title: Single Integrated Operational Plan

text: While its contribution to SIOP was minor compared to the enormous SAC arsenal of 1,600 bombers and 800 missiles, as RAF officers who worked with the Americans rose to leadership positions their experience benefited later partnerships between the two countries. The joint targeting plan changed over time; the 1962 list for the RAF included 48 cities, six air-defense sites, and three bomber bases, and the 1963 list had 16 cities, 44 airfields and other offensive sites, 10 air-defense sites, and 28 IRBM sites. The degree of cooperation was such by the Cuban Missile Crisis that RAF officers visiting SAC headquarters in Nebraska reported being "treated just like Americans. We went all through their briefings, computers, top secret rooms and so forth". While some British officers emphasized the continuing importance of maintaining the ability to act alone with an independent deterrent if necessary, by 1962 the independent list was essentially the RAF portion of the joint plan and no active training was done. The British emphasis on retaining an independent capability, however, continued over several decades and changes in government. As the Defence Council stated in 1980,


title: Single Integrated Operational Plan

text: While current United Kingdom's nuclear forces—four Trident s—are strictly under UK national control, they had two distinct roles under the SIOP. The first was part of a UK-only retaliatory response to a nuclear attack, whether a full strategic strike, or a limited tactical strike. The second role was one in which the Royal Navy participated in the SIOP, in effect becoming an extension of the U.S. Navy's Trident submarines. This role was to be part of a NATO response to a Soviet nuclear strike. The Royal Navy's contribution to the SIOP was small. The four "Vanguard" submarines could strike a maximum of 512 separate targets; equivalent to 7% of the total U.S. nuclear strike capacity.


title: Jason McCaslin

text: Jason "Cone" McCaslin (born 3 September 1980) is a Canadian musician, singer, songwriter, and record producer, serving as the bassist and backing vocalist of the band Sum 41.


title: Jason McCaslin

text: McCaslin began playing bass at the age of 14, as a member of a grunge garage band called Second Opinion.


title: Jason McCaslin

text: He acquired the nickname "Cone" from fellow band member Deryck Whibley in high school, because he frequently ate ice cream cones at lunch.


title: Jason McCaslin

text: He co-created the garage punk/garage rock side project The Operation M.D., with Todd Morse (of HO), in which he goes by the name Dr. Dynamite. He plays bass guitar and other instruments on the songs including lead vocals on a few tracks on both albums. The first album, "We Have an Emergency" was released in Canada and Japan exclusively in 2007. Operation M.D. then released their second album "Birds + Bee Stings" worldwide in late 2010 on their own label Mouth To Mouth Music. He has also acted in many Sum 41 short films. For example, in "Basketball Butcher", he gets beaten up, killed and eaten by Steve Jocz due to beating him at basketball. He also played Dante the drug dealer in "1-800-Justice."


title: Jason McCaslin

text: He helped produce an album with Shelter With Thieves, a Canadian band from Halifax, Nova Scotia. The EP, entitled "Confessions of a Toxic Generation", was nominated for two Nova Scotia Music Awards, for Group Recording and Loud Recording. The band won the Loud Recording award for the EP.


title: Jason McCaslin

text: In December 2009, McCaslin was also producing five songs for a new album by Canadian piano rock band The Greatest Invention (Formally – Credible Witness), which eventually got released under Walter Senko.


title: Jason McCaslin

text: Then in 2010 he began producing three songs for the seven-piece bluegrass/folk/indie band The Strumbellas. In September 2011 he was asked to produce the rest of the album "My Father and the Hunter." It was released on February 21, 2012 and received a Juno Award nomination for Best Root/Traditional Album.


title: Jason McCaslin

text: In October 2013 McCaslin made a cameo playing bass in The Strumbellas music video for "End of an Era". In 2013 McCaslin began working with Toronto band Sun K. and produced their 7" (two songs) which was released and also produced their EP and LP over the following year. In 2014 McCaslin began producing two songs for the band LeBarons which were released in 2015.


title: Jason McCaslin

text: In 1999, the band signed an international record deal with Island Records. The band released their debut album, "All Killer No Filler" in 2001. The band achieved mainstream success with their first single from the album, "Fat Lip", which reached number-one on the "Billboard Modern Rock Tracks" chart and remains the band's most successful single to date. "All Killer No Filler" was certified platinum in the United States, Canada and in the UK. The band has since released six more studio albums: "Does This Look Infected?" (2002), "Chuck" (2004) "Underclass Hero" (2007), "Screaming Bloody Murder" (2011), "13 Voices" (2016) and "Order in Decline" (2019). Sum 41's first four studio albums are certified Platinum in Canada.


title: Jason McCaslin

text: The band often performed more than 300 times each year and held long global tours, most of which lasted more than a year. They have been nominated for seven Juno Awards and have won twice (Group of the Year in 2002 and Rock Album of the Year for "Chuck" in 2005). Their fifth studio album, "Screaming Bloody Murder", was released on March 29, 2011 and was nominated for a Grammy at the 2012 Grammys for the song "Blood in My Eyes" in the Hard Rock/Metal category.


title: Jason McCaslin

text: McCaslin uses Fender '59 Re-Issue Precision Basses live and a Fender American Vintage '62 Re-Issue Precision Bass to record with. His personal favorite is an Olympic white Fender Precision Bass, since he was a fan of Dee Dee Ramone.


title: Jason McCaslin

text: He got married on September 5, 2008. During the wedding, McCaslin's fellow band members Deryck Whibley of Sum 41 and Toby Morse of HO and The Operation M.D. performed "One" by U2 and "Pieces" by Sum 41.


title: Herbert West–Reanimator

text: "Herbert West–Reanimator" is a horror short story by American writer H. P. Lovecraft. It was written between October 1921 and June 1922. It was first serialized in February through July 1922 in the amateur publication "Home Brew". The story was the basis of the 1985 horror film "Re-Animator" and its sequels, in addition to numerous other adaptations in various media.


title: Herbert West–Reanimator

text: The story is the first to mention Lovecraft's fictional Miskatonic University. It is also one of the first depictions of zombies as scientifically reanimated corpses, with animalistic and uncontrollable temperaments.


title: Herbert West–Reanimator

text: Lovecraft originally serialized the story in "Home Brew" Vol. 1 #1–6, an amateur magazine published by his friend George Julian Houtain.


title: Herbert West–Reanimator

text: The narrator recounts his history with the title character, who has recently disappeared. He details his time as a medical student at Miskatonic University, which is when the narrator became fascinated by West's theories, which postulate that the human body is simply a complex, organic machine which can be "restarted." West eventually realizes he must experiment on human subjects. The two men spirit away supplies from their medical school and set up their lab in an abandoned farmhouse. At first, they pay a group of men to rob graves for them, but none of the experiments are successful. West and the narrator then rob graves themselves. One night, they steal the corpse of a construction worker who died that morning in an accident. They take it back to the farmhouse and inject it with West's serum, but nothing happens. Later, an inhuman scream is heard from within the room containing the corpse. Moved by instinct, they flee. West accidentally sets the place on fire, after tripping over a lantern while on the way out. West and the narrator escape. The next day, however, the newspaper reports that a grave in potter's field, violently molested the night before, displays the claws of a beast.


