title: Sue Sylvester

text: More intent than ever on destroying the glee club, Sue forms a "League of Doom", which consists of former glee club director Sandy Ryerson (Stephen Tobolowsky), the coach of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline, Dustin Goolsby (Cheyenne Jackson), and Will's ex-wife Terri Schuester (Jessalyn Gilsig). Their first mission, to ruin a New Directions benefit, fails when Sandy is won over by a performance from Mercedes Jones (Amber Riley) and donates the full amount needed. Devastated by Jean's death from pneumonia, Sue turns to Terri, who has the glee club's plane tickets for Nationals changed from New York to Tripoli. She also removes Becky from the Cheerios, because she reminds her of her sister. Kurt and his stepbrother Finn Hudson (Cory Monteith) help Sue to clean out Jean's things, and she accepts their offer to have New Directions perform at the funeral, as she is afraid no one else will come. At the well-attended funeral service, an emotional Sue is unable to continue reading her eulogy after a few sentences, and Will reads the remainder for her. Touched by his support, Sue tells Will he is a good friend and she will no longer go after the glee club. She will instead be running for the United States House of Representatives on a platform of lowering health care costs, as her sister had faced significantly higher bills in her last few years. She then apologizes to Becky, reinstates her as a member of the Cheerios, and tells her she will be captain of the squad next year. As a final act of reconciliation, Sue asks for and receives a hug from Becky.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: At the start of the third season, Sue's campaign for Congress is not going well. She decides to pledge to get rid of all arts programs in schools, music and theater especially, until all students are reading at or above grade level. Will's attempt to embarrass Sue and highlight the value of the arts by glitter bombing her backfires, and Sue's poll numbers rise. She also goes back on her promise to leave the glee club alone by having her new cheerleading co-captains, Becky and Santana, sabotage the club's recruitment drive. She rails against the school musical, and succeeds in having its funding rescinded. This angers Kurt's father, Burt Hummel (Mike O'Malley), who arranges for local businesses to sponsor the musical, and he enters the congressional race as a write-in candidate to defeat her. Sue runs a negative campaign, airing political ads containing false statements about Burt's personal life through her political ads. One of the other candidates in the race discovers that Santana is a lesbian, and uses this to attack Sue on the issue of "family values" for appointing her a cheerleading captain, and to imply that Sue herself is a lesbian. Santana is devastated, as she has not yet come out as a lesbian. Sue attempts to combat the implications by starting a relationship with one of her former bed partners, Ohio State football recruiter Cooter Menkins, who had recently been dating Coach Beiste. Being seen in public with Cooter does not help her in the voting, however; she comes in third, and Burt wins.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: In the episode "On My Way", Sue reveals she is pregnant, shocking everyone. Her child is revealed by doctors to be a girl, but they mention that there were abnormalities on the scan. Sue mentions to Becky that she will have a child just like her, hinting that the baby may have Down's Syndrome. She shows unusual compassion, telling Will she will help him win nationals, letting Quinn rejoin the Cheerios, and is visibly upset at Karofsky's suicide attempt.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: In the first episode of the fourth season, "The New Rachel", Sue, now a mother, introduces her newborn child named Robin to Kurt. Sue then calls Kitty Wilde (Becca Tobin), a new cheerleader into her office to take care of Robin. She heavily forbids new transgender student Wade "Unique" Adams (Alex Newell) to audition for the role of Rizzo on the school's musical, "Grease", only to create an argument between her and Finn, who insists on casting Unique. This ends badly when Finn inadvertently insults Robin during the argument, starting a strong rivalry between the two. Sue "proposes" to Finn that if New Directions lose sectionals, the glee club would end. They lose and Sue uses the choir room for the Cheerios practices when the weather is cold. When New Directions discover that they won because the other club cheated, Sue gives them back the choir room. During Christmas, Sue gets Millie Rose (Trisha Rae Stahl), the lunch lady and glee club member Marley Rose's (Melissa Benoist) mother as her secret santa. She overheard the conversation between them in which Marley wants to have a Christmas tree and at least some gifts, but Millie says they need to save money to pay a counselor to treat Marley for her eating disorder. Sue breaks into the Roses' home that night and leaves them a Christmas tree, several presents, and enough money to pay Marley's counselor.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: Sue is fired from the William McKinley High School in "Shooting Star", when Becky's gun is shot by accident, causing everyone to think that there's a school shooting. Sue says it was her gun and she misfired it while checking it, to protect Becky. Coach Roz replaces Sue as the cheerleader squad coach and takes her office. Sue later starts working as a personal trainer, and Blaine tries to get her back on McKinley's faculty, but she denies his offer by saying that getting fired was the best thing that could have ever happened to her, because now, as a trainer, people respect her, and also admits that she does not miss the Cheerios at all.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: In the episode "Love Love Love," Sue has come back to McKinley High after Becky confessed to the shooting. Upon her return, Sue gets Principal Figgins fired by faking incriminating details about him. He is demoted to janitor, while she takes his job as principal, where she constantly torments Figgins, and tells Will and Roz that she will keep the Cheerios and New Directions going if they win in their upcoming competitions.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: Following Finn's death in the episode "The Quarterback," Sue orders the memorial in the school to be taken down, which angers Santana to the point where she confronts her and pushes her into a filing cabinet. She later reveals, after Santana apologizes to her, she is heartbroken Finn died believing she hated him, while she actually respected him and looked forward to having him as a colleague. In "Puppet Master" Sue experiences a hallucination in the choir room, later to be a gas leak. After fixing the pipe herself, she then becomes the school's permanent principal. In "City Of Angels", after New Directions comes in second in their Nationals competition, Sue disbands the club, although she gets Will a job interview at Carmel High School as the new Coach for Vocal Adrenaline. She later comes to New York City as Will's companion since neither his wife Emma Pillsbury (Jayma Mays) nor Beiste could go to see Rachel's broadway opening night in Funny Girl. Her ulterior motive was because of the public backlash she received after saying she hates New York City and Broadway on "Sue's Corner" while having never been there. She meets Mario (Chris Parnell), a New York citizen, and both are instantly lovestruck. They share their disdain of the show and walk out in the middle of the show, have a date in his restaurant, and sleep together in Rachel and Kurt's apartment. The next morning, Rachel berates the two, particularly Sue, and she leaves. After parting ways with Mario, she goes back to Lima and states that she loves New York on "Sue's Corner".


title: Sue Sylvester

text: The final season begin with McKinley under Sue as its principal: test scores are up, body mass indexes are down. She also forcibly transferred Unique, Marley, Ryder Lynn (Blake Jenner), and Jake Puckerman (Jacob Artist) to other schools (she kept Kitty in McKinley for the Cheerios) to completely get rid of glee club's history. When Rachel gets a permission to reboot the glee club by the school board and leads it alongside Kurt, Sue is angry. In "Jagged Little Tapestry", Sue gives Beiste her support for the latter's transition process, and alongside Tina Cohen-Chang (Jenna Ushkowitz), Quinn, and Coach Roz, are equally apprehensive about Becky's new boyfriend Darrell (Justin Prentice). During the course of the season, Sue tricks Sam Evans (Chord Overstreet) by setting Rachel up to sabotage her; it is also revealed that she secretly wants Kurt and Blaine's relationship to succeed, and was devastated when they called off their engagement. She tries various tactics to get them back together, including trapping them in an elevator and forcing them to kiss if they want to be released. In "A Wedding", Sue tries to attend Brittany and Santana's wedding only to be flatly refused for her treatment of everyone. Showing a softer side, Sue visits Santana's grandmother who doesn't believe in two women marrying and uses "some reverse Suecology" to get the woman to see that no matter what she believes, family is most important. Sue is then allowed to attend the wedding and helps convince Kurt and Blaine to marry alongside Brittany and Santana, providing the rings for them when they don't have any. Sue later provides the two couples with their dream honeymoons, telling them that despite how she's treated them over the years, she's come to see them like her own kids.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: She is fired as principal in "The Rise and Fall of Sue Sylvester" after Becky, who finally sees the error in Sue's ways, decides to expose her. Heartbroken over Becky's betrayal, she is further hurt by her mother, Doris', claim that Sue is "the daughter she couldn't love", although both of them eventually reconnect after admitting each other's misdeeds. Initially berating Will, she retaliates by joining as Vocal Adrenaline's coach, only to reveal that she deliberately created a spectacle that would alienate the judges to thank Will for standing up for her when she got exposed. She reunites with Becky in the series finale.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: By the series finale, in 2020, Sue is the Republican Vice President of the United States to President Jeb Bush, with Becky as the head of her secret service team. She is planning on running for president in 2024. She rededicates the McKinley High auditorium to be named in honor of Finn Hudson while apologizing for her previous poor perception of the glee club. McKinley High has now become a model of excellence and other schools are copying its format. New Directions members from years past and present unite for one last massive group song, with Sue and Becky joining the entire cast for one final bow.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: Sue is played by Jane Lynch. The character did not exist when the script for the "Glee" pilot was first submitted to Fox. In an interview with "Entertainment Weekly", Ryan Murphy said that Fox Entertainment president Kevin Reilly was responsible for her creation. "On our first call, Kevin said, 'You need a villain, Murphy remembered. "And I said, 'You know, you're right.' I knew exactly who she is. I said, 'Her name is Sue Sylvester. And she is the cheerleading coach. And she may be on horse estrogen. The casting notice described Sue as "the anal, tightly wound, and ruthlessly ambitious leader of the Harrison High cheer leading squad." At the time she was cast as Sue, Lynch was already committed to do a Damon Wayans pilot for ABC. The "Glee" role initially had her as a guest star, in the hope that she could become a regular in the future. When the ABC pilot fell through, Lynch became a series regular.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: Sue is initially presented as the glee club's "arch-nemesis". Following the pilot episode, Lynch said she is "pure evil and doesn't hide it", explaining that she was created as a product of Murphy, Brennan and Falchuk's "inner mean girl". Lynch feels that Sue has the ability to be both "horrible and really delightful at the same time", assessing that she continually speaks her mind as she enjoys appalling people with the things she says. She encapsulates Sue's world view as being about "power and winning", stating that she will do anything to win. Sue's softer side manifests following the revelation that her sister has Down syndrome. She is depicted as kind and loving towards Jean, though Lynch stated that exploration of Sue's humanity would be limited. Sue is an atheist, but according to Murphy, does not want to be. He explained, "She [is] saying to the world, 'Prove [me] wrong: If God is kindness and love, make me believe in God.'" The second-season episode "Grilled Cheesus" focuses on the characters' differing approaches to religion. Sue lobbies against the performance of spiritual songs in school, engaging in a philosophical argument on the matter with school guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury (Jayma Mays), which Murphy describes as the scene he is "most proud to have been involved with in [his] entire career." On the fifth-season episode "Puppet Master", the reason behind Sue's track suit outfit was revealed. It was because she felt that she never received the respect she deserved as a teacher and even the then Principal Figgins "insulted" her and said that she was a cheerleading coach so she needed to "try some pants" because she was wearing an office skirt and that she had long hair. She said that the moment she put the track suit on, "the world bowed before her" and that she "had one made in every color".


