown her. Harriet, who has been coincidentally practicing holding her breath, pretends to drown but is able to escape when the non-swimming Danny falls back into the water. Harriet climbs out of the tank, but the ladder collapses behind her leaving Danny to drown.


title: The Little Friend

text: Harriet's father, Dixon, visits her while she is recovering from her ordeal in hospital and reveals that Danny had in fact been Robin's "little friend" and was distraught when he heard of Robin's death. The authorities never discover Harriet and Hely's involvement with the Ratliffs, as her doctors consider her condition to be the result of an epileptic episode.


title: The Little Friend

text: However, Danny does not drown in the tank. Instead, he is arrested there and charged with his brother's murder.


title: The Little Friend

text: The book largely focuses on the life of Harriet and her friend Hely as they investigate the death of Harriet's brother Robin. Throughout the book, Harriet references "Treasure Island", "The Jungle Book", a book about the life of Robert Falcon Scott and a fairy tale about the King of Snakes while, in contrast, Hely often references "From Russia with Love".


title: The Little Friend

text: Happiness and methods of coping with tragedy are explored throughout the book, mostly as character study. Many of the adults of the book, from Harriet's neglectful mother Charlotte, to Harriet's tough grandmother Edie view life from a defeated and cautious standpoint, respectively, in contrast with the more optimistic youthful outlook of the steadfast, brave Harriet and Hely. The outlaw brothers Farish Ratliff and Danny Ratliff, caught up in a world of drugs, seem miserable most the time. Few outwardly happy characters exist in the book besides Curtis Ratliff and the car salesman Roy Dial.


title: The Little Friend

text: Christianity is referenced throughout the book in the form of snake handling preachers, Baptists, and Mormonism, as well as an epigraph attributed to Saint Thomas Aquinas.


title: The Little Friend

text: Death is a theme explored in the book along with the cheating of death. For Harriet, this fascination stems from her brother Robin's murder before she was old enough to know him. But this is also shown via Harriet's interest in Houdini, references to Lazarus in the Baptist church after Robin dies, Harriet's reading about Robert Falcon Scott, Harriet's practicing holding her breath to imitate Houdini's underwater tricks, and at the climax of the story, Harriet's escape from Danny Ratliff by playing dead in the water tower by holding her breath. Danny Ratliff also escapes death in the water tower - not knowing how to swim - by jumping up from the bottom of the water tower tank for two days to grab breaths of air until he is discovered. The snake-handling preacher from Kentucky, Loyal Reese, represents a form of cheating death with his numerous boxes of venomous snakes and his preaching style. In unrelated incidents, Gum Ratliff and Eugene Ratliff are bitten by those venomous snakes and both survive. Farish Ratliff is said to have survived a gunshot wound to the head earlier in his life, while he dies with the second shot to the head later in the book. Hely cheats death after releasing Loyal's venomous snakes in Eugene's office while attempting to escape unnoticed. After Harriet's great aunt Libby dies, Harriet's fascination with death becomes more intense and sad, but the author seems to reference her grandmother Edith in Harriet's behavior.


title: The Little Friend

text: Extended family dynamics and support systems are another theme of the book. In the wake of Robin's death, a network that includes Harriet's grandmother Edith, Harriet's three great aunts - Libby, Tat, and Adelaide - and the housekeeper Ida coalesce to help raise Harriet and Allison while their mother retreats to her bedroom most days and her father moves to another state for his job and has an extended affair.


title: The Little Friend

text: Both Ruth Franklin of "The New Republic" and A. O. Scott of "The New York Times" reviewed the book positively. Franklin highlighted Tartt's literary "obsess[ion] with crimes that go unpunished," while Scott described the book as "tragic, fever-dream realism."


title: The Little Friend

text: The novel won the WH Smith Literary Award and was shortlisted for the Orange Prize for Fiction in 2003.


title: None of the above (India)

text: "None of the Above" (or NOTA) has been provided as an option to the voters of India in most elections since 2009. The vote does not hold any electoral value: even if a majority of votes are cast the candidate with the largest vote share would be declared the winner. By expressing a preference for none of the above, a citizen can choose not to vote for any candidates who are contesting the elections.


