title: Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar

text: He was a connoisseur of both western and Carnatic (South Indian classical) music and an acknowledged authority of Indian Philosophy. He helped the Western world discover the music of a little-known Russian composer Nikolai Medtner (1880–1951), financing the recording of a large number of his compositions and founding the Medtner Society in 1949. Medtner's Third Piano Concerto is dedicated to the Maharaja of Mysore. He became a Licentiate of the Guildhall School of Music, London and honorary Fellow of Trinity College of Music, London, in 1945. Aspirations to become a concert pianist were cut short by the untimely death of both his father the Yuvaraja Kanteerava Narasimharaja Wadiyar in 1939, and his uncle the Maharaja Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV in 1940, when he succeeded to the throne of Mysore.


title: Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar

text: He was the first president of the Philharmonia Concert Society, London in 1948. See below copy of the programme sheets of some of the earliest concerts held at Royal Albert Hall on 13 April, 27 April – 11 May 1949.


title: Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar

text: This largesse proved sufficient to transform Legge's fortunes in 1949. He was able to engage Herbert von Karajan as conductor. The repertory the young Maharajah wished to sponsor were Balakirev's Symphony, Roussel's Fourth Symphony, Busoni's "Indian Fantasy" etc. The association produced some of the most memorable recordings of the post-war period.


title: Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar

text: The Maharaja also enabled Richard Strauss's last wish to be fulfilled by sponsoring an evening at the Royal Albert Hall by London's Philharmonia Orchestra with German conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler in the lead and soprano Kirsten Flagstad singing his "Four Last Songs" in 1950.


title: Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar

text: The Maharaja was equally a good critic of music. When asked by Legge to pass judgement on recent additions to the EMI catalogue, his views were as trenchant as they were refreshingly unpredictable. He was thrilled by Karajan's Vienna Philharmonic recording of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony ('as Beethoven wished it to be'), held Furtwängler's recording of the Fourth Symphony in high esteem, and was disappointed by Alceo Galliera's account of the Seventh Symphony, which he would have preferred Karajan to record. Above all, he expressed serious doubts about Arturo Toscanini's recordings. 'The speed and energy are those of a demon', he wrote to Legge, 'not an angel or superman as one would ardently hope for'. One of the reasons he so admired Furtwängler's Beethoven was that it was 'such a tonic after Toscanini's highly strung, vicious performances'.


title: Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar

text: Writing in the July 1950 edition of "THE GRAMOPHONE" Walter Legge sums Maharajas's monumental contribution to Western Classical Music:


title: Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar

text: ...Many more correspondents have written expressing their admiration for the vision, constructive enterprise and generosity of the young Indian Prince who conceived this plan, and who is making it possible for the music lovers throughout the world to learn, enjoy and study works which but for his knowledge and love of music, would never have been recorded...


title: Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar

text: After becoming Maharaja, he was initiated to the Indian classical music (Carnatic music) due to the cultural vibrancy which prevailed in the Mysore court till then. He learnt to play veena under Vid. Venkatagiriappa and mastered the nuances of carnatic music under the tutelage of veteran composer and Asthan Vidwan Sri. Vasudevacharya. He was also initiated into the secrets of Shri Vidya as an upasaka (under assumed name Chitprabhananda) by his guru Shilpi Siddalingaswamy. This inspired him to compose as many as 94 carnatic music krutis under the assumed name of Shri Vidya. All the compositions are in different ragas and some of them for the first time ever. In the process He also built three temples in Mysore city: Bhuvaneshvari Temple and Gayatri Temple, located inside the Mysore Palace Fort, and Sri Kamakaameshwari Temple, situated on Ramanuja Road, Mysore. All three temples were sculpted by the maharaja's guru and famous sculptor, Shilpi Siddalingaswamy. His 94 compositions were published by his son-in law Sri. R.Raja Chandra as "Sree Vidyaa Gaana Vaaridhi" in 2010. The book was edited by Sri. S. Krishna Murthy, grandson of Maharaja's Guru Sri. Mysore Vasudevacaharya.


title: Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar

text: Many noted Indian musicians received patronage at his court, including Mysore Vasudevachar, Veena Venkatagiriyappa, B. Devendrappa, V. Doraiswamy Iyengar, T. Chowdiah, Tiger Vardachar, Chennakeshaviah, Titte Krishna Iyengar, S. N. Mariappa, Chintalapalli Ramachandra Rao, R. N. Doreswamy, H. M. Vaidyalinga Bhagavatar.


title: Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar

text: The patronage and contribution of Wadiyars to carnatic music was researched in the 1980s by Prof. Mysore Sri V. Ramarathnam, Retired First Principal of the University College of Music and Dance, University of Mysore. The research was conducted under the sponsorship of University Grants Commission, Government of India. Prof. Mysore Sri V. Ramarathnam authored the book "Contribution and Patronage of Wadiyars to Music" that was published Kannada Book Authority, Bangalore.


title: Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar

text: He also sponsored the translation of many classics from Sanskrit to Kannada as part of the Jayachamaraja Grantha Ratna Mala, including 35 parts of the Rigveda. These are essentially ancient, sacred scriptures in Sanskrit till then not available in Kannada language comprehensively. All the books contain original text in Kannada accompanied by Kannada translation in simple language for the benefit of common man. In the history of Kannada literature such a monumental work was never attempted! As Late H. Gangadhara Shastry – Asthan (court) Astrologer and Dharmadhikari of Mysore Palace – who himself has contributed substantially in the above works -has stated that Maharaja used to study each and everyone of these works and discuss them with the authors. It seems on a festival night (on shivaratri), he was summoned in the middle of the night and advised him to simplify the use of some difficult Kannada words in one of the books. The digital version of Rigveda samhita that was first published under Jayachamaraja Grantha Ratna Mala was developed by C S Yogananda at Sriranga Digital Software Technologies during 2009.


title: Grenoble Foot 38

text: Grenoble Foot 38, commonly referred to as simply Grenoble or GF38, is a French association football club based in Grenoble. The club plays its home matches at the Stade des Alpes, a sports complex based in the heart of the city, and wears white and blue.


title: Grenoble Foot 38

text: The original incarnation of the club was founded in 1911 and, in 1997, was formed into the club that exists today as a result of a merger. Grenoble currently plays in Ligue 2, the second level of French football, after having gone into bankruptcy and relegation to the fifth level of French football in 2011.


title: Grenoble Foot 38

text: The club was founded in 1911 as "Football Club de Grenoble". In 1997, a merger of "Olympique Grenoble Isère" and "Norcap Olympique" led to the "Grenoble Foot 38" incarnation. Olympique Grenoble Isère played in Ligue 1 in the 1960–61 and 1962–63 seasons.


title: Grenoble Foot 38

text: In 2004, Grenoble Foot was acquired by Index Holdings, a Japanese mobile software company, therefore becoming the first French football club to have foreign owners. The price of the deal was around €2 million. The new owners invested in the Stade des Alpes, a new ground with an initial capacity of 20,000 which opened in February 2008. Grenoble finished the 2007–08 Ligue 2 season in third place, thus returning to Ligue 1 for the first time since 1963.


title: Grenoble Foot 38

text: In the 2008–09 Ligue 1 season, Grenoble finished 13th. However, after losing their first eleven games of the following season, they were eventually relegated with six games remaining amidst severe financial problems.


title: Grenoble Foot 38

text: The professional football club was liquidated in July 2011 with debts of €2.9 million, and relegated administratively to Championnat de France Amateur 2, the fifth tier. Index provided false financial statements during their ownership of the club.


title: Grenoble Foot 38

text: Now an amateur side, Grenoble won promotion from Championnat de France Amateur 2 at the first attempt in 2012, and were champions of the 2016–17 Championnat de France Amateur, returning to Championnat National for the 2017–18 season. They secured their second successive promotion to Ligue 2 on 27 May 2018, after an aggregate play-off victory over Bourg-en-Bresse.


title: Grenoble Foot 38

text: Below are the notable former players who have represented Grenoble and its predecessors in league and international competition since the club's foundation in 1997.


title: Plastic Surgery Disasters

text: Plastic Surgery Disasters is the second full-length album released by punk rock band Dead Kennedys. Recorded in San Francisco during June 1982, it was produced by the band and punk record producer Thom Wilson, with Geza X getting a "special thanks" underneath the DK's/Wilson credit for additional production. (DK's guitarist East Bay Ray redundantly added his own name to the production credits on Manifesto reissues of the album.) The album is darker and more hardcore-influenced than their debut album "Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables" as a result of the band trying to expand on the sound and mood they had achieved with their 1980 single "Holiday in Cambodia". It was the first full-length album to feature drummer D.H. Peligro, and is frontman Jello Biafra's favorite Dead Kennedys album.


title: Plastic Surgery Disasters

text: According to Jello Biafra, the main musical influences for the album were Bauhaus, Les Baxter and The Groundhogs.


title: Plastic Surgery Disasters

text: The album's cover features the band's name superimposed over the black-and-white photograph "Hands" by photojournalist Michael Wells. Wells's photo depicts the emaciated forearm and hand of a malnourished Ugandan child in the palm of a European missionary to highlight the horrors of famine in parts of the African continent during the 1970s and 80s. The same image was used by another San Francisco-based punk band called Society Dog for their 1981 EP "...Off of the Leash.".


title: Plastic Surgery Disasters

text: Most pressings of the album include a booklet containing lyrics and pieces of collage artwork by Biafra and Winston Smith that thematically tie in to the lyrics of each song on the album.


title: Plastic Surgery Disasters

text: On the album's original vinyl and cassette releases, the A-side comprises tracks 1–8, ending with “Winnebago Warrior”, and the B-side tracks 9–13, kicking off with “Riot”. Some reissues parse out Melissa Webber's spoken intro to the album from the opening song, "Government Flu", and list it as a separate track entitled "Advice from Christmas Past". Similarly, Webber's spoken outro after "Moon Over Marin" revisits "Advice from Christmas Past" and is listed as such on some editions of the album.


title: Plastic Surgery Disasters

text: The compact disc of the album has been reissued to include the EP "In God We Trust, Inc." as eight tracks added onto its end.