title: Sue Sylvester

text: Sue performs in several of the series' musical numbers. In the first-season episode "Mash-Up", she is given a dancing lesson by Will, to Louis Prima's "Sing, Sing, Sing (With a Swing)". Her first vocal performance comes in the episode "The Power of Madonna", in which Sue enacts a frame-by-frame recreation of the music video for Madonna's "Vogue". The track features on the extended play record "", released to accompany the episode, and charted at number 106 on the UK singles chart. Sue duets with Olivia Newton-John on her song "Physical" in the episode "Bad Reputation". This track was included on the soundtrack album "", as well as the compilation albums "Glee: The Music, The Complete Season One", and "Glee: The Music, The Complete Season One Collection". Also released as a single available for download, it charted both on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and internationally, peaking at number 89 in the US, 88 in Australia, 61 in Canada and 56 in the United Kingdom. During the second season, Sue duets with her mother Doris on "Ohio" from the 1953 musical "Wonderful Town". The song was suggested to Murphy by Burnett, who felt that the lyrics were suited to her character's storyline.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: In the fourth season, Sue performs "Little Girls" from Annie in the episode "Lights Out" and a mash-up of Nicki Minaj's "Super Bass" and "I Still Believe by Mariah Carey as a duet with Darren Criss in the episode "Feud". Sue featured in three duets during the fifth season: "Cheek to Cheek" by Fred Astaire and "NYC" from Annie with Matthew Morrison in the episodes "Puppet Master" and "Opening Night" respectively and "Who Are You Now?" from Funny Girl with Lea Michele also in "Opening Night". Sue's final solo in the series is a cover of "Bitch" by Meredith Brooks in "The Hurt Locker, Part One". She performs another duet with Doris in "The Rise and Fall of Sue Sylvester": "The Trolley Song" from "Meet Me in St. Louis. Also featured in that episode is a duet of Europe's "The Final Countdown with Will. Sue's final performance is a duet with Will of ABBA's "The Winner Takes It All."


title: Sue Sylvester

text: Sue was lauded as "the greatest Broadway-musical villain to ever co-star in a TV series" by "Entertainment Weekly" Ken Tucker. In an early review, Robert Lloyd of the "Los Angeles Times" criticized her domination of scenes and flat characterization, commenting: "She's funny from line to line, but there is little to her besides tin-pot contrariness." In June 2010, "Entertainment Weekly" named her one of the 100 Greatest Characters of the Last 20 Years. She is the 100th Most Memorable Female TV Character, according to AOL TV. She was included in AfterEllen.com's Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: Lynch's performance in the role has attracted critical acclaim. Following the pilot episode, Mary McNamara of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that she alone makes the series worth watching. IGN's Eric Goldman later assessed that a comic actress such as Lynch is necessary to make the character loveable, given that her key traits include smugness, ignorance and casual racism. The "Los Angeles Times" Shawna Malcom similarly praised Lynch's portrayal for keeping Sue from being "an over-the-top disaster." Raymund Flandez of "The Wall Street Journal" suggested that the show would be less fun without Lynch's delivery.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: "Variety" Brian Lowry was critical of Lynch in early episodes, deeming "Glee" adult cast "over-the-top buffoons", and writing that she "chews through her material so relentlessly as to be fitfully funny but usually just plain annoying." "The New York Times" Mike Hale wrote that she gives a "one-note performance" in "Glee", suggesting that she is miscast in the role, as "her talent for playing repressed nut cases doesn’t extend to playing straightforward Nazis."


title: Sue Sylvester

text: Lynch has won a number of awards for her portrayal of Sue. At the 14th Satellite Awards, she won the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries, or Television Film. The following year, she won Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards, for her performance in the episode "The Power of Madonna". She received the TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Comedy at the 26th TCA Awards, as well as the Actress Comedy Series accolade at the WIN Awards. Lynch was part of the "Glee" cast ensemble given the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards. She was named Favorite Female TV Star (Comedy) at the Lesbian/Bi People's Choice Awards, run by the lesbian media website AfterEllen.com, and won the TV Performance of the Year: Musical or Comedy Award at the inaugural Dorian Awards, reflecting gay interest in the TV industry. The following year, Lynch tied in the same category with co-star Chris Colfer. 2011 also saw Lynch named Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries, or Television Film at the 68th Golden Globe Awards, and Favorite TV Comedy Actress Award at the 37th People's Choice Awards.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: The role has earned Lynch nominations for several further awards. She was nominated for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film at the 67th Golden Globe Awards, and for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film at the 15th Satellite Awards. Also in 2010, Sue was nominated Choice TV: Villain at the Teen Choice Awards, and Lynch was nominated for the Favorite TV Actress Award at the AfterEllen.com Visibility Awards. In 2011, she was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series at the 17th Screen Actors Guild Awards, and was also part of an ensemble nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: Lynch was selected as the 2010 principal honoree of Madame Tussauds wax museum in Hollywood. A wax figure of Lynch as Sue was created, featuring the character's trademark tracksuit and bullhorn. At the August unveiling of the figure, Brennan commented that Sue would approve of being immortalized in such a manner.


title: Sue Sylvester

text: In 2020, an image depicting Sue proclaiming that she is going to "create an environment that is so toxic" from episode seven became a prominent reaction image and Internet meme.


title: Nippon Animation

text: Nippon Animation is known for producing numerous anime series based on works of Western literature such as "Anne of Green Gables" and "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer". Hayao Miyazaki and Isao Takahata, co-founders of Studio Ghibli, directed several episodes in the "World Masterpiece Theater" series.


title: Nippon Animation

text: What is now Nippon Animation is descended from Zuiyo Eizo (or Zuiyo Enterprise), an animation studio founded in April 1969 by TCJ former manager Shigeto Takahashi. The studio produced several popular series in the early and mid-1970s, including 1974's "Heidi, Girl of the Alps", an adaptation of Johanna Spyri's popular children's book "Heidi". The "Heidi" anime was enormously popular in Japan (and later in Europe, and the feature-length edit of the TV series saw a U.S. VHS release in 1985). Zuiyo Eizo soon found itself in financial trouble because of the high production costs of a series (presumably "Maya the Bee") it was attempting to sell to the European market.


title: Nippon Animation

text: In 1975, Zuiyo Eizo was split into two entities: Zuiyo, which absorbed the debt and the rights to the "Heidi" anime, and Nippon Animation, which was essentially Zuiyo Eizo's production staff (including Miyazaki and Takahata). Officially, Nippon Animation Co., Ltd. was established on 3 June 1975 by company president Kōichi Motohashi. The newly rechristened Nippon Animation found success right away with "Maya the Bee" and "A Dog of Flanders" (both of which began as Zuiyō Eizō productions), which became the first entry in the World Masterpiece Theater series to be produced under the Nippon Animation name. Hayao Miyazaki left Nippon Animation in 1979 in the middle of the production of "Anne of Green Gables" to make the "Lupin III" feature "The Castle of Cagliostro".


title: Nippon Animation

text: In addition to the "World Masterpiece Theater" series, Nippon Animation has also produced many other series based on Western works of literature, as well as original works and adaptations of Japanese manga. Especially, until "Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair" (1992), its peak of productions based on Western works of literature. Many of these are included in the list of the studio's works below.


title: Nippon Animation

text: Of the studio's productions not based on Western literature, the most popular is undoubtedly "Chibi Maruko-chan" (1990), based on the popular manga by Momoko Sakura. At its peak, this slice-of-life anime about an unusually intelligent elementary-school-aged girl and her family and friends managed an audience rating of nearly 40%, making it one of the highest-rated anime series ever (and the highest-rated anime program in Japanese history at the time).


title: Nippon Animation

text: It is a department of Nippon Animation that had a partnership with famous toy company Takara on some anime.


title: Jayant Narlikar

text: Jayant Vishnu Narlikar (born 19 July 1938) is an Indian astrophysicist and emeritus professor at the Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA). He developed with Sir Fred Hoyle the conformal gravity theory, known as Hoyle–Narlikar theory. It synthesises Albert Einstein's theory of relativity and Mach's principle. It proposes that the inertial mass of a particle is a function of the masses of all other particles, multiplied by a coupling constant, which is a function of cosmic epoch.


title: Jayant Narlikar

text: Narlikar was born in Kolhapur, India on 19 July 1938 in a family of scholars. His father, Vishnu Vasudev Narlikar, was a mathematician and theoretical physicist who served as Professor and Head of Department of Mathematics at Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, and mother, Sumati Narlikar, was a scholar of Sanskrit. His wife is Mangala Narlikar and he has three daughters. His maternal uncle was the distinguished statistician V. S. Huzurbazar.