title: None of the above (India)

text: The Supreme Court in PUCL vs. Union of India Judgement 2013 directed the use of NOTA in the context of direct elections to the Lok Sabha and the respective state assemblies. The NOTA option was first used in the 2013 assembly elections held in four states (Chhattisgarh, Mizoram, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh), and the Union Territory of Delhi. Since its introduction, NOTA has gained increasing popularity amongst the Indian electorate, securing more votes than the victory margin, for instance, in the Assembly Elections in Gujarat (2017), Karnataka (2018), Madhya Pradesh (2018) and Rajasthan (2018).


title: None of the above (India)

text: A writ petition was filed by People's Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL). The Supreme Court of India judgement said, ""We direct the Election Commission to provide necessary provision in the ballot papers/EVMs and another button called “None of the Above” (NOTA) may be provided in EVMs so that the voters, who come to the polling booth and decide not to vote for any of the candidates in the fray, are able to exercise their right not to vote while maintaining their right of secrecy"." The Supreme Court also observed that it is essential that people of high moral and ethical values are chosen as people's representatives for proper governance of the country, and NOTA button can compel political parties to nominate a sound candidate.


title: None of the above (India)

text: In many constituencies, votes received by NOTA have been higher than the margin by which the candidate has won. Observations have been made that NOTA can influence more citizens to participate in voting, though there is a danger that the novelty factor associated with NOTA will gradually erode.


title: None of the above (India)

text: However, it seems that the popularity of NOTA is growing with time. NOTA has not yet managed to secure a majority so far, but in many of the elections since its introduction - including the 2014 Lok Sabha Elections as well as several Assembly Elections - the number of NOTA votes polled has been higher than the victory margin in many constituencies.


title: None of the above (India)

text: This means that if instead of NOTA, the voters would have opted to go with one of the two top-scoring parties, it could have changed the outcome of the election, as depicted in the pie chart.


title: None of the above (India)

text: In the 2017 Gujarat Assembly Elections, the total vote share of NOTA was lesser only than BJP, Congress, and Independent Candidates. In 118 constituencies, NOTA polled the third largest vote share after BJP and Congress.


title: None of the above (India)

text: In the 2018 Karnataka Assembly Elections, NOTA polled more votes than some parties with a nation-wide presence such as CPI(M) and BSP.


title: None of the above (India)

text: In the Madhya Pradesh Assembly Elections conducted in 2018, the difference between the vote share of the (winning) BJP and Congress was just 0.1%, whereas NOTA polled a vote share of 1.4%.


title: None of the above (India)

text: To cite an example, in the South Gwalior Constituency, the sitting MLA Narayan Singh Kushwah lost by 121 votes, whereas NOTA got 1550 votes. Had all the NOTA voters hypothetically voted for Kushwah, he would have won by a huge margin.


title: None of the above (India)

text: In the 2014 Lok Sabha Elections, 2G scam accused MP - A Raja (DMK candidate) - lost to the AIADMK candidate, while NOTA emerged with the third largest vote share, possibly as an expression of public anger towards corrupt candidates.


title: None of the above (India)

text: In the 2019 Indian general election, about 1.04 percent of the voters chose to vote for None Of The Above (NOTA), with Bihar and Assam leading with 2.08 percent NOTA voters.


title: None of the above (India)

text: NOTA has been described as the maturing of India's democracy. One kind of opinion is that the purpose and advantage of NOTA has been defeated as the winner will be the candidate who receives the second highest number of votes, even if NOTA receives the highest number of votes. Hence, "NOTA is a positive step", while "it does not go far enough". NOTA is considered a "waste of vote", "merely cosmetic", "a symbolic instrument to express resentment", voters expressing their "disenchantment with the existing political system" and possibly "a mere decoration".


title: None of the above (India)

text: However, the power of NOTA to express dissent is clearly visible in reports where entire communities decided to democratically protest against governments that have failed to meet their needs. For instance, there have been multiple cases of entire villages deciding to vote for NOTA due to consistent failure of local governments to meet basic requirements like roads, electricity, inaction towards villagers' complaints about water contamination by industries, and even reports of sex workers who have been pushing for legalisation of their profession to get themselves covered under labour laws, but have received no government attention, deciding to go for NOTA.


