title: Loop antenna

text: Low frequency one wavelength loops "lying down" are sometimes used for NVIS operation. This is sometimes called a "lazy quad". Its radiation pattern consists of a single lobe straight up (radiation toward the ground which isn't absorbed is reflected upward). The radiation pattern and especially the input impedance is affected by its proximity to the ground. If fed with higher frequencies the antenna input impedance will generally include a reactive part (and a different resistive component) requiring use of an antenna tuner. As the frequency increases, the radiation pattern breaks up into multiple lobes which peak at lower angles relative to the horizon which is advantageous especially at higher frequencies.


title: Loop antenna

text: Although it could be categorized as a bent dipole, it has the omnidirectional radiation pattern very nearly the same as a small loop. The halo is more efficient than a small loop, since it is a larger antenna at  wave in circumference with its disproportionately larger radiation resistance.


title: Loop antenna

text: Because of its much greater radiation resisitance, a halo presents a good impedance match to 50 Ohm coaxial cable, and its construction is less demanding, since the maker is not as compelled to fastidiously avoid losses from contact resistance.


title: Loop antenna

text: On the VHF bands and above, the physical diameter of a halo is small enough to be effectively used as a mobile antenna.


title: Loop antenna

text: The horizontal radiation pattern of a horizontal halo is nearly omnidirectional – to within 3 dB or less – and that can be evened out by making the loop slightly smaller and adding more capacitance between the element tips. Not only will that even out the gain, it will reduce upward radiation, which is typically lost into space.


title: Loop antenna

text: Halos pick up less nearby electrical spark interference than monopoles and dipoles – ignition noise from vehicles for example.


title: Loop antenna

text: Some writers mistakenly consider the gap in the halo antenna's loop to distinguish it from a small loop antenna – since there is no DC connection between the two ends. But that distinction is lost at RF; the close-bent high-voltage ends are capacitively coupled, with the RF crossing the gap via displacement currents.


title: Loop antenna

text: The gap in the halo is electrically equivalent to the tuning capacitor on a small loop, although the capacitance involved is not nearly as large.


title: Loop antenna

text: Although it has a superficially different appearance, the halo antenna is more conveniently analyzed as a dipole (which also has a large voltage and zero current at its ends) that has been bent into a circle. For brevity, introductory articles on small loop antennas sometimes confine discussion to loops smaller in circumference than  wavelength, since for loops with circumferences larger than  wave the convenient assumption of uniform current around the entire loop becomes untenably inaccurate (small TX loops are discussed below). Because of tacit omission, some texts create the false impression that loops as large as  wave circumference cannot possibly function as antennas, rather than cannot possibly be analyzed with simple techniques.


title: Loop antenna

text: At  wave, the halo antenna is near or on the extreme high limit of that range of oversized small loops, but unlike most, it can be analyzed with simple techniques by treating it as a bent dipole.


title: Loop antenna

text: Small loops are small in comparison to their operating wavelength. Contrary to the pattern of large loop antennas, the reception and radiation strength of small loops peaks inside the plane of the loop, rather than broadside (perpendicular) to it.


title: Loop antenna

text: As with all antennas that are physically much smaller than the operating wavelength, small loop antennas have small radiation resistance which is dwarfed by ohmic losses, resulting in a poor antenna efficiency. They are thus mainly used as receiving antennas at lower frequencies (wavelengths of tens to hundreds of meters). Like a short dipole antenna, the radiation resistance is small. The radiation resistance is proportional to the square of the area:


title: Loop antenna

text: where is the area enclosed by the loop, is the wavelength, and is the number of turns of the conductor around the loop. Because of the higher power (4 vs. 2) the fall in with size is more extreme. The ability to increase the radiation resistance by using multiple turns is analogous to making a dipole out of two or more parallel lines for each dipole arm ("folded dipole").


title: Loop antenna

text: Small loops have advantages as receiving antennas at frequencies below 10 MHz. Although a small loop's losses can be high, the same loss applies to both the signal and the noise, so the receiving signal-to-noise ratio of a small loop may not suffer at these lower frequencies, where received noise is dominated by atmospheric noise and static rather than receiver-internal noise. The ability to more manageably rotate a smaller antenna may help to maximize the signal and reject interference.


title: Loop antenna

text: The small loop antenna is also known as a "magnetic loop" since the response of an electrically small receiving loop is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop. At higher frequencies (or shorter wavelengths), when the antenna is no longer electrically small, the current distribution through the loop may no longer be uniform and the relationship between its response and the incident fields will become more complex. In the case of transmission, the fields produced by an electrically small loop are the same as an "infinitesimal magnetic dipole" whose axis is perpendicular to the plane of the loop.


title: Loop antenna

text: If the perimeter of a loop antenna is much smaller than the intended operating wavelengths – say to of a wavelength – then the antenna is called a "small loop antenna". Several performance factors, including received power, scale in proportion to the loop's area. For a given loop area, the length of the conductor (and thus its net loss resistance) is minimized if the perimeter is circular, making a circle the optimal shape for small loops. Small receiving loops are typically used below 3 MHz where human-made and natural atmospheric noise dominate. Thus the signal-to-noise ratio of the received signal will not be adversely affected by low efficiency as long as the loop is not excessively small.


title: Loop antenna

text: A typical diameter of receiving loops with "air centers" is between . To increase the magnetic field in the loop and thus its efficiency, while greatly reducing size, the coil of wire is often wound around a ferrite rod magnetic core; this is called a "ferrite loop" antenna. Such ferrite loop antennas are used in almost all AM broadcast receivers with the notable exception of car radios, since the antenna for the AM band needs to be outside the obstructing metal car chassis.


title: Loop antenna

text: Small loop antennas are also popular for radio direction finding, in part due to their exceedingly sharp, clear "null" along the loop axis: When the loop axis is aimed directly at the transmitter, the target signal abruptly vanishes.


title: Loop antenna

text: The radiation resistance of a small loop is generally much smaller than the loss resistance due to the conductors composing the loop, leading to a poor antenna efficiency. Consequently, most of the power delivered to a small loop antenna will be converted to heat by the loss resistance, rather than doing useful work.


title: Loop antenna

text: Wasted power is undesirable for a transmitting antenna, however for a receiving antenna, the inefficiency is not important at frequencies below about 15 MHz. At these lower frequencies, atmospheric noise (static) and man-made noise (radio frequency interference) even a weak signal from an inefficient antenna is far stronger than the internal "thermal" or "Johnson noise" present in the radio receiver's circuits, so the weak signal from a loop antenna can be amplified without degrading the signal-to-noise ratio.


title: Loop antenna

text: For example, at 1 MHz the man-made noise might be 55 dB above the thermal noise floor. If a small loop antenna's loss is 50 dB (as if the antenna included a 50 dB attenuator) the electrical inefficiency of that antenna will have little influence on the receiving system's signal-to-noise ratio.


title: Loop antenna

text: In contrast, at quieter frequencies at about 20 MHz and above, an antenna with a 50 dB loss could degrade the received signal-to-noise ratio by up to 50 dB, resulting in terrible performance.


title: Loop antenna

text: Surprisingly, the radiation and receiving pattern of a small loop is perpendicular to that of a large self resonant loop (whose perimeter is close to one wavelength). Since the loop is much smaller than a wavelength, the current at any one moment is nearly constant round the circumference. By symmetry it can be seen that the voltages induced in the loop windings on opposite sides of the loop, will cancel each other when a perpendicular signal arrives on the loop axis. Therefore, there is a "null" in that direction. Instead, the radiation pattern peaks in directions lying in the plane of the loop, because signals received from sources in that plane do not quite cancel owing to the phase difference between the arrival of the wave at the near side and far side of the loop. Increasing that phase difference by increasing the size of the loop has a large impact in increasing the radiation resistance and the resulting antenna efficiency.


title: Loop antenna

text: Another way of looking at a small loop as an antenna is to consider it simply as an inductive coil coupling to the magnetic field in the direction "perpendicular" to plane of the coil, according to Ampère's law. Then consider a propagating radio wave also perpendicular to that plane. Since the magnetic (and electric) fields of an electromagnetic wave in free space are transverse (no component in the direction of propagation), it can be seen that this magnetic field and that of a small loop antenna will be at right angles, and thus not coupled. For the same reason, an electromagnetic wave propagating within the plane of the loop, with its magnetic field perpendicular to that plane, "is" coupled to the magnetic field of the coil. Since the transverse magnetic and electric fields of a propagating electromagnetic wave are at right angles, the electric field of such a wave is also in the plane of the loop, and thus the antenna's "polarization" (which is always specified as being the orientation of the electric, not the magnetic field) is said to be in that plane.


title: Loop antenna

text: Thus mounting the loop in a horizontal plane will produce an omnidirectional antenna which is horizontally polarized; mounting the loop vertically yields a weakly directional antenna with vertical polarization and sharp nulls along the axis of the loop.


title: Loop antenna

text: Since a small loop antenna is essentially a coil, its electrical impedance is inductive, with an inductive reactance much greater than its radiation resistance. In order to couple to a transmitter or receiver, the inductive reactance is normally canceled with a parallel capacitance.


title: Loop antenna

text: Since a good loop antenna will have a high  factor, this capacitor must be variable and is adjusted along with the receiver's tuning.


title: Loop antenna

text: Small loop receiving antennas are also almost always resonated using a parallel plate capacitor, which makes their reception narrow-band, sensitive only to a very specific frequency. This allows the antenna, in conjunction with a (variable) tuning capacitor, to act as a tuned input stage to the receiver's front-end, in lieu of a preselector.


title: Loop antenna

text: Since the directional response of small loop antennas includes a sharp null in the direction normal to the plane of the loop, they are used in radio direction finding at longer wavelengths.


title: Loop antenna

text: The procedure is to rotate the loop antenna to find the direction where the signal vanishes – the “null” direction. Since the null occurs at two opposite directions along the axis of the loop, other means must be employed to determine which side of the antenna the “nulled” signal is on. One method is to rely on a second loop antenna located at a second location, or to move the receiver to that other location, thus relying on triangulation.


title: Loop antenna

text: Instead of triangulation, a second dipole or vertical antenna can be electrically combined with a loop or a loopstick antenna. Called a "sense antenna", connecting and matching the second antenna changes the combined radiation pattern to a cardioid, with a null in only one (less precise) direction. The general direction of the transmitter can be determined using the sense antenna, and then disconnecting the sense antenna returns the sharp nulls in the loop antenna pattern, allowing a precise bearing to be determined.