title: Herbert West–Reanimator

text: Some time after the fire, West's research is stunted when Dr. Allen Halsey, the dean of the medical school, refuses to allow him access to human cadavers or the university's dissection lab. West has a stroke of luck, though, when a typhoid epidemic breaks out and West and the narrator are called to help tend to the many dying victims. West begins injecting his patients with a new serum, which has no greater effect than to cause some of the bodies' eyes to open. Eventually, Halsey succumbs to typhoid, and, as a final act of twisted respect for his former rival, West steals his corpse to reanimate. West and the narrator take Halsey's body back to West's room at a boarding house, where they inject it with the new serum. Halsey does, in fact, reanimate, but, inexplicably, he is less intelligent and more violent than their previous experiment. After beating West and the narrator into unconsciousness, Halsey embarks on a killing spree, beating and murdering over a dozen people before he is apprehended by the police. The cannibal murderer is soon committed to a local mental institution. West curses the fact that too much time had elapsed and that Halsey's brain had deteriorated.


title: Herbert West–Reanimator

text: Now licensed doctors, West and the narrator go into practice together in the small New England town of Bolton, purchasing a house near the local cemetery to have easy access to corpses. The two experiment on several corpses with varying outcomes, but they do not achieve a breakthrough. Still intent upon successfully reanimating a human being, they claim the body of a boxing champion who died of a head wound in an illegal back-alley street fight. Gamblers betting on the fight arrange for West to dispose of the body, as it clears them of any crime. West and the narrator hurriedly take the body back to the lab and inject it with another new serum. When nothing happens, they take the corpse out to a meadow and bury it. Several days later, there are reports around town of a missing child. The child's mother dies during a fit of hysteria due to her weak heart, and the father tries to kill West in a fit of rage because West could not save her. That night, West and the narrator are startled by an aggressive pounding on their back door. Opening the door, West and the narrator come face to face with the boxer's corpse, covered in mildew and dirt and hunched over at the back entrance. Hanging from the boxer's mouth is the arm of the missing child. Almost instantly, West kills the boxer by emptying an entire revolver into him.


title: Herbert West–Reanimator

text: Some time after West's killing of the reanimated boxer, the narrator returns home from vacation to discover the perfectly preserved corpse of a man in the home he shares with West. West explains that during the narrator's absence, he perfected a type of embalming fluid that perfectly preserves a corpse as it is the moment the chemical is injected into the bloodstream; injected at the precise moment of death, the chemical prevents decomposition from even beginning. West reveals to the narrator that the dead man is a traveling salesman who had a heart attack during a physical examination; as the man died before West's eyes, he was able to preserve it with the embalming fluid and has been waiting for the narrator to return so that the two of them can reanimate the body together. West injects the body with his latest serum. Signs of life gradually begin to appear. When the narrator questions the man, he mouths words with seeming rationality and intent. Just before the man returns to the dead, he begins screaming and thrashing violently, revealing in a horrible scream that he was in fact murdered by West.


title: Herbert West–Reanimator

text: Five years later, West and the narrator become involved in World War I as a means to procure more bodies. Serving as a medic in Flanders, West has gone beyond the point of simply trying to reanimate corpses; his experiments now include isolating parts of the body and reanimating them independently in an attempt to prove their machine-like quality. On the battlefield, West befriends his commanding officer and fellow medic, Major Sir Eric Moreland Clapham-Lee, and shares with him his theories and methods on reanimation. Shortly thereafter, Clapham-Lee suffers near-decapitation and dies when his plane is shot down. West immediately begins work on Clapham-Lee's body and injects the trunk of his body with his serum and places the head in a vat. The corpse comes to life and begins thrashing violently, reliving its last moments of life. Clapham-Lee's severed head begins shouting from across the room. The building is then destroyed by a bomb shell. West and the narrator survive, but there is no sign of Clapham-Lee's head or body. The two men assume that he was vaporized in the blast, although West is since known to speak fearfully of a headless doctor with the power of reanimation.


title: Herbert West–Reanimator

text: A year after returning from the war, West has moved into a house which is directly connected to an ancient system of catacombs from settler times. While reading the newspaper one night, West comes across an article detailing a series of strange, seemingly nonsensical events involving a riot at an insane asylum. A wax-headed man (Clapham-Lee) followed by a group of disturbing-looking followers carrying a box had demanded that the detained "cannibal" killer (Halsey) be released to them. When the invaders were refused exchange for the killer, they took him by force. West spends the remainder of the night in a near-catatonic state until someone comes to the door. The narrator answers only to find a group of men. One of the figures presents the narrator with the large box, which the narrator then gives to West. West refuses to open the box and insists that they incinerate it. The two men carry it to the basement and burn it. As soon as the box burns, the zombies tear through the wall of West's home via the catacombs. Leaving the narrator alone, the zombies soon attack West. Realizing that his own death is imminent, West allows the zombies to disembowel him. As a final insult, Clapham-Lee decapitates West's corpse before leading his army of zombies off into the night. The narrator doesn't reveal much to the police about West, and they disbelieve the information he does reveal since the catacomb wall seems intact and undisturbed. The narrator is forever haunted, considered mad, by his knowledge of what transpired and the lack of resolution regarding the raised corpses.


title: Herbert West–Reanimator

text: According to his letters, Lovecraft wrote the story as a parody of Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein". He drops in numerous "Frankenstein" references (even hinting at the poetry of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, as Shelley did).


title: Herbert West–Reanimator

text: Lovecraft claimed to be unhappy with the work, writing it only because he was being paid five dollars for each installment. He disliked the requirement that each installment end with a cliffhanger and begin with a recap of the previous installment. The book "Science Fiction: The Early Years" called "Herbert West–Reanimator" "wretched work". In an overview of the "Re-Animator" films, Bruce Hallenbeck commented that "'Herbert West: Reanimator' is not one of Lovecraft's better tales; it's over-the-top, clichéd and blatantly racist. ... What it does possess in abundance is a love of the Gothic horror tale; ultimately, the story is both an homage to and an affectionate parody of Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein"." Lovecraft scholar S. T. Joshi claimed that "Herbert West–Reanimator" is "universally acknowledged as Lovecraft's poorest work".


title: Herbert West–Reanimator

text: In 2013, West as portrayed by Jeffrey Combs was selected by "Empire" magazine as the 42nd greatest horror film character, describing him as "one of cinema's greatest mad scientists". When the list was updated in 2020, West placed 43rd.


title: Last and First Men

text: Last and First Men: A Story of the Near and Far Future is a "future history" science fiction novel written in 1930 by the British author Olaf Stapledon. A work of unprecedented scale in the genre, it describes the history of humanity from the present onwards across two billion years and eighteen distinct human species, of which our own is the first. The book employs a narrative conceit that, under subtle inspiration, the novelist has unknowingly been dictated a channelled text from the last human species.


title: Last and First Men

text: Stapledon's conception of history follows a repetitive cycle with many varied civilisations rising from and descending back into savagery over millions of years, as the later civilisations rise to far greater heights than the first. The book anticipates the science of genetic engineering, and is an early example of the fictional supermind; a consciousness composed of many telepathically linked individuals.


title: Last and First Men

text: In 1932, Stapledon followed "Last and First Men" with the far less acclaimed "Last Men in London". Another Stapledon novel, "Star Maker" (1937), could also be considered a sequel to "Last and First Men" (mentioning briefly man's evolution on Neptune), but is even more ambitious in scope, being a history of the entire universe.


title: Last and First Men

text: The novel appears in the computer game "Deus Ex" as a reference when a corporation in the game allegedly tries to develop the Second Men in the series, but also in a much broader aspect as the game deals with genetic engineering, the next phase of evolution and human augmentations. Also similar to the book are the options presented to the player as to where human kind will go next: a fall back into an almost savage state of humanity, a keeping of the status quo or an extreme progression with the danger of sacrificing basic rights.