title: None of the above (India)

text: What is unclear is whether so far this protest has translated into compensatory action by the elected Government. However, while passing the NOTA ruling, the Chief Justice of India, P. Sathasivam, was quoted as stating “Giving right to a voter not to vote for any candidate while protecting his right of secrecy is extremely important in a democracy. Such an option gives the voter the right to express his disapproval of the kind of candidates being put up by the parties. "Gradually, there will be a systemic change" and the parties will be forced to accept the will of the people and field candidates who are known for their integrity.”.


title: None of the above (India)

text: A number of groups and individuals have been conducting voter awareness campaigns about NOTA. Recent year election results have shown an increasing trend of people choosing NOTA.


title: None of the above (India)

text: It has been observed that some of the highest NOTA votes polled are consistently seen in Reserved Constituencies (Constituencies that, based on their demographic composition, are required to field only candidates from Reserved Categories to contest elections). This could be interpreted as a refusal of general category voters to vote for an SC/ST candidate - a scenario where NOTA is being misused to uphold caste-based bias.


title: None of the above (India)

text: While on the one hand, more votes for NOTA could be interpreted as more expression of the prevailing dissatisfaction in the electorate, there is also the danger that the underlying cause is ignorance about the candidates, uninformed and irresponsible voting, or expression of bias on the basis of caste, as seen in the case of Reserved Constituencies. Thus, while NOTA is definitely providing a voice to dissent, it needs to be accompanied with efforts to raise voter awareness to prevent the misuse of this measure.


title: None of the above (India)

text: There have been discussions to improve on NOTA, and to empower the voter through NOTA. Some of those suggested improvements include:


title: None of the above (India)

text: There have been PILs filed to 'strengthen' the impact of NOTA in 2016 and 2017 by providing it the Power to Reject - asking for re-elections if NOTA wins majority, and barring the rejected candidates from contesting. However, the Supreme Court responded to these PILs by stating that such a solution is 'unworkable' and stating that "holding an election in our country is a very serious and expensive business".


title: None of the above (India)

text: But voicing another line of opinion, Sanjay Parikh, a Supreme Court advocate who argued for PUCL in favour of NOTA, had stated in a 2013 interview:


title: None of the above (India)

text: "Some people argue that the implementation of NOTA will drive up election expenses. But a tainted candidate who indulges in corruption and malpractices is a greater cost for the country. It is only the desire to continue in power and the greed for money that take prominence over values."


title: None of the above (India)

text: Section 79 (d) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, recognises "electoral right" to also include the right to "refrain from voting at an election". 'The Representation of People Act' is applicable to "...either House of Parliament or in the House or either House of the Legislature of a State..." Recognition of "electoral right" as also the right to "refrain from voting at an election" is not made in the acts pertaining to elections to panchayats in Kerala.


title: None of the above (India)

text: Including NOTA in panchayat elections to these states and making improvements to NOTA may require changes or amendments to these acts and rules.


title: None of the above (India)

text: In 2018, the State Election Commission (SEC) of Maharashtra studied local body elections over the previous two years, and found several cases where NOTA had won more votes than the winning candidates. To cite some examples: In the Bori gram panchayat polls in the Pune district, NOTA polled 85.57% votes; in the Mankarwadi gram panchayat polls in same district, 204 of a total 330 valid votes went to NOTA. The sarpanch of Khugaon Khurd in Nanded district got just 120 votes while NOTA had got 627 of the total 849 votes. Similarly, in a local election in the Khavadi village in Lanja tehsil, the winning candidate got 130 votes of 441 valid votes, while NOTA polled 210 votes.


title: None of the above (India)

text: Considering this, the Maharashtra SEC decided to consider amending the existing laws on NOTA. In November 2018, the SEC announced that if NOTA gets the maximum votes in an election, re-elections would be held. The order would be applicable to polls and by-polls to all municipal corporations, municipal councils and nagar panchayats with immediate effect. If NOTA gets the highest number of votes in the re-election as well, the candidate with the most votes, excluding NOTA, will be declared the winner. However, the rejected candidates are not barred from re-elections.