title: Indirect speech

text: In many languages, indirect discourse is expressed using a content clause or infinitival. When an instance of indirect discourse reports an earlier question, the embedded clause takes the form of an indirect question. In indirect speech, grammatical categories in the embedded clause often differ from those in the utterance it reports. For instance, the example above uses the third person pronoun "she" even though Jill's original utterance used the first person pronoun "I". In some languages, including English, the tense of verbs can also be changed following the sequence of tense. Some languages also have a change of mood. For instance Latin indirect speech uses the infinitive for statements and the subjunctive for questions.


title: Indirect speech

text: In indirect speech, words generally have referents appropriate to the context in which the act of reporting takes place, rather than that in which the speech act being reported took place (or is conceived as taking place). The two acts often differ in a reference point (origo) – the point in time and place and the person speaking – and also in the person being addressed and the linguistic context. Thus when a sentence involves words or forms whose referents depend on these circumstances, they are liable to change when the sentence is put into indirect speech. In particular, this commonly affects:


title: Indirect speech

text: There may also be a change of tense or other modifications to the form of the verb, such as change of mood. These changes depend on the grammar of the language in question  – some examples can be found in the following sections.


title: Indirect speech

text: Indirect speech need not refer to a speech act that has actually taken place; it may concern future or hypothetical discourse; for example, "If you ask him why he's wearing that hat, he'll tell you to mind your own business." Also, even when referring to a known completed speech act, the reporter may deviate freely from the words that were actually used, provided the meaning is retained. This contrasts with direct speech, where there is an expectation that the original words will be reproduced exactly.


title: Indirect speech

text: Some modal verbs ("would, could, might, should, ought to") do not change in indirect speech. The indirect speech sentence is then ambiguous since it can be a result of two different direct speech sentences. For example:


title: Indirect speech

text: However, in many Slavic languages, there is no change of tense in indirect speech and so there is no ambiguity. For example, in Polish (a male speaker, hence third person masculine singular):


title: Indirect speech

text: Some examples of changes in form in indirect speech in English are given below. See also Sequence of tenses, and .


title: Indirect speech

text: The tense changes illustrated above (also called "backshifting"), which occur because the main verb ("said", "asked") is in the past tense, are not obligatory when the situation described is still valid:


title: Indirect speech

text: In these sentences, the original tense can be used provided that it remains equally valid at the time of the reporting of the statement (Ed is still considered a bore; Benjamin is still expected to come over).


title: Indirect speech

text: In Ancient Greek, statements and questions that are reported are sometimes quoted by using indirect statements and questions.


title: Indirect speech

text: There are three types of indirect statements and one type of indirect question, but all are introduced with a verb of thought, belief, speaking, or questioning.


title: Indirect speech

text: Verbs such as φημὶ require no additional introductory particle. The quoted speech is rendered with the following changes: the finite verb is transformed into the corresponding infinitive, and the nominative subject and the predicate are transformed into the accusative. The accusative object remains unchanged. Tense, voice, and number remain unchanged.


title: Indirect speech

text: Verbs such as γιγνώσκω require no additional introductory particle. However, the nominative subject, and the predicate, if present, are changed into the accusative case, and the finite verb, agreeing with them, is changed into the corresponding participle in the accusative case. The accusative object remains unchanged. Tense, voice, and number remain unchanged.


title: Indirect speech

text: With the two species of indirect statements above, however, if the subject of the quoted speech is the same as its speaker, the subject is omitted and is understood in the nominative, and the predicate, if present, remains in the nominative case.


title: Indirect speech

text: Verbs such as λέγω require either ὡς or ὅτι as an introductory particle. If the introductory verb is in a secondary tense, the finite verb of the ὡς/ὅτι clause is usually changed from the indicative mood into the corresponding tense in the optative mood, but the indicative verb is sometimes retained for vividness.


title: Indirect speech

text: In Latin grammar, indirect speech is called (direct speech is called "ōratiō recta"). An indirect statement or question can replace the direct object of a verb that is related to thought or communication.


title: Indirect speech

text: An indirect statement is expressed by changing the case of the subject noun phrase from nominative to accusative and by replacing the main verb with an infinitive (as in the English phrase "You believe me to be a traitor" above). The voice remains unchanged, but the tense of the infinitive is controlled mostly by the temporal relationship between the time expressed by the matrix verb's tense and the time denoted by the infinitive. The present tense at the moment of utterance (a simultaneous state of affairs between the matrix verb and the infinitive) is expressed by the present infinitive. The past tense (the infinitive's state of affairs is before that of the matrix verb) is expressed by the perfect infinitive. The future tense (a time posterior after that of matrix verb) is expressed by the future infinitive.


title: Indirect speech

text: Practically, six tenses of the indicative must be transformed into three available infinitival tenses. An accurate reproduction of the full temporal sense of direct speech is thus often impossible:


title: Indirect speech

text: As is shown from the first example, even a coreferent subject must be expressed in the accusative if its clause is put into the infinitive. The accusative of reflexive pronouns is used in the corresponding person and number (singular: me, te, se; plural: nos, vos, se).


title: Indirect speech

text: For predication by a copula (typically, "esse"), the case of the predicate adjective or noun changes from nominative to accusative. The same happens to any syntactic constituent that stood in the nominative case before it became indirect speech.


title: Indirect speech

text: After passive verbs of speaking, reporting, thinking, or perceiving, the nominative with infinitive (Latin: "Nominativus cum infinitivo") is generally preferred, especially after monolectic matrix verb types. That construction is called, in generative linguistics, subject-to-subject raising: the noun phrase (in the accusative) is detached from the infinitive and is raised as the nominative subject of the matrix passive verb:


title: Indirect speech

text: If an imperfect or a pluperfect was initially used in direct speech, the perfect infinitive is normally used instead, as it the only one capable of denoting a state of affairs earlier than the one denoted by the matrix verb that introduces the indirect speech.


title: Indirect speech

text: The future perfect indicative, a tense denoting a state of affairs completed in the future and so later than another state of affairs in the future, becomes, according to at least some grammarians, the circumlocution fore ut + perfect of pluperfect subjunctive, in accordance to the sequence of tenses at hand, a sort of substantive consecutive clause serving as subject of the infinitive fore. In the passive, a form of the periphrastic infinitive "-tus fore" is normally used:


title: Indirect speech

text: A potential subjunctive is changed to some sort of periphrastic infinitive: a present subjunctive becomes "-urum esse" or "posse", followed by the present infinitive; an imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive becomes "-urum fuisse":


title: Indirect speech

text: An indirect question is expressed by changing the mood of the main verb from the indicative to the subjunctive. Some rhetoric questions change the verb to the accusative, followed by the infinitive, as if it were a real declarative statement in direct speech ). It is normally appropriate to retain the word that introduces the question, but a relative pronoun or adverb is occasionally used instead of one that is initially interrogative. The subjunctive tense is controlled by the Sequence of Tenses. Its sequence depends on the tense of the matrix verb of asking, perceiving etc. by which the indirect question is introduced:


title: Indirect speech

text: 1. The present indicative becomes the present subjunctive after a primary tense (present, future, future perfect of primary perfect), but it turns into the imperfect subjunctive after a secondary tense (a past tense: imperfect, secondary perfect, pluperfect and, occasionally, historic present):


title: Indirect speech

text: 2. The future indicative is turned into the periphrastic conjugation in "-urus sim" (the present periphrastic subjunctive is used as the future subjunctive) or "-urus essem" (the imperfect periphrastic subjunctive).


title: Indirect speech

text: However, the use of present subjunctive after a primary tense and imperfect subjunctive after a secondary tense is also often attested, especially if the future reference is obvious from the context and for a passive verb (passives lack the periphrastic conjugation "-urus sim").


title: Indirect speech

text: 3. The imperfect, perfect, pluperfect and future perfect indicative are turned into the perfect or pluperfect subjunctive after primary and secondary tenses respectively:


title: Indirect speech

text: A deliberative subjunctive, always in the present tense in direct speech, is always retained in an indirect question. The tense of the direct form is unchanged unless the matrix verb had a secondary tense, when the present tense becomes imperfect. An initially secondary subjunctive, the imperfect, is retained, regardless of the tense into which the matrix verb is changed, primary or secondary:


title: Indirect speech

text: The potential subjunctive is retained as well. Primary subjunctives are changed to the corresponding secondary subjunctives, which stay the same. The idea of possibility is often expressed by periphrases: by -urus sim, essem, fuerim, fuissem and by a subjunctive tense of possum + present infinitive:


title: Indirect speech

text: A dependent clause in the indicative is put into the subjunctive if it is changed to indirect speech. Almost all the rules stated above hold for indirect questions:


title: Indirect speech

text: The simple present particular conditional becomes the present indicative in the protasis and the apodosis:


title: Indirect speech

text: The unreal present conditional (an imperfect subjunctive in the protasis and the apodosis; an unreal imperfect subjunctive remains unchanged in the protasis; an unreal imperfect subjunctive becomes the infinitive "-urum fuisse" in the apodosis):


title: Indirect speech

text: The vivid future conditional (a future perfect indicative in a protasis, a direct question with a future indicative in an apodosis; a protasis is changed to a perfect or pluperfect subjunctive, according to the rules of the sequence of tenses; an apodosis similarly is changed to an indirect question with the periphrastic "-usus sim/essem"):


title: Indirect speech

text: In Russian and many other Slavic languages, indirect speech uses the same verb tense as the equivalent sentence in direct speech:


title: Indirect speech

text: German indirect speech consists formally of dependent clauses depending on a verb of saying, holding, thinking or the like, but they may sometimes be elliptically left out and simply implied. Questions take their question-word, yes-no-questions take "ob" ("whether"), and statements take "dass" for the conjunction. Also, German indirect speech must be put into subjunctive mood. That is one of the primary uses for the non-periphrastical subjunctive.


title: Indirect speech

text: The conjunction "dass" can be left out. In that case, the indirect speech is put into main-clause word order (inflected verb at second place) even though it is still a dependent clause separated by a comma:


title: Indirect speech

text: In longer segments of indirect speech, which, at least in written German, are as normal as they would be in Latin, only the first sentence or none of them has a "dass", and full-stops are put wherever they would be have been put in direct speech.