title: Jayant Narlikar

text: Narlikar completed his school education from Central Hindu College (now Central Hindu Boys School). He received his BSc degree from Banaras Hindu University in 1957. He then began his studies at Cambridge University at Fitzwilliam College like his father, where he received a BA (Tripos) degree in mathematics in 1959 and was Senior Wrangler. In 1960, he won the Tyson Medal for astronomy. During his doctoral studies at Cambridge, he won the Smith's Prize in 1962. After receiving his PhD degree in 1963 under the guidance of Fred Hoyle, he served as a Berry Ramsey Fellow at King's College in Cambridge and earned a master's degree in astronomy and astrophysics in 1964. He continued to work as a Fellow at King's College until 1972. In 1966, Fred Hoyle established Institute of Theoretical Astronomy in Cambridge, and Narlikar served as the founding staff member of the institute during 1966–72. In 1972, Narlikar took up Professorship at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) in Mumbai, India. At the TIFR, he was in charge of the Theoretical Astrophysics Group. In 1988, the Indian University Grants Commission set up the Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA) in Pune, and Narlikar became the Founder-Director of IUCAA. In 1981, Narlikar became a founding member of the World Cultural Council. Narlikar is known for his work in cosmology, especially in championing models alternative to the popular Big Bang model. During 1994–1997, he was the President of the Cosmology Commission of the International Astronomical Union. His research work has involved Mach's principle, quantum cosmology, and action-at-a-distance physics. Narlikar was part of a study which cultured microorganisms from stratospheric air samples obtained at 41 km. He was appointed as the chairperson of The Advisory Group for Textbooks in Science and Mathematics, the textbook development committee responsible for developing textbooks in Science and Mathematics, published by NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training).


title: Jayant Narlikar

text: Narlikar has received many national and international awards and honorary doctorates. India's second-highest civilian honour, Padma Vibhushan, was awarded to him in 2004 for his research work. Prior to this, in 1965, he was conferred Padma Bhushan. He was awarded 'Rashtra Bhushan' in 1981 by FIE Foundation, Ichalkaranji. He received Maharashtra Bhushan Award for the year 2010. He is a recipient of Bhatnagar Award, M.P. Birla Award, and the Prix Jules Janssen of the Société astronomique de France (French Astronomical Society). He is an Associate of the Royal Astronomical Society of London, and a Fellow of the three Indian National Science Academies and the Third World Academy of Sciences. Apart from his scientific research, Narlikar has been well known as a communicator of science through his books, articles, and radio & television programs. For these efforts, he was honoured in 1996 by UNESCO with the Kalinga Prize. He was featured on Carl Sagan's TV show "" in the late 1980s. In 1989, he received the Atmaram Award by Central Hindi Directorate. He received the Indira Gandhi Award of the Indian National Science Academy in 1990. He also served on the Physical Sciences jury for the Infosys Prize in 2009. In 2014, he received a Sahitya Akademi Award for his autobiography in Marathi, "Chaar Nagarantale Maze Vishwa". He presided over the 94th Akhil Bharatiya Marathi Sahitya Sammelan held at Nashik in January 2021.


title: Jayant Narlikar

text: Besides scientific papers and books and popular science literature, Narlikar has written science fiction, novels, and short stories in English, Hindi, and Marathi. He is also the consultant for the Science and Mathematics textbooks of NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training, India).


title: Jayant Narlikar

text: Narlikar married a mathematics researcher and professor, Mangala Narlikar (née Rajwade). The couple have three daughters: Geeta, a biomedical researcher at the University of California, San Francisco, Girija and Leelavati. He is the uncle of the Cambridge University social sciences academic Amrita Narlikar.


title: Jogira Sara Ra Ra

text: Jogira Sara Ra Ra is an upcoming Indian Hindi-language romantic comedy film written by Ghalib Asad Bhopali and directed by Kushan Nandy and jointly produced by Kiran Shroff and Naeem Siddiqui. The film stars Nawazuddin Siddiqui and Neha Sharma, alongside Sanjay Mishra and Mahaakshay Chakraborty in supporting roles.


title: California Dreams

text: California Dreams is an American teen sitcom that aired on NBC. It was part of the network's Saturday morning block, TNBC, premiering on September 12, 1992. Created by writers Brett Dewey and Ronald B. Solomon, and executive produced by Peter Engel, all known for their work on "Saved by the Bell", the series centers on the friendships of a group of teenagers (shifting toward a multi-ethnic makeup beginning with the show's second season) who form the fictional titular band. The series ran five seasons, airing its final episode on December 14, 1996. The series featured 40 original songs performed by the band throughout the show's run, primarily written by Steve Tyrell.


title: California Dreams

text: "California Dreams" originally was intended to be a family sitcom, mainly centering on the Garrison family, who moved to Southern California from Iowa at an undisclosed point prior to the timeline of the series. In the first season, the show's main characters were Matt Garrison (Brent Gore) and his younger sister Jenny (Heidi Noelle Lenhart). The remainder of the Garrison family included father Richard (Michael Cutt), mother Melody (Gail Ramsey), and their youngest son, Dennis (Ryan O'Neill). Matt and Jenny's band, the California Dreams, drove most of the show's storylines and plot points; Matt was the group's leader and Jenny was its pianist and vocalist.


title: California Dreams

text: The other main characters were bass player Tiffani Smith (Kelly Packard), drummer Tony Wicks (William James Jones), and the band's teen manager, Sylvester "Sly" Winkle (Michael Cade) – all three of which were the only characters who appeared on the show throughout its entire five-season run. The show's primary settings were the Garrison home, the fast food restaurant Sharkey's, and Pacific Coast High School.


title: California Dreams

text: Beginning with the pilot, entitled "The First Gig," Season 1 featured cut-away music videos for the songs "California Dreams," "Rain," "Everybody's Got Someone," and "This Time." This narrative style was not continued in future seasons, as songs were typically performed at Sharkey's or the band's rehearsal space. The songs performed on the show are abbreviated versions cut for time, usually excluding the song's second verse.


title: California Dreams

text: Because NBC executives did not like the show's original format, Engel, Dewey, and Solomon refocused the show's plotline from balancing stories involving both the band and the Garrison family, to just the teens who formed the California Dreams band for its second season. Cutt was downgraded to a recurring cast member, O'Neill was written out entirely before the season began, and Lenhart and Ramsey were both written out after the season's third episode "Ciao, Jenny", with Lenhart's character Jenny being the first main character to leave the show (the character lands a spot at a music conservatory in Italy).


title: California Dreams

text: In the season's premiere episode "Jake's Song", Jake Sommers (Jay Anthony Franke) was introduced as the California Dreams' fifth member, acting as the band's second guitarist. Four episodes later in "Wooing Woo", Samantha "Sam" Woo (Jennie Kwan), a foreign exchange student from Hong Kong whom the Garrisons take into their home (staying in Jenny's former bedroom), was added as a main character. When Sam auditions for the band, their approval of her performance results in her taking Jenny's place as the band's vocalist.


title: California Dreams

text: The sitcom's original premise was dropped completely when Matt was written out of the show (in the third-season premiere "The Unforgiven", it is briefly referenced that the Garrison family had moved away). In Matt's place, the band hired Mark Winkle (Aaron Jackson), Sly's shy cousin from New York City. Also added as a series regular was Lorena Costa (Diana Uribe), the privileged daughter of a wealthy family who takes Sam into their home after the Garrisons' departure. Jake took over as leader and main songwriter of the band from Matt. Songs from seasons 1–2 that were performed again in seasons 3–5 featured Matt's vocals replaced by either Jake or Mark.


title: California Dreams

text: The series finale, "The Last Gig", found the band on the verge of embarking on new crossroads in life. Set months after the characters graduated from the fictional Pacific Coast High School in "Graduation" (which aired three episodes earlier), the episode deals with the band preparing to attend school separately the following week (with Tiffani planning to attend the University of Hawaii to study marine biology, Sam moving to England to study physics at Oxford University, Tony going to study acting at an undisclosed location, Mark planning to move back home to New York to study at Juilliard, and Sly and Lorena both attending Pacific University). While the other members look forward to starting their new lives, Jake attempts to keep the band together. When a music producer offers Jake a record contract, he initially refuses, since the rest of the band was not given one as well. Jake is able to negotiate a record contract for the entire band, which they refuse. Tiffani convinces Jake that she and the other band members have moved past the Dreams and want to discover new things, convincing Jake to take the solo offer. Long-time couples Tiffani and Jake, and Sam and Tony break up due to their different paths. The episode ends with the California Dreams playing their final gig, before giving their tearful goodbyes to one another. Their last song, "So Glad I Was There," was the only original song written for the show's fifth and final season. It was also the only song the band performed on the show that featured vocals from all 5 members.


title: California Dreams

text: Throughout the series, notable guest stars included Eddie Mekka, Christopher Hewett, Richard T. Jones, Elise Neal, Fergie, Joseph Reitman, Nikki Cox, Dot-Marie Jones, Robert Pine, and Tara Reid.


title: California Dreams

text: Shout! Factory released the first four seasons of "California Dreams" on DVD in Region 1 between 2009–2011. Seasons 3 and 4 were released as Shout! Factory Exclusives titles, available exclusively through their online store. As of 2016, Seasons 1-4 and "The Best of..." DVDs can be purchased on Amazon. It is unknown if season 5 will be released.


title: California Dreams

text: On July 19, 2011, Mill Creek Entertainment released a ten-episode best-of set, "The Best of California Dreams", a single-disc set that features episodes from the first three seasons.


title: California Dreams

text: "California Dreams" was not well received critically. Rebecca Ascher-Walsh of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the series a grade of "F", and stated that ""California Dreams" can be accused of a lot of things, but originality isn’t one of them", and added that ""California Dreams" producer Franco E. Bario (who is also behind "Saved by the Bell") may have good intentions, but it’s hard to imagine what they were." "Los Angeles Times" reviewer Lynne Heffley considered the show nothing more than "a "Saved by the Bell" clone set in an upscale beach town".


title: California Dreams

text: "California Dreams" had a self-titled studio album on CD and cassette. The songs on the soundtrack are as follows:


title: California Dreams

text: The single "This Time" can also be found on CD format but is very rare to find. There was also a "California Dreams Anthology" album made but only for the cast members but these have been found on sites such as eBay and Amazon.


title: California Dreams

text: The main cast members from the first two seasons of "California Dreams" reunited on "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon" on March 4, 2010, and played the show's theme song. The version they sang was a unique mash-up that featured both Heidi Noelle Lenhart and Jennie Kwan, who replaced Lenhart in Season 2. While present, Jay Anthony Franke was not a featured vocalist in the performance, given that he did not perform the singing voice of Jake Sommers. Aaron Jackson and Diana Uribe were not present.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The Katha Upanishad (Sanskrit: कठोपनिषद् or कठ उपनिषद्) (') is one of the "mukhya" (primary) Upanishads, embedded in the last eight short sections of the ' school of the Krishna Yajurveda. It is also known as "" Upanishad, and is listed as number 3 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The Katha Upanishad consists of two chapters ("Adhyāyas"), each divided into three sections ("Vallis"). The first "Adhyaya" is considered to be of older origin than the second. The Upanishad is the legendary story of a little boy, Nachiketa – the son of Sage Vajasravasa, who meets Yama (the deity of death). Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, Atman (Self) and moksha (liberation).


