title: SummerSlam (1988)

text: The Bolsheviks began to fall down the tag team ranks, losing in feuds with the Powers of Pain and later from the newly arrived Bushwhackers.


title: SummerSlam (1988)

text: Following the inaugural 1988 event, SummerSlam became one of the WWF's most successful events as well as one of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, Survivor Series, and Royal Rumble, which were eventually dubbed the "Big Four". Those four events, along with King of the Ring introduced in 1993, were known as the "Classic Five" (or "Big Five") until 2002, as the King of the Ring PPV was discontinued after 2002. In October 2021, Money in the Bank joined the four to become part of the "Big Five". SummerSlam has also been referred to as "The Biggest Party of the Summer," and eventually became the promotion's second biggest event of the year behind WrestleMania. In May 2002, the WWF was renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), and the "WWE" abbreviation became an orphaned initialism in April 2011. SummerSlam continued to be held in August every year until 2022, as that year's event was scheduled to be held in July.


title: Hour record

text: The hour record is the record for the longest distance cycled in one hour on a bicycle from a stationary start. Cyclists attempt this record alone on the track without other competitors present. It is considered one of the most prestigious records in cycling. Since it was first set, cyclists ranging from unknown amateurs to well-known professionals have held the record, adding to its prestige, romance and allure. There is now one unified record for upright bicycles meeting the requirements of the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI). Hour-record attempts for UCI bikes are made in a velodrome.


title: Hour record

text: The first universally accepted record was in 1876 when the American Frank Dodds rode on a penny-farthing. The first recorded distance was set in 1873 by James Moore in Wolverhampton, riding an Ariel 49" high wheel () bicycle; however, the distance was recorded at exactly , leading to the theory that the distance was just approximated and not accurately measured.


title: Hour record

text: The first officially recognised record was set by Henri Desgrange at the Buffalo Velodrome, Paris in 1893 following the formation of the International Cycling Association, the forerunner of the modern-day UCI. Throughout the run up to the First World War, the record was broken on five occasions by Frenchmen Oscar Egg and Marcel Berthet, and due to the attempts being highly popular and guaranteeing rich attendances, it is said that each ensured he did not beat the record by too much of a margin, enabling further lucrative attempts by the other.


title: Hour record

text: The hour was attempted sporadically over the following 70 years, with most early attempts taking place at the Buffalo Velodrome in Paris, before the Velodromo Vigorelli in Milan became popular in 1930s and 1940s sparking attempts from leading Italian riders and former Giro d'Italia winners such as Fausto Coppi and Ercole Baldini. Coppi's record set in 1942, during the Second World War, despite Milan being bombed nightly by Allied forces, was eventually broken in 1956 by Jacques Anquetil on his third attempt. In 1967, 11 years later, Anquetil again broke the hour record, with , but the record was disallowed because he refused to take the newly introduced post-race doping test. He had objected to what he saw as the indignity of having to urinate in a tent in front of a crowded velodrome and said he would take the test later at his hotel. The international judge ruled against the idea, and a scuffle ensued that involved Anquetil's manager, Raphaël Géminiani. In 1968, Ole Ritter broke the record in Mexico City, the first attempt at altitude since Willie Hamilton in 1898.


title: Hour record

text: The women's hour record was first established in 1893 by Mlle de Saint-Sauveur at the Vélodrome Buffalo in Paris, setting a total distance of . The record was improved several times over the next years, until Louise Roger reached in 1897 also at Vélodrome Buffalo. In 1911 the longest standing men's or women's record (37 years) was set by the 157 cm (5 ft 2 in) tall Alfonsina Strada: riding a 20 kg (44 lbs) machine. From 1947 to 1952, Élyane Bonneau and Jeannine Lemaire set several new hour records, the last of which was by Lemaire in 1952. The first women's hour record approved by the UCI was by Tamara Novikova in 1955. However Lemaire's 1952 non-UCI record was not bettered until Elsy Jacobs' broke the 40 kmh barrier in 1958, the year Jacobs had won the inaugural women's road world championship. Jacobs' 1958 41.347 km UCI record would not be bettered until 1972.


title: Hour record

text: In 1972, Eddy Merckx set a new hour record at in Mexico City at an altitude of where he proclaimed it to have been "the hardest ride I have ever done".


title: Hour record

text: The record would stand for 12 years until in January 1984, Francesco Moser set a new record at . This was the first noted use of disc wheels, which provided an aerodynamic gain as well as Moser wearing a skin suit. Moser's record would eventually be moved in 1997 to "best human effort".


title: Hour record

text: In 1993 and 1994, Graeme Obree, who built his own bikes, posted two records with his hands tucked under his chest. In 1994, Moser set the veteran's record at in Mexico City. Moser beat his 1984 record, using bullhorn handlebars, steel airfoil tubing, disk wheels and skinsuit. It was also faster than Obree's first record in 1993. Following the outlawing of the "praying mantis" style by the UCI in May 1994, Spaniard Miguel Indurain and Swiss Tony Rominger broke the record using a more traditional tri-bar setup with Rominger setting a distance of 55.291 km.


title: Hour record

text: Chris Boardman took up the challenge using a modified version of the Lotus 110 bicycle, a successor to the earlier Lotus 108 bicycle he'd ridden to victory at the 1992 Olympic Games. South African company Aerodyne Technology built the frame. Boardman set the UCI Absolute record of in 1996, using another position pioneered by Obree, his arms out in front in a "Superman" position. This too was considered controversial by the UCI, and while the record was allowed to stand, the position was banned making Boardman's record set in 1996, it was thought, effectively unbeatable using traditional bike position. The record stood as a best human effort until October 2022, when Filippo Ganna unified the records, beating Boardman's best human effort record (and Daniel Bigham's official UCI Hour record) on a traditionally shaped, though uniquely manufactured, bicycle.


title: Hour record

text: With the increasing gap between modern bicycles and what was available at the time of Merckx's record, the UCI established two records in 1997:


title: Hour record

text: As a result of the 1997 rule change, all records since 1972, including Boardman's in 1996, were moved to Best Human Effort and the distance of Eddy Merckx set in 1972 once more became the official UCI benchmark. In 2000, Boardman attempted the UCI record on a traditional bike, and rode , topping Merckx by , an improvement of 0.02%.


title: Hour record

text: In 2005, Ondřej Sosenka improved Boardman's performance at using a 54×13 gear. However, Sosenka failed a doping control in 2001 and then again in 2008, the latter resulting in a career-ending suspension which puts in doubt the validity of his record. All women's records from 1986 to 1996 were recategorized to Best Human Effort.


title: Hour record

text: In 2014, the UCI unified the two classifications into a single classification in line with regulations for current track pursuit bikes. Records previously removed for Chris Boardman and Graeme Obree were returned, however the benchmark record would remain at set in 2005 by Ondrej Sosenka, even though that was not the farthest distance. Under the new regulations riders may use any bike allowed by the UCI standards for endurance track events in place at the time of the attempt.


title: Hour record

text: Riders are required to be part of the athlete biological passport program. However, of the men to attempt the record since the rule change, only five were on a UCI World Tour team at the time: Jens Voigt of Trek Factory Racing, Rohan Dennis of the BMC Racing Team, Alex Dowsett of the , Victor Campenaerts of Lotto Soudal, Filippo Ganna of Ineos Grenadiers. Matthias Brändle was with IAM Cycling, then a UCI Professional Continental team. Jack Bobridge was on Team Budget Forklifts, an Australian UCI Continental team. Thomas Dekker had been released from World Tour team Garmin-Sharp several months before. Gustav Larsson was riding for the Professional Continental team Cult Energy Pro Cycling, whilst Bradley Wiggins had left the World Tour's shortly before his attempt, which was made in the colours of his own UCI Continental team .


title: Hour record

text: As of October 2022, 26 attempts have been made for the men's record, eight successfully, while nine attempts have been made on the women's record, six of them successfully.


title: Hour record

text: Following the change in the rules, German Jens Voigt became the first rider to attempt the hour, on 18 September 2014 at the Velodrome Suisse, Grenchen, Switzerland. He set a new record of , beating the previous record set by Sosenka by . On 30 October 2014, Matthias Brändle set a new record of at the World Cycling Center in Aigle, Switzerland.


title: Hour record

text: Further attempts by Australians Jack Bobridge and Rohan Dennis, and the Dutchman Thomas Dekker came within a few weeks, between 31 January and 25 February 2015. Dennis was the only one of the three to set a new record, and in doing so was the first rider to cover more than . Dekker's attempt at the Aguascalientes Bicentenary Velodrome was the first attempt to take place at appreciable altitude. Aguascalientes is at above sea level, while Melbourne is at only , and, although in Switzerland, Grenchen and Aigle are at and respectively, and not in the mountains. High altitude is thought to result in faster times, providing the rider takes the time to acclimatise to the conditions. This is because the air density decreases with an increase in altitude, which reduces the aerodynamic drag.


title: Hour record

text: Having postponed an earlier scheduled attempt due to a broken collarbone incurred in a crash while training, British cyclist Alex Dowsett exceeded Dennis's mark, with a new record of , at Manchester Velodrome on 2 May 2015.


title: Hour record

text: On 7 June 2015, Sir Bradley Wiggins broke Dowsett's record, by completing a distance of at the Lee Valley VeloPark in London.


title: Hour record

text: On 16 April 2019, Victor Campenaerts was the first to exceed 55 km/h by completing a distance of at the Velodromo Bicentenario in Aguascalientes.


title: Hour record

text: The UCI rules require an athlete to participate in its anti-doping system, including having a biological passport. When Daniel Bigham rode to break Wiggins's British national record on 1 October 2021 he was ineligible to attempt the UCI record as he was not part of the anti-doping system, estimating it would cost him £8,000.


title: Hour record

text: The last women's hour record before the unified rule change was set on 1 October 2003 by Leontien van Moorsel, with a distance of .


title: Hour record

text: In December 2014, it was announced that British Paralympian Sarah Storey would be the first woman to attempt the record following the unified rule change. She attempted the record on 28 February 2015 at Lee Valley Velo Park in London, setting new British, Para-Cycling and Masters Age 35–39 records but missing out on the Elite record with a distance of .