title: Indirect speech

text: "Shorter" statements of indirect speech may be presented in the indicative if they are not doubted; however, it would be colloquial to do so but to leave the "dass" out:


title: Valeria Richards

text: Valeria Meghan Richards, originally von Doom, is a fictional character of Marvel Comics, the daughter of Mister Fantastic (Reed Richards) and the Invisible Woman (Susan Storm-Richards) and goddaughter of Doctor Victor von Doom. She is the younger sister of Franklin Richards (though because of time travel she has sometimes been older than her brother). Valeria made her first appearance under the code name Marvel Girl and is currently using the name Brainstorm.


title: Valeria Richards

text: Valeria von Doom first appeared in "Fantastic Four" (vol. 3) #50 (February 2002), during writer Chris Claremont and artist Salvador Larroca's run. While Chris Claremont intended to resolve the storyline, he never got the chance, as Rafael Marín and Carlos Pacheco and Jeph Loeb took over "Fantastic Four" and brought Valeria back into the title, changing the character's origins. In the comics themselves, Roma professed to have cared for the girl, but the "Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe" took the opportunity to tie up some loose ends by claiming that Valeria was actually raised in an alternate future as the daughter of Doctor Doom and Sue Storm.


title: Valeria Richards

text: Mr. Fantastic, The Thing and the Human Torch were on the moon of an alternative future when they saw Susan Richards, appearing as the Baroness von Doom, with her children Franklin and Valeria. Valeria von Doom later appeared in the main timeline by suddenly materializing in the Fantastic Four's headquarters, professing to be from the future, as well as being the daughter of Doctor Doom (Victor von Doom) and the Invisible Woman. This was very disturbing to the Fantastic Four, but after an initial period of conflict, the Invisible Woman accepted Valeria into the FF's home and she aided them on several missions.


title: Valeria Richards

text: It was unknown how Doctor Doom and the Invisible Woman would come together in the future, and how Mister Fantastic would be removed from the picture. Things seemed to be coming together when Mister Fantastic became trapped in Doom's armor, and publicly pretended to be the villain, remarrying Sue and making her his baroness shortly after Valeria is sent to Haven, a safe house at the end of the universe, for her own protection, but as events proceeded, Reed was freed from the armor, again calling Valeria's future into question.


title: Valeria Richards

text: She was revealed to be the second, unborn child of Reed and Sue Richards, whom Sue had seemingly miscarried years before, and who had originally been named Valerie Meghan Richards. Under the guidance of Roma, Franklin had used his powers to save the child, taking her from her native reality and sending her "someplace else" where she was raised by another Invisible Woman who had married a now heroic Doctor Doom after the death of her first husband. As the FF went up against the cosmic menace of Abraxas, she was summoned by Roma and fulfilled her purpose by merging her powers with Franklin and reconstituting Galactus to stop Abraxas. In the restructuring of reality that ensued, Valeria regressed to a fetus within Sue's womb once again, on the cusp of being born.


title: Valeria Richards

text: As had occurred during the first time she was born, the cosmic rays that gave the Fantastic Four their superpowers made the delivery of Valeria extremely difficult, and because Mister Fantastic was caught up solving a world-threatening crisis, the Human Torch had no choice but to call upon Victor von Doom for help. Doctor Doom used his vast intelligence and mystical capabilities to successfully deliver the baby.


title: Valeria Richards

text: As the price for his help, Victor insisted that he be allowed to name the child. He did so, naming her Valeria after a woman he had loved in the past, also swearing to her and her parents that anyone who harmed her would face his wrath. Unknown to the Fantastic Four, Victor also planted a spell on Valeria, making her his familiar spirit, as revealed in Mark Waid's "Unthinkable" story arc, her eventually taking his surname.


title: Valeria Richards

text: Due to the numerous supervillain attacks on the Baxter Building, New York City's Child Protective Services questioned the safety of Franklin and Val. After much reluctance, Reed and Sue decided to relinquish custody of their children. However, an initial condition was that a "dummy" safe-house was to be set up, and a press release to be released stating that the children had already been moved. The decision to actually move Franklin and Valeria was rescinded after the safe-house that they were to be placed in was reduced to a crater (along with everything within a half-mile radius) by an attack within four hours of the press release. It is uncertain exactly which of the FF's enemies carried out the attack or why, although it was hinted that the FF themselves had something to do with it in order to get their children back.


title: Valeria Richards

text: Some years later, Valeria, Franklin, Mister Fantastic, Invisible Woman, and the Future Foundation are confronted by the Griever at the End of All Things. During this time, she has taken up the codename of Brainstorm.


title: Valeria Richards

text: Valeria is a normal human being who possesses remarkable intelligence even as a child. As a toddler she was seen to complete a Rubik's Cube with her father saying that she will be playing chess by the time she is two. She has claimed that she is smarter than her father.


title: Valeria Richards

text: As Valeria von Doom, she showed intelligence and aptitude for invention and technology rivaling that of Doctor Doom or Mister Fantastic. For instance, she uses a special belt like device she designed that allows her to exhibit the ability of her mother to project force fields, using them for protection or as platforms to stand on and propel through the air. By wrapping the force fields tightly around her body, she could simulate superhuman strength for her punches and invulnerability. The device also allows her to neutralize her brother's powers or "time-dancing", a method she and her adult brother Franklin occasionally used to travel through time. Valeria also used an armored costume that mixed elements of the Fantastic Four's uniform and Doctor Doom's armor. She could summon the armor, apparently through the metallic paint of Doom's mask on her fingernails.


title: Valeria Richards

text: Reborn as Valeria once again, she is currently a toddler. In "Fantastic Four" (vol. 3) #63 (January 2003), she was tested for superpowers by her father who found her to have no superhuman abilities. In "Fantastic Four: The Wedding" she is seen solving a Rubik's Cube with her father saying that she will be playing chess by the time she is two. At the age of two, she is already incredibly intelligent, nearly at the level of Reed. She hides her intelligence from her family as she has calculated that at this point, it would cause far too much of a divide between her family. Though Sue would be proud of her it would alienate them, and after 82 months, it would inadvertently drive a wedge between Reed and Franklin. Valeria eventually dropped the ruse, and created a very advanced artificial intelligence-based toy which Reed and Franklin plan to sell to Disney. Reed has said she, at the mere age of three, had already surpassed his intelligence.


title: Valeria Richards

text: In "Marvel Knights 4", Johnny Storm travels to an alternate future and is saved from Doombots by a grown-up Valeria. She had a superior version of her mother's invisibility powers, allowing her to shield someone's bio-electric aura, kinetic energy, heat energy, and other evidence of their existence.


title: Valeria Richards

text: In Jonathan Hickman's "Secret Wars" (2015), Valeria is confirmed as having been Victor von Doom's biological child, she attains the position of his head of science. In the "Secret Wars: The Runaways" crossover, Valeria is the headmistress of the Victor von Doom Institute for Gifted Youths in Doomstadt. After Victor deposes himself as God-Emperor, Valeria leaves to explore the multiverse with her brother Franklin, Reed and Sue, returning at an older age similar to her original appearance.


title: Valeria Richards

text: The idea of Susan's child surviving her birth has been previously explored in "What If...?" (vol. 2) #30 (1991) in two diverging stories.


title: Valeria Richards

text: In the "Marvel Zombies" prequel "Dead Days", Valeria and Franklin are killed and partially devoured by an infected She-Hulk. A grieving Invisible Woman kills She-Hulk (restrained by the Thing) with a force field in retaliation. The death of the children causes Reed to go insane, and he deliberately infects his teammates. They, in turn, infect him.


title: Valeria Richards

text: In a proposed future timeline, Valeria takes up the mantle of Doctor Doom and battles the future Sorcerer Supreme, Billy Kaplan.


title: Valeria Richards

text: In a possible future utopia, Laura Kinney a.k.a. Wolverine is dying of cell degeneration due to a flaw in the original process that cloned her. An adult Dr. Valeria Richards paid her a house call, but determined there was nothing she could do to cure her condition.


title: Data-rate units

text: In telecommunications, data-transfer rate is the average number of bits (bitrate), characters or symbols (baudrate), or data blocks per unit time passing through a communication link in a data-transmission system. Common data rate units are multiples of bits per second (bit/s) and bytes per second (B/s). For example, the data rates of modern residential high-speed Internet connections are commonly expressed in megabits per second (Mbit/s).


title: Data-rate units

text: The ISQ symbols for the bit and byte are "bit" and "B", respectively. In the context of data-rate units, one byte consists of 8 bits, and is synonymous with the unit octet. The abbreviation bps is often used to mean bit/s, so that when a "1 Mbps" connection is advertised, it usually means that the maximum achievable bandwidth is 1 Mbit/s (one million bits per second), which is 0.125 MB/s (megabyte per second), or about 0.1192 MiB/s (mebibyte per second). The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) uses the symbol b for bit.


title: Data-rate units

text: In both the SI and ISQ, the prefix k stands for kilo, meaning 1,000, while Ki is the symbol for the binary prefix kibi-, meaning 1,024. The binary prefixes were introduced in 1998 by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and in IEEE 1541-2002 which was reaffirmed on 27 March 2008. The letter K is often used as a non-standard abbreviation for 1,024, especially in "KB" to mean KiB, the kilobyte in its binary sense. In the context of data rates, however, typically only decimal prefixes are used, and they have their standard SI interpretation.


title: Data-rate units

text: In 1999, the IEC published Amendment 2 to "IEC 60027-2: Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology – Part 2: Telecommunications and electronics". This standard, approved in 1998, introduced the prefixes kibi-, mebi-, gibi-, tebi-, pebi-, and exbi- to be used in specifying binary multiples of a quantity. The name is derived from the first two letters of the original SI prefixes followed by bi (short for "binary"). It also clarifies that the SI prefixes are used only to mean powers of 10 and never powers of 2.