title: None of the above (India)

text: The Haryana SEC followed suit too, declaring in November 2018 that NOTA would be treated as a fictional candidate and re-elections would be conducted if NOTA won the majority vote in the upcoming Municipal Elections in December 2018.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: The invasion of South Georgia, also known as the Battle of Grytviken or Operation Georgias, took place on 3 April 1982, when Argentine Navy forces seized control of the east coast of South Georgia after overpowering a small group of Royal Marines at Grytviken. Though outnumbered, the Royal Marines shot down a helicopter and hit several times the Argentine corvette ARA "Guerrico" before being forced to surrender. It was one of the first episodes of the Falklands War, immediately succeeding the invasion on the Falkland Islands the day before.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: The operation had been prepared on 19 March, when a group of Argentine civilian scrap metal workers arrived at Leith Harbour on board the transport ship without the required landing clearance and then raised the Argentine flag. The scrap workers had been infiltrated by Argentine marines posing as civilian scientists.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: The only British presence at Leith on 19 March was a British Antarctic Survey (BAS) team, whose leader Trefor Edwards handed a message from London to the commander of "Buen Suceso", captain Briatore, demanding the removal of the Argentine flag and the departure of the party. At the same time, the Argentine crew had to report to the top BAS commander in Grytviken, Steve Martin. Briatore replied that the mission had the approval of the British embassy in Buenos Aires.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: Eventually, the Argentine captain ordered the lowering of the flag, but failed to report to Grytviken. The BAS commander sent a message to the Governor of the Falkland Islands, Rex Hunt (South Georgia being run as a dependency of the Falklands). After consulting London, Hunt was instructed to dispatch to South Georgia with a detachment of 22 Royal Marines.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: The reason for the landing of scrap metal workmen at Leith was a 1978 contract between a company owned by the Argentine businessman, Constantino Davidoff, and the British company Christian Salvesen for the removal of an abandoned whaling station on the island. Aware of the contract, the Argentine Navy conceived of a plan to hijack Davidoff's business in South Georgia, in order to establish an undercover base on the disputed territory. The action was code named "Operation Alpha".


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: There had been already two other Argentine trips to South Georgia: in December 1981, on board the Argentine icebreaker , when Davidoff made an inventory of the facilities; and in February 1982, when an alleged commercial rival of Davidoff, bank employee Adrian Marchessi, made an unannounced visit to Leith. Marchessi assessed Leith facilities on board the Panamanian registered yacht "Caiman", which had sailed out of Mar del Plata. He later reported himself to Grytviken, claiming that he was part of Davidoff's scheme and giving the British authorities details of the December inspection and even of early Argentine trips during the 1970s.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: The failure of the Argentines to comply with the diplomatic formalities prompted Britain to opt for a small-scale intervention. In the meantime, a formal protest was issued by the British embassy in Buenos Aires. The Argentine Foreign Minister's response appeared to defuse the crisis; the note asserted that the "Buen Suceso" would soon be leaving, and that the mission had no official sanction at all. By the morning of 22 March "Buen Suceso" left Leith harbour. However, in the afternoon, a BAS observation post detected the presence of Argentine personnel and passed the information to London. In consequence, the Foreign Office chose to order HMS "Endurance" to evacuate any Argentine personnel remaining in South Georgia.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: The British moves met with a series of Argentine countermeasures: the corvettes ARA "Drummond" and ARA "Granville" were deployed between the Falklands and South Georgia, which would have allowed them to intercept "Endurance" and remove any Argentine personnel on board. In addition, upon arrival at Leith, "Endurance" found the Antarctic Survey ship ARA "Bahía Paraíso" at anchor. This vessel landed a party of 10 naval commandos picked up from South Orkney Islands.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: Facing the potential for military action, the Foreign Office sought some sort of compromise. Lord Carrington proposed to his counterpart, Nicanor Costa Méndez, to indulge the workers presence at Leith, given the proper documentation, which could include the stamping of temporary permissions instead of passports, a concession crucial to the Argentine position. The Argentine intention, however, was that the arrival of any of its citizens to South Georgia should follow the procedures agreed on the communications treaty of 1971. Governor Rex Hunt strongly rejected this extension of the agreement, valid only for the Falklands jurisdiction, and raised his concerns to the British government. Costa Mendez left things in limbo; both countries were then on the brink of conflict.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: Shortly before the Argentine landings on the Falklands, "Bahía Paraíso" and "Endurance" were playing a cat-and-mouse game around South Georgia, until 31 March, when the ships lost track of each other. The British plan was that Martin would be in charge until the Argentine forces showed any hostile intentions. If that occurred, Acting Lieutenant Keith Mills, the most senior officer of the Royal Marines party, would take command. Mills received a radio message from HMS "Endurance" relaying instructions from London that he should make only a token resistance to any Argentine violation of British territory. It was reported that he replied "sod that, I'll make their eyes water", although Mills later stated the story was not true. On 2 April, Captain Alfredo Astiz (a leading figure during the Dirty War, whose extradition was requested by France for human rights violations) announced to the Argentine party in Leith that Argentina had taken over the Falklands.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: Meanwhile, the Argentine navy ordered the corvette to join "Bahía Paraíso" at Leith, equipped with two helicopters and carrying 40 marines, along with Astiz's team. The aim was the capture of Grytviken. The group would be called "Grupo de Tareas 60.1", under the command of Captain Trombetta, on board "Bahía Paraíso".