title: Hour record

text: American Molly Shaffer Van Houweling broke the women's UCI Hour Record, riding a distance of on 12 September 2015 in Aguascalientes, Mexico. Van Houweling had set three new US Hour Records in the year prior. The first was set on 15 December 2014, in Carson, California, with a distance of . The second was set on 25 February 2015, in Aguascalientes with a distance of . The third was set on 3 July 2015, also in Aguascalientes, with a distance of . This last mark was also the Pan-American and World Masters Age 40–44 record at the time, and exceeded the distance of the UCI hour record of van Moorsel. However, it did not qualify as the UCI Hour Record because Van Houweling had only been enrolled in the athlete biological passport program for three and a half months prior to setting this record. The UCI requires that riders be enrolled in this program for 5–10 months before they are eligible to set this mark. From 24 August 2015, Van Houweling was eligible to attempt the UCI Hour Record.


title: Hour record

text: In October 2015, Australian rider Bridie O'Donnell announced her intention to aim for the hour record in January 2016. She broke the women's hour at the Adelaide Super-Drome on 22 January 2016, riding . She was aged 41 years. Her record was broken by American rider Evelyn Stevens in the next month - the new record was , more than a kilometre nearer to the barrier.


title: Hour record

text: Italian rider Vittoria Bussi, after two unsuccessful attempts on 7 October 2017 and on 12 September 2018, broke Stevens' world record by 27 metres riding on 13 September 2018.


title: Hour record

text: British cyclist Joss Lowden set a new world record on 30 September 2021 with a distance of , beating the previous record by just under 400 metres, and also surpassing Jeannie Longo's Best Human Effort distance. Lowden completed a total of 193 laps of the Tissot Velodrome in Grenchen, Switzerland.


title: Hour record

text: The new regulations for the making of accepted hour record attempts were extended to para-cycling in 2016. Although the first attempt on the hour record for women after the amendments to the regulations was made by Paralympian Sarah Storey, it was not a ratified attempt on the women's C5 hour record under the new conditions, which at that point still did not extend to paracycling - albeit that Storey's effort is recognized as a best C5 performance under the new rules, in addition to a British and masters world hour record in able-bodied cycling.


title: Hour record

text: The first attempt on a para-cycling hour record after the new regulations were extended to para-cycling was by Irishman Colin Lynch in the C2 category, bettering the accepted best performance previously set by Laurent Thirionet in 1999 by 2 kilometres, and setting the first 'ratified' para-cycling world hour record. The mark of 43.133 km was achieved on 1 October at the National Cycling Centre in Manchester, Great Britain.


title: Hour record

text: Although the UCI does not recognise hour record attempts at the Junior age-group, there have been multiple record attempts made.


title: Fraggle Rock: Back to the Rock

text: Fraggle Rock: Back to the Rock is a American children's musical fantasy comedy puppet television series about interconnected societies of creatures, as a reboot of the original 1983 series "Fraggle Rock" by Jim Henson. The first season was released on Apple TV+ on January 21, 2022.


title: Fraggle Rock: Back to the Rock

text: A holiday special "Night of the Lights Holiday Special" was released on November 18, 2022. It was renewed for a second season.


title: Fraggle Rock: Back to the Rock

text: In the house belonging to a woman named Doc and her pet dog Sprocket, there is a hole that leads into Fraggle Rock. The Fraggles Gobo, Mokey, Wembley, Boober, and Red live their lives within Fraggle Rock while experiencing different adventures along the way as well as interacting with Doozers and avoiding the Gorgs while harvesting radishes.


title: Fraggle Rock: Back to the Rock

text: The title cards of the original "Fraggle Rock" TV series states the puppet characters as "Jim Henson's Muppets". After The Jim Henson Company sold the Muppet franchise to The Walt Disney Company in 2004, the "Fraggle Rock" characters, which Henson retained, stopped being referred to as Muppets (though "Fraggle Rock: Back to the Rock" was co-produced by Regency Enterprises and 20th Century Studios's subsidiary New Regency, owned by The Walt Disney Company following its acquisition of 21st Century Fox's assets on March 20, 2019).


title: Fraggle Rock: Back to the Rock

text: On May 26, 2020, following the success of the "" shorts that were released in April 2020, Apple TV+ announced a deal with The Jim Henson Company to produce a full reboot of "Fraggle Rock", consisting of half-hour episodes, in addition to exclusive streaming rights to the original series and specials. In January 2021, The Jim Henson Company announced that production had officially started on a reboot of the show. The show is filmed at the Calgary Film Centre. Each episode features original songs, and reprises of songs from the original series.


title: Fraggle Rock: Back to the Rock

text: Pre-production on the series began in late 2020 with the working title "Raphanis" (derived from the Latin word for "radish"). Filming commenced on January 25, 2021, in-studio at the Calgary Film Centre in Calgary, Alberta, Canada and wrapped in June.


title: Fraggle Rock: Back to the Rock

text: In November 2020, a trailer revealed the "Fraggle Rock: Back to the Rock" title, and the January 21, 2022 premiere date.


title: Fraggle Rock: Back to the Rock

text: Several original characters return, and new characters are voiced by celebrity guests, including Patti LaBelle, Cynthia Erivo, Daveed Diggs, Ed Helms, and Kenan Thompson. Foo Fighters make a cameo in one episode.


title: Fraggle Rock: Back to the Rock

text: The show won Outstanding Art Direction at the 1st Children's and Family Emmy Awards and received three additional nominations for Best Children's or Family Viewing Series, Outstanding Cinematography and Outstanding Editing.


title: Vijay Sales

text: VIJAY SALES (INDIA) PVT. LTD. is an Indian electronics retail chain based out of Mumbai. It is headquartered in Jogeshwari, Mumbai. Vijay Sales started as a small TV showroom in Mahim by Mr. Nanu Gupta in 1967. It currently operates 120 stores across the regions of Maharashtra, Haryana, UP, Gujarat, Delhi, Andhra Pradesh, & Telangana.


title: Vijay Sales

text: Mr. Nanu Gupta was born in Punjab Province, India in 1942. He moved to Bombay in 1954 and started working as a distributor for Usha electric fans.


title: Vijay Sales

text: Vijay Sales was founded in 1967 as a small television showroom by Mr. Nanu Gupta in Mahim, as Vijay Television Store. In 1981 the name was changed to the present name. Vijay Sales has since long evolved into one of India's leading chain of retailers. From 2010, Vijay Sales expanded from Maharashtra to Gujarat and the National Capital Region. In 2019, Vijay Sales acquired a chain of consumer durable retail stores in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh under the name of TMC (Tirumala Music Center) and has now re-branded TMC to Vijay Sales. Vijay Sales has more than 5,000 Products to choose from and is located in prime locations all across India and has 33 stores in Mumbai, 14 stores in Pune, 19 stores in Gujarat, 18 stores in Delhi, 5 stores in Haryana, 4 stores in Uttar Pradesh, 8 stores in Andhra Pradesh, and 19 stores in Telangana. The electronics retail chain also aims to take its total stores to 200 by 2025 from the 120 at present.


title: Vijay Sales

text: Vijay Sales' corporate headquarter is based in Mumbai. It is headed by Mr. Nanu Gupta who is the Founder and Chairman of Vijay Sales and is followed by his two sons Nilesh Gupta and Ashish Gupta and grandson Karan Gupta who are Managing Directors of the company. By January 2021, Vijay Sales had more than 3,500 employees and a well connected supply chain and warehouses at its disposal.


title: Chris Hutchinson (American football)

text: Christopher H. Hutchinson (born December 17, 1969) is an American former college football player who was a defensive tackle and outside linebacker for the Michigan Wolverines football team of the University of Michigan from 1989 to 1992. He was selected as a first-team All-American in 1992. He was also named the Big Ten Conference Defensive Lineman of the Year in 1992, was named to the Academic All-Big Ten team three times, was voted a team captain and MVP in 1992, and won an NCAA Post-Graduate Scholarship.


title: Chris Hutchinson (American football)

text: Chris was born in 1969 in Joliet, Illinois. He moved to Houston, Texas at age five. He attended Cypress Creek High School in Harris County, Texas.


title: Chris Hutchinson (American football)

text: Hutchinson enrolled at the University of Michigan in 1988 and played football for the Wolverines from 1989 to 1992.


title: Chris Hutchinson (American football)

text: After redshirting in 1988, he started all 12 games at defensive tackle for the 1989 Michigan Wolverines football team that compiled a 10-2 record in Bo Schembechler's final year as Michigan's head coach. Hutchinson was selected by the "Sporting News" as the nation's outstanding freshman defensive lineman.


title: Chris Hutchinson (American football)

text: As a sophomore, Hutchinson started seven games at defensive tackle for the 1990 Michigan team that compiled a 9-3 record in Gary Moeller's first year as head coach.


title: Chris Hutchinson (American football)

text: As a junior, Hutchinson started eight games at defensive tackle for the 1991 Michigan team that compiled a 10-2 record, and finished the season ranked #6 in the AP Poll. At the end of the season, Hutchinson was selected as a first-team All-Big Ten defensive tackle.


title: Chris Hutchinson (American football)

text: As a senior, Hutchinson was voted a team tri-captain and started six games at defensive tackle and six games at outside linebacker for the undefeated 1992 Michigan team that compiled a 9-0-3 record and defeated Washington in the 1993 Rose Bowl. During the 1992 season, Hutchinson broke Michigan's single season record for quarterback sack yardage with 99 and tied the single season sack record with eleven. He concluded his collegiate career with 24 career sacks, then the second highest total in Michigan history. He also finished second in Michigan history for career sack yardage.


title: Chris Hutchinson (American football)

text: At the end of the 1992 season, Hutchinson was selected as the team's Most Valuable Player, won the Dick Katcher and Meyer Morton Awards, and was named the Big Ten Conference Defensive Lineman of the Year. He was also selected by the American Football Coaches Association, Football Writers Association of America, Scripps-Howard and "Football News" as a first-team player on the 1990 College Football All-America Team. In addition to his athletic performance, Hutchinson also performed at a high level academically, being named to the Academic All-Big Ten team three times and becoming an NCAA Post-Graduate Scholarship winner.


title: Chris Hutchinson (American football)

text: After graduating from Michigan, Hutchinson signed as a free agent with the Cleveland Browns. During rookie training camp, Hutchinson developed complications from a tetanus shot, which precipitated his retirement from football. He enrolled at the University of Michigan Medical School and became a physician. As of September 2018, he was living in Plymouth, Michigan, and working as an emergency room physician at Beaumont Hospital. His youngest child, Aidan, is a defensive end who also attended Michigan and was selected second overall by the Detroit Lions in the 2022 NFL Draft.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: The Serbs of Croatia () or Croatian Serbs () constitute the largest national minority in Croatia. The community is predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christian by religion, as opposed to the Croats who are Roman Catholic.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: In some regions of modern-day Croatia, mainly in southern Dalmatia, ethnic Serbs have been present from the Early Middle Ages. Serbs from modern-day Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina started actively migrating to Croatia in several migration waves after 1538 when the Emperor Ferdinand I granted them the right to settle on the territory of the Military Frontier. In exchange for land and exemption from taxation, they had to conduct military service and participate in the protection of the Habsburg monarchy's border against the Ottoman Empire. They populated the Dalmatian Hinterland, Lika, Kordun, Banovina, Slavonia, and western Syrmia. From the beginning of the 20th century, the Croat-Serb Coalition led by Croat Frano Supilo and Serb Svetozar Pribićević governed the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia until the dissolution of Austria-Hungary. After the creation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1918 (later renamed to Yugoslavia), a few thousand Serbs moved to Croatian territory. During World War II, Serbs were targeted for extermination as part of genocide by the Ustashas in the Nazi German puppet state Independent State of Croatia (NDH).