title: Data-rate units

text: Kilobit per second (symbol kbit/s or kb/s, often abbreviated "kbps") is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:


title: Data-rate units

text: Megabit per second (symbol Mbit/s or Mb/s, often abbreviated "Mbps") is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:


title: Data-rate units

text: Gigabit per second (symbol Gbit/s or Gb/s, often abbreviated "Gbps") is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:


title: Data-rate units

text: Terabit per second (symbol Tbit/s or Tb/s, sometimes abbreviated "Tbps") is a unit of data transfer rate equal to:


title: Lycoming Engines

text: Lycoming Engines is a major American manufacturer of aircraft engines. With a factory in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, Lycoming produces a line of horizontally opposed, air-cooled, four, six and eight-cylinder engines including the only FAA-certified aerobatic and helicopter piston engines on the market.


title: Lycoming Engines

text: The company has built more than 325,000 piston aircraft engines and powers more than half the world's general aviation fleet, both rotary and fixed wing. Lycoming is an operating division of Avco Corporation, itself a subsidiary of Textron.


title: Lycoming Engines

text: Lycoming dates its founding to 1845 by "Madame Ellen Curtis Demorest". However, the early history of the company (especially prior to 1860) is unclear; biographer Ishbel Ross notes that the marriage of Ellen Louise Curtis to William Jennings Demorest took place in 1858, somewhat later than the purported date of establishment of the company. A few years later in New York, between c. 1860 and 1887, the Demorests published fashion magazines and operated the Demorest Fashion and Sewing-Machine Company (sometimes known as the Demorest Manufacturing Company). They produced "Madame Demorest" and "Bartlett & Demorest" sewing machines and sold Ellen Demorest's innovative paper patterns for dressmaking. During this period, Ellen Demorest patented several fashion accessories, while her husband patented improvements to sewing machines and an apparatus for the vulcanization of rubber.


title: Lycoming Engines

text: Around 1883, Gerrit S. Scofield & Frank M. Scofield (advertising agents from New York) bought the Demorest brand and the sewing machine business (the Demorests retained the magazine business), and constructed a factory in Williamsport, Pennsylvania (in Lycoming County). At the urging of the newly established Williamsport Board of Trade, citizens invested in the new manufacturing facility, which employed 250 people. The factory produced 50 to 60 sewing machines per day.


title: Lycoming Engines

text: With the development of the "New York Bicycle" in 1891 (designed by employee S. H. Ellis), the company diversified its product offerings. Until the early 1900s, the factory produced sewing machines, bicycles, typewriters, opera chairs and other products.


title: Lycoming Engines

text: By 1907, the manufacture of sewing machines had become unprofitable for Demorest, and the company was sold and restructured as the Lycoming Foundry and Machine Company, shifting its focus toward automobile engine manufacture. In 1910, the company supplied its first automobile engine to Velie, and during the early post-World-War-I era, the company was a major supplier to Auburn (which produced the Auburn, Cord, and Duesenberg lines). By 1920, Lycoming was producing 60,000 engines a year, with a 2,000-strong workforce. To handle the capacity, a new foundry complex was built in Williamsport that year. Eventually Lycoming became Auburn's principal supplier, and in 1927 Errett Lobban Cord bought the company, placing it under his Auburn Manufacturing umbrella group. Among the engines Lycoming produced for Cord was an L-head straight-eight engine of 298.5 cu. in. displacement that produced 125 horsepower. This was used in the Cord L-29. Lycoming also produced a double overhead cam straight 8 used in the legendary Duesenberg J series. This powerplant produced 265 horsepower, six times the power of a contemporary Model A Ford. A supercharged version, generating 325 horsepower, was installed in the Duesenberg SJ and SSJ models.


title: Lycoming Engines

text: In 1929, Lycoming produced its first aviation engine, the nine-cylinder R-680 radial. This was a fairly successful design, and was used widely in light aircraft, including Cord's Travel Air.


title: Lycoming Engines

text: In the 1930s, Lycoming made a number of attempts to develop successful high-power aircraft engines. The O-1230 was Lycoming's attempt to produce an engine based on the United States Army Air Corps hyper engine concept, and used a variety of features to produce nearly of engine displacement. However, by the O-1230's entry into service, it had been surpassed by other designs and the investment was not recouped. Another attempt was made to rescue the design by stacking two O-1230s to make the H engine H-2470 but the only design to use it, the Vultee XP-54, never entered production. The Curtiss XF14C was originally intended to be powered by the H-2470, but the engine's poor performance led to the adoption of an alternative radial engine on the prototype. (The XF14C did not enter production.)


title: Lycoming Engines

text: Undeterred by the O-1230/H-2470's failure, Lycoming turned to an even larger design, the 36-cylinder XR-7755, the largest aviation piston engine ever built. This design also experienced problems, and was only ready for use at the very end of World War II, when the aviation world was turning to turbojets and turboprop engines to power future large aircraft. There was apparently some interest in using it on the Convair B-36 Peacemaker bomber, but the 28-cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-4360 "Wasp Major" four-bank radial was used instead.


title: Lycoming Engines

text: Through the 1920s and -30s, Lycoming had still been supplying automotive manufacturers with engines. However, these clients each slowly went out of business or switched to Continental engines for their vehicles. By 1931, the company was supplying automotive engines to only three companies: Auburn, Cord and Duesenburg, still all under the control of Cord. These companies closed their doors in 1937, after which Lycoming switched to exclusively designing and producing engines for aviation. In the meantime, the Smith Engineering Corporation, an early manufacturer of controllable pitch propellers had been purchased by Cord and moved to Williamsport.


title: Lycoming Engines

text: In 1939 Cord re-organized all of his aviation holdings into the AVCO group, at which point the engine manufacturing company became "AVCO Lycoming". It also leased the government-owned Stratford Army Engine Plant in Stratford, Connecticut and produced Wright radials under license. After the war, this plant was converted to produce the T53 turboshaft engine, one of its more successful designs. From this point on the piston and turbine engine lines remained separate, with the piston lines being built in the original Williamsport factories, and turbines in Stratford.


title: Lycoming Engines

text: By 1961, Lycoming produced 600 to 700 engines per month. Its most successful post-war products were a series of air-cooled flat-4 and flat-6 general aviation engines. Most famous among these are the O-235 and O-360 four-cylinder engines, and the O-540 six-cylinder engine. Many light aircraft are powered by versions of these engines, with power ratings in the range. Engines in this series also include the O-320 four-, O-580 six- and O-720 eight-cylinder engines, and the advanced turbocharged and fuel-injected TIGO-541 variant of the venerable (carbureted) O-540.


title: Lycoming Engines

text: In the early 1980s, the general aviation market suddenly diminished and Lycoming's piston engine business was significantly impacted. Attempts were made to move some of the turbine production to Williamsport, but this led to a series of quality control problems and eventually it was abandoned.


title: Lycoming Engines

text: Another attempt to rescue Williamsport was made in introducing the "radical" "SCORE" engine, a Wankel engine originally developed through a joint venture between Curtiss-Wright and John Deere. Curtiss-Wright lost interest in the design just as it was maturing and sold its interests in the project to Deere, which brought in Lycoming to sell the developed engine into the aviation markets. It was guaranteed a startup run by Cessna, also owned by Textron. Just as production was ready to start, Cessna announced it was halting its small-aircraft business for an indefinite period, and SCORE was cancelled. The remains of the Deere licenses were later purchased by Rotary Power International, which briefly produced a version.


title: Lycoming Engines

text: Textron purchased the company in 1985. In 1994, Textron sold the Lycoming Turbine Engine Division, located in Stratford, Connecticut, to AlliedSignal, who merged it with the Garrett Engine Division of AlliedSignal as part of AlliedSignal Aerospace, later becoming part of Honeywell Aerospace in 1999. Textron retained piston engine production in Williamsport.


title: Carlos Páez Rodríguez

text: Carlos "Carlitos" Miguel Páez Rodríguez (born October 31, 1953), known as "the man of the iron spirit", spent 72 days in the Andes following a plane crash, during which the sixteen survivors of the 45 on board resorted to cannibalism to stay alive. He was 18 years old at the time of the crash, and turned 19 on the mountains.


title: Carlos Páez Rodríguez

text: He is the son of Uruguayan artist Carlos Páez Vilaró. Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 crashed on October 13, 1972. He was portrayed by Bruce Ramsay and John Malkovich (as the older Carlos, the narrator at the start of the movie, uncredited) in the 1993 feature film "Alive". He was a rugby player for the Old Christians Club.


title: Carlos Páez Rodríguez

text: He became an agricultural technician graduated from Universidad del Trabajo del Uruguay, developing this activity for 10 years. In 1992 he started his career in advertising as a member of Nivel-Publicis creative team. He founded his own agency, Rating Publicidad and was director of Bates Uruguay Publicidad. Present day, apart from his activities as a lecturer, he manages his company of Communication Consultancy and Public Relations. He has two children, Maria Elena de los Andes "Gochi" and Carlos Diego; and three granddaughters, Mía, Justina and Violeta. In 2003, Páez published the book "After the tenth day" which became a great success and has gone through 14 printings.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Underwater habitats are underwater structures in which people can live for extended periods and carry out most of the basic human functions of a 24-hour day, such as working, resting, eating, attending to personal hygiene, and sleeping. In this context, 'habitat' is generally used in a narrow sense to mean the interior and immediate exterior of the structure and its fixtures, but not its surrounding marine environment. Most early underwater habitats lacked regenerative systems for air, water, food, electricity, and other resources. However, some underwater habitats allow for these resources to be delivered using pipes, or generated within the habitat, rather than manually delivered.


title: Underwater habitat

text: An underwater habitat has to meet the needs of human physiology and provide suitable environmental conditions, and the one which is most critical is breathing air of suitable quality. Others concern the physical environment (pressure, temperature, light, humidity), the chemical environment (drinking water, food, waste products, toxins) and the biological environment (hazardous sea creatures, microorganisms, marine fungi). Much of the science covering underwater habitats and their technology designed to meet human requirements is shared with diving, diving bells, submersible vehicles and submarines, and spacecraft.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Numerous underwater habitats have been designed, built and used around the world since as early as the start of the 1960s, either by private individuals or by government agencies. They have been used almost exclusively for research and exploration, but, in recent years, at least one underwater habitat has been provided for recreation and tourism. Research has been devoted particularly to the physiological processes and limits of breathing gases under pressure, for aquanaut, as well as astronaut training, and for research on marine ecosystems.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The term 'underwater habitat' is used for a range of applications, including some structures that are not exclusively underwater while operational, but all include a significant underwater component. There may be some overlap between underwater habitats and submersible vessels, and between structures which are completely submerged and those which have some part extending above the surface when in operation.