title: Last and First Men

text: Icelandic composer Jóhann Jóhannsson directed and scored a multimedia "Last and First Men", "combining a film narrated by actress Tilda Swinton and accompanying score played by the BBC Philharmonic" at the 2017 Manchester International Festival. The 16mm black-and-white film is predominantly of memorial sculptures erected in the former Republic of Yugoslavia. Jóhann collaborated with José Enrique Macián on writing the narration adapted from Stapledon's novel. This was next performed at the Barbican Centre, London in December 2018, and later at Sydney Opera House as part of the Vivid Festival, on 2 June 2019. In 2020, a film of this work was released as Jóhann's debut and final directorial work, with sound artist Yair Elazar Glotman completing the work after Jóhann's death in February 2018. The film premiered at the 70th Berlin International Film Festival, and later screened at other film festivals around the world and released on VOD.


title: Last and First Men

text: Brian Aldiss, in his preface to the 1962 edition, acknowledges the deep impression on him—and considerable influence on his own later writing–of Stapledon's book, which he encountered in 1943 while a British soldier fighting the Japanese in Burma – "An appropriately unusual period of life at which to encounter a vision so far outside ordinary experience".


title: Last and First Men

text: C. S. Lewis in his own preface to "That Hideous Strength", notes: "I believe that one of the central ideas of this tale came into my head from conversations I had with a scientific colleague, some time before I met a rather similar suggestion in the works of Mr. Olaf Stapledon. If I am mistaken in this, Mr. Stapledon is so rich in invention that he can afford to lend, and I admire his invention (though not his philosophy) so much that I should feel no shame to borrow".


title: Last and First Men

text: The reference to objecting to Stapledon's philosophy was no accident. In particular, the Christian Lewis objected to Stapledon's idea, as expressed in the present book, that mankind could escape from an outworn planet and establish itself on another one; this Lewis regarded as no less than a Satanic idea – especially, but not only, because it involved genocide of the original inhabitants of the target planet. Professor Weston, the chief villain of Lewis's "Space Trilogy", is an outspoken proponent of this idea, and in "Out of the Silent Planet", Lewis opposes to it the depiction of the virtuous and stoic Martians/Malacandrians who choose to die with their dying planet, even though they possessed the technology to cross space and colonise Earth.


title: Last and First Men

text: Arthur C. Clarke has said of Stapledon's 1930 book "Last and First Men" that "No other book had a greater influence on my life ... [It] and its successor "Star Maker" (1937) are the twin summits of [Stapledon's] literary career".


title: Last and First Men

text: H. P. Lovecraft held the book in very high regard (though he did not say whether it influenced any of his own stories), saying in a 1936 letter to Fritz Leiber "no one ought to miss reading W. Olaf Stapledon's "Last and First Men" ... Probably you "have" read it. If not, make a bee line for library or bookstall!", and in another 1936 letter to Leiber "I'm glad to hear of your perusal of "Last and First Men"—a volume which to my mind forms the greatest of all achievements in the field that Master Ackerman would denominate "scientifiction". Its scope is dizzying—and despite a somewhat disproportionate acceleration of the tempo toward the end, and a few scientific inferences which might legitimately be challenged, it remains a thing of unparalleled power. As you say, it has the truly basic quality of a myth, and some of the episodes are of matchless poignancy and dramatic intensity." Finally, in a 1937 letter to Arthur Widner he said "I don't care for science fiction of the sort published in cheap magazines. There's no vitality in it—merely dry theories tacked on to shallow, unreal, insincere juvenile adventure stories. But I do like the few real masterpieces in the field—certain of H. G. Wells's novels, S. Fowler Wright's "The World Below", & that marvellous piece of imagination by W. Olaf Stapledon, "Last & First Men"."


title: Last and First Men

text: John Maynard Smith has said "A man called Olaf Stapledon was a marvellous predictor who wrote science fiction books that I read when I was 16 and that completely blew my mind; and Arthur C. Clarke put his finger on quite a number of bright thoughts. He and I have something in common: we both took out of the public library the same science fiction book when we were boys of about 15 or 16, which was Stapledon's "Last and First Men". We took it out of the same country library in Porlock in Somerset. Whoever put that book on the shelves had a lot to answer for!"


title: Last and First Men

text: Sir Patrick Moore has said "The science fiction novel "Last and First Men" by Olaf Stapledon is immensely thought-provoking and I've read it time and time again."


title: Trionychidae

text: The Trionychidae are a taxonomic family of a number of turtle genera, commonly known as softshell turtles. The family was erected by Leopold Fitzinger in 1826. Softshells include some of the world's largest freshwater turtles, though many can adapt to living in highly brackish areas. Members of this family occur in Africa, Asia, and North America, with extinct species known from Australia. Most species have traditionally been included in the genus "Trionyx", but the vast majority have since been moved to other genera. Among these are the North American "Apalone" softshells that were placed in "Trionyx" until 1987.


title: Trionychidae

text: They are called "softshell" because their carapaces lack horny scutes (scales), though the spiny softshell, "Apalone spinifera", does have some scale-like projections, hence its name. The carapace is leathery and pliable, particularly at the sides. The central part of the carapace has a layer of solid bone beneath it, as in other turtles, but this is absent at the outer edges. Some species also have dermal bones in the plastron, but these are not attached to the bones of the shell. The light and flexible shell of these turtles allows them to move more easily in open water or in muddy lake bottoms. Having a soft shell also allows them to move much faster on land than most turtles. Their feet are webbed and three-clawed, hence the family name "Trionychidae," which means "three-clawed". The carapace color of each type of softshell turtle tends to match the sand or mud color of its geographical region, assisting in their "lie in wait" feeding methodology.


title: Trionychidae

text: These turtles have many characteristics pertaining to their aquatic lifestyle. Many must be submerged in order to swallow their food. They have elongated, soft, snorkel-like nostrils. Their necks are disproportionately long in comparison to their body sizes, enabling them to breathe surface air while their bodies remain submerged in the substrate (mud or sand) a foot or more below the surface.


title: Trionychidae

text: Females can grow up to several feet in carapace diameter, while males stay much smaller; this is their main form of sexual dimorphism. "Pelochelys cantorii", found in southeastern Asia, is the largest softshell turtle.


title: Trionychidae

text: Most are strict carnivores, with diets consisting mainly of fish, aquatic crustaceans, snails, amphibians, and sometimes birds and small mammals.


title: Trionychidae

text: Softshells are able to "breathe" underwater with rhythmic movements of their mouth cavity, which contains numerous processes copiously supplied with blood, acting similarly to gill filaments in fish. This enables them to stay underwater for prolonged periods. Moreover, the Chinese softshell turtle has been shown to excrete urea while "breathing" underwater; this is an efficient solution when the animal does not have access to fresh water, e.g., in brackish-water environments.


title: Trionychidae

text: According to Ditmars (1910): "The mandibles of many species form the outer border of powerful crushing processes—the alveolar surfaces of the jaws", which aids the ingestion of tough prey such as molluscs. These jaws make large turtles dangerous, as they are capable of amputating a person's finger, or possibly their hand.


title: Trionychidae

text: Unlike the temperature-dependent sex determination of most turtles, Trionychids have ZZ/ZW genetic sex determination; microchromosomes play a role in determining sex.


title: Trionychidae

text: Softshell turtles are eaten as a delicacy in most parts of their range, particularly in East Asia. A Chinese dish stews them with chicken. According to a 1930 report by Soame Jenyns, Guangdong restaurants had them imported from Guangxi in large numbers; "eaten stewed with almonds, roast with chili sauce or fried with bamboo shoots, they [were] considered a great delicacy."