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The chronology of Katha Upanishad is unclear and contested, but belongs to the later verse Upanishads, dated to the 5th to first centuries BCE.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The Kathaka Upanishad is an important ancient Sanskrit corpus of the Vedanta sub-schools, and an influential Śruti to the diverse schools of Hinduism. It asserts that "Atman (Self) exists", teaches the precept "seek Self-knowledge, which is Highest Bliss", and expounds on this premise like the other primary Upanishads of Hinduism. The Upanishad presents ideas that contrast Hinduism with Buddhism's assertion that "Soul, Self does not exist", and Buddhism's precept that one should seek "Emptiness (Śūnyatā), which is Highest Bliss". The detailed teachings of Katha Upanishad have been variously interpreted, as Dvaita (dualistic) and as Advaita (non-dualistic).


title: Katha Upanishad

text: It is among the most widely studied Upanishads. Katha Upanishad was translated into Persian in 17th century, copies of which were then translated into Latin and distributed in Europe. Other philosophers such as Arthur Schopenhauer praised it, Edwin Arnold rendered it in verse as "The Secret of Death", and Ralph Waldo Emerson credited Katha Upanishad for the central story at the end of his essay "Immortality", as well as his poem ""Brahma"".


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Katha (Sanskrit: कठ) literally means "distress". Katha is also the name of a sage, credited as the founder of a branch of the Krishna Yajur-veda, as well as the term for a female pupil or follower of Kathas school of Yajurveda. Paul Deussen notes that the Katha Upanishad uses words that symbolically embed and creatively have multiple meanings. For example, a closely pronounced word "Katha" (Sanskrit: कथा) literally means "story, legend, conversation, speech, tale". All of these related meanings are relevant to the Katha Upanishad.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Nachiketa, the boy and a central character in the Katha Upanishad legend, similarly, has closely related words with roots and meanings relevant to the text. Paul Deussen suggests "Na kṣiti" and "Na aksiyete", which are word plays of and pronounced similar to Nachiketa, means "non-decay, or what does not decay", a meaning that is relevant to second boon portion of the Nachiketa story. Similarly, "Na jiti" is another word play and means "that which cannot be vanquished", which is contextually relevant to the Nachiketa's third boon. Both Whitney and Deussen independently suggest yet another variation to Nachiketa, with etymological roots that is relevant to Katha Upanishad: the word "Na-ciketa" also means "I do not know, or he does not know". Some of these Sanskrit word plays are incorporated within the Upanishad's text.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Like Taittiriya Upanishad of Yajurveda, each section of the Katha Upanishad is called a "Valli" (वल्ली), which literally means a medicinal vine-like climbing plant that grows independently yet is attached to a main tree. Paul Deussen states that this symbolic terminology is apt and likely reflects the root and nature of the Upanishads in Black Yajur veda, which too is largely independent of the liturgical Yajur Veda, and is attached to the main text.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The chronology of Katha Upanishad is unclear and contested by scholars. All opinions rest on scanty evidence, an analysis of archaism, style and repetitions across texts, driven by assumptions about likely evolution of ideas, and on presumptions about which philosophy might have influenced which other Indian philosophies.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Richard King and A.L. Basham date the Katha Upanishad's composition roughly to the 5th century BCE, chronologically placing it after the first Buddhist Pali canons. Olivelle assigns the Katha Upanishad to the verse Upanishads, together with the Kena, Isa, Svetasvatara, and Mundaka, dating it to the first centuries BCE. Paul Deussen too considers Katha Upanishad to be a post-prose, yet earlier stage Upanishad composed about the time Kena and Isha Upanishads were, because of the poetic, mathematical metric structure of its hymns.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Stephen Phillips notes the disagreement between modern scholars. Phillips places the Katha Upanishad chronologically after Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Isha, Taittiriya, Aitareya and Kena, but before Mundaka, Prasna, Mandukya, Svetasvatara and Maitri Upanishads, as well as before the earliest Buddhist Pali and Jaina canons. Winternitz considers the Kathaka Upanishad as pre-Buddhist, pre-Jaina literature.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The Katha Upanishad has two chapters, each with three sections ("valli"), thus a total of six sections. The first section has 29 verses, the second section 25 verses, and the third presents 17. The second chapter opens with the fourth section of the Katha Upanishad and has 15 verses, while the fifth valli also has 15 verses. The final section has 17 verses.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The first chapter with the first three "vallis" is considered older, because the third section ends with a structure in Sanskrit that is typically found at closing of other Upanishads, and also because the central ideas are repeated though expanded in the last three sections, that is the second chapter. This, however, does not imply a significant gap between the two chapters, both chapters are considered ancient, and from 1st millennium BCE.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The origin of the story of the little boy named "Nachiketa", contained in Katha Upanishad is of a much older origin. "Nachiketa" is mentioned in the verses of chapter 3.11 of Taittiriya Brahmana, both as a similar story, and as the name of one of five fire arrangements for rituals, along with "Savitra", "Caturhotra", "Vaisvasrja" and "Aruna Agni".


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The style and structure suggests that some of the verses in Katha Upanishad, such as 1.1.8, 1.1.16-1.1.18, 1.1.28 among others, are non-philosophical, do not fit with the rest of the text, and are likely to be later insertion and interpolations.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The Upanishad opens with the story of Vajasravasa, also called "Aruni Auddalaki Gautama", who gives away all his worldly possessions. However, his son "Nachiketa" (Sanskrit: नचिकेता) sees the charitable sacrifice as a farce, because all those worldly things have already been used to exhaustion, and are of no value to the recipients. The cows given away, for example, were so old that they had 'drank-their-last-water' (पीतोदकाः), 'eaten-their-last-grass' (जग्धतृणाः), 'don't give milk' (दुग्धदोहाः), 'who are barren' (निरिन्द्रियाः). Concerned, the son asks his father,


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Nachiketa does not die, but accepts his father's gifting him to Death, by visiting the abode of Yama - the deity of death in the Indian pantheon of deities. Nachiketa arrives, but Yama is not in his abode. Nachiketa as guest goes hungry for three nights, states verse 9 of the first Valli of Katha Upanishad. Yama arrives and is apologetic for this dishonor to the guest, so he offers Nachiketa three wishes.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Nachiketa' first wish is that Yama discharge him from the abode of death, back to his family, and that his father be calm, well-disposed, not resentful and same as he was before when he returns. Yama grants the first wish immediately, states verse 1.1.11 of Katha Upanishad.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: For his second wish, Nachiketa prefaces his request with the statement that heaven is a place where there is no fear, no anxiety, no old age, no hunger, no thirst, no sorrow. He then asks Yama, in verse 1.1.13 of Katha Upanishad to be instructed as to the proper execution of fire ritual that enables a human being to secure heaven. Yama responds by detailing the fire ritual, including how the bricks should be arranged, and how the fire represents the building of the world. Nachiketa remembers what Yama tells him, repeats the ritual, a feat which pleases Yama, and he declares that this fire ritual will thereafter be called the "Nachiketa fires". Yama adds that along with "three Nachiketa fires", anyone who respects three bonds (with mother, father and teacher), does three kinds of karma (rituals, studies and charity), and understands the knowledge therein, becomes free of sorrow.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Nachiketa then asks for his third wish, asking Yama in verse 1.1.20, about the doubt that human beings have about "what happens after a person dies? Does he continue to exist in another form? or not?" The remaining verse of first Valli of Katha Upanishad is expression of reluctance by Yama in giving a straight "yes or no" answer. Yama states that even gods doubt and are uncertain about that question, and urges Nachiketa to pick another wish. Nachiketa says that if gods doubt that, then he "Yama" as deity of death ought to be the only one who knows the answer. Yama offers him all sorts of worldly wealth and pleasures instead, but Nachiketa says human life is short, asks Yama to keep the worldly wealth and pleasures to himself, declares that pompous wealth, lust and pleasures are fleeting and vain, then insists on knowing the nature of Atman (Self) and sticks to his question, "what happens after death?"


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Yama begins his teaching by distinguishing between "preya" (प्रेय, प्रिय, dear, pleasant, gratifying), and "shreya" (श्रेय, good, beneficial excellence).