title: Underwater habitat

text: At this point it must also be said that it is not easy to sharply define the term "underwater laboratory". One may argue whether Link's diving chamber which was used in the "Man-in-Sea I" project, may be called an underwater laboratory. But the Bentos 300, planned by the Soviets, is not so easy to classify as it has a certain ability to maneuver. Therefore, the possibility exists that this diving hull is classified elsewhere as a submersible. Well, a certain generosity can not hurt.


title: Underwater habitat

text: In an underwater habitat, observations can be carried out at any hour to study the behavior of both diurnal and nocturnal organisms. Habitats in shallow water can be used to accommodate divers from greater depths for a major portion of the decompression required. This principle was used in the project Conshelf II. Saturation dives provide the opportunity to dive with shorter intervals than possible from the surface, and risks associated with diving and ship operations at night can be minimized. In the habitat "La Chalupa", 35% of all dives took place at night. To perform the same amount of useful work diving from the surface instead of from "La Chalupa", an estimated eight hours of decompression time would have been necessary every day.


title: Underwater habitat

text: However, maintaining an underwater habitat is much more expensive and logistically difficult than diving from the surface. It also restricts the diving to a much more limited area.


title: Underwater habitat

text: A third or composite type has compartments of both types within the same habitat structure and connected via airlocks, such as Aquarius.


title: Underwater habitat

text: An excursion is a visit to the environment outside the habitat. Diving excursions can be done on scuba or umbilical supply, and are limited upwards by decompression obligations while on the excursion, and downwards by decompression obligations while returning from the excursion.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Open circuit or rebreather scuba have the advantage of mobility, but it is critical to the safety of a saturation diver to be able to get back to the habitat, as surfacing directly from saturation is likely to cause severe and probably fatal decompression sickness. For this reason, in most of the programs, signs and guidelines are installed around the habitat in order to prevent divers from getting lost.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Umbilicals or airline hoses are safer, as the breathing gas supply is unlimited, and the hose is a guideline back to the habitat, but they restrict freedom of movement and can become tangled.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The horizontal extent of excursions is limited to the scuba air supply or the length of the umbilical. The distance above and below the level of the habitat are also limited and depend on the depth of the habitat and the associated saturation of the divers. The open space available for exits thus describes the shape of a vertical axis cylinder centred on the habitat.


title: Underwater habitat

text: As an example, in the Tektite I program, the habitat was located at a depth of . Exits were limited vertically to a depth of (6.4 m above the habitat) and (12.8 m below the habitat level) and were horizontally limited to a distance of from the Habitat.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The history of underwater habitats follows on from the previous development of diving bells and caissons, and as long exposure to a hyperbaric environment results in saturation of the body tissues with the ambient inert gases, it is also closely connected to the history of saturation diving. The original inspiration for the development of underwater habitats was the work of George F. Bond, who investigated the physiological and medical effects of hyperbaric saturation in the Genesis project between 1957 and 1963.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Edwin Albert Link started the Man-in-the-Sea project in 1962, which exposed divers to hyperbaric conditions underwater in a diving chamber, culminating in the first aquanaut, Robert Sténuit, spending over 24 hours at a depth of .


title: Underwater habitat

text: Also inspired by Genesis, Jacques-Yves Cousteau conducted the first Conshelf project in France in 1962 where two divers spent a week at a depth of , followed in 1963 by Conshelf II at for a month and for two weeks.


title: Underwater habitat

text: In June 1964, Robert Sténuit and Jon Lindberg spent 49 hours at 126m in Link's Man-in-the-Sea II project. The habitat was an inflatable structure called SPID.


title: Underwater habitat

text: This was followed by a series of underwater habitats where people stayed for several weeks at great depths. Sealab II had a usable area of , and was used at a depth of more than . Several countries built their own habitats at much the same time and mostly began experimenting in shallow waters. In Conshelf III six aquanauts lived for several weeks at a depth of . In Germany, the Helgoland UWL was the first habitat to be used in cold water, the Tektite stations were more spacious and technically more advanced. The most ambitious project was Sealab III, a rebuild of Sealab II, which was to be operated at . When one of the divers died in the preparatory phase due to human error, all similar projects of the United States Navy were terminated. Internationally, except for the La Chalupa Research Laboratory the large-scale projects were carried out, but not extended, so that the subsequent habitats were smaller and designed for shallower depths. The race for greater depths, longer missions and technical advances seemed to have come to an end.


title: Underwater habitat

text: For reasons such as lack of mobility, lack of self-sufficiency, shifting focus to space travel and transition to surface-based saturation systems, the interest in underwater habitats decreased, resulting in a noticeable decrease in major projects after 1970. In the mid eighties, the Aquarius habitat was built in the style of Sealab and Helgoland and is still in operation today.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The first aquanaut was Robert Stenuit in the Man-in-the-Sea I project run by Edwin A. Link. On 6 September 1962, he spent 24 hours and 15 minutes at a depth of in a steel cylinder, doing several excursions. In June 1964 Stenuit and Jon Lindbergh spent 49 hours at a depth of in the Man-in-the-Sea II program. The habitat consisted of a submerged portable inflatable dwelling (SPID).


title: Underwater habitat

text: Conshelf, short for Continental Shelf Station, was a series of undersea living and research stations undertaken by Jacques Cousteau's team in the 1960s. The original design was for five of these stations to be submerged to a maximum depth of over the decade; in reality only three were completed with a maximum depth of . Much of the work was funded in part by the French petrochemical industry, who, along with Cousteau, hoped that such colonies could serve as base stations for the future exploitation of the sea. Such colonies did not find a productive future, however, as Cousteau later repudiated his support for such exploitation of the sea and put his efforts toward conservation. It was also found in later years that industrial tasks underwater could be more efficiently performed by undersea robot devices and men operating from the surface or from smaller lowered structures, made possible by a more advanced understanding of diving physiology. Still, these three undersea living experiments did much to advance man's knowledge of undersea technology and physiology, and were valuable as "proof of concept" constructs. They also did much to publicize oceanographic research and, ironically, usher in an age of ocean conservation through building public awareness. Along with Sealab and others, it spawned a generation of smaller, less ambitious yet longer-term undersea habitats primarily for marine research purposes.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Conshelf I (Continental Shelf Station), constructed in 1962, was the first inhabited underwater habitat. Developed by Cousteau to record basic observations of life underwater, Conshelf I was submerged in of water near Marseille, and the first experiment involved a team of two spending seven days in the habitat. The two oceanauts, Albert Falco and Claude Wesly, were expected to spend at least five hours a day outside the station, and were subject to daily medical exams.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Conshelf Two, the first ambitious attempt for men to live and work on the sea floor, was launched in 1963. In it, a half-dozen oceanauts lived down in the Red Sea off Sudan in a starfish-shaped house for 30 days. The undersea living experiment also had two other structures, one a submarine hangar that housed a small, two-man submarine named SP-350 Denise, often referred to as the "diving saucer" for its resemblance to a science fiction flying saucer, and a smaller "deep cabin" where two oceanauts lived at a depth of for a week. They were among the first to breathe heliox, a mixture of helium and oxygen, avoiding the normal nitrogen/oxygen mixture, which, when breathed under pressure, can cause narcosis. The deep cabin was also an early effort in saturation diving, in which the aquanauts' body tissues were allowed to become totally saturated by the helium in the breathing mixture, a result of breathing the gases under pressure. The necessary decompression from saturation was accelerated by using oxygen enriched breathing gases. They suffered no apparent ill effects.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The undersea colony was supported with air, water, food, power, all essentials of life, from a large support team above. Men on the bottom performed a number of experiments intended to determine the practicality of working on the sea floor and were subjected to continual medical examinations. Conshelf II was a defining effort in the study of diving physiology and technology, and captured wide public appeal due to its dramatic "Jules Verne" look and feel. A Cousteau-produced feature film about the effort (World Without Sun) was awarded an Academy Award for Best Documentary the following year.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Conshelf III was initiated in 1965. Six divers lived in the habitat at in the Mediterranean Sea near the Cap Ferrat lighthouse, between Nice and Monaco, for three weeks. In this effort, Cousteau was determined to make the station more self-sufficient, severing most ties with the surface. A mock oil rig was set up underwater, and divers successfully performed several industrial tasks.


title: Underwater habitat

text: SEALAB I, II, and III were experimental underwater habitats developed by the United States Navy in the 1960s to prove the viability of saturation diving and humans living in isolation for extended periods of time. The knowledge gained from the SEALAB expeditions helped advance the science of deep sea diving and rescue, and contributed to the understanding of the psychological and physiological strains humans can endure. The three SEALABs were part of the United States Navy Genesis Project. Preliminary research work was undertaken by George F. Bond. Bond began investigations in 1957 to develop theories about saturation diving. Bond's team exposed rats, goats, monkeys, and human beings to various gas mixtures at different pressures. By 1963 they had collected enough data to test the first SEALAB habitat.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The Tektite underwater habitat was constructed by General Electric and was funded by NASA, the Office of Naval Research and the United States Department of the Interior.


title: Underwater habitat

text: On 15 February 1969, four Department of the Interior scientists (Ed Clifton, Conrad Mahnken, Richard Waller and John VanDerwalker) descended to the ocean floor in Great Lameshur Bay in the United States Virgin Islands to begin an ambitious diving project dubbed "Tektite I". By 18 March 1969, the four aquanauts had established a new world's record for saturated diving by a single team. On 15 April 1969, the aquanaut team returned to the surface after performing 58 days of marine scientific studies. More than 19 hours of decompression were needed to safely return the team to the surface.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Inspired in part by NASA's budding Skylab program and an interest in better understanding the effectiveness of scientists working under extremely isolated living conditions, Tektite was the first saturation diving project to employ scientists rather than professional divers.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The term tektite generally refers to a class of meteorites formed by extremely rapid cooling. These include objects of celestial origins that strike the sea surface and come to rest on the bottom (note project Tektite's conceptual origins within the U.S space program).