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: After the beginning of the breakup of Yugoslavia and Croatia's proclamation of independence, the Serbs living in Croatia rebelled against the Croatian government and proclaimed the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) on parts of Croatian territory, which led to the Croatian War of Independence (1991–1995). Several RSK leaders have been later convicted of war crimes by the ICTY. After the Croatian Army's Operation Storm, the RSK ceased to exist, its territory was reincorporated into Croatia, and approximately 200,000 Serbs fled the country. In the post-war period, Serbs were exposed to discriminatory measures and rhetoric, including barriers to employment and property rights, use of the minority languages, as well as denial of genocide in the NDH. Following the 2020 elections, Boris Milošević, member of the Independent Democratic Serb Party (SDSS) and President of the Serb National Council, was elected one of the four Deputy Prime Ministers. Shortly afterward, the Croatian authorities and representatives of the Serbs marked the events of the 1991–95 war together.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Many prominent Croatian Serbs have become internationally recognized in their fields, such as Nikola Tesla, Milutin Milanković, Sava Šumanović, Rade Šerbedžija, Siniša Mihajlović and Peja Stojaković. According to the 2011 census, there were 186,633 Serbs living in Croatia (4.4% of the population) which are recognized as a national minority by the Croatian Constitution and therefore have three permanent seats in the Croatian Parliament.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Traditional elements of their identity are the Orthodox faith, Cyrillic script and military history, while modern elements are language and literature, civic, social and political values, concern for ethnic status and national organisation, and celebration of the Liberation of Yugoslavia.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: According to the 2021 census there were 123,892 ethnic Serbs living in Croatia, 3.2% of the total population. Their number was reduced by more than two-thirds in the aftermath of the 1991–95 War in Croatia as the 1991 pre-war census had reported 581,663 Serbs living in Croatia, 12.2% of the total population.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: In the 10th-century "De Administrando Imperio" (DAI), the lands of Konavle, Zahumlje and Pagania (which included parts of southern Dalmatia now in Croatia) is described as inhabited by Serbs who immigrated there from an area near Thessaloniki previously arrived there from White Serbia. In the Early Middle Ages, John Van Antwerp Fine Jr. believes that what is today western Bosnia and Herzegovina was part of Croatia, while the rest was divided between Croatia and Serbia. However, scholars like Tibor Živković and Neven Budak consider that a closer reading of the "DAI" suggests that the Constantine VII's consideration about the regional population ethnic identity is based on Serbian political rule during the expansion of Časlav in the 10th century and does not indicate ethnic origin. Some members of the Serbian royal family took refuge in Croatia amid dynastic rivalry in the 9th and 10th century.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Stefan Vojislav (r. 1018–1043) ruled a territory that included the coastal region from Ston in the north down to Skadar by 1040 after his rebellion against Byzantine rule. Mihailo Vojislavljević (1050–1081) built the St. Michael's Church in Ston, which has a fresco depicting him. Croatia entered union with Hungary in the beginning of the 12th century. Serbia also entered close relations with Hungary (Béla II married a Serbian princess). Beloš, a member of the Serbian royal family, became the "Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia" in 1142. By the early 13th century, the territory of Hum was under jurisdiction of the Western i.e. Roman Church, while the Serbian Orthodox Church established the diocese of Hum in 1219, seated at Ston, that linked the Pelješac peninsula with Hum which lasted until 1321 when Serbian Orthodox bishop had to withdraw from Ston. Serbia continued to hold parts of southernmost Dalmatia into the 14th century. In 1333 King of Serbia Stefan Dušan sold the Pelješac peninsula and the coast land between Ston and Dubrovnik to the Republic of Ragusa, while Ragusa had to pay an annual tribute and also had to guarantee freedom of worship for Orthodox believers in this territory. Among the oldest Orthodox churches in Croatia are the monasteries of Krupa, Krka and Dragović.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: According to Yugoslav ethnologist Jovan Erdeljanović, members of the Orlović clan settled in Lika and Senj in 1432, later joining the Uskoks. In 1436 on the Cetina, Croats, Vlachs, and Serbs appeared at the same time living on the estate of Ivan Frankopan. Serbs are reported in Hungarian documents as living in Croatia in 1437 (three documents call the Serbs in Syrmia and Slavonia as "Rascianos"–Rascians) and on 22 November 1447, the Hungarian King Ladislaus V wrote a letter which mentioned "Rascians, who live in our cities of Medvedgrad, Rakovac, both Kalinik and in Koprivnica". Matthias Corvinus complained in a letter from 1462 that 200,000 peoples during the previous three years had been taken from his country by Turks, this information was used as a reference for Serb migration to Hungary. After the Ottoman