title: Trionychidae

text: Worldwide, the most commonly consumed softshell species is the Chinese softshell "Pelodiscus sinensis". As a noted Japanese biologist pointed out in 1904, the Japanese variety of this turtle, which at time was classified as "Trionyx japonicus", occupied a place in Japanese cuisine as esteemed as the diamondback terrapin in the United States or the green turtle in England. The farming of this "luscious reptile", known in Japan as "suppon", was already developed on an industrial scale in that country by the late 19th century.


title: Trionychidae

text: Due to rising demand and overhunting, the price of "Pelodiscus sinensis" in China skyrocketed by the mid-1990s; large-scale turtle farming in China and neighboring countries; raising this species by hundreds of millions was the response, with prices soon returning to a more affordable level.


title: Trionychidae

text: Another species, "Palea steindachneri", is farmed in China, as well, but on a much smaller scale (with farm herds measured in hundreds of thousands, rather than hundreds of millions).


title: Trionychidae

text: In the United States, harvesting softshells (e.g. "Apalone ferox") was, until recently, legal in Florida. Environmental groups have been advocating the authorities' banning or restricting the practice. The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission responded by introducing the daily limit of 20 turtles for licensed harvesters—a level which the turtle advocates consider unsustainable, as there may be between 100 and 500 hunters statewide. While some catch was consumed locally, most was exported; the Commission estimated (2008) around 3,000 pounds of softshell turtles were exported each week via Tampa International Airport.


title: Trionychidae

text: New rules, in effect as of July 20, 2009, restrict collecting any wild turtles to one turtle per person per day, completely prohibit collection of softshells ("Apalone") in May through July, and prohibit trade in turtles caught from the wild. An exemption is provided for licensed turtle farms that need to catch turtles in the wild to serve as their breeding stock.


title: Trionychidae

text: Some other US states, too, have already adopted strict limitations on wild turtle trade. In 2009, South Carolina passed a law (Bill H.3121) restricting interstate and international export of wild-caught turtles (both soft-shell and some other species) to 10 turtles per person at one time, and 20 turtles per person per year.


title: San Marcos, California

text: San Marcos ( ; Spanish for "St. Mark") is a city in the North County region of San Diego County, California. As of the 2020 census, the city's population was 94,833. It is the site of California State University San Marcos. The city is bordered by Escondido to the east, Encinitas to the southwest, Carlsbad to the west, and Vista to the northwest. Lake San Marcos is an enclave, or county island, in the southwestern part of the city, within San Marcos' sphere of influence but technically an unincorporated community.


title: San Marcos, California

text: According to historical legends, the San Luis Rey Mission flocks were robbed by a small band of Native Americans in the late 18th century. Fleeing the Spanish troops, the Native Americans escaped to the hills. While pursuing the Native Americans, in 1797 the Spaniards came upon a fertile valley, which was named Los Vallecitos de San Marcos (Little Valleys of Saint Mark) to honor the day of discovery: April 25, St. Mark’s Day. On April 22, 1840, Governor Juan B. Alvarado granted Rancho Vallecitos de San Marcos to his relative, Jose María Alvarado. Jose Alvarado was killed at the Pauma Massacre in 1846, and the land was left to his wife; she then sold the land to Lorenzo Soto. In the late 1850s, Soto sold part of his land to Cave Couts, and his family was soon raising livestock. Although Cave Couts owned the land, Major Gustavus French Merriam from Topeka, Kansas, made the first permanent settlement. Merriam homesteaded in the north Twin Oaks Valley and began wine and honey production.


title: San Marcos, California

text: German and Dutch immigrants began moving into the area in the early 1880s. In 1883, a few miles south of the settlement, John H. Barham (for whom the present-day Barham Drive is named) founded the first town in the area, originally situated on the southeast corner of what are now Rancho Santa Fe Road and San Marcos Boulevard. By 1884, the town of Barham had a post office, blacksmith, feed store and weekly newspaper. In 1887, the San Marcos Land Company bought almost all of the San Marcos land formerly owned by the Couts family and promptly divided the land into tracts. Soon the hills began attracting home-seekers.


title: San Marcos, California

text: The original town of San Marcos was about a mile north of Barham, at the intersection of what is now Grand Avenue and Rancho Santa Fe Road. In 1887, the Santa Fe Railroad announced that it was going to lay tracks going through the valley, but to the disappointment of the citizens, the tracks were laid one mile (1.6 km) from the center of the town. By 1896, San Marcos was a community with its own stores, post office, blacksmith, and railroad depot. The first school in the area, which was started in Barham in 1886, had been moved to San Marcos three years later, as Barham was fading due to its distance from the railroad. To prevent San Marcos from suffering a similar fate, in 1903 the people of the town picked up their homes and moved a couple miles east along the railroad tracks to what now are Mission Road and Pico Avenue. By 1905, the town had every convenience, including rural mail delivery and telephone service. Later that same year, the Richland School (now a wedding chapel on Woodland Avenue) was built, becoming the second school in San Marcos. The main business in San Marcos in the 19th and early 20th centuries was farming. In the mid-20th century, dairies and poultry production became a big part of the business in the town.


title: San Marcos, California

text: San Marcos experienced a period of growth from 1956 onward, when the first water from the Colorado River arrived. Several small businesses were founded and the population rapidly increased to 2,500. San Marcos became an incorporated city on January 28, 1963. In the 1970s, San Marcos was flourishing as the third fastest-growing city in the state, and had a population of 17,479 by 1980. The population continued to boom over the next two decades, surpassing 30,000 in 1990 and nearing 85,000 by 2010.


title: San Marcos, California

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of . of it is land and of it (0.08%) is water. Due to the moderating influence of the nearby Pacific, temperatures rarely fall below freezing in winter and above 100 degrees F. in summer. Like most of coastal San Diego County, cool overcast from the Pacific is common in May and June ("May gray", "June gloom"). July through September are usually the warmest months, although hot and dry Santa Ana winds can strike any month (most commonly August) and raise risks of severe wildfires. Most of the rain falls between November and March, averaging about 13 inches per year, with up to 20 inches falling in the San Marcos Hills.


title: San Marcos, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that San Marcos had a population of 83,781. The population density was . The racial makeup of San Marcos was 53,235 (63.5%) White, 1,967 (2.3%) African American, 591 (0.7%) Native American, 7,518 (9.0%) Asian, 322 (0.4%) Pacific Islander, 15,853 (18.9%) from other races, and 4,295 (5.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 30,697 persons (36.6%).


title: San Marcos, California

text: The Census reported that 82,937 people (99.0% of the population) lived in households, 736 (0.9%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 108 (0.1%) were institutionalized.


title: San Marcos, California

text: There were 27,202 households, out of which 11,724 (43.1%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 15,242 (56.0%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 3,056 (11.2%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,513 (5.6%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,372 (5.0%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 186 (0.7%) same-sex married couples or partnerships; 5,168 households (19.0%) were made up of individuals, and 2,370 (8.7%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.05. There were 19,811 families (72.8% of all households); the average family size was 3.49.


title: San Marcos, California

text: The population was spread out, with 23,287 people (27.8%) under the age of 18, 9,215 people (11.0%) aged 18 to 24, 25,237 people (30.1%) aged 25 to 44, 17,515 people (20.9%) aged 45 to 64, and 8,527 people (10.2%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32.9 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.6 males.