title: Underwater habitat

text: The Tektite II missions were carried out in 1970. Tektite II comprised ten missions lasting 10 to 20 days with four scientists and an engineer on each mission. One of these missions included the first all-female aquanaut team, led by Dr. Sylvia Earle. Other scientists participating in the all-female mission included Dr. Renate True of Tulane University, as well as Ann Hartline and Alina Szmant, graduate students at Scripps Institute of Oceanography. The fifth member of the crew was Margaret Ann Lucas, a Villanova University engineering graduate, who served as Habitat Engineer. The Tektite II missions were the first to undertake in-depth ecological studies.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Tektite II included 24 hour behavioral and mission observations of each of the missions by a team of observers from the University of Texas at Austin. Selected episodic events and discussions were videotaped using cameras in the public areas of the habitat. Data about the status, location and activities of each of the 5 members of each mission was collected via key punch data cards every six minutes during each mission. This information was collated and processed by BellComm and was used for the support of papers written about the research concerning the relative predictability of behavior patterns of mission participants in constrained, dangerous conditions for extended periods of time, such as those that might be encountered in crewed spaceflight. The Tektite habitat was designed and built by General Electric Space Division at the Valley Forge Space Technology Center in King of Prussia, Pennsylvania. The Project Engineer who was responsible for the design of the habitat was Brooks Tenney, Jr. Tenney also served as the underwater Habitat Engineer on the International Mission, the last mission on the Tektite II project. The Program Manager for the Tektite projects at General Electric was Dr. Theodore Marton.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Hydrolab was constructed in 1966 and used as a research station from 1970. The project was in part funded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Hydrolab could house four people. Approximately 180 Hydrolab missions were conducted—100 missions in The Bahamas during the early to mid-1970s, and 80 missions off Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands, from 1977 to 1985. These scientific missions are chronicled in the "Hydrolab Journal".


title: Underwater habitat

text: Dr. William Fife spent 28 days in saturation, performing physiology experiments on researchers such as Dr. Sylvia Earle.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The habitat was decommissioned in 1985 and placed on display at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. , the habitat is located at the NOAA Auditorium and Science Center at National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) headquarters in Silver Spring, Maryland.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The Engineering Design and Analysis Laboratory Habitat was a horizontal cylinder 2.6 m high, 3.3 m long and weighing 14 tonnes was built by students of the Engineering Design and Analysis Laboratory in the US. From 26 April 1968, four students spent 48 hours and 6 minutes in this habitat in Alton Bay, New Hampshire. Two further missions followed to 12.2 m.


title: Underwater habitat

text: In the 1972 Edalhab II Florida Aquanaut Research Expedition experiments, the University of New Hampshire and NOAA used nitrox as a breathing gas. In the three FLARE missions, the habitat was positioned off Miami at a depth of 13.7 m. The conversion to this experiment increased the weight of the habitat to 23 tonnes.


title: Underwater habitat

text: BAH I (for Biological Institute Helgoland ) had a length of 6 m and a diameter of 2 m. It weighed about 20 tons and was intended for a crew of two people. The first mission in September 1968 with Jürgen Dorschel and Gerhard Lauckner at 10 m depth in the Baltic Sea lasted 11 days. In June 1969, a one-week flat-water mission took place in Lake Constance. In attempting to anchor the habitat at 47 m, the structure was flooded with the two divers in it and sank to the seabed. It was decided to lift it with the two divers according to the necessary decompression profile and nobody was harmed. BAH I provided valuable experience for the much larger underwater laboratory Helgoland. In 2003 it was taken over as a technical monument by the Technical University of Clausthal-Zellerfeld and in the same year went on display at the Nautineum Stralsund on Kleiner Dänholm island.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The Helgoland underwater laboratory (UWL) is an underwater habitat. It was built in Lübeck, Germany in 1968, and was the first of its kind in the world built for use in colder waters.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The 14 meter long, 7 meter diameter UWL allowed divers to spend several weeks under water using saturation diving techniques. The scientists and technicians would live and work in the laboratory, returning to it after every diving session. At the end of their stay they decompressed in the UWL, and could resurface without decompression sickness.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The UWL was used in the waters of the North and Baltic Seas and, in 1975, on Jeffreys Ledge, in the Gulf of Maine off the coast of New England in the United States. At the end of the 1970s it was decommissioned and in 1998 donated to the German Oceanographic Museum where it can be visited at the Nautineum, a branch of the museum in Stralsund.


title: Underwater habitat

text: "Bentos-300" (Bentos minus 300) was a maneuverable Soviet submersible with a diver lockout facility that could be stationed at the seabed. It was able to spend two weeks underwater at a maximum depth of 300m with about 25 people on board. Although announced in 1966, it had its first deployment in 1977. [1] There were two vessels in the project. After Bentos-300 sank in the Russian Black Sea port of Novorossiisk in 1992, several attempts to recover it failed. In November 2011 it was cut up and recovered for scrap in the following six months.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The Italian "Progetto Abissi" habitat, also known as "La Casa in Fondo al Mare" (Italian for The House at the Bottom of the Sea), was designed by the diving team Explorer Team Pellicano, consisted of three cylindrical chambers and served as a platform for a television game show. It was deployed for the first time in September 2005 for ten days, and six aquanauts lived in the complex for 14 days in 2007.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The MarineLab underwater laboratory was the longest serving seafloor habitat in history, having operated continuously from 1984 to 2018 under the direction of aquanaut Chris Olstad at Key Largo, Florida. The seafloor laboratory has trained hundreds of individuals in that time, featuring an extensive array of educational and scientific investigations from United States military investigations to pharmaceutical development.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Beginning with a project initiated in 1973, MarineLab, then known as Midshipman Engineered & Designed Undersea Systems Apparatus (MEDUSA), was designed and built as part of an ocean engineering student program at the United States Naval Academy under the direction of Dr. Neil T. Monney. In 1983, MEDUSA was donated to the Marine Resources Development Foundation (MRDF), and in 1984 was deployed on the seafloor in John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park, Key Largo, Florida. The shore-supported habitat supports three or four persons and is divided into a laboratory, a wet-room, and a transparent observation sphere. From the beginning, it has been used by students for observation, research, and instruction. In 1985, it was renamed MarineLab and moved to the mangrove lagoon at MRDF headquarters in Key Largo at a depth of with a hatch depth of . The lagoon contains artifacts and wrecks placed there for education and training. From 1993 to 1995, NASA used MarineLab repeatedly to study Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems (CELLS). These education and research programs qualify MarineLab as the world's most extensively used habitat.


title: Underwater habitat

text: In 2018 the habitat was retired and restored to its 1985 condition and is on display to the public at Marine Resources Development Foundation, Inc. Key Largo, Florida.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The Aquarius Reef Base is an underwater habitat located 5.4 miles (9 kilometers) off Key Largo in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. It is deployed on the ocean floor below the surface and next to a deep coral reef named Conch Reef.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Aquarius is one of three undersea laboratories in the world dedicated to science and education. Two additional undersea facilities, also located in Key Largo, Florida, are owned and operated by Marine Resources Development Foundation. Aquarius was owned by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and operated by the University of North Carolina–Wilmington until 2013 when Florida International University assumed operational control.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Florida International University (FIU) took ownership of Aquarius in October 2014. As part of the FIU Marine Education and Research Initiative, the Medina Aquarius Program is dedicated to the study and preservation of marine ecosystems worldwide and is enhancing the scope and impact of FIU on research, educational outreach, technology development, and professional training. At the heart of the program is the Aquarius Reef Base.


title: Underwater habitat

text: In the early 1970s, Ian Koblick, president of Marine Resources Development Foundation, developed and operated the La Chalupa research laboratory, which was the largest and most technologically advanced underwater habitat of its time. Koblick, who has continued his work as a pioneer in developing advanced undersea programs for ocean science and education, is the co-author of the book "Living and Working in the Sea" and is considered one of the foremost authorities on undersea habitation.


title: Underwater habitat

text: La Chalupa was operated off Puerto Rico. During the habitat's launching for its second mission, a steel cable wrapped around Dr. Lance Rennka's left wrist, shattering his arm, which he subsequently lost to gas gangrene.


title: Underwater habitat

text: In the mid-1980s La Chalupa was transformed into Jules' Undersea Lodge in Key Largo, Florida. Jules' co-developer, Dr. Neil Monney, formerly served as Professor and Director of Ocean Engineering at the U.S. Naval Academy, and has extensive experience as a research scientist, aquanaut and designer of underwater habitats.


title: Underwater habitat

text: La Chalupa was used as the primary platform for the Scott Carpenter Man in the Sea Program, an underwater analog to Space Camp. Unlike Space Camp, which utilizes simulations, participants performed scientific tasks while using actual saturation diving systems. This program, envisioned by Ian Koblick and Scott Carpenter, was directed by Phillip Sharkey with operational help of Chris Olstad. Also used in the program was the MarineLab Underwater Habitat, the submersible Sea Urchin (designed and built by Phil Nuytten), and an Oceaneering Saturation Diving system consisting of an on-deck decompression chamber and a diving bell. La Chalupa was the site of the first underwater computer chat, a session hosted on GEnie's Scuba RoundTable (the first non-computing related area on GEnie) by then-director Sharkey from inside the habitat. Divers from all over the world were able to direct questions to him and to Commander Carpenter.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station was launched near Key Largo on six-week missions in 1997 and 1998. The station was a NASA project illustrating the analogous science and engineering concepts common to both undersea and space missions. During the missions, some 20 aquanauts rotated through the undersea station including NASA scientists, engineers and director James Cameron. The SCSAS was designed by NASA engineer Dennis Chamberland.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Lloyd Godson's Biosub was an underwater habitat, built in 2007 for a competition by Australian Geographic. The Biosub generated its own electricity (using a bike); its own water, using the Air2Water Dragon Fly M18 system; and its own air, using algae that produce O. The algae were fed using the Cascade High School Advanced Biology Class Biocoil. The habitat shelf itself was constructed by Trygons Designs.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The first underwater habitat built by Jacques Rougerie was launched and immersed on 4 August 1977. The unique feature of this semi-mobile habitat-laboratory is that it can be moored at any depth between 9 and 60 metres, which gives it the capability of phased integration in the marine environment. This habitat therefore has a limited impact on the marine ecosystem and is easy to position. Galathée was experienced by Jacques Rougerie himself.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Launched for the first time in March 1978, this underwater shelter suspended in midwater (between 0 and 60 metres) is a mini scientific observatory 2.8 metres high by 2.5 metres in diameter.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The Aquabulle, created and experienced by Jacques Rougerie, can accommodate three people for a period of several hours and acts as an underwater refuge. A series of Aquabulles were later built and some are still being used by laboratories.