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: conquests of Serbia and capture of Smederevo fortress in 1459 and fall of Bosnia 1463 different populations of Orthodox Christians moved into Syrmia and by 1483 perhaps 200,000 Orthodox Christians moved into central Slavonia and Syrmia. The Turkish conquest of Bosnia also pushed refugees and migrants into western Croatia. The Ottoman conquests of Serbia and Bosnia and future Ottoman wars sparked migrations into what is today Croatia throughout the Early modern period.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: As many former inhabitants of the Austrian-Ottoman borderland fled northwards or were captured by the Ottoman invaders, they left unpopulated areas. At the beginning of the 16th century settlements of Orthodox Christians were also established in modern-day western Croatia. In the first half of the 16th century Serbs settled Ottoman part of Slavonia while in the second part of the 16th century they moved to Austrian part of Slavonia. In 1550 they established the Lepavina Monastery. As Vlach settlements by name and signature we find marked Mali i Veliki Poganac (Poganetz) which was mentioned as Vlach settlement in 1610 and Lepavina (Lipavina) and Marča Monastery ( Eparchy of Marča ). The Habsburg Empire encouraged people from the Ottoman Empire to settle as free peasant soldiers, establishing the Military Frontiers ("Militärgrenze") in 1522 (hence they were known as Grenzers, "Krajišnici"). When it comes to the Austrian colonization of the Turkish Vlachs to Slavonian Military Frontier and the Vlachs in the Croatian Military Frontier there are some minor differences. Vlachs to western Slavonia or to the Varaždin Generalate of Slavonian Krajina are coming en masse and in a very short time: from yeare 1597 to 1600. To Croatian Krajina and Karlovac Generalate Vlachs arrive in smaller groups but throughout the whole XVII. century. Therefore, the Slavonian region was the first to open the door to the Balkans Vlachs. Biggest number of Vlachs comes from Slavonian Turkish Sandžaks In the first half of the 16th century Serbs settled Ottoman part of Slavonia while in the second part of the 16th century they moved to Austrian part of Slavonia.Serbs were mentioned in the Slavonian area at the end of the 14th century where they along with the Turks plundered and burned villages (Turcos et Rascianos). The Habsburg Empire encouraged people from the Ottoman Empire to settle as free peasant soldiers, establishing the Military Frontiers ("Militärgrenze") in 1522 (hence they were known as Grenzers, "Krajišnici"). They were mostly of Orthodox faith, Serbs and Vlachs (Romance-speaking). Catholic Vlachs were assimilated into Croats, while the Orthodox, under the jurisdiction of the Serbian Orthodox Church, assimilated into Serbs.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: The militarized frontier would serve as a buffer against Ottoman incursions. The Military frontiers had territory of modern Croatia, Serbia, Romania and Hungary. The colonists were granted small tracts of land, exempted from some obligations, and were to retain a share of all war booty. The Grenzers elected their own captains (vojvode) and magistrates (knezovi). All Orthodox settlers were promised freedom of worship. By 1538, the Croatian and Slavonian Military Frontier were established. Austrians offered land to Serbs and Vlachs which acted as the "cordon sanitaire" together with Croats against Turkish incursions from the Ottoman Empire. The Military frontiers are virtually identical to the present Serbian settlements (war-time Republic of Serbian Krajina). Colonization into Habsburg lands continued from 1526 to well into the seventeenth century. Serbian communities were dotted about until the twentieth century, preserving memories of their origin.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: In 1593, "Provveditore Generale" Cristoforo Valier mentions three nations constituting the Uskoks: "natives of Senj, Croatians, and Morlachs from the Turkish parts". Many of the Uskoks, who fought a guerrilla war with the Ottoman Empire were Orthodox Christian Serbs, who fled from Ottoman Turkish rule and settled in White Carniola and Zumberak.The Vlachs from Glamoc, Srb and Una area move in among Orthodox Christians and settling in 1530 under protection of King Ferdinand I. on the border of the Julian Alps (now Uskoks mountain) in Žumberak area Tihomir Đorđević points to the already known fact that the name 'Vlach' didn't only refer to genuine Vlachs or Serbs but also to cattle breeders in general. In the Venetian documents from the late 16th and 17th centuries, the name "Morlachs" (another term of Vlachs, first mentioned in the 14th century) was used for immigrants from conquered territory previously of Croatian and Bosnian kingdoms by the Ottoman Empire. They were of both Orthodox and Catholic faith, settled inland of the coastal cities of Dalmatia, and entered the military service of both Venice and Ottoman Empire.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: There was a population movement from the Ottoman territories into Venetian Dalmatia in this period. The Venetian government welcomed immigrants, as they protected possessions against the Ottomans. The Morlachs, former Ottoman subjects, helped Venice triple its size in Dalmatia. The bishop of Makarska described how many people migrated from the Ottoman Empire to Venetian territories. Major population movements into Venetian Dalmatia occurred during the 1670s and 1680s. In the summer of 1685, Cosmi, the Archbishop of Split, wrote that Morlach leader Stojan Janković had brought 300 families with him to Dalmatia, and also that around Trogir and Split there were 5,000 refugees from Ottoman lands, without food; this was seen as a serious threat to the defense of Dalmatia. Grain sent by the Pope proved insufficient, and these were forced to launch expeditions into Ottoman territory. Under Janković's leadership Serbs settled in Dalmatia in several waves. In July 1684. around 9000 Serbs settled around borders of Dalmatia. By the end of the same year 1500 Serb families moved from Zagora into Venice territory and the same migration happened in March 1685. when 600 families moved from Cetina under their chieftain Peraičić The military border was returned in 1881 to the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia. In 1918, it became part of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, which immediately joined the Kingdom of Serbia to form the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: The formation of the Serbian identity of Vlahs in Croatia began in the 18th century under the influence of the Serbian Orthodox Church (SPC), and most of the local Orthodox priests of the Metropolitanate of Karlovci who were educated in monasteries outside Croatia under the guidance of SPC clergy who came to the southwestern region of the Habsburg monarchy during the Great Migrations of the Serbs (1690–1739). In 1695, Serbian Patriarch Arsenije III Čarnojević organized the SPC's hierarchy in Croatia – the territory of the Military Frontier was 'subjugated' to the Eparchy of Gornji Karlovac, and Varaždin Generalate and the rest of Croatia to the Eparchy of Pakrac (since 1705). The Serbianisation of the Vlachs in southern Croatia was the result of the hierarchical linkage of Orthodox Vlachs from southern Croatian territories, at the time ruled by the Venetians, with the SPC in northern Croatia, which strengthened the ritual and ecclesiastical connection of the Vlachs with the Serb immigrants.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: In the 1860s, the Serbian thought began spreading among the Orthodox Christians in the Kingdom of Dalmatia. At first through the religious denomination, and by the time as a sign of national affiliation. There was also a brief occurrence when certain Catholic intellectuals, predominantly in Dubrovnik, were won over by the Serbian thought. They were known as "Serb Catholics". The reason for this was that Dalmatia and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, at the time ruled by Károly Khuen-Héderváry, were extremely disadvantaged so intellectuals did not want to link themselves to them, while at the same time they found newly created Kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro with their idea of unification of the South Slavs, appealing. With the creation of Yugoslavia, their political goals were achieved, and after that these "one-time Serbs" disappeared from the political stage. Such developments in the spread of Serbian thought in the Croatian lands were the result of Serbian politicians' plans dating back to the first half of the 19th century when Serbia wasn't an independent country, but a province of the Ottoman Empire. According to the 1844 Ilija Garašanin's Načertanije, they intended to establish a Serbian Empire on the territory of the collapsed Ottoman Empire. At first, its borders were supposed to be the borders of the Ottoman Empire and the Slavs in them, but they gradually expanded to the territory of present-day Croatia (including the Military Frointaire and Dalmatia). To accomplish this, the ground had to be prepared, so that diplomacy and the military would have a stronger base for taking action. The bases for this was the Serbian state law, and where it wasn't possible to appropriate the land with it, the argument of nationality, and when that argument couldn't be applied, then it was necessary to "create" the Serbs among the target population, if not among all, then among the majority. The main target were Orthodox Christians in the neighboring, non-Serb countries. In 1848/50, Serbian government organized a secret network of agents who propagated the Serbian ideas. Those agents were concealed as cultural workers. The famous agents were Georgije Nikolajević and Stjepan Mitrov Ljubiša. The 'creation' of new Serbs was carried out by identification of Orthodox Christianity in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina only with Serbs. Another argument used in the areas with no Orthodox Christians was identifying people who spoke Shtokavian with the Serbs. The idea "all Shtokavians are Serbs" was created by German Slavists in the 1850s, and was promoted by the Austrian government who wanted to equalize Croats and Serbs so that it could more easily rule the Croatian lands and in the next stage conquer Serbia and penetrate across Macedonia to Thessaloniki. The idea was that it was easier to "govern Belgrade and Zagreb if the same language was spoken in them". Geostrategic position of Belgrade in relation to Zagreb further contributed to favoring the Serbs whom Austrians did not perceive as a danger, unlike Croats who had own language, politicians, national consciousness, laws, military tradition and prepared army, as well as international treaties which have affirmed their rights, so Austrians needed someone (Serbs) to discipline the Croats. The same was done by Hungary which became a strong political factor after 1848 and that wished to expand into the Southeast Europe, which was particularly strong during the reign of Károly Khuen-Héderváry over Croatia.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: The revolutionary 1848 and the process of building a modern Croatian nation resulted in closer co-operation between Croats and Serbs and recognition of their equality in the sense of Illyrian Movement (also known as the Croatian National Revival) and Yugoslavian ideas. In the 1830s, ideas of the Illyrian Movement spread to Dalmatia. In 1835, Božidar Petranović began publishing the "Serbo-Dalmatian Magazine". In the following thirty years, Croats and Serbs worked together in the 'national movement' (by using this neutral name they avoided conflicts) against the Austro-Hungarian unitarism and Italian nationalists. However, since Vuk Karadžić, Ilija Garašanin and Jovan Subotić started writing of Dalmatia as a "Serbian land", and the recognition of Serbia as an independent state at the 1878 Congress of Berlin, the differences between Croats and Serbs in Dalmatia increased. Following Croat enthusiasm with the successful 1878 Austro-Hungarian conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina, during which many Croatian soldiers died, and them seeking unification of Dalmatia and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, the conflict between Croats and Serbs was inevitable. In 1879, Serbs from Bukovica voted for the Italian candidate instead of Croat Miho Klaić. This event was called by People's Party's supporters "Bukovica betrail". Shortly thereafter, separate Croatian and Serbian parties emerged, but Croatian parties managed to keep the majority in the Diet of Dalmatia while Serbs started cooperating with the Italian nationalists. Prior to this, Serbs in Dalmatia started emphasizing Serbianism more often, and for the Croats emphasize "Slovene, Yugoslavian, Slavic, Illyrian", which Mihovil Pavlinović considered destructive to Croatia so he used only attributes "Croatian" in his political program.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Ban Ivan Mažuranić abolished Serbian education autonomy, which was carried out by the Serbian Orthodox Church (SPC), as part of his educational reforms and liberal endeavors. Despite the interpretation of this move as anti-Serbian, some of the most senior governmental positions during Mažuranić's reign were held by the Serbs; Jovan Živković was Deputy Ban, Livije Radivojević president of the Table of Seven (Supreme Court), and Nikola Krestić President of the Croatian Parliament.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: During his 20-year-long reign, marked by violence and aggressive magyarization, Ban Károly Khuen-Héderváry encouraged ethnic conflicts between Croats and Serbs. He introduced Cyrillic in grammar school and equalized it with Latin, and allowed the use of Serbian flags. He has changed the official language in the Kingdom from Croatian into "Croato-Serbian" and appointed Serb Vaso Đurđević to the position of the Speaker of the Croatian Parliament. In 1884, Parliament enacted the so-called "Serbian laws" by which SPC gained the right to independently conduct education on the Croatian territory. In addition, Khuen-Héderváry financially assisted Serbs. During his reign, four out of eight Croatian county prefects, Deputy Ban and Speaker of the Croatian Parliament were Serbs, and Serbs occupied the highest ranks in the judiciary. The main goal of favoring the Serbs was to encourage inter-ethnic (Croat/Serb) conflicts which would lead to the preventing of Croatian resistance against the Austrian Empires' state policies. By the end of the 19th century, on the Vladimir Matijević's initiative, Serbs established a number of institutions such as the Serbian Bank, the Association of Serbian Agricultural Cooperatives and the Serbian Business Association 'Privrednik'.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: In 1894, Srbobran, a journal of Serbs in Croatia, which was funded by the Serbian government, published an article titled "Our First Decennial" in which the author described the awakening of Croatian national consciousness and aspirations to Western values among the Orthodox Christians and the lack of indoctrination with Serbianism among the clergy; "In the Serbian church, we found many priests who didn't know who the Saint Sava was, let alone they wanted to be Sava's apostles, neither safeguard his behests, Orthodox faith and Serbian nationality, nor nourish their flock within them. Among them, we found "Orthodox Croats" who preached from the Serbian enlightener Sava's ambon Croatian thought, and Latin was more dear to them then Cyrlic." The Croatian-Serbian conflict culminated on 10 August 1902, when, after years of controversial writing, Srbobran published a text titled "To Investigation Yours or Ours" in which author Nikola Stojanović, President of the Serbian Academic Society "Zora", denied the very existence of the Croatian nation and predicted the result of the conflict between Croats and Serbs, calling for destruction: "That struggle must lead to the investigation ours or yours. One party must fall. Their geographical position, circumstances in which they live everywhere mixed with the Serbs, and the process of general evolution where the idea of Serbianism means progress, guarantees us that those [falling] will be Croats." Enraged crowds reacted by burning Serbian flags and attacking Serb-owned shops, and buildings used by the Serbian institutions.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Formation of the so-called "New Course Policies" in the first decade of the 20th century was a turning point for the resumption of cooperation between Croats and Serbs with a purpose of fighting for a common interests, as confirmed by the 1905 Zadar Resolution, when the Croats agreed on broad concessions regarding flags, education, language and equality of Serbs. This led to the creation of the Croat-Serb Coalition (HSK) whose policy was based on cooperation with Hungary, the Italian parties in Dalmatia and the Serbs in Croatia and Slavonia, guaranteeing broad concessions regarding the Serb minority in Croatia. Serbs played a disproportionately large role in the political life of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia. Electoral units were not created according to the population but were gerrymandered according to the Governments' interests so, for example, in the 1913 parliamentary election, the Croatian Peasant Party received 12,917 votes and only 3 seats, while the Serb Independent Party received 11,704 votes and 17 seats. Serbs Mišćević, Pribićević, Krajnović, and Budisavljević received 1,062 votes, which was enough for all four of them to get elected, while Croat M. Uroić from the Party of Rights won 1,138 votes but hadn't been elected. According to the 1910 census, 644,955 Serbs lived on the territory of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, accounting for 24.5% of the population. In 1900, 95,000 Serbs, accounting for 16% of the population, lived in the Kingdom of Dalmatia.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Immediately upon the outbreak of the World War I, all organizations that the government considered favored unification of South Slavs or Serbia, which was on the side of the Allied Powers, were banned. Josip Frank's associates took advantage of some provocations and the anger of the people after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serb Gavrilo Princip and organized anti-Serbian demonstrations. After a stone was thrown on a parade in which the image of Franz Ferdinand was carried through Zagreb, many cafés and gathering places of pro-Yugoslav politicians as well as Serb-owned shops were demolished. Croat-Serb Coalition MP's were also attacked. On the other hand, members of the Social Democratic Party of Croatia and Slavonia held a rally in which they spoke against the violence. Simultaneously with the large anti-Serbian protests held in Vienna, Budapest and Bosnia and Herzegovina, in which there were wounded and dead, protests against pro-Yugoslav oriented citizens were held in many Croatian cities, including Dubrovnik, in which protesters attacked "Serbian Society "Dušan Magnificant"" Riots have been reported in Zadar, Metković, Bjelovar, Virovitica and Konavle where protesters burned the Serbian flag. In Đakovo and Slavonski Brod riots become so violent that the army intervention was requested. In addition, a curfew was imposed in the town of Petrinja. In Vukovar and Zemun police managed to prevent more clashes. Most Serbs in Croatia approved assassination. Cases of provocation, such as showing images of King Peter I of Serbia, joy, insults and celebrations, have been reported. 14 Serbs were arrested in Zadar for celebrating the assassination.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Following the end of World War I, previously independent State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and Kingdom of Serbia merged in 1918 into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia led to the formation of stronger ties between Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina with Serbia. Immediately after 1918, the influx of Serbs from Serbia into the territory of Croatia, in particular in the area of Syrmia and Lika-Krbava County, increased. Relative growth in the number of Serb citizens was recorded in Virovitica (35% increase), and Syrmia and Modruš-Rijeka counties, mainly due to the migration of Serbian war veterans who fought on Macedonian front to Slavonia during agrarian reform which was organized by the authorities. Thus, 25 settlements for volunteers were erected, and 8,000 families settled on the land in the areas of agrarian offices in Osijek and Vukovar. Although most of the Serbian parties in Croatia have been co-operating with Croatian Peasant Party in the struggle against Serbian unitarism for years, following the creation of Banovina of Croatia in 1939, part of Serbs showed a lack of willingness to live in a country with Croat majority. There were also requests for joining the Lika and Kordun districts with the Vrbas Banovina which had Serb majority.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Following the Invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, the Axis powers occupied the entire territory of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and established a puppet state, the so-called Independent State of Croatia (NDH) on the territory of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. The Ustaše government saw Serbs, Jews, Romanis and antifascist Croats as a disruptive element and enemies of the Croatian people, and immediately started with their prosecution. One-third of Serbs were to be killed, one-third expelled and one-third forcibly converted to Catholicism, according to a formula devised by Ustaše ministers. Upon the establishment of the NDH, Ustaše officials immediately began making harsh statements against the Serbs. Although some of the prominent Serbs first offered cooperation to the new Ustaše government, Serbs were outlawed. During the first months of NDH's existence, numerous legal decisions were made against the Serbs: they had to leave the public service, had to move to the northern parts of Zagreb, could walk through Zagreb only during the day, had to wear a badge with the letter "P" (stood for "Pravoslavni", meaning Orthodox Christians), the name of their faith was changed from Serbian Orthodox to Greek-Eastern, and usage of the Cyrillic script was prohibited. Ustaše were making lists of Serbs which they used for deportations to Serbia. About 175,000 Serbs were deported from NDH to Serbia during the first two years of NDH's existence. The regime systematically and brutally massacred Serbs in villages in the countryside, using a variety of tools. In addition, Nazi-style concentration camps were set up for enemies of the state, the most notorious being Jasenovac where some 50,000 Serbs were killed. Sisak and Jastrebarsko concentration camp were specially formed for children. During the war, around 300,000 Serbs are estimated to have been murdered under the Ustashe regime as a result of their genocide campaign. Diana Budisavljević, a humanitarian of Austrian descent, carried out rescue operations and saved more than 15,000 children from Ustashe camps.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: The Ustasha policy towards Serbs further drove a number of them joined either Chetniks or the Yugoslav Partisans who were particularly strong in the regions of Lika, Kordun and Banovina. In 1941–42, the majority of Partisans in Croatia were Serbs, but by October 1943 the majority were Croats. This change was partly due to the decision of a key Croatian Peasant Party member, Božidar Magovac, to join the Partisans in June 1943, and partly due to the surrender of Italy in September 1943. Furthermore, Ustashe authorities ceding Northern Dalmatia to fascist Italy, Italian terror of the population and misrule of the Ustashe and Axis invaders would further push Croats towards the partisans. At the moment of the capitulation of Italy to the Allies the Serbs and Croats were participating equally according to their respective population sizes as it was in Yugoslavia as a whole. Eventually, Serbian percentage dropped in favor of Croats by the end of the war amounting to 28.6% in 1944 in Croatia. The Serb contribution to Croatian Partisans represented more than their proportion of the local population. After the invasion of Yugoslavia by Axis forces, Serbian uprisings broke out under the Chetnik leadership in Gračac, Srb, Donji Lapac, Drvar and Bosansko Grahovo. The policy of the Chetniks under the leadership of Draža Mihailović varied from the struggle with the Nazis to tactical or selective collaboration with them in different periods throughout the war. The goal of the Chetniks, based on a 1941 directive, was the creation of an ethnically homogeneous Greater Serbia. The largest Chetnik massacres took place in eastern Bosnia within the NDH where they preceded any significant Ustashe operations. In the territories they controlled, Chetniks committed genocide against the Croat and Muslim civilian populations. However, they also collaborated with some of the Ustashe forces in northern Bosnia and they fought together against the Yugoslav Partisans during the Case White.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: A certain change in relations towards Serbs in NDH took place in the spring of 1942 on German demand, as the Germans realized that the Ustaše policy towards Serbs strengthened their rebellion, which was putting pressure on the German army that had to send more of its troops to the NDH territory. Afterwards, Ustaše founded the Croatian Orthodox Church and Serbs were recruited to the Croatian Home Guard units. Ustaše stopped with deportations of Serbs and their forced conversions to Catholicism. However, these measures did not significantly affect the Serb rebellion. The establishment of the Church was done in order to try and pacify the state as well as to Croatisize the remaining Serb population once the Ustaše realized that the complete eradication of Serbs in the NDH was unattainable. Persecution of Serbs continued however, but was less intense. At the beginning of 1942, NDH authorities started making agreements with the Chetniks to avoid conflicts and coordinate actions against the Yugoslav Partisans. On 8 May 1945, Yugoslav Partisans entered Zagreb, which marked the collapse of the Ustaše regime and the liberation of Croatia from the Nazi occupation. Following the end of the war, Croatia entered union with Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia and formed the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: During the Second World War, at the Second and Third sessions of the National Anti-Fascist Council of the Peoples Liberation of Croatia (ZAVNOH) held in October 1943 and May 1944 respectively, the equality of the Serbian and Croatian nations, as constituent nations of the federal unit of Croatia, was recognized in every aspect. Later, in 1963, the Croatian Constitution did not mention the Serbs in Croatia as a constituent nation of SR Croatia. Constitution of 1974 defined Croatia as a "national state of Croatian people, state of Serbian people in Croatia and state of other nationalities that live in it".