title: San Marcos, California

text: There were 28,641 housing units at an average density of , of which 17,094 (62.8%) were owner-occupied, and 10,108 (37.2%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.1%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.7%. 50,570 people (60.4% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 32,367 people (38.6%) lived in rental housing units.


title: San Marcos, California

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 54,977 people, 18,111 households, and 13,221 families residing in the city. The population density was 893.4/km (2,314.3/mi). There were 18,862 housing units at an average density of 306.5/km (794.0/mi). The racial makeup of the city was 67.39% White, 2.00% African American, 0.82% Native American, 4.67% Asian, 0.24% Pacific Islander, 20.39% from other races, and 4.48% from two or more races. 36.87% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: San Marcos, California

text: There were 18,111 households, out of which 39.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.6% were married couples living together, 9.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.0% were non-families. Of all households, 20.3% were made up of individuals, and 10.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.03 and the average family size was 3.46.


title: San Marcos, California

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 29.1% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 32.3% from 25 to 44, 17.3% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.3 males.


title: San Marcos, California

text: The median income for a household in the city was $45,908, and the median income for a family was $51,292. Males had a median income of $36,297 versus $27,015 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,657. 12.0% of the population and 7.8% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 14.5% of those under the age of 18 and 7.9% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.


title: San Marcos, California

text: San Marcos has a diversity of races and ethnic groups common in suburban communities (not ranked, but for example): African Americans, Irish, Italian, Portuguese, German, Polish, Russian, Armenian, Iranian, Indian, Vietnamese, Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, Mexican, Salvadorian, Argentine, Cuban, Puerto Rican, Hawaiian, Jewish, and Samoan.


title: San Marcos, California

text: According to the city's 2021 Annual Comprehensive Financial Report, the top 10 employers in the city are:


title: San Marcos, California

text: An illuminated cross, which stands on a hill above Lake San Marcos and is visible at night from many parts of the city, has been a community landmark for decades. Other landmarks include the Williams Barn (or "Red Barn"), a community center and reception hall built in 1952 to resemble a "big red barn." It is located in Walnut Grove Park in Twin Oaks, along with a collection of historic houses from around the city maintained by the San Marcos Historical Society.


title: San Marcos, California

text: San Marcos uses a council-manager system of government with a separately elected mayor. The city council consists of the mayor and four other members, who are elected in Districts 1 & 2 in 2018 and Districts 3 & 4 in 2020, the Mayor is elected at large. As of December 2018, Mayor is Rebecca Jones, Mayor Pro Tem is Sharon Jenkins and other Councilmembers are Maria Nuñez for D1, Randy Walton for D2 and Ed Musgrove serves D4.


title: San Marcos, California

text: At the state level, San Marcos is represented by Republican Assemblymember Marie Waldron in the 75th Assembly district, and Republican Senator Brian Jones in the 38th Senate District. The city is represented by Jim Desmond in the 5th district of the County Board of Supervisors.


title: San Marcos, California

text: With respect to the United States House of Representatives, San Marcos is in California's 50th congressional district, currently represented by Darrell Issa (R).


title: San Marcos, California

text: The San Marcos Unified School District is one of the largest school districts in San Diego County and includes 20 schools with diverse educational programs for kindergarten through adult education students. SMUSD has 11 elementary schools, 3 middle schools (San Elijo Hills, Woodland Park and San Marcos middle schools), 2 K-8 school (Double Peak, La Mirada Academy K-8), 2 comprehensive high schools (San Marcos High School and Mission Hills High School), 1 charter high school, 1 independent study high school, 1 continuation school, and 1 adult school. SMUSD serves more than 21,000 students in San Marcos, as well as sections of Vista, Escondido, Carlsbad and Encinitas, and some unincorporated areas of the County such as: Buena, Twin Oaks Valley, Deer Springs, Lake San Marcos, Harmony Grove, and Elfin Forrest. San Marcos Adult School was established in 1993 by the San Marcos Unified School District. San Marcos Adult School is a provider of adult education services in the City of San Marcos and its surrounding communities. The adult school campus is located on the grounds of Twin Oaks high school which is nestled in beautiful and historic Twin Oaks Valley. San Marcos Adult School offers adult education courses for adults in the areas of: high school diploma, GED, HISET, adult basic education, and English as a Second Language. San Marcos Adult School works collaboratively with Palomar College and other local adult schools to connect students with post-secondary education and training. San Marcos Adult School is a member of the Education to Career Network of North San Diego County. ETCN is one of 71 Consortiums in the State of California and is funded by the California Adult Education Program.


title: San Marcos, California

text: High Tech High, Middle and Elementary are all charter schools located in San Marcos. High Tech High, which started with a single school in 2000, uses small-school settings, where students learn through projects, internships and interaction with professionals. It is located across the street from San Marcos High School on San Marcos Boulevard.


title: San Marcos, California

text: The main campus of Palomar College is located in northern San Marcos. It is a public two-year community college and is a member of the California Community Colleges system. It enrolls approximately 30,000 full-time and part-time students. Palomar offers more than 250 associate degree and certificate programs, and residents of California are charged $46 per unit.


title: San Marcos, California

text: A giant letter P (for "Palomar") on the hillside above the campus is a ubiquitous landmark for San Marcos, visible miles away.


title: San Marcos, California

text: Cal State San Marcos is a campus in the California State University system. It was founded in 1989 and built on a hillside in southeastern San Marcos. It enrolls about 14,000 students and offers 44 undergraduate programs, 10 graduate programs and 1 Doctorate in Education in three colleges and one nursing school.


title: San Marcos, California

text: State Route 78 provides freeway access to San Marcos, with six interchanges serving the city. Several roads in San Marcos are county routes that connect the city with other nearby cities including Vista, Carlsbad and Escondido, such as Rancho Santa Fe Road (CR S10), San Marcos Boulevard and Twin Oaks Valley Road (CR S12), and Mission Road (CR S14).


title: San Marcos, California

text: SPRINTER light rail service, which is operated by the North County Transit District (NCTD), is available in the city of San Marcos with stops located at Palomar College, the San Marcos Civic Center, and Cal State San Marcos. BREEZE buses, which are also operated by the North County Transit District, serve the city using lines 304, 305, 347, 353, and 445.


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: Originally conceived as a female thug in "Final Fight" and part of the game's antagonist group, Mad Gear, concerns during the game's development about reactions from North American audiences to fighting women led to the character being re-imagined as a "newhalf". However, that was not considered satisfactory and both Poison and her palette swap Roxy were replaced by the male characters "Billy" and "Sid" and have been for every subsequent North American port of the title on Nintendo consoles and handhelds. After the "Final Fight" series, she later appeared alongside wrestler Hugo, acting as his manager, with her revolving around finding a tag team partner for him or developing their own wrestling organization. Poison first appeared as a playable character in "Final Fight Revenge". She was also to appear in both "Capcom Fighting All-Stars" and ""; however, the former was canceled and she was omitted from the latter as development progressed. Following those aborted attempts, she ended up appearing as a playable character on "Street Fighter X Tekken". She was also added as a playable character to "Ultra Street Fighter IV".


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: The character's potential status as a trans woman, consciously left ambiguous by the developers, has remained a topic of frequent debate by both fans and media alike.