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: After learning of the fall of Stanley, Mills took urgent measures: his men fortified the beach at King Edward Point, near the entrance of the bay with wire and landmines, and prepared defences around the BAS buildings. "Endurance", some miles offshore, would provide communication between the small British detachment and London. The new rules of engagement authorized Mills to "fire in self defence, after warning". A later statement from the British government instructed the marines to "not resist beyond the point where lives might be lost to no avail."


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: On the other side, the Argentine plans for 2 April in South Georgia were thwarted by poor weather. These plans consisted in the landing of Astiz's special forces on Hope Point, near Grytviken, to secure the arrival of the bulk of the land forces, carried by helicopter. "Guerrico" would provide naval fire support outside the bay. But the arrival of the corvette was delayed by a storm, so a new course of action was decided for the next day.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: According to the new plan, the first landing would be led by "Guerrico"s Alouette helicopter, followed by three waves of marines on a Puma from "Bahia Paraiso". After sending a radio message demanding that the British surrender, Trombetta would order "Guerrico" to make a thrust into Grytviken harbor, right in front of King Edward Point. The Argentine rules of engagement authorized the corvette to fire her weapons only at request of the landing parties. Astiz's men would remain in the rearguard on board "Bahia Paraiso". All the forces involved should avoid enemy casualties as long as possible. Official British historian Lawrence Freedman believes that Trombetta made these provisions thinking he was dealing only with the BAS team.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: At 10:30 GMT, as the weather improved, "Bahia Paraiso" demanded the surrender of Grytviken. The message intimated that Rex Hunt had surrendered not only the Falklands, but also its dependencies, which was untrue. Lt Mills copied and forwarded the message to HMS "Endurance", with the intention of buying time. At the same time, he invited the BAS personnel to take cover inside the local church. By then, the Alouette was overflying Grytviken and "Guerrico" was making her first entrance into the cove.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: According to Mayorga, Captain Carlos Alfonso, commander of "Guerrico", hesitated whether or not to expose the corvette in such narrow waters. Mayorga also supports Freedman's speculation about Trombetta's wrong assumptions regarding British military presence around the harbour, citing an official report. Trombetta also had some reservations about the combat readiness of the warship since she had been in dry dock just days before departing from her home base at Puerto Belgrano.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: The Puma landed a first group of 15 Argentine marines on King Edward point at 11:41, on the opposite side from Shackleton House, where the Royal Marines were entrenched. By then, "Guerrico" knew that the general area of deployment of the Royal Marines was on the northern shore of the cove's mouth.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: The second wave of marines took off from "Bahia Paraiso" deck on board the Puma at 11:47. The commander of the Argentine group already inland, Lieutenant Luna, requested via "Guerrico"—he had no direct communication with "Bahia Paraiso"—that the second wave should be equipped with 60 mm mortars, but the party was already in flight. The landing was to take place to the east of Luna's position, well within the view of the British detachment.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: The helicopter was spotted by Mills and his men and met by intense automatic fire. The pilot was able to cross the bay and crash-land on its southern bank. Two men were killed and four wounded. At the same time, Luna's troops started their march towards Shackleton House, but the marines pinned them down with heavy gunfire. Therefore, Luna asked "Guerrico" for fire support.