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The verses 1.2.4 through 1.2.6 of Katha Upanishad then characterizes Knowledge/Wisdom as the pursuit of good, and Ignorance/Delusion as the pursuit of pleasant. The verses 1.2.7 through 1.2.11 of Katha Upanishad state Knowledge/Wisdom and the pursuit of good is difficult yet eternal, while Ignorance/Delusion and the pursuit of the pleasant is easy yet transient. Knowledge requires effort, and often not comprehended by man even when he reads it or hears it or by internal argument. The pursuit of Knowledge and the good, can be taught, learnt and thus realized.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: A similar discussion and distinction between the pleasant and the beneficial is found in ancient Greek philosophy, such as in Phaedrus by Plato.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Katha Upanishad, in verses 1.2.12 asserts Atman – Self – exists, though it is invisible and full of mystery. It is ancient, and recognizable by Yoga (meditation on one's self), states Katha Upanishad. This is one of the earliest mentions of Yoga in ancient Sanskrit literature, in the context of Self-development and meditation.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: In verses 1.2.14 through 1.2.22, the Katha Upanishad asserts that the essence of Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, refocus his attention past Ignorance to Knowledge, to the means of blissful existence beyond joy and sorrow. This is achievable through realization of Atman-Brahman, asserts Katha Upanishad, and this essence is reminded in the Vedas through the word "Om" (, Aum), state verses 1.2.15-1.2.16. That syllable, "Aum", is in Brahman, means Brahman, means the Highest, means the Blissful within.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Yama is the spokesman in the second Valli of the Katha Upanishad. He asserts that man must not fear anyone or anything (not even death) as the true essence of man (Atman) is neither born nor dies; he is eternal, he is Brahman. These passages have been widely studied, and inspired Emerson among others:


title: Katha Upanishad

text: In final verses of the second Valli, the Katha Upanishad asserts that Atman-knowledge, or Self-realization, is not attained by instruction, not arguments nor reasoning from scriptures. It is comprehended by oneself through meditation and introspection. It is not attained by those who do not abstain from misconduct, not those who are restless nor composed, not those whose mind is not calm and tranquil, but only those who live ethically, are composed, tranquil, internally peaceful, search within and examine their own nature. Similar ideas are repeated in the Mundaka Upanishad in chapter 3.2, another classic ancient scripture of Hinduism.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The third Valli of Katha Upanishad presents the parable of the chariot, to highlight how Atman, body, mind, senses and empirical reality relate to a human being.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The Katha Upanishad asserts that one who does not use his powers of reasoning, whose senses are unruly and mind unbridled, his life drifts in chaos and confusion, his existence entangled in samsara. Those who use their intelligence, have their senses calm and under reason, they live a life of bliss and liberation, which is the highest place of Vishnu. Whitney clarifies that "Vishnu" appears in Vedas as a form of Sun, and "Vishnu's highest place" is a Vedic phrase that means "zenith". Madhvacharya, the Dvaita Vedanta scholar interprets this term differently, and bases his theistic interpretation of Katha Upanishad by stating that the term refers to the deity "Vishnu".


title: Katha Upanishad

text: This metaphorical parable of chariot is found in multiple ancient Indian texts, and is called the "Ratha Kalpana". A similar simile is found in ancient Greek literature, such as the Parmenides, Xenophon's prologue of Prodikos, and in the Platonic dialogue "Phaedrus".


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The Katha Upanishad, in verses 1.3.10 through 1.3.12 presents a hierarchy of Reality from the perspective of a human being. It asserts that Artha (objects, means of life) are above "Indriya" (senses), that "Manas" (mind) is above "Artha" in this hierarchy, above the "Manas" is "Buddhi" (intellect, his ability to discern), above the "Buddhi" is Atman (his Self, great Self). Beyond the "Atman", states Katha Upanishad, is the "Avyaktam" (unmanifested Reality), and Purusha (cosmic Self) is beyond the "Avyaktam", and beyond the "Purusha", there is nothing - for it is the goal, for it is the highest road. At the basic level of life, the interaction is between "Artha" and "Indriya" (sensory organs); while at the highest level, man becomes aware of and holistically realizes the entire hierarchy. The Self is hidden in all beings, asserts the Katha Upanishad; it does not show itself, but its awareness is felt by seers with "agrya sukshma" (subtle, more self-evident conscious, keen thinkers).


title: Katha Upanishad

text: In verse 1.3.13, Katha Upanishad states that "Prajna" (conscious man) should heed to the ethical precept of self-examination and self-restraint, restraining his speech and mind by the application of his "Buddhi" (power to reason). Man should, asserts Katha Upanishad, holistically unify his tempered senses and mind with his intellect, all these with his "Atman" (Self), and unify his "great Self" with the Self of the rest, the tranquility of Oneness with the "Avyaktam" and "cosmic Self". Self (Atman) is soundless, touchless, formless, tasteless, scentless, without beginning, without end, imperishable, beyond great, blissful, and when one reveres one's own Self, he is liberated. Such Self-realization is not easy according to Katha Upanishad,


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Paul Deussen states that verses 1.3.10 to 1.3.13 of Katha Upanishad is one of the earliest mentions of the elements of Yoga theory, and the recommendation of Yoga as a path to the highest goal of man, that is a life of spiritual freedom and liberation. This theory is significantly expanded upon in the second chapter of Katha Upanishad, particularly in the sixth Valli.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The fourth Valli starts by asserting that inner knowledge is that of unity, eternal calmness and spiritual Oneness, while the external knowledge is that of plurality, perishable "running around" and sensory objects. The Katha Upanishad in fifteen verses of the fourth Valli, as well as those the fifth Valli, explains what is Atman, how it can be known, the nature of Atman, and why it ought to be known. For definition, it deploys an epistemic combination of "positive assertions" as well as "exposition by elimination", the latter repeated with,


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Atman, asserts Katha Upanishad, is the subject of Self-knowledge, the bearer of spiritual reality, that which is all-pervading, inside every being, which unifies all human beings as well as all creatures, the concealed, eternal, immortal, pure bliss. It exists and active when man is in awake-state, it exists and active when man is in dream-state. The empirical reality is the "honey" for the Atman, with the honey metaphor repeating "fruit of numerous karma flowers in the valley of life" doctrine found in other Upanishads, such as in the second chapter of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. To know Atman, look inward and introspect; to know objects, look outward and examine, states Katha Upanishad. Everything that changes is not Atman, that which was, is, will be and never changes is Atman. Just like a baby is concealed inside a mother's womb when conceived, Atman is concealed inside every creature, states verse 2.4.8 of Katha Upanishad.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Self is the lord of the past, the lord of the now, and the lord of the future. Self is eternal, never born, never dies, part of that which existed before the universe was formed from "brooding heat". Sun rests in it, gods rest in it, all nature rests in it, it is everywhere, it is in everything. To understand the eternal nature of one's Self is to feel calmness, inner peace, patience and freedom regardless of the circumstances one is in, affections or threats one faces, praises or insults one is subjected to. Anyone who runs after sensory-impressions, gets lost among them just like water flows randomly after rainfall on mountains, state verses 2.4.14 and 2.4.15 of the Katha Upanishad; and those who know their Self and act according to its Dharma remain pure like pure water remains pure when poured into pure water.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: There is no plurality and separateness between the essence (Atman) of I and others, between the essence of nature and spirit, asserts Katha Upanishad in verses 2.4.10 and 2.4.11. The Self-driven individual ignores the superficial individuality of others, and accepts their essential identity. Paul Deussen suggests that verses 2.4.6 and 2.4.7 posit a nondualistic (Advaita) position, where both "Purusha" and "Prakrti" are only "Atman". This position contrasts with one of the fundamental premises of the dualistic schools of Hinduism. Shankara agrees with this interpretation. Ramanuja doesn't and offers a theistic dualism based interpretation instead.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Katha Upanishad's fifth Valli is an eschatological treatise. It begins by stating that human body is like a "Pura" (Sanskrit: पुर, town, city) with eleven gates that connect him to the universe. The individual, asserts Katha Upanishad, who understands and reveres this town of eternal, non-changing spirit, is never crooked-minded, is always free. The Self dwells in swan, in atmosphere, in man, in "Varasad" (wide spaces), in eternal law, everywhere in the universe; it is born of water, it is born of kine, it is born of Ṛta (right, truth, ethics, morals, eternal law), it is born of stone (mountains) as the great "Ṛta", as ought to be. This Self is worshipped by all the gods. Body dies, Self doesn't.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: In verses 2.5.6 and 2.5.7, the Katha Upanishad discusses what happens to the Self after death, stating a variant of the premise of Karma theory that underlies major Indian religions,


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The Self is always awake and active, while one is asleep, shaping wishful dreams. It is one with Brahman. It is everywhere, within and without, it is immortal. This universal, oneness theme is explained by the Katha Upanishad by three similes, which Paul Deussen calls as excellent. Just like one light exists and penetrates the cosmic space, enveloping and clinging to everything and every form individually, the "one inner Self" of beings exists and dwells in all beings, clings to every form and remains still without, states the Katha Upanishad. Just like one air exists and penetrates the world, enveloping and clinging to everything and every being individually, the "one inner Self" of beings exists and dwells in all beings, clings to every form and remains still without. Just like the Sun exists and its nature is not contaminated by the impurities seen by the eyes, the "one inner Self" of beings exists and its nature is pure, never contaminated by the sorrows and blemishes of the external world. Parts of the ideas in these first two similes of Katha Upanishad are of far more ancient origins, and found for example in Book 6, Chapter 47 of Rig veda.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: That individual is perennially happy, asserts Katha Upanishad, who realizes the "Atman" is within him, that he himself is the Master, that the inner Self of all beings and his own Self are "one form manifold", and none other. Life is spirit, full of joy. Meaning is Atman, full of perennial peace. "Truly, this is that", once deeply felt and understood by man, is inexpressible highest joy. It is he who realizes this who shines, his splendour shines everything with and by ("Anu"), the whole world shines by such joy unleashed, such splendour manifested.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The sixth Valli continues the discussion of "Karma" and rebirth theory, sections of which Max Muller states is possibly interpolated and inserted in a later period. The first five verses of the last section of the Upanishad assert that those who do not know or do not understand Atman return to the world of creation, and those who do are free, liberated. Some unaware of Brahman's essence are naturally inclined to fear God and its manifestation such as nature (fire, lightning, sun), state verses 2.6.2 and 2.6.3 of Katha Upanishad. Those who are aware of Brahman's essence, are awakened to the knowledge, fear no one and nothing, become immortal as with Brahman.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The Katha Upanishad, in verses 2.6.6 through 2.6.13 recommends a path to Self-knowledge, and this path it calls "Yoga".