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: Poison's first appearance in "Final Fight" featured her and a palette swap character named Roxy as recurring minor enemies for the player to fight. Named after the band by an unnamed female employee at Capcom, she was designed by Akira Yasuda to contrast against the bigger characters in the game and move about randomly and described as a "cool and rebellious woman". According to the book "All About Capcom Head to Head Fighting Games" and "Final Fight" director Akira Nishitani, the characters were originally planned to be cisgender women, but were changed to "newhalfs" (a Japanese slang term for trans women) after the game's release, due to the suggestion that "hitting women was considered rude" in America and the concern that feminist groups would sue. However, concept artwork included in the 2005 compilation "Capcom Classics Collection" of the pair specifically uses the kana for 'newhalf' (ニューハーフ), contradicting the statement the change occurred post-release. In 2007 Nishitani stated that he supposed the character "could be male", but added it was up to the viewer to decide. He later clarified in a discussion on Twitter that in his personal view Poison was a woman. Yasuda himself commented that as far as her gender, he considers her transgender in North American localizations, but cis in Japan.


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: A later appearance by Poison as a playable character in "Final Fight Revenge", an American-produced 3D fighting game spinoff of "Final Fight", portrayed the character in a highly feminine manner and had her romantically interested in "Final Fight" hero Cody. Commentary about her ending in the game in "All About Capcom" suggested that the character may have received sex reassignment surgery. The "Final Fight"-related character profiles featured in "Capcom Classics Collection" instead allude to her being a cross-dresser, while addressing Roxy as a "she" who dislikes Poison's cross-dressing.


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: "Street Fighter IV"s producer Yoshinori Ono, when asked in an interview about Poison's gender, stated: "Let's set the record straight: In North America, Poison is officially a post-op transsexual woman. But in Japan, she simply tucks her business away to look female." He later emphasized it again when asked about what female characters could be included in the game "Street Fighter IV", stating that it would be too confusing to include her due to the region-specific gender. However, in a 2011 interview with "Electronic Gaming Monthly" at the Tokyo Game Show, he stated that Capcom "doesn't have a stance technically", and while they wouldn't give an official answer, felt it was up to the viewer to decide. He added that his intent was to please all fans and that the mystery behind her gender was the core of the character. During the same interview, a Capcom representative further added that they worked closely with GLAAD, an organization concerned with the portrayal of LGBT people in media, to ensure "anything that might be offensive has been very tailored to not be" for Poison's portrayal in "Street Fighter X Tekken".


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: Yasuda referenced western fashion magazines for Poison and Roxy's designs, specifically Jeanne Basone's appearance as "Hollywood" in professional wrestling magazine "G.L.O.W." #1. Poison is shown to be a woman with long, rugged, pink hair. She wears a black cap, a choker, cutoff, blue jean-shorts, red high-heels, and a tanktop cut just below her breasts. In "Final Fight Revenge" and some artworks, her hair is shown to be purple instead. She wears several armbands around her right arm and has chains and a pair of handcuffs suspended off her shorts. "Final Fight Revenge" features her also possessing a whip used in attacks, though the character has not been shown with one in other titles or artwork (other than "Street Fighter X Tekken" and "Ultra Street Fighter IV"). Poison stands about 5 feet 9 inches (175 cm) tall and has bust/waist/hip measurements of 35-25-35" (88-66-89 cm).


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: Poison was given a secondary outfit for "Capcom Fighting All-Stars" alongside her primary classic attire. Made of shiny, silvery material it consisted of boots that extended halfway up her thighs and a combined sleeveless shirt/short skirt with a plunging neckline. Gloves and a small hairband were also added, as well as a belt, with the handcuffs hanging off of it. Her arm straps were removed, though the strap around her neck remained.


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: The concept art section of the promotional comic for "" showcases an unused Poison redesign by Trent Kaniuga for the game. The design features red hair, a red micro skirt showing a hint of underwear, a jacket, a button-up white shirt showing some of her abdomen, black high-heeled boots, a gold belt, and a wool cap. In August 2006, Kaniuga revealed three additional alternate designs on ConceptArt.org's internet forum; one being the classic look; another being a white button-up shirt with red pants, high-heels, and short hair; and the third keeping the high-heels and pants, but adding shades, returning her hair to full length and swapping the shirt for a jacket with deep cleavage. All four designs use the same color scheme, belt, and handcuffs.


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: Introduced in the original "Final Fight", Poison is an orphan from Los Angeles. She enjoys fighting and uses it as a means to stay in shape, making use of her ties with the original Mad Gear Gang to keep herself out of prison. In "Final Fight Revenge", her behavior was represented as womanly and sultry, ranging from flirtatious comments to pole dancing. She frames Cody for her assault crimes and gets him arrested by Edi. E, though she later visits him in jail having developed romantic feelings for him. In the "Street Fighter III" series, she reappears working as a wrestling manager for her friend Hugo, who could not find a tag team partner due to his immense strength. From here their plots would focus on the two searching for a tag partner or starting their own wrestling association, echoed in their "" appearance. Poison later appeared as a playable character alongside Hugo in "Street Fighter X Tekken" with similar goals, and in "Ultra Street Fighter IV", in which she combined the concept with a rock band theme in her character ending. In "Street Fighter V", Poison returns to Metro City after she and Hugo have a falling-out begins searching for a new partner she can make a star, to little success. Ultimately, she and Hugo reconcile and become partners once again.


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: Poison was also planned to appear both in "Capcom Fighting All-Stars" and "Final Fight Streetwise", though the first game was canceled and she was cut from the second. In "Mighty Final Fight", a chibi parody of the character named "Poison Kiss" appears as a generic enemy, a corrupt cop and characterized as her younger sister. Poison has also appeared based on her role as Hugo's manager on cards for "" and the game's Nintendo DS sequel, as well as the related printed trading card game. Poison appears as one of the spectators in the Metro City stage in "".


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: In the original "Final Fight", Poison and Roxy both utilized standing and acrobatic flip-kicks to attack the player. As one of the fighters in "Final Fight Revenge", her moveset was expanded heavily, and she was armed with a whip. The whip is used primarily in her Cat Claw and Thunder Whip attacks (which are comparable to Shoryuken/Shinryūken styled attacks, respectively), and can be used to steal a weapon from the opponent. Additionally, her handcuffs can be thrown as a horizontal projectile move to immobilize the opponent for a short time.


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: One particular "Final Fight Revenge" attack, Poison Kiss, has her blow a large heart-shaped kiss at the opponent that travels in a sine wave path. If it connects, a quick peep show of Poison in several erotic poses is displayed, and afterwards the opponent is shown stunned with hearts dancing over their head. Defeating an opponent with this attack results in Poison doing a pole dance for her win pose, with her whip serving as the pole. Though not playable in the beta test of "Capcom Fighting All-Stars", promotional material released by Capcom for the title show that this move would have been retained for her gameplay. However, in "Ultra Street Fighter IV", her Poison Kiss follows up with several slaps and a groin kick when it hits the opponent, similar to her Cross Art move from "Street Fighter X Tekken".


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: As for the "Street Fighter" series, starting from "Street Fighter X Tekken", Poison has a unique moveset of her own that mixes agile pro wrestling techniques and her own streetfighting abilities. Poison's standard throws include a multi-hitting slap and a Frankensteiner, Aeolus Edge and Kissed By a Goddess which are the names of her Fireball and Shoryuken-like moves, and Whip of Love which is a multi-hitting whip attack and is done in a similar fashion to Fei Long's Rekkas. Her famous flip kick from the original "Final Fight" games appears as a special called Love Me Tender. After the flipping axe-kick, Poison can follow this move up with a reverse Frankensteiner (Poison-Rana). In addition, Poison's Super Art is called Love Storm, and starts with her charging a large version of Aeolus Edge. Once it hits, she flips into the air and lands with a hard hitting axe kick that stuns the opponent in a prone position. Afterwards, she repeatedly smacks the opponent with her horsewhip and delivers a final blow that knocks them into the air. Poison also retained her signature backflip from the original game.