title: Loop antenna

text: Small loop antennas are lossy and inefficient for transmitting, but they can be practical receiving antennas for frequencies below 10 MHz. Especially in the mediumwave (520–1710 kHz) band and below, where wavelength-sized antennas are infeasibly large, and the antenna inefficiency is irrelevant, due to large amounts of atmospheric noise.


title: Loop antenna

text: AM broadcast receivers (and other low frequency radios for the consumer market) typically use small loop antennas, even when a telescoping antenna may be attached for FM reception. A variable capacitor connected across the loop forms a resonant circuit that also tunes the receiver's input stage as that capacitor tracks the main tuning. A multiband receiver may contain tap points along the loop winding in order to tune the loop antenna at widely different frequencies.


title: Loop antenna

text: In AM radios built prior to the invention of ferrite in the mid-20th century, the antenna might consist of dozens of turns of wire mounted on the back wall of the radio – a "planar helical antenna" – or a separate, rotatable, furniture-sized rack looped with wire – a "frame antenna".


title: Loop antenna

text: Ferrite loop antennas are made by winding fine wire around a ferrite rod. They are almost universally used in AM broadcast receivers. Other names for this type of antenna are "loopstick", "ferrite rod" antenna or aerial, "ferroceptor", or "ferrod antenna". Often, at mediumwave and lower shortwave frequencies, Litz wire is used for the winding to reduce skin effect losses. Elaborate “basket weave” patterns are used at all frequencies to reduce inter-winding capacitance in the coil insuring that the loop self-resonance is well above the operating frequency, so that it acts as an electrical inductor that can be resonated with a tuning capacitor, and with a consequent improvement of the loop Q factor.


title: Loop antenna

text: Inclusion of a magnetically permeable core increases the radiation resistance of a small loop, mitigating the inefficiency due to ohmic losses. Like all small antennas, such antennas are tiny compared to their effective area. A typical AM broadcast radio loop antenna wound on ferrite may have a cross sectional area of only at a frequency at which an ideal (lossless) antenna would have an effective area some hundred million times larger. Even accounting for the resistive losses in a ferrite rod antenna, its effective receiving area may exceed the loop's physical area by a factor of 100.


title: Loop antenna

text: Small transmitting loops are “small” in comparison to a full wavelength, but considerably larger than a “small” receive-only loop.


title: Loop antenna

text: They usually consist of a single turn of large diameter conductor, and are typically round or octagonal to provide maximum enclosed area for a given perimeter. The smaller of these loops are much less efficient than full-sized self-resonant loops, but where space for a full wave loop or a half-wave dipole is not available, the smaller loops can provide functional, even if inefficient communications.


title: Loop antenna

text: A small transmitting loop antenna with a perimeter of 10% or less of the wavelength will have a relatively constant current distribution along the conductor, and the main lobe will be in the plane of the loop. Loops of any size between 10% and 30% of a wavelength in perimeter, up to almost exactly 50% in circumference, can be built and tuned with series capacitor to resonance. A capacitor is required for a circumference less than a half wave, an inductor for loops more than a half wave and less than a full wave. Loops in this size range may have neither the uniform current of the small loop, nor the double peaked current of the full sized loop and thus cannot be analyzed using the concepts developed for the small receiving loops nor full-wave loop antennas. Performance is best determined with NEC analysis. Antennas within this size range include the halo (see below) and the G0CWT (Edginton) loop.


title: Loop antenna

text: In addition to other common impedance matching techniques such as a gamma match, transmitting loops are sometimes impedance matched by connecting the feedline to a smaller "feed loop" inside the area surrounded by the main loop. Typical feed loops are to the size of the antenna's main loop. The combination is in effect a transformer, with power in the near-field inductively coupled from the feed loop to the main loop, which itself is connected to the resonating capacitor and is responsible for radiating most of the power.


title: Loop antenna

text: Vertically aligned small loops are used in military land-mobile radio, at frequencies between 3–7 MHz, because of their ability to direct energy upwards, unlike a conventional whip antenna. This enables "near vertical incidence skywave" (NVIS) communication up to in mountainous regions. For NVIS a typical radiation efficiency of around 1% is acceptable, because signal paths can be established with 1 W of radiated power or less – feasible when a 100 W transmitter is used.


title: Loop antenna

text: In military use, the antenna may be built using a one or two conductors in diameter. The loop itself is typically in diameter.


title: Loop antenna

text: One practical issue with small loops as transmitting antennas is that the loop not only has a very large current going through it, but also has a very high voltage across the capacitor – typically thousands of volts – even when fed with only a few watts of transmitter power. This requires a rather expensive and physically large resonating capacitor with a large breakdown voltage, in addition to having minimal dielectric loss (normally requiring an air-gap capacitor or even a vacuum variable capacitor). In addition to making the geometric loop larger, efficiency may be increased by using larger conductors or other measures to reduce the conductor's loss resistance. However, lower loss means higher and even greater voltage on the capacitor.


title: Loop antenna

text: This problem is more serious than occurs with a vertical or dipole antenna that is short compared to a wavelength: For those electrical antennas, matching using a loading coil also generates a high voltage across the antenna end(s). However, unlike with capacitors, the voltage change is gradual, spread across a physically long inductor, and is generally not troublesome.


title: Loop antenna

text: Some antennas look very much like loops, but are designed to couple with the inductive near-field – over distances of or – rather than to transmit or receive long-distance electromagnetic waves in the radiative far-field.


title: Loop antenna

text: The use of coupling coils for inductive systems, including their use at LF and HF, is outside the scope of this article.


title: Loop antenna

text: Inductive heating systems, induction cooking stovetops, and RFID tags and readers all interact by near field magnetic induction rather than far field transmitted waves. So strictly speaking, they are "not" radio antennas.


title: Loop antenna

text: Although they are not radio antennas, these systems "do" operate at radio frequencies, and they involve the use of small magnetic coils, which "are" called "antennas" in the trade. However, they are more usefully thought of as analogs to the windings in loosely coupled transformers. Although the magnetic coils in these inductive systems sometimes seem indistinguishable from the small loop antennas discussed above, such devices can only operate over short distances, and are specifically designed to "not" transmit or receive radio waves. Because Inductive heating systems and RFID readers only use near field alternating magnetic fields, their performance criteria are dissimilar to far field radio antennas discussed in this article.


title: Thomas Muster

text: Thomas Muster (born 2 October 1967) is an Austrian former world No. 1 tennis player. One of the world's leading clay court players in the 1990s, he won the 1995 French Open and at his peak was called "The King of Clay". In addition, he won eight Masters 1000 Series titles. Muster is one of the nine players to win Super 9/ATP Masters Series/ATP World Tour Masters 1000 titles on clay, hardcourt and carpet.


title: Thomas Muster

text: With his 1995 French Open title, Muster became the first Austrian to win a Grand Slam singles title, followed by Dominic Thiem at the 2020 US Open.


title: Thomas Muster

text: Muster first came to prominence when he reached the final of the French Open junior tournament and the Orange Bowl juniors tournament in 1985.


title: Thomas Muster

text: Muster played his first matches at the top-level in 1984, as a junior player, at the age of 16. In 1984, he played his first match for Austria in the Davis Cup. He also played at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, and in two tournaments on Austrian soil, the clay-court event in Kitzbühel and the indoor carpet event in Vienna.


title: Thomas Muster

text: Muster turned professional in 1985, regularly playing in Challenger tournaments throughout the year, winning in Belo Horizonte, as well as continuing to play in many top-level tournaments. Muster won his first top-level tournament at the Dutch Open in Hilversum in 1986.


title: Thomas Muster

text: In 1988, Muster reached six top-level tournament finals, winning four of them, in Boston, Bordeaux, Prague and Bari. Muster finished the year ranked 16th in the world.


title: Thomas Muster

text: Early in 1989, he became the first Austrian to reach the semifinals of the Australian Open, eventually losing in four sets to world No. 1, Ivan Lendl. Shortly after that, he became the first Austrian to reach the world top 10. On the night of 31 March 1989, he defeated Yannick Noah in five sets in the semifinals of the Lipton International Players Championships in Key Biscayne, Florida, to set up a final against Lendl. However, in the early hours of 1 April 1989, just hours after his semifinal victory, he was struck by a drunk driver, severing ligaments in his left knee and forcing him to default the final. Muster flew back to Vienna to undergo surgery. With the aid of a special chair designed to allow him to practice hitting balls while recovering from knee surgery, he returned to competitive tennis in September 1989.


title: Thomas Muster

text: Muster's comeback continued in 1990, when he won three top-level tournaments on clay (including the Italian Open, defeating Andrés Gómez in the semifinals and Andrei Chesnokov in the final) and one title on hardcourt. Muster reached the semifinals of the 1990 French Open, losing in straight sets to the eventual champion, Andrés Gómez. He also helped Austria reach the semifinals of the Davis Cup, where they were eliminated 3–2 by the United States, despite winning both of his singles rubbers against Michael Chang and Andre Agassi. That year, he was named the ATP Tour's "Comeback Player of the Year."


title: Thomas Muster

text: Muster won two more top-level tournaments in 1991, and three more in 1992 (all on clay courts), with the biggest of these titles being the 1992 Monte Carlo title, where he defeated Aaron Krickstein in the final. In 1993, Muster won seven titles. Muster's win–loss record on clay in 1993 was 55–10, although he failed to win any of the four big clay-court events of the year.


title: Thomas Muster

text: At both the 1992 and 1993 French Opens, Muster was defeated by the reigning French Open and Australian Open champion Jim Courier. At the 1994 French Open, he won his second round match against Andre Agassi in five sets but was then defeated by the serve-and-volley play of Patrick Rafter in the next round, with Rafter's four set victory denying Muster a match against the reigning French Open champion Sergi Bruguera.


title: Thomas Muster

text: Muster won three clay-court titles in 1994. In March 1994, he defeated Michael Stich of Germany in a first round Davis Cup tie in Graz, 6–4, 6–7, 4–6, 6–3, 12–10, after saving a match point when trailing at 7–8 in the fifth set. Despite Muster's win over Stich bringing Austria level at 2–2 in the tie, it was Germany who eventually won the decisive fifth rubber.