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: In 1990 the Bookocide in Croatia began and lasted for next 20 years resulting with the destruction of almost 3 million books in Croatian libraries mostly because they were published in Serbian Cyrillic or Ekavian. On 22 December 1990, HDZ government of Franjo Tuđman promulgated a new Croatian constitution that changed the wording with regard to Serbs of Croatia. In the first paragraph of the Article 12, Croatian was specified as the official language and alphabet, and dual-language road signs were torn down even in Serb majority areas. Furthermore, a number of Serbs were removed from the bureaucracies and the police and replaced by ethnic Croats. Many Serbs in government lost their jobs, and HDZ made themselves target of Serbian propaganda by having party members attempting to rehabilitate the WWII Croatian fascist movement Ustaše, or by saying that the numbers of people killed in Jasenovac, one of the largest extermination camp in Europe, were inflated. The party representing the interests of Serbs in Croatia, the Serbian Democratic Party (SDS), which rejected the new constitution, began building its own national governmental entity in order to preserve rights that Serbs saw as being stripped away and to enhance the sovereignty of the Croatian Serbs.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Amid rising of Serbian nationalism and tensions between Yugoslav republics during the breakup of Yugoslavia, on 8 July 1989 Serbs held a rally in Knin during which they exhibited numerous Chetnik symbols and were invoking JNA's military intervention against Croatia. With the introduction of the multiparty system, the first ethnic Serb parties were founded in Croatia, largest being Serb Democratic Party (SDS). Soon afterward, extremist leaders of the Serb movements in Lika, Northern Dalmatia, Kordun, and Podunavlje called for armed rebellion against Croatian government, violence against Croats and refused to recognize legally elected Croatian authorities.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Tension grew following the Croatian Democratic Union's victory in the 1990 general election since one of its political goals was Croatia's independence from Yugoslavia. Jovan Rašković, leader of SDS, refused to participate in the work of the Croatian Parliament in May 1990. Some prominent Serbian politicians and scientists, such as Simo Rajić and Jovan Bamburać, called for coexistence, de-escalation and peace, while others organized Serb parties in the Croatian government-controlled areas, like Milan Đukić, while others, like Veljko Džakula, unsuccessfully tried to organize the parties in the rebelled areas, but their work was prevented by Serb nationalists. On 17 August 1990, part of the Croatian Serbs, supported by Serbia, rebelled against Croatian government in the so-called Log Revolution


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: On 22 December 1990, Croatian Parliament ratified a new constitution in which Serbs were classified as a national minority. Previously Serbs were considered autochthonous constituent of Croatia. The proclamation of the new constitution was considered by Serbian leaders evidence of Croat hostility towards Serbs. Thus, SDS, which rejected the new constitution, began building its own national governmental entity in order to preserve rights that Serbs saw as being stripped away and to enhance the sovereignty of the Croatian Serbs. A Norwegian historian Øyvind Hvenekilde Seim stated that status of Serbs in Croatia, who made important contributions to Croatian cultural, scientific, and political history, was annulled by actions of president Franjo Tuđman during the 1990s. Sabrina P. Ramet wrote that Tuđman's regime "promoted a traditionalist and exclusive vision of Croatia" as a Croat state in which Serbs were "unwelcome", while journalist Chris Hedges claimed to have transcript documents of a meeting that supposedly showed Tuđman had "planned ethnic cleansing and other war crimes", including "Croatia’s final solution" of its Serbian problem. Under the influence of propaganda and with the support from Serbia as well as in response to actions by President Tudjman's administration, rebelled Serbs established an unrecognized state called Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) in hopes of achieving independence and complete self-governance from Croatia. As the popularity of the unification of RSK with Serbia into a Greater Serbia increased, the rebellion against Croatia became more intense. The RSK had "de facto" control over one-third of Croatian territory during its existence between 1991 and 1995 but failed to gain any international recognition. According to the ICTY, the RSK implemented policies "which advanced the objective to forcibly and permanently remove the majority of Croat and other non-Serb populations from approximately the one-third of Croatia".