title: Underwater habitat

text: This underwater habitat, created by a French architect, Jacques Rougerie, was launched in 1981 to act as a scientific base suspended in midwater using the same method as Galathée. Hippocampe can accommodate 2 people on saturation dives up to a depth of 12 metres for periods of 7 to 15 days, and was also designed to act as a subsea logistics base for the offshore industry.


title: Underwater habitat

text: Ithaa (Dhivehi for mother of pearl) is the world's only fully glazed underwater restaurant and is located in the Conrad Maldives Rangali Island hotel. It is accessible via a corridor from above the water and is open to the atmosphere, so there is no need for compression or decompression procedures. Ithaa was built by M.J. Murphy Ltd, and has an unballasted mass of 175 tonnes.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The "Red Sea Star" restaurant in Eilat, Israel, consisted of three modules; an entrance area above the water surface, a restaurant with 62 panorama windows 6 m under water and a ballast area below. The entire construction weighs about 6000 tons. The restaurant had a capacity of 105 people. It shut down in 2012.


title: Underwater habitat

text: The first part of Eilat's Coral World Underwater Observatory was built in 1975 and it was expanded in 1991 by adding a second underwater observatory connected by a tunnel. The underwater complex is accessible via a footbridge from the shore and a shaft from above the water surface. The observation area is at a depth of approximately 12 m.


title: Underwater habitat

text: A concept design by internationally recognized conceptual designer and futurist Phil Pauley. The Sub-Biosphere 2 is the original self-sustaining underwater habitat designed for aquanauts, tourism and oceanographic life sciences and longterm human, plant and animal habitation. SBS2 is a seed bank with eight Living Biomes to allow human, plant and fresh water interaction, powered and controlled by the Central Support Biome which monitors the life systems from within its own operations facility.


title: Jaani Dushman

text: Jaani Dushman () is a 1979 Indian Hindi-language horror film produced and directed by Rajkumar Kohli under the Shankar Movies banner. It features an ensemble cast including Sunil Dutt, Sanjeev Kumar, Jeetendra, Shatrughan Sinha, Vinod Mehra, Rekha, Neetu Singh and Reena Roy and music composed by Laxmikant–Pyarelal. The film is recorded as a "Super Hit" at the box office. In 2002, Rajkumar Kohli directed another film with an starring his son, Armaan.


title: Jaani Dushman

text: The film begins with Thakur Jwala Prasad who is murdered by his wife on their wedding night. His spirit returns to earth as a malevolent force who seeks revenge by killing newly wedded brides who wear traditional red bridal sarees. To do so, he has to possess a human body which turns into a monstrous being in the presence of brides. The possessed person appears to be normal otherwise so no one actually knows that the person is under the evil spirit's control. The only way to eliminate the spirit is by stabbing the possessed person in the chest, but destroying the spirt completely proves hard to do as he cunningly keeps transferring into new bodies before he can be vanquished.


title: Jaani Dushman

text: At a remote estate, newly wedded brides are going missing when their palanquin reaches a particular temple and even their corpses cannot be found. The estate is ruled by the benevolent Thakur saab. His only son, Shera, has turned out to be an arrogant roguish person which causes him distress. Shera is constantly butting heads with the villager, Lakhan, who is a good courageous man. Lakhan is in love with a village belle Reshma who is also in love with him. Shera lusts after Reshma which causes further friction between him and Lakhan. Shera's sister Shanti also loves Lakhan whereas another village girl named Champa loves Shera despite his errant ways.


title: Jaani Dushman

text: Meanwhile, the disappearance of the brides causes everyone to be suspicious of everyone else. Some suspect a local vagrant who has mental health issues, others suspect the local priest as the brides go missing from near the temple, and finally many suspect the wayward Shera. After witnessing Thakur saab have a breakdown at the sight of a red dress some even start to be suspicious of him.


title: Jaani Dushman

text: Lakhan's sister Gowri goes missing from her own bridal procession. Her earring is found near the priest's shoes which causes the entire village to accuse him of the murders. He, however, proves his innocence. Lakhan also suspects Gowri's former boyfriend, Amar, for doing away with her. However, it turns out that they both actually committed suicide because they cannot be together. So, it turns out that this entire incident actually had nothing to do with the case of the missing brides.


title: Jaani Dushman

text: Shera wishes to marry Reshma and asks his father to approach Reshma's father, the blind Vaidji, with the proposal. Reshma rejects the proposal. Shera eventually finds out that Vaidji is not actually blind and is also a thief. Shera tries to blackmail him using this information to compel Reshma to marry him, but Vaidji comes clean in front of everyone instead so that Shera has no leverage against him or his daughter. He also asks Lakhan to marry Reshma and both readily agree. Meanwhile, Thakur Saab's daughter Shanti's marriage is fixed and she agrees to it as she realizes Lakhan loves Reshma and not her. Lakhan accompanies her palanquin to safeguard her. She reaches her destination safely, but this is actually due to her not wearing the traditional red bridal saree because of her father's phobia.


title: Jaani Dushman

text: Eventually, everyone's suspicion turns towards Thakur saab as his own daughter was spared whereas every other newly wedded bride have gone missing. Additionally, he was one of the only people, other than Lakhan, who knew of the plan to safeguard Shanti. Thakur saab tries to commit suicide, but his wife reveals that their son, Shera also knew of the changed plans. Thakur saab assures everyone that no matter who is guilty he would ensure their punishment, even if it is his own son. Shera tries to escape after kidnapping Reshma, but he is stopped by Lakhan and when he is about to die after a fire nearly engulfs him, Champa jumps in to save him. Eventually, Shera understands his folly and accepts Champa's devotion to him.


title: Jaani Dushman

text: Lakhan and Reshma get married. Reshma's palanquin reaches the temple and she is abducted by a monstrous looking man. Lakhan chases them into a cave. He spots Shera in there too, but realizes Shera also gave chase to the same monster. They both see the local vagrant is also there and they capture him. However, it turns out that the mentally unstable vagrant is actually a policeman in disguise who was working on the case of the missing brides. They fight with the monstrous looking man and Lakhan stabs him on the chest. It turns out that it was indeed Thakur saab who was the monster all along, but since he is actually a good man his own spirit tries to hold off the evil spirit of Jwala Prasad from possessing someone else before the latter agrees to let go of his vengeful ways. Finally, Thakur saab dies after ensuring the evil spirit is gone forever.


title: Jaani Dushman

text: Two of the movie songs were listed in Binacca Chart of 1979; "Chalo Re, Doli Uthao Kahaar" by Mohammed Rafi and "Oh Meri Jaan" by Kishore Kumar and Anuradha Paudwal.


title: David (Bernini)

text: David is a life-size marble sculpture by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The sculpture was one of many commissions to decorate the villa of Bernini's patron Cardinal Scipione Borghese – where it still resides today, as part of the Galleria Borghese. It was completed in the course of seven months from 1623 to 1624.


title: David (Bernini)

text: The subject of the work is the biblical David, about to throw the stone that will bring down Goliath, which will allow David to behead him. Compared to earlier works on the same theme (notably the "David" of Michelangelo), the sculpture broke new ground in its implied movement and its psychological intensity.


title: David (Bernini)

text: Between 1618 and 1625 Bernini was commissioned to undertake various sculptural work for the villa of one of his patrons, Cardinal Scipione Borghese. In 1623 – only yet 24 years old – he was working on the sculpture of "Apollo and Daphne", when, for unknown reasons, he abandoned this project to start work on the "David". According to records of payment, Bernini had started on the sculpture by mid–1623, and his contemporary biographer, Filippo Baldinucci, states that he finished it in seven months.


title: David (Bernini)

text: "David" was Scipione Borghese's last commission for Bernini. Even before it was finished, Bernini's friend and protector Maffeo Barberini was elected pope, as Pope Urban VIII.


title: David (Bernini)

text: The sculpture shows a scene from the Old Testament First Book of Samuel. The Israelites are at war with the Philistines whose champion, Goliath, has challenged the Israelite army to settle the conflict by single combat. The young shepherd David has just taken up the challenge, and is about to slay Goliath with a stone from his sling:


title: David (Bernini)

text: David's clothing is typical of shepherd's attire. At his feet lies the armour of Israel's King, Saul, given to David for battle. The armor was shed, as David was unaccustomed to it and he can fight better without. At his feet is his harp, often included as an iconographic device of David in reference to David the Psalmist and being a talented harpist.


title: David (Bernini)

text: The biblical David was a popular subject among Renaissance artists and had been treated by sculptors such as Donatello (1440s), Verrocchio (1473-1475) and Michelangelo (1501-1504). Bernini's "David", though engaging with these works, differed from them in some significant ways.