title: Thomas Muster

text: In 1995, Muster enjoyed the best year of his career winning 12 tournaments, with 11 of those tournaments won on clay-courts. Between February and June 1995, Muster won 40 consecutive matches on clay (the longest winning streak on the surface since Björn Borg had won 46 matches between 1977 and 1979). At the 1995 Monte Carlo Masters, he defeated Andrea Gaudenzi in the semifinals, despite struggling heavily in the latter stages of the match due to having a shortage of glucose in his blood and suffering a 40° fever, which required a brief spell in hospital after the match. The next day, he won the final against Boris Becker, after a tough match, by 4–6, 5–7, 6–1, 7–6, 6–0, with Muster surviving two championship points in the fourth set tiebreak, the first of which saw Becker double-faulting after going for a big second serve. He went on to win his second Italian Open title, defeating Sergi Bruguera in the final. At the 1995 French Open, Muster won his first and only Grand Slam singles title, defeating Yevgeny Kafelnikov in the semifinals and comfortably beating 1989 champion Michael Chang in the final. Muster was the only Austrian to win a Grand Slam singles title until Dominic Thiem won the 2020 US Open. His win–loss record on clay in 1995 was a remarkable 65–2. Although his record on other surfaces was less impressive, a late season victory over Pete Sampras on fast indoor carpet, during his run to the title of the Masters event in Germany, gave Muster an outside chance at finishing the year no. 1; however, Sampras finished the year at no. 1. Of the 12 tournaments that Muster won in 1995, Muster saved at least one match point held against him during six of them, with those six tournaments being held in Estoril, Barcelona, Monte Carlo, St. Pölten, Stuttgart Outdoor and Umag.


title: Thomas Muster

text: Muster continued to rack up clay-court victories in 1996. He won seven tournaments, six of them titles he successfully defended after winning them the year before. These 1996 tournament victories included his third Monte Carlo title, where he defeated clay court specialist Albert Costa in the final, and his third Italian Open title, defeating Richard Krajicek in the final. Muster's win–loss record on clay in 1996 was an impressive 46–3. This made his 1995–96 record on the surface 111–5, which was, at the time, the best two-year clay-court record since the open era began in 1968. Despite Muster's continued dominance on clay-courts in 1996, he was upset in the Round of 16 at the 1996 French Open, losing to eventual finalist Michael Stich. In July 1996, in the final of the 1996 Mercedes Cup in Stuttgart, Muster defeated the French Open champion Yevgeny Kafelnikov in three straight sets.


title: Thomas Muster

text: In February 1996, Muster attained the world no. 1 ranking for the first time. He held the ranking initially for just one week, and then regained it for five weeks over March and April 1996. The validity of Muster's number one ranking was called into question by top Americans Pete Sampras and Andre Agassi, who argued that he had achieved the top spot based almost solely on his clay court results, although Muster had beaten Sampras on indoor carpet at the 1995 Masters event in Germany, and Agassi had only won tournaments on hardcourt in 1995.


title: Thomas Muster

text: In 1997, Muster enjoyed the best results of his career on hardcourt. He reached the semifinals of the 1997 Australian Open, losing to eventual champion Pete Sampras. He then went on to win the tournament in Dubai, defeating Goran Ivanišević in the final. Muster went on to win his biggest title on hardcourt at the 1997 Miami Masters, the same tournament where his career had nearly ended eight years earlier, by defeating Sergi Bruguera in three straight sets in the final, after Bruguera had defeated Sampras in the semifinals. Muster was also the runner-up at the Cincinnati Masters, where he lost in the final to Sampras. He achieved a 29–8 win–loss record on hardcourt during 1997, although he only won nine out of 18 matches on clay in the same year. Muster's 1997 French Open campaign ended in the third round, when the unseeded Gustavo Kuerten, then ranked at 66 in the world, defeated him. Kuerten went on to win the 1997 French Open title and usher in a new era on clay.


title: Thomas Muster

text: Muster reached his last top-level tournament final in Estoril (on clay) in 1998, losing to Alberto Berasategui. At the 1998 French Open, Muster reached the quarterfinals, before losing to Félix Mantilla in four sets, with Mantilla getting revenge for his 1998 Italian Open defeat. Muster's 1998 results faded after the spring, as he reached just one semifinal (Mallorca), and one quarterfinal (Boston), for the remainder of the year. Muster opened 1999 with a semifinal showing in Sydney, but then struggled over the next few months, winning just 2 of his 12 matches after Sydney. Following his first-round loss to Nicolás Lapentti at the 1999 French Open, he hung up his racquet at the age of 31. Muster remains the only world No. 1 singles player who has never managed to win a men's singles match at Wimbledon throughout his whole career.


title: Thomas Muster

text: Muster only lost one Davis Cup singles match on clay in his career, when Goran Ivanišević defeated him in April 1997, 6–7, 7–5, 6–7, 6–2, 7–5, despite Muster having won 112 of his previous 117 matches on clay going into the match. Muster's overall Davis Cup win–loss record, counting both singles and doubles matches, was 45–18. Muster's win–loss record in Davis Cup singles matches was 36–8, while his win–loss record in Davis Cup singles matches on clay was 29–1. Muster has more match wins in Davis Cup than any other Austrian tennis player.


title: Thomas Muster

text: After he stopped playing tennis after the 1999 French Open, Muster moved to Noosa Heads, Australia, where he had officially resided since 1996, and married television presenter Jo Beth Taylor in 2000. The couple have a son, Christian, who was born in 2001. Muster and Taylor separated in 2002 and divorced in 2005. In 2003, Muster moved back to Austria, to work as a coach and captain of the Austrian Davis Cup team. He has played tennis on the ATP Champions Tour. In April 2010, Muster married Caroline Ofner, and they have a daughter, Maxim, who was born in 2009.


title: Thomas Muster

text: On 16 June 2010, at the age of 42, Muster announced his comeback to professional tennis. In July 2010, he played the first match of his comeback in a Challenger tournament in Braunschweig, where he lost in the first round. He went on to play in three Challenger tournaments in Kitzbühel, Como, and Rijeka. Eventually, in his fifth Challenger tournament in Ljubljana, Muster won his first comeback match, against Borut Puc of Croatia, which brought Muster back into the ATP singles ranking list at world number 988. Muster finished 2010 ranked at world number 980.


title: Thomas Muster

text: On 13 September 2011, Muster won a second match after his comeback, in the Todi Challenger, against the fifth seeded Argentinian Leonardo Mayer. His next opponent was countryman Martin Fischer, to whom Muster lost. On 19 September 2011, Muster reached world No. 847. He then lost his next match, at the Challenger tournament in Palermo, to Alessio di Mauro.


title: Thomas Muster

text: In October 2011, at the age of 44, Muster decided that he would play his last tennis match before retirement at the top-level Vienna tournament, where Muster lost to countryman, Dominic Thiem, in straight sets. However, three weeks after playing in Vienna, Muster was back again, this time in a Challenger tournament in Salzburg, playing against Dennis Blömke. He lost a close three-set battle. This was his last match to date.


title: Thomas Muster

text: During his prime in the 1990s, Muster wore Lotto clothing. From 1986 to 1993, Muster played with the Head Prestige Pro 600 racquet. During the summer of 1993, he switched to playing with the Head Prestige 600 racquet. During 1994 and 1995, Muster played with the Head Pro Tour 630 racquet. At the start of 1996, he switched to using a Kneissl racquet, which was closely modelled on his old Pro Tour 630. At the start of 1997, he switched his racquet again to the white Kneissl Tom's Reach Machine racquet, which had a longer handle and a 28-inch frame. In 1998, he used his Kneissl Tom's Reach Machine racquet on hardcourt, grass and carpet, but went back to his old 1996 Kneissl racquet on clay.


title: Thomas Muster

text: When Muster came back to the ATP Tour in 2010, he used the Head Pro Tour 630 racquet, before switching to the Babolat AeroPro Drive GT racquet, and then went back to the Head Pro Tour 630 racquet again before playing his last matches in late 2011. Muster wore Adidas clothing throughout his comeback.


title: Thomas Muster

text: In the 1995 season, Muster won 12 men's singles tournament titles, a record for the ATP Tour (since 1990). In 2006 Roger Federer tied the record.


title: Thomas Muster

text: Muster has the highest winning percentage of singles tournament finals of all players who reached a minimum of 25 finals. Of his 55 finals, he won 44 with 11 defeats (80%).


title: Thomas Muster

text: Thomas Muster was married to Jo Beth Taylor, an Australian television personality, from 2000 to 2005, having separated in 2002. They have a son, Christian, who was born in 2001. In 2010, Muster married Caroline Ofner and they have a daughter, Maxim, born in 2009. Thomas Muster lives in Styria, a province in southern Austria, and also has a villa on the Adriatic Sea in Croatia.


title: CEAT (company)

text: CEAT Limited (formerly, Cavi Elettrici e Affini Torino) is an Indian multinational tyre manufacturing company owned by the RPG Group. It was established in 1924 in Turin, Italy. It has a presence in global markets. CEAT produces over 165 million tyres a year and manufactures tyres for passenger cars, two-wheelers, trucks and buses, light commercial vehicles, earth-movers, forklifts, tractors, trailers, and auto-rickshaws. The current capacity of CEAT tyres' plants is over 800 tonnes per day.


title: CEAT (company)

text: The company was founded as Cavi Elettrici e Affini Torino (Electrical Cables and Allied Products of Turin) by Virginio Bruni Tedeschi in 1924, in Turin, Italy. On 10 March 1958, the company was incorporated as CEAT Tyres of India, in Mumbai. Initially, the company collaborated with the Tata Group. In 1972, the company set up a research and development unit at Bhandup. In 1981, Deccan Fibre Glass Limited was merged with the company.


title: CEAT (company)

text: In 1980, Alberto, son of Virginio, sold the Cavi Elettrici e Affini Torino to investment firm SOFIT, which went on to cut jobs. Oweing to it, in 1981, the company failed in Italy and Pirelli purchased the right to the CEAT name, which it sold to RPG Group in 1983.