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: In the spring of 1991, an open war broke out. Serb forces, in cooperation with the local Serb authorities, commenced persecutions to drive the Croat and other non-Serb populations from areas such as Krajina, controlled by rebelled Serbs. Nearly all non-Serbs were expelled; between 170,000 and 250,000 people, and hundreds of Croat and other non-Serb civilians were killed. Meanwhile, Serbs living in Croatian towns, especially those near the front lines, were subjected to various forms of discrimination and harassment. Croatian Serbs in Eastern and Western Slavonia and parts of the Krajina, were also forced to flee or were expelled by Croatian forces, though on a restricted scale and in lesser numbers. The Croatian Government sought to stop such occurrences and were not a part of the Government's policy. The war ended with a Croatian military success in Operation Storm in 1995 and subsequent peaceful reintegration of the remaining renegade territory in eastern Slavonia in 1998 as a result of the signed Erdut Agreement from 1995. Local Serbs, on the ground that Agreement, established the Serb National Council and gained the right to establish the Joint Council of Municipalities. During and in the aftermath of Operation Storm about 200,000 Serbs fled from the RSK and hundreds of mainly elderly Serb civilians were killed in the aftermath. Over the course of the war, nearly 7,950 Serbs were killed including 2,344 civilians while almost 16,000 Croats were killed, of which 6,605 were civilians. The conflict led to the displacement of 250,000 Croats and between 250,000 and 300,000 Serbs.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: In February 2015, during the Croatia–Serbia genocide case, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) unanimously dismissed the Serbian lawsuit claim that Operation Storm constituted genocide, ruling that Croatia did not have the specific intent to exterminate the country's Serb minority, though it reaffirmed that serious crimes against Serb civilians had taken place. The judgment stated that it is not disputed that a substantial part of the Serb population fled that region as a direct consequence of the military actions. Although it has also been noted that there was an evacuation order given by the RSK's "Supreme Defence Council", based on the testimony by commander Mile Mrkšić at the ICTY. The Croatian authorities were aware that the operation would provoke a mass exodus; they even to some extent predicated their military planning on such an exodus, which they considered not only probable but desirable. Fleeing civilians and people remaining in United Nations protected areas were subject to various forms of harassment, including military assaults and acts by Croatian civilians. On 8 August, a refugee column was shelled. Although it was very difficult to determine the number of properties destroyed during and after Operation Storm since a large number of houses sustained some degree of damage since the beginning of the war, Human Rights Watch (HRW) estimated that more than 5,000 houses were destroyed in the area during and after the battle. Out of the 122 Serbian Orthodox churches in the area, one was destroyed and 17 were damaged. HRW also reported that the vast majority of the abuses were committed by Croatian forces. These abuses, which continued on a large scale even months after Operation Storm, included summary executions of elderly and infirm Serbs who remained behind and the wholesale burning and destruction of Serbian villages and property. In the months following the August offensive, at least 150 Serb civilians were summarily executed and another 110 persons forcibly disappeared. Three Croatian generals, involved in the Operation Storm, were later acquitted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) of charges of committing war crimes and partaking in a joint criminal enterprise to force the Serb population out of Croatia. The ICTY stated that Croatian Army and Special Police committed a large number of crimes against the Serb population after the artillery assault, but that the state and military leadership was not responsible for their creation and organizing. Examples of crimes are massacres, most often elderly Serb villagers killed by the Croatian Army, such as the Varivode massacre, the Kijani massacre and the Golubić massacre.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: At the ICTY, Milan Babić was indicted, pleaded guilty and was convicted for "persecutions on political, racial and religious grounds, a crime against humanity". Babić stated during his trial that "during the events, and in particular at the beginning of his political career, he was strongly influenced and misled by Serbian propaganda". RSK President, Milan Martić, was also trialled by the ICTY for various Crimes against humanity and war crimes, including murder, persecution, inhumane treatment, forced displacement, plunder of public or private property, and wanton destruction of cities, towns or villages, as well as ordering an indiscriminate rocket attack on Zagreb, in 1995. On 12 June 2007, Martić was sentenced to 35 years in prison. His sentence of 35 years in prison was confirmed by ICTY appellate council on 8 October 2008. He was found to have been part of a "joint criminal enterprise" which included Blagoje Adžić, Milan Babić, Radmilo Bogdanović, Veljko Kadijević, Radovan Karadžić, Slobodan Milošević, Ratko Mladić, Vojislav Šešelj, Franko Simatović, Jovica Stanišić, and Dragan Vasiljković.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: A small minority of pre-war Serb population have returned to Croatia. Today, the majority of the pre-war Serb population from Croatia settled in Serbia and Republika Srpska. After Croatian and other Yugoslav Wars, Serbia became home to highest number of refugees (Serbs who fled from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia) in Europe.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: The percentage of those declaring themselves as Serbs, according to the 1991 census, was 12.2% (78.1% of the population declared itself to be Croat). Although today Serbs are formally able to return to Croatia, a majority choose to remain citizens of other countries in which they gained citizenship. However, Croatia also adopted discriminatory measures to prevent the return of Serbs after war, while the Croatian forces continued with abuses on a large scale for months afterward, which included destruction of Serb property. Also, Serbs are still face significant barriers to employment and to regain their property. Consequently, today Serbs constitute 4% of Croatian population, down from the prewar population of 12%. The majority of the remaining population is elderly, which indicates that the negative demographic trend will persist.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Currently, the official status of "autochthonous national minority" for the Serbs of Croatia is recognized by the Croatian Constitutional Act on the Rights of National Minorities from 2002 which supplemented the Constitutional Act on the Human Rights and Freedoms and on the Rights of Ethnic and National Communities or Minorities in the Republic of Croatia from 1992.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Tension and violence between Serbs and Croats has reduced since 2000 and has remained low to this day, however, significant problems remain. The main issue is thought to be due to high-level official and social discrimination against the Serbs. In 2005, the Republic of Croatia ratified a bilateral agreement with Serbia and Montenegro on the protection of the Serbian and Montenegrin minority in Croatia and the Croatian national minority in Serbia and Montenegro. Some Croats, including politicians, continue to deny and minimise the magnitude of the genocide perpetrated against Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: At the highest levels of the Croatian government, new laws are continuously introduced in order to combat this discrimination, demonstrating an effort on the part of government. For example, lengthy and in some cases unfair proceedings, particularly in lower level courts, remain a major problem for Serbian returnees pursuing their rights in court. In addition, Serbs continue to be discriminated against in access to employment and in realizing other economic and social rights. Also some cases of violence and harassment against Croatian Serbs continue to be reported.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: The property laws allegedly favor Bosnian Croats refugees who took residence in houses that were left unoccupied and unguarded by Serbs after Operation Storm. Amnesty International's 2005 report considers one of the greatest obstacles to the return of thousands of Croatian Serbs has been the failure of the Croatian authorities to provide adequate housing solutions to Croatian Serbs who were stripped of their occupancy rights, including where possible by reinstating occupancy rights to those who had been affected by their discriminatory termination.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: The European Court of Human Rights decided against Croatian Serb Kristina Blečić, stripped her of occupancy rights after leaving her house in 1991 in Zadar. In 2009, the UN Human Rights Committee found a wartime termination of occupancy rights of a Serbian family to violate ICCPR. In 2010, the European Committee on Social Rights found the treatment of Serbs in Croatia in respect of housing to be discriminatory and too slow, thus in violation of Croatia's obligations under the European Social Charter. In 2013, the Anti-Cyrillic protests in Croatia were a series of protests in late 2013 against the application of bilingualism in Vukovar, whereby Serbian and the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet were assigned co-official status due to the local minority population.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: In 2015 Amnesty International reported that Croatian Serbs continued to face discrimination in public sector employment and the restitution of tenancy rights to social housing vacated during the war. In 2017 they again pointed out that Serbs faced significant barriers to employment and obstacles to regain their property. Amnesty International also said that the right to use minority languages and script continued to be politicized and unimplemented in some towns and that heightened nationalist rhetoric and hate speech contributed to growing ethnic intolerance and insecurity.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Since 2016, anti-fascist groups, leaders of Croatia's Serb, Roma and Jewish communities and former top Croat officials have boycotted the official state commemoration for the victims of the Jasenovac concentration camp because, as they said, Croatian authorities refused to denounce the Ustasha legacy explicitly and they downplayed and revitalized crimes committed by Ustashe.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Following the 2020 Croatian parliamentary election, Boris Milošević, member of the Independent Democratic Serb Party and President of the Serb National Council, was elected one of the four Deputy Prime Ministers of Croatia in charge of social affairs and human and minority rights in the new cabinet of Andrej Plenković. On the 25th anniversary of the Operation Storm, the celebrations were attended for the first time ever by an ethnic Serb political representative, Boris Milošević. On 25 August 2020, Zoran Milanović (President of Croatia), Tomo Medved (Minister of Croatian Veterans), along with members of the Independent Democratic Serb Party, Milorad Pupovac and Deputy Prime Minister Milošević, attended a commemoration of the Grubori massacre, the mass murder of elderly Serbs civilians.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: According to the 2021 census there were 123,892 ethnic Serbs living in Croatia, 3.20% of the total population. Their number was reduced by more than two-thirds in the aftermath of the 1991–95 War in Croatia as the 1991 pre-war census had reported 581,663 Serbs living in Croatia, 12.2% of the total population.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Serbs in Croatia have cultural traditions ranging from kolo dances and singing, which are kept alive today by performances by various folklore groups. Notable traditions include gusle, diple, Ojkanje singing, and Čuvari Hristovog groba.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Many Serbs contributed to the Croatian culture, such as trader Hristofor Stanković who founded the first permanent theater building in Gornji Grad, Zagreb.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: The Serbs of Croatia are predominantly of the Serbian Orthodox faith. There are many Orthodox churches and monasteries across Croatia, built since the 14th century. Most notable and historically significant are the Krka monastery, Krupa monastery, Dragović monastery, Lepavina Monastery and Gomirje monastery. Many Orthodox churches were demolished during World War II and during the Croatian War of Independence, while some were rebuilt with EU funding, the Croatian government and Serbian diaspora donations.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: In the 1560s a Serbian Orthodox bishop was installed in the Metropolitanate of Požega, seated in the monastery of Remeta. In the 17th century, the Eparchy of Marča was founded at Marča, in the Croatian frontier. These were part of the Serbian Orthodox Patriarchate of Peć, which was reestablished in 1557, and lasted under Ottoman governance until 1766. Other bishoprics were founded, although their approval by the Habsburgs hinged on the belief that they would facilitate the union of these Orthodox Christians with the Catholic Church, and in fact, many, including some Orthodox bishops, did unify with Rome.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Serbs in the Croatian Military Frontier were out of the jurisdiction of the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć and in 1611, and after demands from the community, the Pope established the Eparchy of Marča ("Vratanija") with seat at the Serbian-built Marča Monastery, with a Byzantine vicar instated as bishop sub-ordinate to the Roman Catholic bishop of Zagreb – working to bring Serbian Orthodox Christians into communion with Rome, which caused struggle of power between the Catholics and the Serbs over the region.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: In 1695 Orthodox Eparchy of "Lika-Krbava and Zrinopolje" was established by metropolitan Atanasije Ljubojević and certified by Emperor Josef I in 1707. In 1735 the Serbian Orthodox protested in the Marča Monastery and became part of the Serbian Orthodox Church until 1753 when the Pope restored the Roman Catholic clergy. On 17 June 1777 the Eparchy of Križevci was permanently established by Pope Pius VI with its Episcopal see at Križevci, near Zagreb, thus forming the Croatian Greek Catholic Church which would after World War I include other people; the Rusyns and ethnic Ukrainians of Yugoslavia.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Jovan, the Metropolitan of Zagreb and Ljubljana stated that 30,000 Serbs had converted to Catholicism since the Operation Oluja (1995). In the 2011 census, regarding religious affiliation, 40,000 declared as "Serbs of the Orthodox faith", while 160,000 declared as "Orthodox".