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The Katha Upanishad concludes its philosophical presentation in verses 14-15 of the sixth Valli. The state of perfection, according to the last section of the Upanishad, explains Paul Deussen, consists "not in the attainment of a future or yonder world, but it is already just now and here for one who is Self-realized, who knows his Self as Brahman (Cosmic Self)". This teaching is also presented in the other ancient scriptures of Hinduism, such as Brihadaranyaka Upanishad's Chapter 4.4.6.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The verse 15 of the sixth Valli declares that the Upanishad concludes its teaching therein. Yet, the Valli contains three additional verses in modern era manuscripts. Scholars suggest that these remaining verses 2.6.16 – 2.6.18 are possibly modern additions as appendix and have been interpolated. This is due to the declaration of Upanishad's end in verse 15, and the additional three verses that are structured in prose-like manner, rather than the poetic, metric-perfection that Katha Upanishad is largely written in.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Charles Johnston has called Katha Upanishad as one of the highest spiritual texts, with layers of metaphors embedded therein. To Johnston, the three nights and three boons in the first "Valli" of Katha Upanishad, for example, are among the text's many layers, with the three connoting the past, the present and the future.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The Irish poet William Butler Yeats dedicated several essays and sonnets to themes in Katha Upanishad and related ancient Upanishads of India. George William Russell similarly esteemed the Katha and other Upanishads. The American poet Ralph Waldo Emerson held Katha Upanishad highly, and wrote several poems and essays paralleling the themes in it.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: The various themes contained in Katha Upanishad have been subject of many scholarly works. For example, Elizabeth Schiltz has compared "the parable of the chariot" in Katha Upanishad and Platonic dialogue "Phaedrus", noting the "remarkable similarities give rise to a great many tantalizing historical and literary questions", and adding the comment, "each provides an image of the self as the chariot, they each offer a complex moral psychology, and point toward an effective justification of the best life". Radhakrishnan notes that Katha Upanishad's discussion of "good versus pleasant" is evidence of ethical theories and philosophical longings of ancient human beings in India by 1st millennium BCE, much like those in Greek city states in Europe.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: A verse in the Upanishad inspired the title and the epigraph of W. Somerset Maugham's 1944 novel "The Razor’s Edge", later adapted, twice, into films of the same title (see articles on 1946 and 1984 films). The epigraph reads, "The sharp edge of a razor is difficult to pass over; thus the wise say the path to Salvation is hard." taken from a verse in the Katha-Upanishad – 1.3.14. Maugham had visited India in 1938 and met Ramana Maharishi at his ashram in Tamil Nadu.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Filmmaker Ashish Avikunthak made a film based on this Upanishad called “Katho Upanishad” which was first shown as a video installation at Gallery Chatterjee & Lal in Mumbai in 2012.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: Roger Zelazny included a quote from the Katha Upanishad as dialogue between two characters in his novel, Lord of Light.


title: Katha Upanishad

text: An English poetry version of Katha Upanishad by B. P. Khattri is available online and can be accessed at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343788311_Kathopnishad . The stanzas directly align with those in the Gita Press version of Katha Upnishad.


title: Jan Matejko

text: Jan Alojzy Matejko (; also known as Jan Mateyko; 24 June 1838 – 1 November 1893) was a Polish painter, a leading 19th-century exponent of history painting, known for depicting nodal events from Polish history. His works include large scale oil paintings such as "Rejtan" (1866), "the Union of Lublin" (1869), " the Astronomer Copernicus, or Conversations with God" (1873), or "the Battle of Grunwald" (1878). He was the author of numerous portraits, a gallery of Polish monarchs in book form, and murals in St. Mary's Basilica, Kraków. He is considered by many as the most celebrated Polish painter, and sometimes as the "national painter" of Poland. Matejko was among the notable people to receive an unsolicited letter from the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, as the latter tipped, in January 1889, into his psychotic breakdown while in Turin.


title: Jan Matejko

text: Matejko spent most of his life in Kraków. His teachers at the Kraków Academy of Fine Arts included Wojciech Korneli Stattler and Władysław Łuszczkiewicz. Later, he became director of the institution, which in time was renamed the "Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts". A number of his students became prominent artists in their own right, including Maurycy Gottlieb, Jacek Malczewski, Józef Mehoffer and Stanisław Wyspiański. He is regarded as "the Father of Young Poland" Arts and Crafts movement in Poland.


title: Jan Matejko

text: Matejko was born on 24 June 1838, in the Free City of Kraków. His father, Franciszek Ksawery Matejko () (born 1789 or 13 January 1793, died 26 October 1860), a Czech from the village of Roudnice, was a graduate of the Hradec Králové school who later became a tutor and music teacher. He first worked for the Wodzicki family in Kościelniki, Poland, then moved to Kraków, where he married the half-German, half-Polish Joanna Karolina Rossberg (Rozberg). Jan was the ninth of eleven children. His mother died when he was very young and his older brother, Franciszek had a hand in the manner of his upbringing. He grew up in a kamienica building on Floriańska Street. After the death of his mother in 1845, Jan and his siblings were cared for by his maternal aunt, Anna Zamojska.


title: Jan Matejko

text: At a young age he witnessed the Kraków revolution of 1846 and the 1848 siege of Kraków by the Austrians, two events which put an end to the Free City of Kraków. Two of his older brothers served in both armed conflicts, under General Józef Bem. One died and the other was forced into exile. Matejko attended St. Anne's High School, but he dropped out in 1851 because of poor grades. Matejko showed an early artistic talent, but had great difficulty with other academic subjects. He never fully mastered a foreign language. Despite that, and because of his exceptional skill, at the age of fourteen he entered the School of Fine Arts in Kraków, where he was a contemporary of Artur Grottger from 1852 to 1858. His teachers included Wojciech Korneli Stattler and Władysław Łuszczkiewicz. He opted for historical painting as his specialism, and finished his first major work, "The Shuyski Tsars before Zygmunt III" ("Carowie Szujscy przed Zygmuntem III"), in 1853 (he would return to this theme a year before his death, in 1892. During this time, he began exhibiting historical paintings at the Kraków Society of Friends of Fine Arts from 1855. His graduation project in 1858 was "Sigismund I the Old ennobles professors of the Jagiellonian University" ("Zygmunt I nadaje szlachectwo profesorom Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego") and proved to be seminal.


title: Jan Matejko

text: After graduation in 1859, Matejko received a scholarship to study with Hermann Anschütz at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich. The following year he received a further scholarship to study at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, but after only a few days and a major quarrel with Christian Ruben, Matejko returned to Kraków. He set up a studio at his family home in Floriańska Street. It took years before he met with commercial success. He struggled as the proverbial "starving artist", who finally celebrated when he managed to sell the "Shuyski Tsars..." canvas for five florins.


title: Jan Matejko

text: In 1860, against a background of cultural erosion in partitioned Poland Matejko published an illustrated album, "Clothing in Poland" ("Ubiory w Polsce"), a project reflecting his intense interest in the historical record of his nation and his desire to promote it among Polish people and incidentally stir their patriotism. His financial situation improved when he sold two paintings, "The assassination of Wapowski during the coronation of Henri de Valois" ("Zabicie Wapowskiego w czasie koronacji Henryka Walezego", 1861) and "Jan Kochanowski over the body of his daughter Urszulka" ("Jan Kochanowski nad zwłokami Urszulki", 1862), which settled his debts.


title: Jan Matejko

text: 1862 saw the completion of his "Stańczyk", initially received without much acclaim, but in due course becoming one of Matejko's best known works. It marks a manifest departure in Matejko's art, from mere illustrator of history to commentator upon its moral content.


title: Jan Matejko

text: During the January Uprising of 1863, in which he did not directly take part on account of his poor health, Matejko supported it financially, donating most of his savings to the cause, and personally transporting arms to an insurgents' camp. Subsequently, his "Skarga's Sermon" ("Kazanie Skargi"), May 1864, was exhibited in the gallery of the Kraków Society of Friends of Fine Arts, which gained him much publicity. On 5 November that same year, he was elected member of the "Kraków Scientific Society" ("Towarzystwo Naukowe Krakowskie") in recognition for his contributions to depicting great national historical themes. On 21 November he married Teodora Giebułtowska, with whom he went on to have five children: Beata, Helena, Tadeusz, Jerzy and Regina. His daughter, Helena, also an artist, later helped World War I victims and was awarded the Cross of Independence by president Stanisław Wojciechowski.


title: Jan Matejko

text: After 1865 Matejko's international recognition grew. His "Skarga's Sermon" was awarded a gold medal at the 1865 Paris Salon, prompting Count to buy it for 10,000 florins. In 1867, his painting "Rejtan" was awarded a gold medal at the World Exhibition in Paris and was acquired by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria for 50,000 franks. His next major painting was the "Union of Lublin" ("Unia Lubelska"), created during 1867-1869. Acclaimed in Paris, it won Matejko the Cross of the Légion d'honneur. and was purchased by the Sejm of Galicia. It was followed by "Stefan Batory at Pskov" ("Stefan Batory pod Pskowem"), finished in 1871. In 1872, he visited Istanbul and upon his return to Kraków finished "The Astronomer Copernicus, or Conversations with God" ("Astronom Kopernik, czyli rozmowa z Bogiem"), which was acquired by the Jagiellonian University. From the 1870s onwards he was aided by a secretary, Marian Gorzkowski, who became his personal assistant, his closest friend, a model for a number of his paintings, and the author of a memoir about Matejko.


title: Jan Matejko

text: In 1872, during an exhibition in Prague he was offered the directorship of the Prague Academy of Fine Arts, quickly followed by a similar offer from the Kraków School of Fine Arts. He accepted the Kraków position, and was for many years its principal (rector). In 1874, he finished "Zawieszenie dzwonu Zygmunta" ("The Hanging of the Sigismund bell"). In 1878, he produced another masterpiece, "The Battle of Grunwald". That year he received an "honorary grand gold" medal in Paris, while Kraków city council presented him with a ceremonial scepter, as a symbol of his "royal status in fine art". In 1879 came his "Rok 1863 - Polonia" ("The Year 1863 - Polonia"), his depiction of the January Uprising. Begun in 1864 as the Uprising was waning, he abandoned the canvas for a number of years, perhaps due to the loss of several close friends and family members in the conflict. It languished unfinished until prince Władysław Czartoryski became interested in acquiring it. To this day it is considered unfinished.


title: Jan Matejko

text: 1880-1882 were taken up with another large work, "The Prussian Tribute" ("Hołd Pruski") which Matejko gifted to "the Polish nation". It earned him the honorary citizenship of Kraków. One of the city's squares was renamed Matejko Square. In 1883 he finished "Jan Sobieski at Vienna" ("Jan Sobieski pod Wiedniem") which came to be presented to Pope Leo XIII as a "gift of the Polish nation". Being a member of the delegation delivering the canvas to Rome, Matejko was awarded the Knight Commander with Star of the Order of Pius IX. The painting is on permanent exhibition in the "Sobieski Room" at the Vatican Museums. Around that time he also became vocal on a number of political issues, publishing letters on topics such as Polish-Russian relations. He was also very engaged in efforts to protect and reconstruct historical monuments in Kraków. In 1886, he finished a painting relating to French rather than Polish history, "The Virgin of Orléans", a portrayal of Joan of Arc.