title: CEAT (company)

text: In 1982, RPG Group acquired the company, and in 1990, the company was renamed as CEAT. In 1993, the company collaborated with Yokohama Rubber Company, to manufacture radial tyres at their Nashik unit. In 1999, CEAT formed a joint-venture, named as CEAT Kelani, with Asia MotorWorks (AMW) and Kelani Tyres, to manufacture and market CEAT tyres in Sri Lanka. in 2006, CEAT Kelani commissioned their first Sri Lanka-based radial-tyre manufacturing unit in Kalutara. In 2009, AMW exited the joint-venture.


title: CEAT (company)

text: CEAT manufactures tyres for various types of vehicles like heavy commercial vehicles, light commercial vehicle, off-highway tyres, passenger cars, tractors, motorcycles and scooters, cycles and SUVs. It exports Asia.


title: CEAT (company)

text: CEAT is the bat sponsor of cricketers Rohit Sharma, Shreyas Iyer, Mayank Agarwal, Ajinkya Rahane and Harmanpreet Kaur. From 2015–18, CEAT sponsored the strategic-timeout for the Indian Premier League (IPL).


title: CEAT (company)

text: In April 2022, the Competition Commission of India raided the headquarters of CEAT along with other tyre companies like Apollo Tyres, MRF (Madras Rubber Factory) and Continental Tyres at multiple locations. Earlier in February the antitrust watch dog had released a statement about fining these tyre companies a total of Rs 1788 crores (of which CEAT fined Rs 252.16 cr.) for sharing price sensitive information among themselves to manage their cartelization of tyre prices for supplies to the public transport corporation of Haryana state. Earlier the All India Tyre Dealers Federation had complained to the Ministry of corporate affairs about this cartelization of these companies to increase the tyre prices. The ministry had then referred the case to the CCI.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Bluebelle was a twin-masted sailing ketch based out of Fort Lauderdale, Florida. The ship was scuttled following an act of mass murder by the ship's captain, Julian Harvey, on November 12, 1961.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Harvey died by suicide on November 17 within hours of receiving news that 11-year-old Terry Jo Duperrault had survived the scuttling. She had been rescued at sea three and a half days after the incident, having drifted upon a small cork dinghy without food, water or shelter for approximately 82 hours.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Terry Jo's survival led to her becoming known within international media as the "Sea Waif" and the "Sea Orphan".


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: The final complement of the "Bluebelle" consisted of 40-year-old Arthur Duperrault, his wife Jean (38) and their three children: Brian (14), Terry Jo (11), and René (7). Duperrault was a successful contact lens optometrist. He and his family resided in Green Bay, Wisconsin, and he had long dreamed of taking his wife and children on a week-long family cruise from the Florida Keys to the Bahamas, which he had sailed during his World War II service, as opposed to the family facing another cold Wisconsin winter. For several years, the Duperraults had saved money for this opulent experience.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: By the summer of 1961, the Duperrault family had saved enough money to finance this cruise. The family planned to spend a week living at sea aboard a chartered yacht in a warm climate, docking at several chosen locations, and possibly extending the sabbatical if all enjoyed themselves.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: The family arrived in Fort Lauderdale in early November, where they chartered the ketch the "Bluebelle", stationed at the Bahia Mar Marina, for $515. Duperrault hired a well-known local yachtsman, 44-year-old Julian Harvey (with whom he was acquainted), to skipper the vessel for $100 per day. Harvey's sixth wife, 34-year-old former stewardess and aspiring writer Mary Dene Harvey (née Jordan), was also appointed to serve as a cook on the ketch.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: The Duperrault family boarded the "Bluebelle" at around midday on Wednesday, November 8, 1961. The vessel was last seen leaving port early that afternoon.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Over the following four days, the family traveled to locations such as Bimini and Sandy Point, where the Duperraults purchased souvenirs and engaged in activities such as snorkeling. On November 12, at their final port of call prior to returning to Florida, Duperrault and Captain Harvey visited the office of British district commissioner Roderick Pinder, to whom Duperrault stated: "This has been a once-in-a-lifetime vacation", adding, "We'll be back before Christmas." That evening, all aboard the "Bluebelle" ate a meal of chicken cacciatore and salad. Shortly thereafter, 11-year-old Terry Jo walked below deck to her sleeping cabin as her family and the Harveys remained on deck.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: At approximately 12:35 p.m. on Monday, November 13, a crew member aboard the oil tanker "Gulf Lion" observed a man waving frantically from a dinghy drifting in their direction and shouting, "Help! I have a dead baby on board!" Pulling the man aboard, crew members observed the deceased body of a red-haired prepubescent girl wearing a life jacket inside the dinghy.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: The man identified himself as Julian Harvey, skipper of the ketch "Bluebelle". Harvey explained that at approximately 8:30 the previous evening, his small vessel was hit by a sudden, strong squall that caused the "Bluebelle" to rapidly keel over and the main mast to snap at a location between the Abaco Islands and Great Stirrup Cay, slightly injuring his wife and Duperrault and piercing the ship's hull. According to Harvey, he was completely separated from all others on board the ketch by this falling mast and the resultant loose rigging, which pulled down the mizzen. He attempted to retrieve a wire cutter from the cabin to clear the deck space, but a sudden fire broke out on board the small vessel, and he was not able to rescue his wife or any of his passengers.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Forced to abandon the ketch alone on a dinghy, the body of seven-year-old René Duperrault had soon floated by, and he had retrieved her body and attempted to revive the child. Unsuccessful in this medical effort, he had kept her body alongside him in the raft out of respect. (An autopsy later revealed the child had died of drowning.)