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: When "Final Fight" was ported to the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, an American playtester working for Capcom reviewed the content during the localization process with one of the Japanese designers and objected to the protagonist hitting women. While Akira Yasuda pointed out that the characters had already been made into trans women, believing this to be an acceptable compromise, Poison and Roxy were replaced with regular male punks named "Billy" and "Sid" in the English localization despite his objections. This change has been repeated with every English port to Nintendo consoles, including the Game Boy Advance version "Final Fight One" and the Wii's Virtual Console. English versions of the Sega CD port censored the characters in a different manner, redrawing both of them with longer shirts and shorts and covering the under-cleavage shown when the characters were struck.


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: Poison has been featured in various promotional "Street Fighter" related artworks, as early as "Street Fighter II". Additionally she has been used as a cameo character three times in the "Street Fighter Alpha" series. In terms of merchandise, an immovable model was being made for the 2008 "Capcom Girls Collection" line of figurines by Mitsumasa Yoshizawa, using her "Final Fight" attire and at 1/6 height, standing nearly 11 inches tall. A similar model was released later on, identical to the previous figurine except with her giving a thumbs down gesture and darker colors. A version with blonde hair was later released as well. In Capcom's press kit for the 2010 release of "", a pink hair spray was included in tribute to the character, with the text describing it as "For men, women, and everything in between." Capcom later featured her as one of the characters for their "Capcom Girls 2011" calendar.


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: In February 1991, "Gamest" magazine named her one of the top fifty characters in video games of 1990, placing her twenty-sixth on their list. "UGO.com" ranked her thirtieth on their "Top 50 Videogame Hotties" list, citing her as "one of the most controversial video game characters to date." Former "Tips & Tricks" executive editor Wataru Maruyama cited her design as an example of how an outfit is worn compared to its complexity can make a character memorable and stand out, stating "to use a phrase I don’t particularly like to use, she totally worked it." She has also been a subject drawn by non-Capcom artists, such as Falcoon. "GameDaily" ranked her twenty-third on their "Top 25" list of their favorite Capcom characters, stating of the characters in "Final Fight" "The Mad Gear gang is a feisty bunch, and we could've picked anyone from the list ... Instead, we selected Poison". "GamesRadar" named her one of twelve "Street Fighter" related characters they wished to see in "Super Street Fighter IV", arguing that her status should not be an issue against her inclusion and that the character deserved another stand-alone appearance of her own. Later, "GamesRadar" included her in the list of "The 30 best Capcom characters of the last 30 years". "Joystiq" named her their favorite character of the "Final Fight" series, stating that her "hypersexualized appearance and random flipping" made the character memorable, and that the controversy over her gender made the character even more so.


title: Poison (Final Fight)

text: As the exact nature of Poison's status as gender-variant has been left deliberately ambiguous by Capcom, the topic has remained a popular subject for debate among fans and gaming media alike. "Electronic Gaming Monthly"s Eric L. Patterson described her as being a significant character to the trans community, and a perfect example of how it is "so awkward when it comes to knowing how to deal with characters who aren't white, male, and heterosexual" in video games. "Complex" pointed her out as an example of stereotypical depiction of trans sex workers, listing Poison among The 15 Most Stereotypical Characters in Video Games. "GamesRadar" commented "Poison holds a distinction as one of gaming’s first trans characters, which began as a strange choice in localization but has become a part of the character that she wears with pride. If you take issue with it, that’s your problem, not hers. It's that kind of confidence that makes her so appealing."


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: The 5th Wave is a young adult science fiction novel written by American author Rick Yancey. It was published on May 7, 2013, by G. P. Putnam's Sons. The novel is the first in the "5th Wave" trilogy, followed by "The Infinite Sea" and "The Last Star". The story follows 16-year-old Cassie Sullivan as she tries to survive in a world devastated by waves of alien invasions that decimated the Earth's population.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Critics have compared the book favorably to "The Hunger Games" and "The Road", and noted that it "should do for aliens what "Twilight" did for vampires." Sony Pictures released a film adaptation in January 2016.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Cassiopeia Marie Sullivan or "Cassie" – the novel's protagonist, is 16 years old, short, and has curly strawberry-blonde hair. Before the waves hit, she had a crush on Ben Parish, a popular football player. She has a relationship with her "silencer", Evan Walker.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Evan Walker – a boy from rural Ohio who lived with his large family; he is described as having chocolate brown eyes and brown hair. His family and girlfriend were all killed during the 3rd Wave. He has a brief love relationship with Cassie.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Benjamin Thomas Parish/Zombie – a popular football player and honours student at Cassie's high school; he is described as tall, buff, and dark-haired. While in high school, Cassie had a crush on Ben, but he never noticed her. After the 3rd Wave, Ben contracts the plague but is "rescued" by soldiers who take him to Camp Haven. There, he becomes a part of Squad 53 and is renamed Zombie. Zombie soon discovers the "soldiers" are actually aliens in disguise. He manages to escape with Cassie and Sammy.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Sissy Parish – Ben's little sister. She was killed by intruders while escaping her house with Ben. In a moment stricken with fear, he left her behind. He wears her locket around his neck in memory of her. Cassie said Sissy would be hoisted onto Ben's shoulders after his football games, and she would join him in a parade. He says he misses Sissy terribly.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Samuel Jackson Sullivan – Cassie's little brother who is five years old; he is described as having messy brown hair and large, teddy bear eyes. He is taken away from the refugee camp where he, his father, and Cassie had stayed. He is taken to Camp Haven to join Squad 53, after being renamed Nugget. Nugget and Zombie become good friends, and Zombie acts like Sam's big brother. Sammy manages to escape with Cassie and Zombie at the end of the novel.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Marika/Ringer – a girl who joins Squad 53 after Tank, a former member, goes "Dorothy" (slang for crazy); she is described as tall and skinny, with pale white skin and long, glossy, straight black hair, three-quarters Asian and a quarter Apache. She is the best shot in the group and is very quiet, yet scary. She and Zombie become friends, and she helps him shoot better. She is often threatening and serious toward the other squad members, but can also be vulnerable at times.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Commander Vosch – the leader of the soldiers and the mastermind behind the plans. He is very sadistic, cruel, and unfeeling. He at first is shown as a "hero" to those at Cassie's refugee camp, but he soon reveals his true nature by personally killing Cassie's father, destroying the camp, and abducting the children, including Sam, to fight. He is also responsible for Camp Haven and becomes familiar with Cassie, Ringer, and Ben Parish.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Dumbo – a member of Squad 53; he is around 12 years old, has huge ears, and is good with medicine and anatomy.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Alison/Teacup – a member of Squad 53; she is seven years old. Originally, she was the only girl and was the youngest in the squad before Nugget and Ringer arrived.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Poundcake – a member of Squad 53; he is around eight years old, large and chubby, and rarely speaks, but is good with a gun.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Flintstone – the former leader of Squad 53; he was around 16 years old and had a unibrow. He often challenged Zombie's authority, mainly in jealousy over his job as leader. Flintstone ends up going crazy or "going Dorothy" and ends up dead.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Tank – a former member of Squad 53. He went "Dorothy" (crazy) and was taken away. Dumbo and Zombie discover him dead in the P&D (Processing and Disposal) hangar.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Kenny/Oompa – a member of Squad 53; he was around eight or nine years old, chubby, and had crooked teeth. After Zombie sets off an explosion, Oompa is impaled with shrapnel and dies after an unsuccessful attempt to save him.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: First Wave: Lights Out: During the first wave, the Others release an EMP wave that takes out all electronic technology and kills half a million people by shorting out all moving vehicles, including planes in mid-flight.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Second wave: Surf's Up: The Others, realizing that roughly 40 percent of Earth's population lives within 60 miles of the coastline, drop enormous rods "twice as tall as the Empire State Building and three times as heavy" onto the Earth's fault lines, causing massive tsunamis that wipe out three billion people.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Third wave: Pestilence: The Others launch a scheme to infect as many remaining survivors as possible with a deadly virus. Using the Earth's birds as carriers (via falling excrement), the plague claims 97% of remaining survivors. The virus, which resembles an advanced form of Ebola, causes victims to slowly bleed to death until eventually "you've become a viral bomb. And when you explode, you blast everyone around you with the virus".