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: In April 2015 the United Nations Human Rights Committee urged Croatia to ensure the right of minorities to use their language and alphabet. The committee report stated that particularly concerns surrounded the use of Serbian Cyrillic in the town of Vukovar and municipalities concerned. Serbian Foreign Minister Ivica Dačić stated that Serbia welcomed the UN Human Rights Committee's report.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Although the 2011 census in Croatia listed Serbs as the largest national minority in Croatia, with 4.4% of the total population, the number of people who had declared Serbian language as their native was only 1.23% of the total population (52,879).


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Serbs are officially recognized as an autochthonous national minority, and as such, they elect three representatives to the Croatian Parliament.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: The major Serb party in Croatia is the Independent Democratic Serb Party (SDSS). In the elections from 2003, the SDSS has won all Serbian seats in the parliament. In the Cabinet of Ivo Sanader II, the party was part of the ruling coalition led by the conservative Croatian Democratic Union, and SDSS member Slobodan Uzelac held the post of Deputy Prime Minister. After that Serbs again entered government during Cabinet of Andrej Plenković II, in which Boris Milošević become Deputy Prime Minister and responsible for Social Affairs and Human and Minority Right.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: There are also ethnic Serb politicians who are members of mainstream political parties, such as the centre-left Social Democratic Party's MPs and Milanović cabinet members Željko Jovanović, Branko Grčić and Milanka Opačić.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: During the Second World War, the Ustashe regime systematically engaged in the extermination, expulsion and forced conversion of Serbs in Croatia. Facing discrimination after the Croatian War of Independence (1991–95), several anonymous Serbs from Zagreb testify that some young Serbs have converted to Catholicism and changed their surnames in order to 'become Croats'.


title: Serbs of Croatia

text: Approximately 250,000 Serbs from Croatia were resettled in Serbia during and after the Croatian War of Independence, of which the larger part took Serbian citizenship. In 2011, there were 284,334 Serbs from Croatia living in Serbia (excluding Kosovo), with the majority living in Vojvodina (127,884), followed by Central and South Serbia (114,434). In 2013, approximately 45,000 Serbs from Croatia were still listed as refugees in Serbia. The largest part of the Croatian Serb community in Serbia stated that they wished to integrate (60.6%), only 4.3% wanted to return to their homes in Croatia, while 27.4% who were undecided.


title: The Crimson Idol

text: The Crimson Idol is the fifth studio album by heavy metal band W.A.S.P., released in 1992 through Capitol Records. It was the first album by W.A.S.P. since the band's temporary breakup in 1990; this was because vocalist and rhythm guitarist Blackie Lawless had intended to release "The Crimson Idol" as a solo album, until he decided to release it as a W.A.S.P. album. The album charted within the top 40 in five countries. "The Crimson Idol" is a rock opera, telling the story of the rise and fall of a fictional rock star named Jonathan Steel.


title: The Crimson Idol

text: A remastered edition was reissued in 1998, containing a bonus disc of B-sides and live material from 1992. In 2018, Napalm Records released a re-recording of the album, along with a DVD of the film that was originally to accompany the album, under the title of ReIdolized (The Soundtrack to The Crimson Idol).


title: The Crimson Idol

text: Taking nearly three years to complete, "The Crimson Idol" was originally recorded as a Blackie Lawless solo album, but bandleader Lawless bowed to fan pressure and released it under the W.A.S.P. name.


title: The Crimson Idol

text: Unusually, the album's tour, named The Crimson Idol Tour, took place fifteen years after its release to mark its fifteenth anniversary, commencing on October 26, 2007 at the Principal Club Theater in Thessaloniki, Greece. A film recorded for the album was also shown in public for the first time, which was played along with the band as they performed their tracks to it in synch. The shows marked the first time that the album has been played from start to finish by the band since its recording. "Mephisto Waltz", the seventh track from "The Headless Children" (1989), served as the show's opener, followed by "The Titanic Overture", the first track from "The Crimson Idol". All shows had a long encore section ranging from 2–6 songs, containing W.A.S.P. classics as well as "Take Me Up" from their 2007 album "Dominator".


title: The Crimson Idol

text: A re-recorded version of the entire "The Crimson Idol" album was announced on January 23, 2017. Details and the cover art of the re-recorded album, entitled "ReIdolized: The Soundtrack to the Crimson Idol", were released on November 17, 2017. The 2-CD album itself was released on February 2, 2018.


title: The Crimson Idol

text: In 2017, W.A.S.P. played the whole album again on tour to mark the 25th anniversary of its release. The tour, dubbed "Re-Idolized: The 25th Anniversary of the Crimson Idol", took place from September through November 2017 in Europe. All shows had a short encore, usually about four or five songs, as well as a few of their classics and the title track from their 2015 album "Golgotha".


title: The Crimson Idol

text: The story of "The Crimson Idol" revolves around a teenager named Jonathan. He is the son of William and Elizabeth Steel, and brother of Michael Steel. Michael is the favored son of his parents, and Jonathan is a complete failure in their eyes. After Michael is killed in a car accident by a drunk driver, Jonathan runs away from home and starts to wander the streets, becoming addicted to drugs and alcohol. While walking past a music store, he sees a guitar and desires to become a rock star. He breaks the display window with a bottle of booze, thus beginning his journey into acclaimed excess.


title: The Crimson Idol

text: Jonathan plays the stolen crimson-colored guitar as often as he can in order to obtain money to record an album. He then meets a man named "Chainsaw" Charlie, the president of a major record label. Charlie promises to make Jonathan a star, and introduces him to Alex Rodman, who will become his manager. Jonathan goes on to achieve his ambition of becoming a rock star, but finds out that life is not as glamorous as it seems. Despite now having fame and fortune, he still longs for the one thing he always wanted, that being the love and acceptance of his parents.


title: The Crimson Idol

text: One night before a concert, Jonathan calls his parents in an attempt to reconcile their differences and heal the emotional wounds between them. According to the story, "less than fifty words were spoken"; the last four were "we have no son". Realizing that he will never be accepted by his parents, Jonathan decides to commit suicide. During the aforementioned concert, he removes the strings from his guitar, shapes them into a noose and hangs himself.


title: The Crimson Idol

text: The overall concept is explained in the 1998 bonus track, "The Story of Jonathan (Prologue to the Crimson Idol)".


title: The Crimson Idol

text: The German magazine "Rock Hard" declared "The Crimson Idol" Album of the Month in June 1992 and the reviewer wrote that it maintained the same "power, roughness, melodic fullness and epic breadth" of its predecessors, with songs "not always at the world-class level, but damn close."


title: The Crimson Idol

text: In a modern review for AllMusic Greg Prato described "The Crimson Idol" as "essentially a Blackie Lawless solo album" and indicated "The Invisible Boy", "Chainsaw Charlie (Murders in the New Morgue)" and "I Am One" as highlights. In his review for "The Collector's Guide to Heavy Metal", Martin Popoff called "The Crimson Idol" an "unenjoyable, even hurtful failure in the concept album department", lacking "the creative resonance the painstaking process" of making it "should have nurtured".


title: Zoe Levin

text: Zoe Levin (born November 24, 1993) is an American actress. She played Emily in the 2013 film "Palo Alto" and Tasha in "Beneath the Harvest Sky". She portrayed Kara Souders in the Fox TV show "Red Band Society". She played Tiffany "Tiff" Chester in the 2019 Netflix dark comedy "Bonding". She is also part of the unreleased film "The Long Home," directed by James Franco.


title: Zoe Levin

text: Levin was born in Chicago and moved to Glencoe when she was 11. She is from a Jewish family and attended the elementary and junior high school in Glencoe before graduating from New Trier High School.


title: Zoe Levin

text: She began acting at an early age and had tried out for her first professional play when she was 13. She then relocated to Los Angeles to study communication and fine arts at Loyola Marymount University. Her acting career kicked off in 2010 when she was selected to play a role in David Schwimmer's film "Trust". This came after her performances at Chicago's Looking Glass Theatre.