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Taken to Nassau, Harvey was questioned by authorities. Although his calm demeanor and the fact his dinghy had been filled with various survival supplies caused some to initially express serious doubts as to his claims, Harvey's story could not be disproven, and he was allowed to return to Miami on November 15, to face further questioning by the U.S. Coast Guard.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Three days later, on November 16, a child was rescued in the Northwest Providence Channel by the Greek freighter "Captain Theo". She was observed by second officer Nicolaos Spachidakis floating aboard a cork float approximately one mile from the freighter. Spachidakis immediately summoned Captain Stylianos Coutsodontis to the bridge, and the two gradually realized Spachidakis's sighting was not a fishing vessel, but a small, oblong white raft carrying a young blonde-haired child dressed in a white cotton blouse and pink corduroy slacks, leaning backwards and waving feebly. The captain ordered the freighter's engines stopped and a life raft lowered. Noting sharks circling close to the cork float, crew members shouted at the child not to jump into the water as one crew member, Evangelos Kantzilas, lifted the child aboard the raft. She was then hoisted aboard the "Captain Theo" and placed in a spare cabin.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Aboard the freighter, the crew rapidly discovered the child was incoherent and barely able to speak. She was given water and orange juice as salt was sponged from her body with wet towels and Vaseline applied to her lips. She was able to hoarsely identify herself as 11-year-old Terry Jo Duperrault; informing the crew that she had been floating aboard the cork float for several days after the sinking of her vessel. Her ability to speak rapidly waned, and the child soon responded to questions by weakly gesticulating, before lapsing into a semi-comatose state.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: The crew of the "Captain Theo" did not retrieve the cork float upon which Terry Jo had drifted for almost four days. However, a member of the coast guard did locate and retrieve the raft from the ocean several days later. The raft had almost fallen apart and almost immediately began to disintegrate in the hands of this individual.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: The captain of the "Captain Theo" immediately informed the United States Coast Guard of their discovery and the child's medical predicament, and a rescue helicopter was soon summoned. Terry Jo—suffering from severe sunburn, dehydration and exposure—was airlifted to hospital in a critical condition.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Three hours later, having been airlifted to a Miami hospital, Terry Jo began to slowly recuperate, although for over two days she was unable to divulge to police or the Coast Guard the circumstances surrounding her rescue and the truth of what had actually happened to her family and Mary Dene Harvey.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: By November 20, Terry Jo had regained sufficient strength to reveal to investigators the truth about the loss of the "Bluebelle" and its passengers.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Late on November 12, the "Bluebelle" began its return journey to Fort Lauderdale. At around 9 p.m., Terry Jo had entered the lower cabin to sleep, leaving her parents, siblings, Harvey, and his wife on deck. Later that evening, she was awakened by the sounds of her brother screaming and calling for his father, and heavy footfalls, which she decided to investigate. Above deck, she observed the bodies of her brother and mother in the main cabin, not far from the galley.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Walking further onto the deck, Terry Jo then observed Harvey carrying a bucket. He had simply struck her, then shoved her below deck, shouting, "Get back down there!" The terrified child returned to her cabin only to observe oil and water beginning to gush onto the floor of her cabin approximately 15 minutes later. Harvey then entered her cabin with what appeared to be a rifle in his right hand. The two made eye contact, but Harvey did not shoot her—simply returning above deck. Terry Jo then heard hammering sounds.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Shortly thereafter, Terry Jo returned to the deck, only to observe Harvey standing on the deck and the vessel's dinghy floating on the port side. He then asked the child, "Is the dinghy loose?", to which she replied she did not know. Harvey then ordered her to hold a rope attached to the dinghy while he retrieved something. By the time Harvey returned to the child, the rope had slipped through her fingers. In response, Harvey dove overboard and swam towards the dinghy, abandoning Terry Jo on the sinking vessel.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Recollecting the small oblong cork float lashed to the deck, Terry Jo untied this float as the boat deck began to sink beneath the ocean. She then threw the float "over the side" of the deck before swimming toward the life raft, pushing the float further into the open water before climbing onto the float. She had then drifted upon the sea for almost three and a half days without food, water or shelter. Her life raft had been so small Terry Jo had to sit upright for the entire ordeal, during which she had repeatedly prayed for rescue.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Terry Jo was adamant the mast of the "Bluebelle" was intact, that there had been no fire aboard the vessel, and that the sea was calm throughout the entirety of the events prior to the sinking. Shortly thereafter, she was informed that Harvey had been picked up alive three days prior to herself in a life raft, alongside her sister's dead body, and that the bodies of her parents, her brother, and Harvey's wife had all been lost at sea.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: On November 16, Harvey reiterated his story to the U.S. Coast Guard investigators that a sudden squall had brought down the "Bluebelle"s masts, holing the ship's hull, rupturing the auxiliary gas tank, and starting a fire, the circumstances of which made it impossible for him to rescue his wife or any member of the Duperrault family. Harvey also claimed he had found René's body floating in the water and that he had tried unsuccessfully to revive the child.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: On November 17, midway through Harvey's scheduled interrogation, he was informed that Terry Jo had been rescued the previous day, and that her condition was improving. His response was to exclaim, "Oh my God!", before quickly and calmly adding, "Isn't that wonderful?" A lieutenant Ernest Murdoch then informed Harvey that an official investigation into the loss of the "Bluebelle" and her passengers was to be launched that day. Shortly thereafter, he asked to be excused from further interrogation, claiming he was tired and that he wished to speak with his wife's family. His request was granted.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Harvey then drove a short distance toward Biscayne Boulevard, where he checked into the Sandman Motel under the assumed name of John Monroe, paying cash for a room. He then penned a two-page suicide note before committing suicide by slashing his thigh, ankles, and jugular vein with a razor blade in the motel bathroom. His body was found by a maid approximately two hours later. The suicide note—addressed to a close friend from his days of military service—was found on a dresser within the room adjacent to his body. This note left no explanations or apologies for his actions, but simply ended with the words: "I got too tired and nervous. I couldn't stand it any longer." The note also requested the recipient take care of his fourteen-year-old son, Lance, and that he be buried at sea.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Given such clear evidence of foul play from the sole survivor of the "Bluebelle" and Harvey's subsequent suicide, an investigation was launched into Harvey's recent history. This inquiry revealed Harvey, a decorated World War II veteran and Korean War pilot, had difficulty holding a job for any length of time, had serious financial problems, and had recently arranged a double indemnity insurance policy on the life of his wife just two months after their July 1961 marriage. Furthermore, just one month prior to the Duperrault family chartering the "Bluebelle", Harvey had been hired by the vessel's owner, businessman Harold Pegg, to take any tourists to sea upon their desired cruises in exchange for $300 a month and free accommodation aboard the ketch. This agreement may have formulated Harvey's plan to murder his wife at sea, but to claim she had vanished, with tourists viewed in his mind as valuable witnesses to corroborate his claims. The Harveys' first chartered clients were the Duperrault family.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: The conclusion of the inquiry was that Harvey had planned to kill his wife to collect on her $20,000 double indemnity insurance policy, which would yield double the insured sum if she died accidentally. However, Harvey may have been observed by Duperrault either in the act of the murder of his wife or the disposal of her body. Harvey had then proceeded to kill Duperrault, his wife, and two of his children, who may also have witnessed his murder. Furthermore, he had likely retrieved René's body from the ocean to add credibility to his story.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: In closure, the inquiry concluded that, had Harvey not committed suicide, he would have been prosecuted for the murder of all those who had died aboard the "Bluebelle", and the attempted murder of Terry Jo.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Searching further into Harvey's background, investigators discovered he had previously survived a 1949 car accident that had killed the second of his previous five wives and her mother, when a 1946 Plymouth De Luxe he had been driving plunged off a bridge at high speed into a bayou on a rainy night and in which he had swum to safety, leaving his wife, Joann, and her mother, Myrtle Boylen, to drown. One of his yawls, the "Torbatross", had also previously sunk after running into the submerged wreckage of the warship "San Marcos", which had sunk in 1911 in shallow water within Chesapeake Bay. Crew members in his companion had repeatedly warned Harvey to steer his yawl clear of the wreckage, but he had repeatedly navigated his vessel around the prohibited site, claiming to his cruise passengers to be attempting to read an inscription upon a buoy marking the site. His powerboat, the "Valiant", had also sunk under suspicious circumstances off the coast of Cuba in 1958. All these losses and tragedies had yielded large insurance settlements from which he had financially benefitted.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Following the loss of her family, Terry Jo returned to Green Bay to live with her father's sister, her grandmother, and three cousins in the city of De Pere. She refused to part with the blouse and slacks she was wearing at the time of her rescue. The following year, she changed her first name to Tere—in part due to her refusal to be viewed as a victim. Due to contemporary psychological coping strategies in the early 1960s, authority figures very seldom spoke with Terry Jo about her ordeal, and she received no trauma counseling. Consequently, she did not speak publicly about the loss of her family and her survival ordeal for over twenty years.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Tere Jo later married and bore three children. As an adult, she chose to live and work close to the ocean. She is now retired and resides in Kewaunee, Wisconsin.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: In 2010, Tere Jo Duperrault Fassbender released her memoir "Alone: Orphaned on the Ocean". Co-authored with psychologist and survival expert Richard Logan, this book details her family's final cruise, Harvey's murder of her family and his wife, the three-and-a-half days she spent drifting upon the cork float prior to her rescue, and her life in the years since.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Some individuals, including writer Erle Stanley Gardner, have speculated as to why Harvey did not actually murder Terry Jo upon the "Bluebelle". Gardner has speculated Harvey may have actually subconsciously wanted to be caught and punished for his actions. However, Logan and others have theorized that Harvey had actually intended to kill her, but when Terry Jo accidentally dropped the rope connected to his dinghy, he was forced to dive overboard in order to prevent its floating away without him, and thus left her alive on the sinking ship, believing she would not survive.


title: Bluebelle (ship)

text: Forty-nine years after her ordeal, Tere Jo granted a televised interview with morning television show host Matt Lauer, in which she stated: "I think he probably thought I would go down with the ship." She also stated her belief Harvey had originally intended to discreetly murder his wife and dispose of her body, later to claim she was lost at sea, but that his wife likely fought her husband, attracting the attention of her family. Tere Jo has also stated she does not wish for people to reflect upon her ordeal and opine, "Gee, that poor little girl", but rather to think to themselves, "She has gone on with her life." Tere Jo has also stated she has "always believed I was saved for a reason ... if one person heals from a life tragedy [after reading my story], my journey will have been worth it."


title: High Off Life

text: High Off Life is the eighth studio album by American rapper Future, released on May 15, 2020, by Freebandz and Epic Records. The album was executive produced by close friend and frequent collaborator DJ Esco. It features guest appearances by Travis Scott, YoungBoy Never Broke Again, Young Thug, Lil Uzi Vert, Drake, Lil Durk, Meek Mill, Doe Boy, DaBaby, and Lil Baby.


title: High Off Life

text: "High Off Life" received generally favorable reviews from critics and debuted atop the US "Billboard" 200. It is Future's seventh album to top the chart. The album was supported by five singles: "100 Shooters", "Last Name", "Life Is Good", "Tycoon", and "Trillionaire", with "Life Is Good" peaking at number two on the US "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: High Off Life

text: During an interview with "XXL", published on April 7, 2020, Future shared the album's title "Life Is Good", titled after the third single. Alongside the announcement, he described the album by stating;


title: High Off Life

text: On May 12, 2020, the album was retitled to "High Off Life", as the previous title, "Life Is Good", was considered to not play well during the COVID-19 pandemic. American basketball player Lonzo Ball, a known fan of Future, posted an Instagram story of the album's tracklist, whereafter Epic Records officially announced the album's release on May 15, 2020.


title: High Off Life

text: The album's first single, "100 Shooters" featuring American rappers Meek Mill and Doe Boy, was released on July 12, 2019. The music video for the song was released on August 22, 2019.


title: High Off Life

text: The album's second single, "Last Name" featuring American rapper Lil Durk, was released on November 15, 2019. The music video for the song was released on November 20.


title: High Off Life

text: The album's third single, "Life Is Good" featuring Canadian rapper Drake, was released on January 10, 2020, as well an accompanying music video. The song peaked at number two on the US "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: High Off Life

text: The music video for the song, "Tycoon", was released on March 27, 2020. It was released for digital download on April 1, 2020, as the album's fourth single. The song peaked at number 76 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: High Off Life

text: "Trillionaire" featuring American rapper YoungBoy Never Broke Again, was sent to rhythmic contemporary radio on May 26, 2020, as the album's fifth single. The song peaked at number 34 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: High Off Life

text: The remix of "Life Is Good" featuring Drake and American rappers DaBaby and Lil Baby, was released on February 15, 2020, as the album's first promotional single.


title: High Off Life

text: "High Off Life" was met with generally favorable reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 70, based on nine reviews. Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 6.3 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus.


title: High Off Life

text: In a positive review, Dana Scott of "HipHopDX" wrote that "There are 21 tracks on jammed with booming, mellow Atlanta trap flare and some inconsistency between bangers and filler tracks with similar minimalist, psychedelic soundscapes". Jayasuriya Mehan from "Pitchfork" enjoyed the album, saying, "Except for the previously released singles that pad the end of the record in keeping with industry norms, "High Off Life" is better-paced and sequenced than most of Future's recent releases—the whole thing seems to glide by frictionlessly". Rob Sheffield of "Rolling Stone" gave the album a positive review, stating that ""High Off Life" is Future at his most optimistic, as the man from "Pluto" decides to send out a positive message. But it's still got the spaced-out melancholy that always fills his sound, as he clocks some serious demon hours in the late-night druggy strip-club haze of his soul". Addison Herron-Wheeler of "Exclaim!" said, "Pretty much the only complaint is that, similar to all of his releases since the infamous "Evol", it delivers and lives up to the hype, but it doesn't build and surpass his previous work. It remains to be seen whether he will ever create an album that is better than everything he's done so far, but this is still an extremely solid release". "Entertainment Weekly" critic Gary Suarez said, "While the commercial prospects for "High Off Life" remain high, Future seems, at least creatively, in a state of arrested development here. ... Still, when "High Off Life" succeeds, it does so extraordinarily".


title: High Off Life

text: "NME"s Luke Morgan Britton wrote in a lukewarm review of "High Off Life" that "[the] trap outlier exerts flashes of greatness... but doesn't quite fulfil his sales pitch", adding: "Future described his last album, 2019's "The Wizrd", as the closing of a chapter, meaning that "High Off Life" seemed primed to signal a fresh start. Despite its glimpses of greatness, though, this album revisits too many of the rapper's trademark themes to truly make good on his jubilant pre-release promises." In a mixed review, "Beats Per Minute"s Chase McMullen stated: "For the man who elevated devastated depravity into his own art form, it can't help but feel a bit disappointing to watch him continue to coast."


title: High Off Life

text: "High Off Life" was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) 30 minutes after its release due to a technicality that incorporates the track-equivalent units moved by previously released singles "Life Is Good" and "Tycoon".