title: David (Bernini)

text: For one thing, the sculpture is no longer self-contained, but interacts with the space around it. Not since the sculptures of the Hellenistic period, such as the Winged Victory of Samothrace, had sculptures been involved in their surroundings like those of Bernini. A likely source for Bernini's figure was the Hellenistic Borghese Gladiator. The motion of the gladiator preparing to attack is similar to how "David" is swinging his sling. Another difference lies in the moment that Bernini has chosen to depict. Michelangelo's "David" differs from those of Donatello and Verrocchio in that it shows David preparing for the battle, rather than victorious afterwards. Bernini, on the other hand, chose to portray David in the act of throwing the stone. This represented a novelty; throwing figures were extremely rare in post-Antiquity sculptures. The motion motif did exist in painting, however, and one example was Annibale Carracci's fresco of the Cyclops "Polyphemus" throwing a stone. Bernini is likely to have known Carracci's "Polyphemus"; not only was it to be found in the Galleria Farnese in Rome, but Carracci was the painter Bernini ranked as fourth among the greatest ever.


title: David (Bernini)

text: Bernini may also have been familiar with the writings of Leonardo da Vinci on the subject. Da Vinci, in his "Treatise on Painting", deals with exactly the question of how to portray a throwing figure. It is possible that Bernini applies this theory to his "David":


title: David (Bernini)

text: Another potential candidate as inspiration for Bernini's "David" is the celebrated 5th century BC "Discobolus" by Myron. However, the problem with this theory is that the "Discobolus" was in the early 17th century only known from literary sources; the torsos of copies that had survived were not correctly identified until 1781. Both Quintilian and Lucian wrote of the statue, but the descriptions were of a figure stretching or flexing, rather than being in the act of throwing.


title: David (Bernini)

text: The Baroque saw significant changes in the art of sculpture; Bernini was at the forefront of this. The statues of the Renaissance masters had been strictly frontal, dictating the spectator to view it from one side, and one side only. Bernini's "David" is a three-dimensional work that needs space around it and challenges the viewer to walk around it, in order to contemplate its changing nature depending on the angle from which it is seen. The sculpture relates to an unseen entity – in the form of Goliath, the object of David's aggression – as well as to the spectator, caught in the middle of the conflict. The warrior even literally oversteps the boundaries between life and art, putting his toes over the edge of the plinth. The conventions of time, as well as space, were challenged. Instead of the serene constancy of, for example, Michelangelo's "David", Bernini has chosen to capture a fraction of time in the course of a continuous movement. Thus the latent energy that permeates Michelangelo's "David" is here in the process of being unleashed.


title: David (Bernini)

text: On an emotional level, Bernini's sculptures were revolutionary for exploring a variety of extreme mental states, such as the anger seen here. David's face, frowning and biting his lower lip, is contorted in concentrated aggression. Baldinucci and Gian's son tells an anecdote of how Barberini would hold a mirror up to Bernini's face so the artist could model the sculpture on himself. This bears witness to Bernini's working methods, as well as to the close relationship he enjoyed with the future pope.


title: David (Bernini)

text: In addition to attempts at realism, "David" also followed contemporary conventions about how a military figure should be portrayed. As Albrecht Dürer previously had postulated, the "vir bellicosus"—the "bellicose man"—was best represented with the rather extreme proportions of a 1:10 head-to-body ratio. Furthermore, the warrior has a "facies leonina", or the face of a lion, characterized by a receding forehead, protruding eyebrows, and a curved nose (David was later to become the "Lion of Judah").


title: Bungarus

text: Bungarus is a genus of venomous elapid snakes, the kraits ("krait" is pronounced , rhyming with "kite"), found in South and Southeast Asia. The genus "Bungarus" has 16 species.


title: Bungarus

text: Kraits are found in tropical Asia, from near Iran, through the Indian subcontinent (including Sri Lanka and Bangladesh) and on to Southeast Asia (including Indonesia and Borneo).


title: Bungarus

text: Kraits usually range between in total length (including tail), although specimens as large as have been observed. The banded krait ("B. fasciatus") may grow as large as . Most species of kraits are covered in smooth, glossy scales arranged in bold, striped patterns of alternating black and light-colored areas. This may serve as aposematic colouration in its habitat of grassland and scrub jungle. The scales along the dorsal ridge of the back are hexagonal. The head is slender, and the eyes have round pupils. Kraits have pronounced dorsolateral flattening, which causes them to be triangular in cross section.


title: Bungarus

text: Kraits are ophiophagous, preying primarily upon other snakes (including venomous varieties) and are cannibalistic, feeding on other kraits. They also eat mice and small lizards.


title: Bungarus

text: All kraits are nocturnal. They are more docile during the daylight; at night, they become very active, but are not very aggressive even when provoked. They are actually rather timid, and often hide their heads within their coiled bodies for protection. When in this posture, they sometimes whip their tails around as a type of distraction.


title: Bungarus

text: Kraits are oviparous. The female lays a clutch of 12 to 14 eggs in piles of leaf litter, and stays with them until they hatch.


title: Bungarus

text: "Bungarus" contains some species which are among the most venomous land snakes in the world to mice based on their . They have a highly potent neurotoxic venom, which can induce muscle paralysis. Clinically, their venom contains mostly presynaptic neurotoxins. These affect the ability of neuron endings to properly release the chemical that sends the message to the next neuron. Following envenomation with bungarotoxins, transmitter release is initially blocked (leading to a brief paralysis), followed by a period of massive overexcitation (cramps, tremors, spasms), which finally tails off to paralysis. These phases may not be seen in all parts of the body at the same time. Since kraits are nocturnal, encounters with humans are rare during daylight. Bites mainly occur during night. Bites are often initially painless, and thus may get unnoticed if the victim is sleeping. A bite from a krait is life-threatening, and should be regarded as a medical emergency.


title: Bungarus

text: Typically, victims start to complain of severe abdominal cramps accompanied by progressive muscular paralysis, frequently starting with ptosis. As no local symptoms are seen, a patient should be carefully observed for tell-tale signs of paralysis (e.g. the onset of bilateral ptosis, diplopia, and dysphagia), and treated urgently with antivenom. Frequently, little or no pain occurs at the site of a krait bite, which can provide false reassurance to the victim. The major medical difficulty of envenomated patients is the lack of medical resources (especially intubation supplies and mechanical ventilators in rural hospitals) and the ineffectiveness of the antivenom.


title: Bungarus

text: Once at a healthcare facility, support must be provided until the venom is metabolised and the victim can breathe unaided, especially if no species-specific antivenom is available. Given that the toxins alter acetylcholine transmission that causes the paralysis, some patients have been successfully treated with cholinesterase inhibitors, such as physostigmine or neostigmine, but success is variable and may be species-dependent, as well. If death occurs, it typically takes place about 6-12 hours after the krait bite, but can be significantly delayed. Cause of death is usually respiratory failure—suffocation by complete paralysis of the diaphragm. Even if patients make it to a hospital, subsequent permanent coma and even brain death from hypoxia may occur, given the potential for long transport times to get medical care.


title: Bungarus

text: Mortality rates caused by bites from the members of this genus vary by species; according to University of Adelaide Department of Toxicology, bites from the banded krait have a mortality rate of 1–10% in untreated humans, while that of the common krait is 70–80%. In common with those of all other venomous snakes, the death time and fatality rate resulting from bites of kraits depend on numerous factors, such as the venom yield and the health status of the victim.


title: Bungarus

text: Polyvalent elapid antivenom is effective in neutralizing of the venoms of "B. candidus" and "B. flaviceps", and rather effective for " B. fasciatus", and the monovalent "B. fasciatus" antivenom is also moderately effective.


title: How to Read a Book

text: How to Read a Book is a book by the American philosopher Mortimer J. Adler. Originally published in 1940, it was heavily revised for a 1972 edition, co-authored by Adler with editor Charles Van Doren. The 1972 revision gives guidelines for critically reading good and great books of any tradition. In addition, it deals with genres (including, but not limited to, poetry, history, science, and fiction), as well as inspectional and syntopical reading.


title: How to Read a Book

text: Here, Adler sets forth his method for reading a non-fiction book in order to gain understanding. He claims that three distinct approaches, or readings, must all be made in order to get the most possible out of a book, but that performing these three levels of readings does not necessarily mean reading the book three times, as the experienced reader will be able to do all three in the course of reading the book just once. Adler names the readings "structural", "interpretative", and "critical", in that order.


title: How to Read a Book

text: Structural Stage: The first stage of analytical reading is concerned with understanding the structure and purpose of the book. It begins with determining the basic topic and type of the book being read, so as to better anticipate the contents and comprehend the book from the very beginning. Adler says that the reader must distinguish between practical and theoretical books, as well as determining the field of study that the book addresses. Further, Adler says that the reader must note any divisions in the book, and that these are not restricted to the divisions laid out in the table of contents. Lastly, the reader must find out what problems the author is trying to solve.


title: How to Read a Book

text: Interpretive Stage: The second stage of analytical reading involves constructing the author's arguments. This first requires the reader to note and understand any special phrases and terms that the author uses. Once that is done, Adler says that the reader should find and work to understand each proposition that the author advances, as well as the author's support for those propositions.


title: How to Read a Book

text: Critical Stage: In the third stage of analytical reading, Adler directs the reader to critique the book. He asserts that upon understanding the author's propositions and arguments, the reader has been elevated to the author's level of understanding and is now able (and obligated) to judge the book's merit and accuracy. Adler advocates judging books based on the soundness of their arguments. Adler says that one may not disagree with an argument unless one can find fault in its reasoning, facts, or premises, though one is free to dislike it in any case.


title: How to Read a Book

text: The method presented is sometimes called the "Structure-Proposition-Evaluation (SPE)" method, though this term is not used in the book.


title: How to Read a Book

text: Adler explains for whom the book is intended, defines different classes of reading, and tells which classes will be addressed. He also makes a brief argument favoring the Great Books, and explains his reasons for writing "How to Read a Book".


title: How to Read a Book

text: There are three types of knowledge: practical, informational, and comprehensive. He discusses the methods of acquiring knowledge, concluding that practical knowledge, though teachable, cannot be truly mastered without experience; that only informational knowledge can be gained by one whose understanding equals the author's; that comprehension (insight) is best learned from who first achieved said understanding – an "original communication".


title: How to Read a Book

text: The idea that communication directly from those who first discovered an idea is the best way of gaining understanding is Adler's argument for reading the Great Books; that any book that does not represent original communication is inferior, as a source, to the original, and that any teacher, save those who discovered the subject he or she teaches, is inferior to the Great Books as a source of comprehension.