title: Survivor (Destiny's Child song)

text: "Survivor" is a song recorded by American group Destiny's Child for their third studio album of the same title (2001). It was written and composed by group member Beyoncé, Anthony Dent, and Mathew Knowles.


title: Survivor (Destiny's Child song)

text: "Survivor" was inspired by a joke that a radio station had made about the fact that three members had already left the group, comparing the band to the reality game show "Survivor". Beyoncé was inspired to take the negative comment and turn it into a positive by writing a song out of it. The song was released as the lead single from "Survivor" on March 6, 2001, by Columbia Records.


title: Survivor (Destiny's Child song)

text: "Survivor" was a commercial success, peaking at number two on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and topping the charts in Ireland, Norway, and the United Kingdom. Critically acclaimed, the song won the Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals at the 44th Annual Grammy Awards (2002). Its accompanying music video won the 2001 MTV Video Music Award for Best R&B Video, while the song also won a Soul Train Lady of Soul Award for Best R&B/Soul Single, Group, Band or Duo. In 2017, "Billboard" ranked the song at number 40 on their list "100 Greatest Girl Group Songs of All Time". Additionally, BET named it the tenth best song of the 2000s.


title: Survivor (Destiny's Child song)

text: "Survivor" was written by Anthony Dent, Destiny's Child band member Beyoncé Knowles and her father Mathew, while production was helmed by Dent and Beyoncé. The song addresses the drama the band endured in 2000, when original members LaTavia Roberson and LeToya Luckett split from Knowles and Kelly Rowland, and were replaced by Michelle Williams and Farrah Franklin. Soon afterwards Franklin was also dismissed from the group, leading to more well-publicized personnel changes. According to Knowles, the group was publicly compared to the reality series "Survivor", which inspired her to "write us out of all that negativity."


title: Survivor (Destiny's Child song)

text: Dent initially envisioned his instrumental track to be recorded by rapper Lil' Kim, before Beyoncé used it to pen the lyrics, melody and vocal arrangement for "Survivor." Much of the song was written during a flight to the next city while Destiny's Child was opening for singer Christina Aguilera during her Christina Aguilera in Concert tour. Knowles later elaborated on the process: "I wrote it quickly because I was frustrated. For me, it was all about what survival means for women, and how hard it is to be one when there are people out there who are trying to bring you down." She further commented on its concept in an interview with MTV in which she stated that "Survivor" was "basically about surviving different situations. Everyone in this world that I know, they've survived something, and I know the song is definitely inspirational. It really makes you feel strong and it really makes you feel like you can survive anything."


title: Survivor (Destiny's Child song)

text: Recording of the song took place at the SugarHill Studios in Houston, Texas in late 2000. "Survivor" was the first song from its parent album to be recorded. In a promotional 2001 interview with "Billboard", Williams commented on the recording process: "Words can't describe how we felt when we recorded that song. Some of us were crying, others were jumping up and down [...] We prayed before that session, and the energy in that session was so high –— the room was heated." The chanting of the word "what!" in the chorus was Mathew Knowles' contribution to the song and added late into the recording of the "Survivor" after he had walked into the session while the band was recording and felt that a chanting part would suggest audience participation.


title: Survivor (Destiny's Child song)

text: The song is performed in the key of G minor, with a tempo of 81 beats per minute in common time. In the harmonic minor scale, it follows a chord progression of Gm–Cm–D, and the group's vocals span an octave and a half, from G to C.


title: Survivor (Destiny's Child song)

text: "Billboard" critic Chuck Taylor noted that "Survivor" was "careful not to stray from the well-established formula that has made Destiny's Child the pop act "du jour" – a skittish stop- and-start beat, the puissant vocals of co-songwriter/producer Beyoncé Knowles, and a lyric about life in the victory lane when mankind does you wrong." AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine found that "Survivor" was "painfully labored, stuttering over a halting melody that Beyoncé Knowles breathlessly pushes to absolutely nowhere, working it so hard that it's difficult to listen."


title: Survivor (Destiny's Child song)

text: "Survivor" debuted at number 43 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, making it the group's second highest-debuting single to date, behind "Lose My Breath" at number 30. It quickly ascended through the chart, reaching its peak position of number two within a month. However, it was blocked out of the summit spot by Janet Jackson's "All for You", remaining at number two for seven consecutive weeks. The song was not released on physical formats until after its airplay had peaked; it topped the "Billboard" Hot Dance Music Maxi-Singles Sales chart for eight weeks. It also peaked at number five on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. The single stayed atop the Hot 100 Airplay chart for five consecutive weeks and peaked at number three on the Hot 100 Singles Sales chart. Its DVD edition peaked at number nine on the US Top Music Videos chart.


title: Survivor (Destiny's Child song)

text: In the United Kingdom, "Survivor" debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart, selling 104,000 copies in its first week. It had sold 260,000 copies by the end of 2001, and has sold over 832,000 copies as of April 2021. It also topped the charts in Ireland and the Netherlands, while peaking at number two in Canada and number three in New Zealand.


title: Survivor (Destiny's Child song)

text: An accompanying music video for "Survivor" was directed by Darren Grant and filmed in various locations throughout Los Angeles County, California on January 27–29, 2001. The clip is styled in the sense of three survivors living on an uninhabited island. It also shows a brief prelude to how the trio got shipwrecked. Following their shipwreck, they uncover an island where they change clothes and walk into a waterfall leading to a deserted temple where it transforms into a dance break. It storms on through the dance bridge and the prelude of the shipwreck. After this, a helicopter starts buzzing leading to where the members are racing out of the island for their escape. External shots in the video were filmed at Point Dume State Beach on the on the coast of Malibu as well as the Los Angeles County Arboretum and Botanic Garden in Arcadia, with the rest of the sequences being filmed at the Los Angeles Center Studios.


title: Survivor (Destiny's Child song)

text: The final video premiered on MTV's making of docu series "Making the Video" on March 6, 2001. One of Destiny's Child's "most difficult videos" to film due to the unseasonal weather conditions in California in late January 2001, the band was reportedly "sick for days" after shooting beach scenes in their skimpy outfits. The "Surivor" music video was later released on DVD with a live performance of "Independent Women Part I" at the 2001 Brit Awards on May 15, 2001. The release was a standard full-frame transfer that preserved the original aspect ratio of the video, with an English soundtrack rendered in Dolby Digital Stereo. It was featured on the DualDisc edition of their greatest hits album "#1's" (2005), on the international edition of "Survivor" (2001) as an enhanced video, on the Walmart-exclusive DVD titled "Fan Pack" (2004), and on "Destiny's Child Video Anthology" (2013). Director Cary Joji Fukunaga got his start in the film industry as a camera production assistant on the video.


title: Survivor (Destiny's Child song)

text: Former group members LeToya Luckett and LaTavia Roberson filed a lawsuit against Knowles, Rowland, and former manager Mathew Knowles; they claimed some of the lyrics in "Survivor", such as "You thought I wouldn't sell without you/sold nine million", violated a previous agreement that prevented either party from insulting the other.


title: Simeon Stylites

text: Simeon Stylites or Symeon the Stylite (c. 390 – 2 September 459) was a Syrian Christian ascetic, who achieved notability by living 37 years on a small platform on top of a pillar near Aleppo (in modern Syria). Several other stylites later followed his model (the Greek word "style" means "pillar"). Simeon is venerated as a saint by the Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, and Roman Catholic Churches. He is known formally as Simeon Stylites the Elder to distinguish him from Simeon Stylites the Younger, Simeon Stylites III, and Symeon Stylites of Lesbos.


title: Simeon Stylites

text: There exist three major early biographies of Simeon. The first of these is by Theodoret, bishop of Cyrrhus, and is found within his work "Religious History". This biography was written during Simeon's lifetime, and Theodoret relates several events of which he claims to be an eyewitness. The narrator of a second biography names himself as Antonius, a disciple of Simeon's. This work is of unknown date and provenance. The third is a Syriac source, which dates to 473. This is the longest of the three, and the most effusive in its praise of Simeon; it places Simeon on a par with the Old Testament prophets, and portrays him as a founder of the Christian church. The three sources exhibit signs of independent development; although they each follow the same rough outline, they have hardly any narrative episodes in common.


title: Simeon Stylites

text: All three sources have been translated into English by Robert Doran. The Syriac life has also been translated by Frederick Lent.


title: Simeon Stylites

text: It is possible that traditional sources for the life of Simeon Stylites misrepresent his relation to Chalcedonian Christianity. Syriac letters in the British Museum attributed to Simeon Stylites indicate that he was a Miaphysite and opposed the result of the Chalcedonian council (Council of Chalcedon AD 451).


title: Simeon Stylites

text: Simeon was the son of a shepherd. He was born in Sis, now the Turkish town of Kozan in Adana Province. Sis was in the Roman province of Cilicia. After the division of the Roman Empire in 395 A.D., Cilicia became part of the Eastern Roman Empire. Christianity took hold quickly there.


title: Simeon Stylites

text: According to Theodoret, Simeon developed a zeal for Christianity at the age of 13, following a reading of the Beatitudes. He entered a monastery before the age of 16. From the first, he gave himself up to the practice of an austerity so extreme and to all appearance so extravagant, that his brethren judged him to be unsuited to any form of community life. They asked Simeon to leave the monastery.


title: Simeon Stylites

text: He shut himself up in a hut for one and a half years, where he passed the whole of Lent without eating or drinking. When he emerged from the hut, his achievement was hailed as a miracle. He later took to standing continually upright so long as his limbs would sustain him.


title: Simeon Stylites

text: After one and a half years in his hut, Simeon sought a rocky eminence on the slopes of what is now the Sheik Barakat Mountain, part of Mount Simeon. He chose to live within a narrow space, less than 20 meters in diameter. But crowds of pilgrims invaded the area to seek him out, asking his counsel or his prayers, and leaving him insufficient time for his own devotions. This eventually led him to adopt a new way of life.


title: Simeon Stylites

text: In order to get away from the ever-increasing number of people who came to him for prayers and advice, leaving him little if any time for his private austerities, Simeon discovered a pillar which had survived among ruins in nearby Telanissa (modern-day Taladah in Syria), and formed a small platform at the top. He determined to live out his life on this platform. For sustenance small boys from the nearby village would climb up the pillar and pass him parcels of flat bread and goats' milk. He may also have pulled up food in buckets via a pulley.