title: High Off Life

text: The album debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, with 153,000 album-equivalent units (including 16,000 pure album sales) in its first week. This became Future's seventh album to debut at number one. The album also accumulated a total of 186.3 million on-demand streams of the set's 21 tracks in the week ending May 21. In its second week, the album dropped to number three on the chart, earning an additional 61,000 units. In its third week, the album dropped to number five on the chart, earning 40,000 more units. In its fourth week, the album climbed to number four on the chart, earning 39,000 units, bringing its four week total to 293,000 album-equivalent units. On July 27, 2022, the album was certified double platinum for combined sales and album-equivalent units of over two million units in the United States.


title: High Off Life

text: In the United Kingdom, "High Off Life" debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart, moving 4,000 units. It is Future's highest charting album to date in the United Kingdom.


title: And yet it moves

text: "And yet it moves" or "Although it does move" ( or ) is a phrase attributed to the Italian mathematician, physicist and philosopher Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) in 1633 after being forced to recant his claims that the Earth moves around the Sun, rather than the converse. In this context, the implication of the phrase is: despite his recantation, the Church's proclamations to the contrary, or any other conviction or doctrine of men, the Earth does, in fact, move (around the Sun, and not vice versa).


title: And yet it moves

text: According to Stephen Hawking, some historians believe this episode might have happened upon Galileo's transfer from house arrest under the watch of Archbishop Ascanio Piccolomini to "another home, in the hills above Florence". This other home was also his own, the "Villa Il Gioiello", in Arcetri.


title: And yet it moves

text: The earliest biography of Galileo, written by his disciple Vincenzo Viviani in 1655–1656, does not mention this phrase, and records of his trial do not cite it. Some authors say it would have been imprudent for Galileo to have said such a thing before the Inquisition.


title: And yet it moves

text: The event was first reported in English print in 1757 by Giuseppe Baretti in his book "The Italian Library":


title: And yet it moves

text: In 1911, the words ""E pur si muove"" were found on a painting which had just been acquired by an art collector, Jules van Belle, of Roeselare, Belgium. This painting is dated 1643 or 1645 (the last digit is partially obscured), within a year or two of Galileo's death. The signature is unclear but van Belle attributed it to the seventeenth century Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo. The painting would seem to show that some variant of the ""Eppur si muove"" anecdote was in circulation immediately after his death, when many who had known him were still alive to attest to it, and that it had been circulating for over a century before it was published. However, this painting, whose whereabouts is currently unknown, was discovered to be nearly identical to one painted in 1837 by Eugene van Maldeghem, and, basing their opinions on the style, many art experts doubt that the van Belle painting was painted by Murillo, or even that it was painted before the nineteenth century.


title: Nene Raju Nene Mantri

text: Nene Raju Nene Mantri (; a reference to the king and minister (queen) pieces in chess) is a 2017 Indian Telugu-language political action thriller film written and directed by Teja, featuring Rana Daggubati and Kajal Aggarwal in the lead roles, along with Catherine Tresa, Navdeep, and Ashutosh Rana in other pivotal roles.


title: Nene Raju Nene Mantri

text: Production began in April 2016 and principal photography commenced in October 2016 in Karaikudi. The teaser was released on June 6, coinciding with the 81st birthday anniversary of D. Ramanaidu, Rana's grandfather. A special teaser celebrating 50 films of Kajal Aggarwal was released on her birthday, June 19. The film was dubbed in Hindi as "Main Hi Raja Main Hi Mantri", Tamil as "Naan Aanaiyittaal" and Malayalam as "Raaja Kireedam". The Tamil version featured scenes re-shot with local actors.


title: Nene Raju Nene Mantri

text: Jogendra, a money lender and Radha are a happily married couple; however, they do not have any children. When they are finally blessed, and Radha gets pregnant, they are overjoyed. When they go to the temple to pray for the well-being of the baby, Radha lights a holy lamp. Sarpanch, the leader of the village that they live in, comes along to the temple with his wife. His wife sees that Radha lit the lamp and becomes infuriated as she is always the one who does it. She pushes Radha down the steps of the temple, and Radha has a miscarriage. Both Radha and Jogendra are dismayed.


title: Nene Raju Nene Mantri

text: Jogendra goes to Sarpanch's house and persuades him to let him join in his political campaign. Jogendra cleverly wins, and this angers Sarpanch. Sarpanch tries to kill Jogendra, but Jogendra shoots Sarpanch when he mentions that he will also kill Radha. Later, Hema Chander, the policeman who was to give Jogendra an FIR copy for killing Sarpanch in defense, asks him Rs. 50 Lakhs for his sister's marriage in return. Jogendra, however, is not willing to give the amount. He then takes Hema Chander's pistol, shoots his hands, and puts the blame on Hema Chander. MLA Choudappa, who was supporting Jogendra for his party, asks him an amount of Rs. 1 crore and takes the FIR copy. When Jogendra tells Choudappa that he is unable to arrange the money, Choudappa asks Jogendra to send Radha to his guest house. Upon hearing this, a frustrated Jogendra kills Choudappa. After Choudappa's death, he stands in the MLA election and defeats Choudappa's brother (who was his opposite party candidate in the election) by framing him that he killed his brother to become MLA. He also makes Choudappa's wife believe it and have her support him. With the help of sympathy, he wins the election.


title: Nene Raju Nene Mantri

text: Now, Jogendra is the MLA and dreams of leading the best life. He becomes big by killing his enemies and anyone in his way. He invests in lots of businesses (transport, liquor shops, institutions, hospitals). Meanwhile, he had recommended a student for a job who does not get one because his recommendation does not work as another student gets a letter from a State Minister. Jogendra plans to become a minister and goes to the student who wants to commit suicide by climbing up a building and is about to jump. The student's mother slaps him, and the student comes down. Jogendra asks the student union to go on a hunger strike. He then visits the CM and gives him the idea to end this strike and, in turn, asks for the minister post, which the CM rejects. He then visits the Home Minister Subbarayudu, whom he convinces to mix poison in the nimbu pani, which the CM was to come and give to the student. In turn, he asks for the minister post, to which Subbarayudu agrees. When the CM comes to give nimbu pani, Jogendra cleverly tells that there is poison in the drink. Accordingly, the blame falls on Subbarayudu, and he is arrested. Then the scene shifts, and the CM congratulates Jogendra and gives him sanskritik shakha ministry (Ministry of Social Welfare), which Jogendra rejects and asks the CM to choose wisely as he wants home ministry.


title: Nene Raju Nene Mantri

text: Meanwhile, Devika Rani, a journalist, does research about Jogendra. She finds out all the evidence to sue him because she works for the opposing party and telecasts it on her channel. He confronts her at her house. When she tells him that his entire house is filled with cameras, he seduces her, and they have sex. They begin an affair, and she falls in love with him, but he does this only to find out information. He still loves Radha. After this, Devika, with the help of Subbarayudu (who is now out of jail on bail), plans against Jogendra. All of Jogendra's illegal activities are exposed, and he loses everything. He and Radha visit the temple along with Shiva's brother. (Shiva was a close associate of Jogendra, whom he killed in rage as he thought he went against him due to a false video planted by Subbarayudu. Jogendra later regrets killing him.) Shiva's brother plants a bomb on the route, and it explodes in which Radha is also injured. Jogendra saves her and takes her to the hospital. However, Radha sacrifices her life so that Jogendra can gain sympathy and his party can win elections so that he becomes CM. It happens so, and a day before, Hema Chander cleverly gets all secrets leaked, and falsefully whomsoever had won from Jogendra's party is offered bribe money to go and join Subbarayudu. Jogendra goes to the place where all MLAs and ministers are there, and gets to plant a bomb, which eventually explodes and kills everyone.


title: Nene Raju Nene Mantri

text: The story then comes to the present in the jail where Jogendra is giving the interview. Then, a lot of people support him upon listening to his story and want only Jogendra to become the CM. People use social media and messages to plead no guilty and ask for his release from hanging. The President of India cancels his hanging, and just at the right time, the prison warden arrives, and Jogendra's hanging is stopped. On live TV, Jogendra asks people to choose a person who is really good and wants to do better for people and not any corrupt leader or someone who influences them. He asks the voters to choose wisely and poll wisely. In the last scene, Jogendra lights a cigarette and tells everyone that his name is now "Radha Jogendra", and without Radha, he cannot exist. Saying this, he hangs himself and dies.


title: Nene Raju Nene Mantri

text: In the credits scene, Radha is shown sitting on a swing, and Jogendra comes to her and shows his love, which ultimately shows their reunion in heaven.


title: Nene Raju Nene Mantri

text: In February 2016, filmmaker Teja signed Telugu actor Rajasekhar to play a negative role in his directorial "Aham". Sneha was approached to play the female lead in the film. It was shelved in April 2016 due to both creative and personal differences. P. Satyanarayana Reddy, the film's producer, wanted another actor to play the lead role. Teja approached Rana Daggubati and gained his consent. Rana's father Daggubati Suresh Babu suggested Kajal Aggarwal for the female lead role, who was signed later. Daggubati was completing his portions in "The Ghazi Attack" (2017) and was about to join the sets of "" when Teja approached him. They worked on the script for eight months, writing different versions. Lyricist Lakshmi Bhoopal, who was supposed to work with Teja for three of his earlier films, was chosen to pen the dialogues. Teja also approached R. Rathnavelu to handle the film's cinematography.


title: Nene Raju Nene Mantri

text: The film was titled "Nene Raju Nene Mantri"; Venkat C. Dileep and Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao were recruited as the cinematographer and editor respectively. Anoop Rubens composed the film's soundtrack and background score. Babu, along with Kiran Reddy and Bharath Chowdary, jointly bankrolled the film under their banners Suresh Productions and Blue Planet Entertainments. "Nene Raju Nene Mantri" was Aggarwal's 50th film as an actor. Catherine Tresa, Navdeep and Ashutosh Rana were cast in supporting roles.