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: The corvette then carried out her second thrust into the cove, and at 11:55 opened fire. To her commander's disappointment, the 20 mm guns jammed after the first shot, and the 40 mm mounting after firing just six rounds. The 100 mm gun became useless after the first shot. Completely exposed, the warship had no other choice but to go ahead in order to put about. At 11:59, the corvette was hit by small arms fire and at least one anti-tank rocket.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: According to Mills, his party opened fire from a distance of . The shooting killed one seaman and injured five others, damaging electrical cables, the 40 mm gun, one Exocet launcher and the 100 mm mounting. All Argentine sources acknowledge that more than 200 small arms rounds hit the corvette. In the meantime, Lieutenant Busson's Alouette had been ferrying more Argentine Marines ashore, out of range of the British weapons.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: While the battered "Guerrico" steered out of the bay, the Argentine troops resumed the exchange of fire with Mills' marines. Corporal Nige Peters was hit twice in the arm. Once she was out of range, "Guerrico" reopened fire with her 100 mm main gun, now back in service. This convinced Mills that things were over, and he ordered his marines to cease fire. This happened at 12:48 according to Mayorga. Mills approached the Argentine positions waving a white coat, and surrendered, "after achieving his aim of compelling the Argentine troops to use military force." Mills and his men were taken in custody by Astiz's group, who had been left in reserve during the battle. "Endurance" dispatched one of her helicopters to Cumberland Bay. The aircraft landed there, and spotted an Argentine corvette and a transport ship inside the cove, but found no signs of fighting. "Endurance" remained in South Georgia waters until 5 April.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: The corvette "Guerrico", which had lost 50% of her firepower due to combat damage, left Grytviken along with "Bahia Paraiso" at 03:15 of 4 April, bound for Rio Grande. She spent three days in dry dock for repairs. The marines were disarmed and taken on board "Bahia Paraiso", ferried to Rio Grande and then airlifted to Montevideo.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: Marine Andrew Michael Lee later said he and the other British prisoners were treated well and there was a feeling of respect between the two sides: "They bore us no malice. They did understand the job we did. They were Marines, like ourselves."


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: They eventually returned to the United Kingdom on 20 April. Some British BAS members working in remote areas continued their activities undeterred until the British reconquest. Wildlife film maker Cindy Buxton and her assistant were evacuated by a helicopter from HMS "Endurance" on 30 April. She would later reveal that Royal Navy personnel had given her and fellow journalist Annie Price a pistol and that both women had been trained how to use it. The Argentine Navy left a detachment of 55 marines on the island. The 39 scrap metal workers also remained in Leith. South Georgia was retaken by British forces on 25 April 1982, during Operation Paraquet.


title: Invasion of South Georgia

text: In 2013, Michael Poole, seeking reconciliation for his role in shooting down the Puma helicopter, contacted Víctor Ibáñez, president of the Asociación Veteranos Defensores de Malvinas (Veterans' Association of Malvinas Defenders, known as Avedema). Ibáñez, a former marine corporal that fought against Lieutenant Mills's platoon, welcomed Poole with open arms, and he explained, "We're both soldiers, men of honour and knew how to accept the role each one played."


title: Gabriel Milito

text: Gabriel Alejandro Milito (born 7 September 1980) is an Argentine former footballer who played as a central defender, currently the manager of Argentinos Juniors.