title: Jan Matejko

text: In 1887 Matejko received an Honorary Doctorate from the Jagiellonian University, and recognition from the Austrian Society, "Litteris et Artibus". In 1888 he completed "The Battle of Racławice" ("Bitwa pod Racławicami"). In 1888-1899, to justify his new academic title, he published a group of twelve drawings with accompanying commentary, " The History of civilization in Poland" ("Dzieje Cywilizacji w Polsce"). Between 1890 and 1892, he published a series of works on paper, portraying all the monarchs of Poland ("Poczet królów i książąt polskich" - "The kings and princes of Poland", including queens), whose popularity turned them into the canon portrayals of their subjects. 1891 marked his "Constitution of the 3 May" ("Konstytucja 3 Maja"). He went on to compose another large scale work, "The Oaths of Jan Kazimierz" ("Śluby Jana Kazimierza"), but death intervened. In 1892, a year before his death, he completed his "Self-portrait" ("Autoportret").


title: Jan Matejko

text: In addition to the history paintings Matejko was a prolific portraitist. His subjects included Jagiellonian University rectors Józef Szujski and Stanisław Tarnowski, and numerous portraits of family and friends, including "Wife in her wedding dress" ("Żona w sukni ślubnej") (1865, destroyed by his wife during a quarrel and recreated in 1879) and a self-portrait (1892). Altogether Matejko authored 320 oil paintings and several thousand drawings and watercolours. He also designed the monumental polychrome murals for the Brick Gothic St. Mary's Basilica, Kraków (1889–1891), which in 1978 became a UNESCO World Heritage Site alongside the Historic Centre of Kraków.


title: Jan Matejko

text: Matejko suffered from a peptic ulcer, and died in Kraków on 1 November of internal bleeding. His funeral on 5 November drew large crowds, and his death was newsworthy in at least thirty two European newspapers. He was buried in Kraków's Rakowicki Cemetery.


title: Jan Matejko

text: He is counted among the most significant of Polish painters, and considered by many as "Poland's greatest history painter" or as "a cult figure for the nation at large... [already] by the time of his death.". Wilhelm von Kaulbach and his "historical symbolism" style had a profound influence on Matejko. This aimed not so much at an exact representation of past events, but gave the artist freedom to interpret and opened the possibility to blend historical data within a chosen perspective. Matejko's technique in the Neoclassical genre has been praised for its "luminosity, detail and imagination".


title: Jan Matejko

text: He succeeded in propagating Polish history, and fostering the memory of an erstwhile historic state lost to the world, while his country remained carved up between three civilised European powers which afforded its Polish natives no prospect of political self-determination. His works, disseminated through thousands of reproductions, have become standard illustrations of the many key events in Polish history. His 1860 illustrated album, "Ubiory w Polsce" (Costume in Poland), is seen as a valuable historical reference.


title: Jan Matejko

text: Critics of his work have pointed to his use of traditional, outdated or bombastic painting style, discrediting him for "antiquarian realism" and "theatrical effects". At exhibitions abroad, the nuanced historical context of his works was often lost on foreign audiences. Occasionally his paintings would cause controversy. For example, "Rejtan" offended a number of prominent members of the Polish nobility, who saw the painting as an indictment of their entire social class. His paintings were subject to censorship in the Russian Empire. Nazi Germany planned to destroy both "The Battle of Grunwald" and "The Prussian Homage", which the authorities saw as an offence against the German view of history. They formed part of the very many Polish paintings and art which the Germans planned to destroy in their war on Polish culture, but the Polish resistance successfully hid both.


title: Jan Matejko

text: Matejko's aim was to focus on major themes in Polish history using historical sources to paint events in minute historical detail. His earliest paintings are purely historical depictions without didactic content. The later works, starting with "Stańczyk" (1862), are intended to inspire the viewer with a patriotic message. "Stańczyk" focuses on the court jester, portrayed as a symbol of his country's conscience, sitting in a chair, against the background of a party - a lonely figure reflecting on war, ignored by the joyful crowd.


title: Jan Matejko

text: His paintings are on display in numerous Polish museums, including: the National Museum in Warsaw, National Museum in Kraków, National Museum in Poznań and National Museum in Wrocław. The National Museum, Kraków has a building entirely dedicated to Matejko - "The Jan Matejko House" ("Dom Jana Matejki"), occupying his former studio and family home in Floriańska Street and opened in 1898. Another museum dedicated to Matejko, is the "Jan Matejko Manor House" (Dworek Jana Matejki w Krzesławicach), in the village of Krzesławice, where Matejko had bought a small estate in 1865.


title: Jan Matejko

text: Over 80 painters were Matejko's students, many influenced during his tenure as director of the "Kraków School of Fine Arts", and are called members of the "Matejko School". Some went on to become members of the brief flowering of the Young Poland ("Młoda Polska") movement, which encompassed literature, music, theatre as well as visual arts and was dissipated by World War I. Matejko has been dubbed "Father of Young Poland". Prominent among his students were:


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: Railway electrification systems using alternating current (AC) at are used worldwide, especially for high-speed rail. It is usually supplied at the standard utility frequency (typically 50 or 60Hz), which simplifies traction substations. The development of 25kV AC electrification is closely connected with that of successfully using utility frequency.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: This electrification is ideal for railways that cover long distances or carry heavy traffic. After some experimentation before World War II in Hungary and in the Black Forest in Germany, it came into widespread use in the 1950s.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: One of the reasons why it was not introduced earlier was the lack of suitable small and lightweight control and rectification equipment before the development of solid-state rectifiers and related technology. Another reason was the increased clearance distances required where it ran under bridges and in tunnels, which would have required major civil engineering in order to provide the increased clearance to live parts.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: Railways using older, lower-capacity direct current systems have introduced or are introducing AC instead of DC/ DC for their new high-speed lines.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: The first successful operational and regular use of a utility frequency system dates back to 1931, tests having run since 1922. It was developed by Kálmán Kandó in Hungary, who used AC at , asynchronous traction, and an adjustable number of (motor) poles. The first electrified line for testing was Budapest–Dunakeszi–Alag. The first fully electrified line was Budapest–Győr–Hegyeshalom (part of the Budapest–Vienna line). Although Kandó's solution showed a way for the future, railway operators outside of Hungary showed a lack of interest in the design.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: The first railway to use this system was completed in 1936 by the Deutsche Reichsbahn who electrified part of the Höllentalbahn between Freiburg and Neustadt installing a 20 kV 50 Hz AC system. This part of Germany was in the French zone of occupation after 1945. As a result of examining the German system in 1951 the SNCF electrified the line between Aix-les-Bains and La Roche-sur-Foron in southern France, initially at the same 20kV but converted to 25kV in 1953. The 25kV system was then adopted as standard in France, but since substantial amounts of mileage south of Paris had already been electrified at 1.5kV DC, SNCF also continued some major new DC electrification projects, until dual-voltage locomotives were developed in the 1960s.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: The main reason why electrification using utility frequency had not been widely adopted before was the lack of reliability of mercury-arc-type rectifiers that could fit on the train. This in turn related to the requirement to use DC series motors, which required the current to be converted from AC to DC and for that a rectifier is needed. Until the early 1950s, mercury-arc rectifiers were difficult to operate even in ideal conditions and were therefore unsuitable for use in railway locomotives.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: It was possible to use AC motors (and some railways did, with varying success), but they have had less than ideal characteristics for traction purposes. This is because control of speed is difficult without varying the frequency and reliance on voltage to control speed gives a torque at any given speed that is not ideal. This is why DC series motors were the most common choice for traction purposes until the 1990s, as they can be controlled by voltage, and have an almost ideal torque vs speed characteristic.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: In the 1990s, high-speed trains began to use lighter, lower-maintenance three-phase AC induction motors. The N700 Shinkansen uses a three-level converter to convert single-phase AC to AC (via transformer) to DC (via phase-controlled rectifier with thyristor) to a maximum three-phase AC (via a variable voltage, variable frequency inverter using IGBTs with pulse-width modulation) to run the motors. The system works in reverse for regenerative braking.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: The choice of was related to the efficiency of power transmission as a function of voltage and cost, not based on a neat and tidy ratio of the supply voltage. For a given power level, a higher voltage allows for a lower current and usually better efficiency at the greater cost for high-voltage equipment. It was found that was an optimal point, where a higher voltage would still improve efficiency but not by a significant amount in relation to the higher costs incurred by the need for larger insulators and greater clearance from structures.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: To avoid short circuits, the high voltage must be protected from moisture. Weather events, such as "the wrong type of snow", have caused failures in the past. An example of atmospheric causes occurred in December 2009, when four Eurostar trains broke down inside the Channel Tunnel.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: Electric power for AC electrification is usually taken directly from the three-phase transmission system. At the transmission substation, a step-down transformer is connected across two of the three phases of the high-voltage supply and lowers the voltage to . This is then fed, sometimes several kilometres away, to a railway feeder station located beside the tracks. Since only two phases of the high-voltage supply are used, phase imbalance is corrected by connecting each feeder station to a different combination of phases. To avoid the train pantograph bridging together two feeder stations which may be out-of-phase with each other, neutral sections are provided between sections fed from different feeder stations. SVCs are used for load balancing and voltage control.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: In some cases dedicated single-phase AC power lines were built to substations with single phase AC transformers. Such lines were built to supply the French TGV.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: Railway electrification using , AC has become an international standard. There are two main standards that define the voltages of the system:


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: The permissible range of voltages allowed are as stated in the above standards and take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: This system is now part of the European Union's Trans-European railway interoperability standards (1996/48/EC "Interoperability of the Trans-European high-speed rail system" and 2001/16/EC "Interoperability of the Trans-European Conventional rail system").