title: Nene Raju Nene Mantri

text: Purnima Sriram Iyer of "The New Indian Express" termed "Nene Raju Nene Mantri" a "riveting political drama"; Iyer found the narration "gripping and enthralling" and the dialogues "hard-hitting". She added that Teja writing was effective enough to let even a politically-ignorant person "enlightened about the subject". Hemanth Kumar, writing for "Firstpost", called "Nene Raju Nene Mantri" the "cinematic equivalent of Newton's Third Law of Physics" where "every action is met with an equal and opposite reaction". Kumar noted that the leads' performances and Teja's writing are the film's strengths, adding that Aggarwal's portrayal of Radha was the "biggest revelation". Karthik Kumar of "Hindustan Times" noted that the entire film is built on the bonding between the lead characters, with the political backdrop used only "to give the story a solid padding". Kumar was appreciative of Daggubati's performance: "[His] powerful screen presence takes everything up a notch and it's a treat to watch him turn from good to grey." Suresh Kavirayani of "Deccan Chronicle" praised the performances and the portrayal of emotions such as love, hatred, smartness and cruelty handled by Jogendra. He, however, felt that the second half suffered from an "overdose of sentiment".


title: Nene Raju Nene Mantri

text: Writing for "The Hindu", Sangeetha Devi Dundoo opined that the film's later segments lacked the sharpness of the initial moments. She termed Jogendra as one of the "most intriguing characters Rana [Daggubati] has played" and found its actions troubling the narrative. Neeshita Nyayapati, reviewing for "The Times of India", found "Nene Raju Nene Mantri" a good love story of Radha and Jogendra than an effective political drama; she stated that the political angle "seems like a pesky annoyance in an otherwise beautiful movie". Nyayapati was also critical of Rani's characterisation, calling it a "messy" one with "no thought put into it at all". Sify noted that the film turns "tedious and predictable" post intermission and criticised the script's lack of logic in the later portions. The reviewer added that Daggubati's portrayal of Jogendra was a "stunning act" and "very intense" in crucial scenes.


title: Nene Raju Nene Mantri

text: Criticising the lack of cohesiveness, Nagarjuna Rao of "Gulf News" added that the addition of few irrelevant characters and implausible situations in the later portions "drain the viewer much before the climax, which turns out to be a denouement". Rao also found Rubens' score "too loud, to the point of being irritating". Manoj Kumar R, writing for "The Indian Express", was critical of Teja's direction. He found the climax "cringe worthy" because of Teja's attempt to "underplay the gravity of crimes Jogendra committed". He also added that Teja's reservations failed to give Rana's character a logical conclusion. K. Naresh Kumar of "The Hans India" found the film a "patchy effort" and criticised its indifferent treatment: "Building up the hero as a crusader for the common man, despite his questionable and violent tactics in retaining his political status is the main contradiction that one feels, the film suffers from." Sowmya Rajendran of "The News Minute" opined that the narrative "simply does not hold together" and found the CGI "patchy". Rajendran too felt that the film doesn't allow Jogendra's devolution "to really punch [the viewers] in the gut, because it wants to simultaneously hail him as a hero."


This list of Internet censorship and surveillance by country provides information on the types and levels of Internet censorship and surveillance that is occurring in countries around the world.


title: Internet censorship and surveillance by country

text: Detailed country by country information on Internet censorship and surveillance is provided in the "Freedom on the Net" reports from Freedom House, by the OpenNet Initiative, by Reporters Without Borders, and in the "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices" from the U.S. State Department Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. The ratings produced by several of these organizations are summarized below as well as in the Censorship by country article.


text: The "Freedom on the Net" reports provide analytical reports and numerical ratings regarding the state of Internet freedom for countries worldwide. The countries surveyed represent a sample with a broad range of geographical diversity and levels of economic development, as well as varying levels of political and media freedom. The surveys ask a set of questions designed to measure each country's level of Internet and digital media freedom, as well as the access and openness of other digital means of transmitting information, particularly mobile phones and text messaging services.


text: The results from the three areas are combined into a total score for a country (from 0 for best to 100 for worst) and countries are rated as "Free" (0 to 30), "Partly Free" (31 to 60), or "Not Free" (61 to 100) based on the totals.


text: In a series of reports issued between 2007 and 2013 the OpenNet Initiative (ONI) classified the magnitude of censorship or filtering occurring in a country in four areas of activity.


text: Due to legal concerns the ONI does not check for filtering of child pornography and because their classifications focus on technical filtering, they do not include other types of censorship.


text: Through 2010 the OpenNet Initiative had documented Internet filtering by governments in over forty countries worldwide. The level of filtering was classified in 26 countries in 2007 and in 25 countries in 2009. Of the 41 separate countries classified in these two years, seven were found to show no evidence of filtering (Egypt, France, Germany, India, the United Kingdom, and the United States), while one was found to engage in pervasive filtering in all areas (China), 13 were found to engage in pervasive filtering in one or more areas, and 34 were found to engage in some level of filtering in one or more areas. Of the 10 countries classified in both 2007 and 2009, one reduced its level of filtering (Pakistan), five increased their level of filtering (Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, South Korea, and Uzbekistan), and four maintained the same level of filtering (China, Iran, Myanmar, and Tajikistan).


text: On 12 March 2013 Reporters Without Borders published a "Special report on Internet Surveillance". The report includes two new lists:


text: The five "State Enemies of the Internet" named in March 2013 are: Bahrain, China, Iran, Syria, and Vietnam.


text: The five "Corporate Enemies of the Internet" named in March 2013 are: Amesys (France), Blue Coat Systems (U.S.), Gamma (UK and Germany), Hacking Team (Italy), and Trovicor (Germany).


text: "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices" is an annual series of reports on human rights conditions in countries throughout the world. Among other topics the reports include information on freedom of speech and the press including Internet freedom; freedom of assembly and association; and arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence.


text: The reports are prepared by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor within the United States Department of State. The reports cover internationally recognized individual, civil, political, and worker rights, as set forth in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The first report was issued in 1977 covering the year 1976.


title: Yamato Province

text: The Yamato Period in the history of Japan refers to the late Kofun Period (c. 250–538) and Asuka Period (538–710). Japanese archaeologists and historians emphasize the fact that during the early Kofun Period the Yamato Kingship was in close contention with other regional powers, such as Kibi Province near present-day Okayama Prefecture. Around the 6th century, the local chieftainship gained national control and established the Imperial court in Yamato Province.


title: Yamato Province

text: The battleship , the flagship of the Japanese Combined Fleet during World War II, was named after this ancient province.


title: Yamato Province

text: During the Kofun period (300 to 538) and the Asuka period, many palace capitals were located in Kashihara, Asuka, and Sakurai. Yamato was the first central government of the unified country in the Kofun period. Heijō-kyō capital was placed in Nara City during the Nara period.


title: Yamato Province

text: The provincial temple for monks is popularly thought to have been Tōdai-ji, but it may have in fact been a different one in Kashihara. The one for nuns was Hokke-ji.


title: Yamato Province

text: The primary shrine was Sakurai's Ōmiwa Shrine, but there have been no records stating as such found at the shrine itself. There were no secondary shrines. The sōja (or principal Shinto shrine in the province) was Kokufu Shrine (Takatori, Takaichi, Nara).


title: Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union

text: Seventeen days after the German invasion of Poland in 1939, which marked the beginning of the Second World War, the Soviet Union entered the eastern regions of Poland (known as the "Kresy") and annexed territories totalling with a population of 13,299,000. Inhabitants besides ethnic Poles included Belarusian and Ukrainian major population groups, and also Czechs, Lithuanians, Jews, and other minority groups.


text: These annexed territories were subsequently incorporated into the Lithuanian, Byelorussian, and Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republics and remained within the Soviet Union in 1945 as a consequence of European-wide territorial rearrangements configured during the Tehran Conference of 1943 (see Western Betrayal). Poland was "compensated" for this territorial loss with the pre-War German eastern territories, at the expense of losing its eastern regions. The Polish People's Republic regime described the territories as the "Recovered Territories". The number of Poles in the Kresy in the year 1939 was around 5.274 million, but after ethnic cleansing in 1939-1945 by Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union and Ukrainian nationalist forces consisted of approximately 1.8 million inhabitants. The post-World War II territory of Poland was significantly smaller than the pre-1939 land areas, shrinking by some (roughly equalling that of the territories of Belgium and the Netherlands combined).


text: Early in the morning of August 24, 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed a 10-year non-aggression pact, called the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact. Most notably, the pact contained a secret protocol, revealed only after Germany's defeat in 1945, according to which the states of Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into German and Soviet "spheres of influence". In the North, Finland, Estonia and Latvia were assigned to the Soviet sphere. Poland was to be partitioned in the event of its "political rearrangement"—the areas east of the Narev, Vistula and San Rivers going to the Soviet Union while Germany would occupy the west. Initially annexed by Poland in a series of wars between 1918 and 1921 (primarily the Polish-Soviet War), these territories had mixed urban national populations with Poles and Ukrainians being the most numerous ethnic groups, with significant minorities of Belarusians and Jews. Much of this rural territory had its own significant local non-Polish majority (Ukrainians in the south and Belarusians in the north).


text: Lithuania, adjacent to East Prussia, would be in the German sphere of influence, although a second secret protocol agreed in September 1939 assigned the majority of Lithuania to the USSR. According to the secret protocol, Lithuania would retrieve its historical capital Vilnius, subjugated during the inter-war period by Poland.


text: The Polish–Soviet border, as of 1939, had been determined in 1921 at the Treaty of Riga peace talks, which followed the Polish–Soviet War. Under the terms of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, two weeks after the German invasion of western Poland, the Soviet Union invaded the portions of eastern Poland assigned to it by the Pact, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland. .


text: The "need to protect" the Ukrainian and Belarusian majority populations was used as a pretext for Soviet invasion of Eastern Poland (including Western Ukraine and Belarus) carried out in the wake of Poland's dismemberment under the Nazi invasion with Warsaw being besieged and Poland's government being in the process of evacuation. The total area, including the area given to Lithuania, was , with a population of 13.299 million, of which 5.274 million were ethnic Poles and 1.109 million were Jews. An additional 138,000 ethnic Poles and 198,000 Jews fled the German occupied zone and became refugees in the Soviet occupied region. The borders were finalized in the September 28 German–Soviet Frontier Treaty, most of whose contents were kept secret.


text: Soviet authorities immediately started a campaign of sovietization. Passportization and residence registration of the population in the newly acquired territories began. Inhabitants of Kresy, on whom Soviet citizenship was imposed in November 1939, had to return documents issued by "former Poland" and obtain new citizenship of the USSR. The NKVD used the passportization system to carefully select people still living in Western Belarus and Western Ukraine. Those who did not receive the citizenship or refused to accept it (claiming that they were Polish citizens or not agreeing to enter Ukrainian or Belarusian nationality) were arrested or deported.