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: In Japan, this is used on existing railway lines in Tohoku Region, Hokuriku Region, Hokkaido and Kyushu, of which Hokuriku and Kyushu are at 60Hz.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: Some lines in the United States have been electrified at or converted from to . Use of allows direct supply from the 60Hz utility grid yet does not require the larger wire clearance for or require dual-voltage capability for trains also operating on lines. Examples are:


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: Early 50Hz AC railway electrification in the United Kingdom was planned to use sections at where there was limited clearance under bridges and in tunnels. Rolling stock was dual-voltage with automatic switching between and . The sections were converted to as a result of research work that demonstrated that the distance between live and earthed equipment could be reduced from that originally thought to be necessary.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: The research was done using a steam engine beneath a bridge at Crewe. A section of overhead line was gradually brought closer to the earthed metalwork of the bridge whilst being subjected to steam from the locomotive's chimney. The distance at which a flashover occurred was measured and this was used as a basis from which new clearances between overhead equipment and structures were derived.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: Occasionally is doubled to to obtain greater power and increase the distance between substations. Such lines are usually isolated from other lines to avoid complications from interrunning. Examples are:


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: The 2 × 25kV autotransformer system is a split-phase electric power system which supplies 25kV power to the trains, but transmits power at 50kV to reduce energy losses. It should not be confused with the 50kV system. In this system, the current is mainly carried between the overhead line and a feeder transmission line instead of the rail. The overhead line (3) and feeder (5) are on opposite phases so the voltage between them is 50kV, while the voltage between the overhead line (3) and the running rails (4) remains at 25kV. Periodic autotransformers (9) divert the return current from the neutral rail, step it up, and send it along the feeder line. This system is used by Indian Railways, Russian Railways, Italian High Speed Railways, UK High Speed 1, most of the West Coast Main Line and Crossrail, with some parts of older lines being gradually converted, French lines (LGV lines and some other lines), most Spanish high-speed rail lines, Amtrak and some of the Finnish and Hungarian lines.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: For TGV world speed record runs in France the voltage was temporarily boosted, to 29.5kV and 31kV at different times.


title: 25 kV AC railway electrification

text: Trains that can operate on more than one voltage, say 3kV/25kV, are established technologies. Some locomotives in Europe are capable of using four different voltage standards.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The Science Museum is a major museum on Exhibition Road in South Kensington, London. It was founded in 1857 and is one of the city's major tourist attractions, attracting 3.3 million visitors annually in 2019.


title: Science Museum, London

text: Like other publicly funded national museums in the United Kingdom, the Science Museum does not charge visitors for admission, although visitors are requested to make a donation if they are able. Temporary exhibitions may incur an admission fee.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The museum was founded in 1857 under Bennet Woodcroft from the collection of the Royal Society of Arts and surplus items from the Great Exhibition as part of the South Kensington Museum, together with what is now the Victoria and Albert Museum. It included a collection of machinery which became the "Museum of Patents" in 1858, and the "Patent Office Museum" in 1863. This collection contained many of the most famous exhibits of what is now the Science Museum.


title: Science Museum, London

text: In 1883, the contents of the Patent Office Museum were transferred to the South Kensington Museum. In 1885, the Science Collections were renamed the "Science Museum" and in 1893 a separate director was appointed. The Art Collections were renamed the "Art Museum", which eventually became the Victoria and Albert Museum.


title: Science Museum, London

text: When Queen Victoria laid the foundation stone for the new building for the Art Museum, she stipulated that the museum be renamed after herself and her late husband. This was initially applied to the whole museum, but when that new building finally opened ten years later, the title was confined to the Art Collections and the Science Collections had to be divorced from it. On 26 June 1909 the Science Museum, as an independent entity, came into existence.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The Science Museum's present quarters, designed by Sir Richard Allison, were opened to the public in stages over the period 1919–28. This building was known as the East Block, construction of which began in 1913 and temporarily halted by World War I. As the name suggests it was intended to be the first building of a much larger project, which was never realized. However, the museum buildings were expanded over the following years; a pioneering Children's Gallery with interactive exhibits opened in 1931, the Centre Block was completed in 1961–3, the infill of the East Block and the construction of the Lower & Upper Wellcome Galleries in 1980, and the construction of the Wellcome Wing in 2000 result in the museum now extending to Queen's Gate.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The leading academic publisher, Palgrave Macmillan, published the official centenary history of the Science Museum on 14 April 2010. The first complete history of the Science Museum since 1957, "Science for the Nation: Perspectives on the History of the Science Museum" is a series of individual views by Science Museum staff and external academic historians of different aspects of the Science Museum's history. While it is not a chronological history in the conventional sense, the first five chapters cover the history of the museum from the Brompton Boilers in the 1860s to the opening of the Wellcome Wing in 2000. The remaining eight chapters cover a variety of themes concerning the museum's development.


title: Science Museum, London

text: Objects not on display at one of the Science Museum Group's five museums will generally be stored at the National Collections Centre near Swindon. Library and archive material is also stored at the Library and Archives at the National Collections Centre.


title: Science Museum, London

text: Access to the collections, library and archives is arranged by appointment through the Dana Research Centre and Library located in Queens Gate, South Kensington.


title: Science Museum, London

text: Over 350,000 of the objects in the Science Museum Group's collections are available to view online at SMG's Search Our Collection web page.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The Science Museum consists of two buildings – the main building and the Wellcome Wing. Visitors enter the main building from Exhibition Road, while the Wellcome Wing is accessed by walking through the Energy Hall, Exploring Space and then the Making the Modern World galleries (see below) at ground floor level.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The Energy Hall is the first area that most visitors see as they enter the building. On the ground floor, the gallery contains a variety of steam engines, including the oldest surviving James Watt beam engine, which together tell the story of the British industrial revolution.


title: Science Museum, London

text: Also on display is a recreation of James Watt's garret workshop from his home, Heathfield Hall, using over 8,300 objects removed from the room, which was sealed after his 1819 death, when the hall was demolished in 1927.


title: Science Museum, London

text: "Exploring Space" is a historical gallery, filled with rockets and exhibits that tell the story of human space exploration and the benefits that space exploration has brought us (particularly in the world of telecommunications).


title: Science Museum, London

text: "Making the Modern World" displays some of the museum's most remarkable objects, including "Puffing Billy" (the oldest surviving steam locomotive), Crick's double helix, and the command module from the Apollo 10 mission, which are displayed along a timeline chronicling man's technological achievements.


title: Science Museum, London

text: Stephenson's Rocket used to be displayed in this gallery. After a short UK tour, since 2019 "Rocket" is on permanent display at the Railway Museum in York, in the Art Gallery.


title: Science Museum, London

text: "The Secret Life of the Home" shows the development of household appliances mostly from the late 19th and early 20th century, although some are earlier.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The "Medicine: The Wellcome" "Galleries" is a five-gallery medical exhibition which spans ancient history to modern times with over 3000 exhibits and specially commissioned artworks. Many of the objects on display come from the Wellcome Collection started by Henry Wellcome. One of the commissioned artworks is a large bronze sculpture of Rick Genest titled "Self-Conscious Gene" by Marc Quinn. The galleries occupy the museum's entire first floor and opened on 16 November 2019.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The Clockmakers Museum is the world's oldest clock and watch museum which was originally assembled by the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers in London's Guildhall.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The "Science City 1550 – 1800: The Linbury Gallery" shows how London grew to be a global hub for trade, commerce and scientific enquiry


title: Science Museum, London

text: The "Mathematics: The Winton Gallery" examines the role that mathematicians have had in building our modern world. In the landing area to access the gallery (stair C) is a working example of Charles Babbage's Difference engine No.2. This was built by the Science Museum and its main part completed in 1991, to celebrate 200 years since Babbage's birth.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The "Information Age" gallery has exhibits covering the development of communications and computing over the last two centuries. It explores the six networks that have transformed global communications: The Cable, The Telephone Exchange, Broadcast, The Constellation, The Cell and The Web/ It was opened on 24 October 2014 by the Queen, Elizabeth II, who sent her first tweet from here.


title: Science Museum, London

text: One of the most popular galleries in the museum is the interactive Wonderlab:The Equinor Gallery, formerly called Launch Pad. The gallery is staffed by "Explainers" who demonstrate how exhibits work, conduct live experiments and perform shows to schools and the visiting public.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The "Flight" gallery charts the development of flight in the 20th century. Contained in the gallery are several full sized aeroplanes and helicopters, including Alcock and Brown's transatlantic Vickers Vimy (1919), Spitfire and Hurricane fighters, as well as numerous aero-engines and a cross-section of a Boeing 747. It opened in 1963 and was refurbished in the 1990s.


title: Science Museum, London

text: Visitors to the Who Am I? gallery can explore the science of who they are through intriguing objects, provocative artworks and hands-on exhibits.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The Engineer your Future gallery explores whether you have the problem solving and team working skills to succeed in a career in engineering.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The museum has some dedicated spaces for temporary exhibitions (both free and paid-for) and displays, on level −1 (Basement Gallery), level 0 (inside the Exploring Space Gallery and Tomorrow's World), level 1 (Special Exhibition Gallery 1 – currently closed for refurbishment) and level 2 (Special Exhibition Gallery 2 and The Studio). Most of these travel to other Science Museum Group sites, as well as nationally and internationally.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The Science Museum organises "Astronights", "all-night extravaganza with a scientific twist". Up to 380 children aged between 8 and 11, accompanied by adults, are invited to spend an evening performing fun "science based" activities and then spend the night sleeping in the museum galleries amongst the exhibits. In the morning, they're woken to breakfast and more science, watching a show before the end of the event.


title: Science Museum, London

text: On the evening of the last Wednesday of every month (except December) the museum organises an adults only evening with up to 30 events, from lectures to silent discos. Previous Lates have seen conversations with the actress activist Lily Cole and Biorevolutions with the Francis Crick Institute which attracted around 7000 people, mostly under the age of 35.


title: Science Museum, London

text: In October 2007, the Science Museum cancelled a talk by the co-discoverer of the structure of DNA, James D. Watson, because he claimed that IQ test results showed black people to have lower intelligence than white people. The decision was criticised by some scientists, including Richard Dawkins, but supported by other scientists, including Steven Rose.


title: Science Museum, London

text: The museum has undergone many changes in its history with older galleries being replaced by new ones.