text: In March 1940, the authorities also decided about the fate of refugees from western Poland, who from September 1939 were in Kresy. Deportation of this group of about 75–80 thousand people, consisting mainly of Jews (about 84%), finally began on June 29, 1940, and lasted for nearly a month.


text: The Soviets organized staged elections, the result of which was to become a legitimization of Soviet annexation of eastern Poland. Soviet authorities attempted to erase Polish history and culture, withdrew the Polish currency without exchanging ruble, collectivized agriculture, and nationalized and redistributed private and state-owned Polish property. Soviet authorities regarded service for the pre-war Polish state as a "crime against revolution" and "counter-revolutionary activity", and subsequently started arresting large numbers of Polish citizens. During the initial Soviet invasion of Poland, between 230,000 to 450,000 Poles were taken as prisoner, some of whom were executed. NKVD officers conducted lengthy interrogations of the prisoners in camps that were, in effect, a selection process to determine who would be killed. On March 5, 1940, pursuant to a note to Stalin from Lavrenty Beria, the members of the Soviet Politburo (including Stalin) signed an order to execute POWs, labeled "nationalists and counterrevolutionaries", kept at camps and prisons in occupied western Ukraine and Belarus. This became known as the Katyn massacre, in all some 22,000 were executed.


text: During Perestroika, former top ministers of Stalin such as Lazar Kaganovich and Vyacheslav Molotov claimed that in Katyn, of the 22,000 Polish officers, roughly 3,000 were killed by the NKVD in 1940, while others were later executed by Nazis.


text: During 1939–1941 1.45 million of the people inhabiting the region were deported by the Soviet regime, of whom 63.1% were Poles, and 7.4% were Jews. Previously it was believed that about one million Polish citizens died at the hands of the Soviets, however recently Polish historians, based mostly on queries in Soviet archives, estimate the number of deaths at about 350,000 people deported in 1939–1945.


text: Andrzej Paczkowski puts the number of Polish deaths at 90–100,000 of the 1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets.


text: The Vilnius region, annexed by Poland in 1920, was transferred to Lithuania on the basis of Lithuania-Soviet Union agreement. Other northern territories were attached to Belastok Voblast, Hrodna Voblast, Navahrudak Voblast (soon renamed to Baranavichy Voblast), Pinsk Voblast and Vileyka (later Maladzyechna) Voblast in Byelorussian SSR. The territories to the south were transferred to the Ukrainian SSR : Drohobych Oblast, Lviv Oblast, Rivne Oblast, Stanislav (later known as Ivano-Frankivsk) Oblast, Tarnopil Oblast and Volyn Oblast.


text: These areas were conquered by Nazi Germany in 1941 during Operation Barbarossa. The Nazis divided them up as follows:


text: During 1943–1944 ethnic cleansing operations took place in Ukraine (commonly known as the Massacres of Poles in Volhynia) which brought about an estimated 100,000 deaths and an exodus of ethnic Poles from this territory.


text: The Polish and Jewish language population of the regions in 1939 totaled about 6.7 million. During the war, an estimated 2 million persons perished (including 1.2 million Jews). These numbers are included with Polish war losses. 2 million (including 250,000 Jews) became refugees to Poland or the West, 1.5 million were in the territories returned to Poland in 1945 and 1.2 million remained in the USSR. Contemporary Russian historians also include the war losses of Poles and Jews from this region with Soviet war dead.


text: Soon after the Soviet re-entry to Poland in July 1944 in pursuit of the German army, the Polish prime minister from London flew to Moscow along with Churchill in an attempt to prevent the Soviet annexation of Poland in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact signed by the Soviet Union. He offered a smaller section of land, but Stalin declined, telling him that he would allow the exiled government to participate in the Polish Committee of National Liberation. An agreement between the Allies was reluctantly reached at the Yalta Conference where the Soviets would annex the entirety of their Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact portion of Eastern Poland but would grant Poland part of Eastern Germany in return. These agreements were then confirmed and consolidated at the Potsdam Conference. Thereafter, eastern Poland was annexed into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. The Western Allies were unaware of the existence of the secret clause dividing Poland between Hitler and Stalin already in 1939 along the Curzon Line.


text: Some parts of eastern Poland occupied by the Nazis in 1939 with an area of and 1.5 million inhabitants near Białystok and Przemyśl were returned to postwar Poland.


text: On August 16, 1945 the Communist-dominated Provisional Government of National Unity signed a treaty with the USSR to formally cede these territories. The total population of the territories annexed by the USSR, not including the portion returned to Poland in 1945, had an estimated population of 10,653,000 according to the 1931 Polish census. In 1939 this had increased to about 11.6 million. The composition by language group was Ukrainian 37.1%, Polish 36.5%, Belarusian 15.1%, Yiddish 8.3%, Other 3%. Religious affiliation: Eastern Orthodox 31.6%, Roman Catholic 30.1%, Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church 26.7%, Jewish 9.9%, Other 1.7%.


text: From 1944 until 1952 the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UIA) were engaged in an armed struggle against the communists. As a result of the skirmishes between the UIA and Soviet units, the Soviets deported 600,000 people from these territories and in the process 170,000 of the local population were killed in the fighting. See also Operation Vistula.


title: Cai Lun

text: Cai Lun (; courtesy name: Jingzhong (); – 121 CE), formerly romanized as Ts'ai Lun, was a Chinese eunuch court official of the Eastern Han dynasty. He is traditionally regarded as the inventor of paper and the modern papermaking process. Although early forms of paper had existed since the 3rd century BCE, he occupies a pivotal place in the history of paper due to his addition of pulp via tree bark and hemp ends which resulted in the large-scale manufacture and worldwide spread of paper.


title: Cai Lun

text: Born in (in what is now Leiyang), Cai arrived at the imperial court in by 75 CE, where he served as a chamberlain for Emperor Ming, and then as , an imperial messenger for Emperor Zhang. To assist Lady Dou in securing her adopted son as designated heir, he interrogated Consort Song and her sister, who then killed themselves. When Emperor He ascended the throne in 88 CE, Dou awarded Cai with two positions: , a political counselor to the emperor that was the highest position for eunuchs of the time, and also as , where Cai oversaw the production of instruments and weapons at the Palace Workshop.


title: Cai Lun

text: Despite Emperor He's successful coup d'état against the Dou family in 92 CE, Cai was undisturbed by his former ally's downfall. His position in the Palace Workshop increased in scope; he became responsible for the production of ceremonial weapons, which the reports were of exemplary craftsmanship. However, Cai's most noted innovation was in 105 CE, when he substantially improved the papermaking process with the use of tree bark, hemp waste, old rags, and fishnets. His new type of paper quickly displaced the bamboo and wooden slips used until then, and Cai received wealth and fame throughout the empire. In 110 CE, Lady Deng, who had become the empress dowager to the young Emperor An, appointed Cai to oversee 100 scholars' new edition of the Five Classics. Cai was rewarded for his imperial service in 114 CE; he received the title of marquis, and was enfeoffed lord of , a small village. When his ally Deng died in 121 CE, Cai was ordered to the Ministry of Justice because of his involvement in the death of the emperor's grandmother, Consort Song. Ashamed at his predicament and expecting to be sentenced to death, he committed suicide that year and died in the capital city in which he had spent almost his entire adult life.


title: Cai Lun

text: Cai's improvements to paper-making are considered to have had an enormous impact on human history, and of those who created China's Four Great Inventions—the compass, gunpowder, papermaking and printing—Cai is the only inventor whose name is known. Although in China he is revered in ancestor worship, deified as the god of papermaking, and appears in Chinese folklore, he is mostly unknown outside of East Asia. His hometown in Leiyang remains an active center of paper production.


title: Cai Lun

text: The main source of information on Cai Lun is just 300 characters in volume 78 of the (; "Book of the Later Han"), an official history compiled by the Liu Song dynasty historian and politician Fan Ye. Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, a modern sinologist, noted that while Fan's account is the most comprehensive, it is problematic as it was written nearly 300 years after Cai's death. The primary source Fan used was the 2nd-century "" (; "History of the Eastern Han"), in which is credited as the author of Cai's biography. Yan's brief 70-character account is near-contemporary but only survives in a reconstructed state from a lost original. Another older source is a brief mention by the 3rd-century scholar Tung Pa, who is quoted referencing Cai's papermaking accomplishments in the 10th-century "leishu" encyclopedia (; "Readings of the Taiping Era").


title: Cai Lun

text: Later history books, such as the Song dynasty's ' (; "Compound Source of Matters and Facts"), also include Cai and his work in papermaking. However, some major history books, such as the ' (; "Annals of the Later Han") and "" (; "Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance") do not mention Cai's papermaking achievements. Sinologist T. H. Barrett suggested this was because "Cai Lun was, after all, a palace eunuch, precisely the sort of person normally viewed with antagonism by the regular bureaucrats who controlled the writing of official (and even most unofficial) history."


title: Cai Lun

text: Cai Lun was born in Guiyang Commandery (; modern-day Leiyang, Hunan province) in the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 CE). His exact year of birth is unknown; estimates include , , and . Other than being born into a poor family, virtually nothing is known of his early life. Guiyang was a southern commandery, where Han Chinese had immigrated for hundreds of years to plant and cultivate rice. Legends suggest there was a pool near his home, south of which was a stone mortar that Cai would later use for papermaking.


title: Cai Lun

text: It is not known how Cai came to be in the service of the imperial court in (modern-day Luoyang, Henan province), which was distant from his birthplace. The reports that he was first employed during the end of the era (58–75) of Emperor Ming. The site of modern Guiyang Commandery was known to have had various iron mines at the time, so the former director of the Paper Museum in Tokyo, Kiyofusa Narita, suggested that "through the assistance of some who were in charge of the iron foundry, he found opportunity to go to the capital city". Narita cited Cai's future court appointment to oversee the production of weapons, especially swords, as evidence that he must have learned the skills to do so earlier in his life, likely from the iron foundry. Alternatively, if there is any truth to the various folktales about Cai, his supposed habits of trickery may have helped him receive a court appointment.