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Fourth wave: Silencers: After the 3rd wave, the remaining human population tries desperately to survive off whatever resources remain by looting, all the while clinging to the hope that "the people in charge", wherever they may be, are working toward a solution. Eventually, this belief seems legitimate when an impressive battalion of soldiers (with functioning vehicles) arrives at the makeshift camp where Cassie, Sam, and her father are staying. The soldiers and commander, however, only appear interested in the children and promptly load them onto waiting buses before ordering all the adults into the camp barracks. Once the humans are surrounded, Commander Vosch orders a massacre and kills everyone at the camp. Cassie, however, narrowly escapes and witnesses her father's death by Vosch's hand. At this moment, the 4th wave becomes clear: not all "humans" are actually humans.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: Critical reception of the book has been positive. It received starred reviews from both "Publishers Weekly" and Kirkus, and reviewers have noted that it has broad audience appeal, blurring the lines between young adult and adult fiction, and between genre and mainstream fiction, so that it cannot be easily wedged into one genre despite having many of the characteristics of young adult fiction. "The New York Times" listed it as one of the best young adult books of 2013, and it was a Goodreads finalist for Best Young Adult Fantasy or Science Fiction novel in 2013.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: "The 5th Wave" is the first book in a trilogy. The second book in the series, "The Infinite Sea", was released on September 16, 2014. The third book in the series, "The Last Star", was released on May 24, 2016.


title: The 5th Wave (novel)

text: A film adaption with the same name was released by Columbia Pictures on January 22, 2016. It was directed by J Blakeson, with a screenplay by Susannah Grant, Akiva Goldsman, and Jeff Pinkner.


title: Religion in Mongolia

text: Religion in Mongolia has been traditionally dominated by the schools of Mongolian Buddhism and by Mongolian shamanism, the ethnic religion of the Mongols. Historically, through their Mongol Empire the Mongols were exposed to the influences of Christianity (Nestorianism and Catholicism) and Islam, although these religions never came to dominate. During the communist period of the Mongolian People's Republic (1924–1992) all religions were suppressed, but with the transition to the parliamentary republic in the 1990s there has been a general revival of faiths.


title: Religion in Mongolia

text: According to the national census of 2020, 51.7% of the Mongolians identify as Buddhists, 40.6% as non-religious, 3.2% as Muslims (predominantly of Kazakh ethnicity), 2.5% as followers of the Mongol shamanic tradition, 1.3% as Christians, and 0.7% as followers of other religions.


title: Religion in Mongolia

text: Buddhism in Mongolia began with the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) emperors' conversion to Tibetan Buddhism. The Mongols returned to indigenous shamanic traditions after the collapse of the Mongol Empire, but Buddhism reemerged in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. During the communist Mongolian People's Republic (1924–1992), Buddhism was suppressed. After the collapse of communism in the 1990s, there has been a resurgence of Buddhism in the country, both within the fold of the traditional monastic institution and through the spread of New Age-inspired and monotheism-inspired new religious movements of Buddhism. According to the 2020 census of Mongolia, 51.7% of the population, that is 1,704,480 people, are adherents of Buddhism.


title: Religion in Mongolia

text: Mongolian shamanism, more broadly called the Mongolian folk religion, or occasionally Tengerism, refers to the animistic and shamanic ethnic religion that has been practiced by the Mongols at least since the age of recorded history. The Mongolian name of the practice is "Böö mörgöl" (Бөө мөргөл). In the earliest known stages it was tied to all other aspects of social life and to the tribal organization of Mongolian society. When the Mongols adopted Buddhism, Mongolian shamanism was influenced and merged with the new religion. During the communist republic of the twentieth century it was heavily repressed, but after the fall of communism it was revived. According to the 2020 census, 2.5% of the population of Mongolia, that is 82,422 people, declare that they are shamans.


title: Religion in Mongolia

text: Mongolian shamanism is centered on the worship of the "tngri" (gods) and the highest "Tenger" ("Heaven", "God of Heaven", or "God"), also called "Qormusta Tengri". In the Mongolian folk religion, Genghis Khan is considered one of the embodiments, if not the main embodiment, of the supreme God. The Mausoleum of Genghis Khan in Ordos City, in Inner Mongolia, is an important center of this tradition.


title: Religion in Mongolia

text: Yellow shamanism is the term used to designate the particular version of Mongolian shamanism which adopts the expressive style of Buddhism. "Yellow" indicates Buddhism in Mongolian culture, since most Buddhists there belong to what is called the "Gelug" or "Yellow sect" of Tibetan Buddhism, whose members wear yellow hats while performing rituals. The term also serves to distinguish it from a form of shamanism not influenced by Buddhism, called black shamanism.


title: Religion in Mongolia

text: Christianity in Mongolia is the religion of 42,859 people according to the 2020 census, corresponding to 1.3% of the population. Christians in Mongolia include Protestants, Catholics, Orthodox Christians, and Mormons of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.


title: Religion in Mongolia

text: Islam in Mongolia is the religion of 105,500 people as of the 2020 census, corresponding to 3.2% of the population. It is mostly the religion of the Kazakh ethnic minority residing in the areas of Bayan-Ölgii Province and Khovd Province in western Mongolia. However, Kazakh communities may be found in cities and towns throughout all Mongolia.


title: Religion in Mongolia

text: The 2020 census counted 23,078 people who were adherents of religions other than Buddhism, Mongolian shamanism, Islam or Christianity, corresponding to 0.7% of the total population of the country.


title: Religion in Mongolia

text: The Bahá'í Faith was introduced in Mongolia only in the 1980s and 1990s, as prior to that point the communist ideology suppressed religions and impeded the spread of new ones. The first Bahá'í arrived in Mongolia in 1988, and founded a community of believers, later establishing a Bahá'í Local Spiritual Assembly. In 1994, the Bahá'ís elected their first National Spiritual Assembly.


title: Religion in Mongolia

text: Hinduism too has spread into Mongolia in the 1990s, after the collapse of the communist republic. The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (Hare Krishna) and Patanjali Yogpeeth have established themselves in Mongolia; at the same time some Mongolian Buddhists have incorporated Hindu concepts and techniques into their Buddhist religion.


title: Joshua Rush

text: Joshua Rush (born December 14, 2001) is an American actor and activist. He is known for playing Cyrus Goodman on the Disney Channel drama series "Andi Mack" (2017–2019), who is the first openly-gay character to appear on the network. Rush earned significant praise and media coverage for his performance, as well as a Young Entertainer Award in 2019.


title: Joshua Rush

text: Rush began his career as a child actor, appearing in short films and commercials, and playing a recurring role on the series "Heroes" (2009). For playing Turner in the feature film "Parental Guidance" (2012), he received two Young Artist Award nominations. His voice roles includes Breehn on the Cartoon Network series "Clarence" (2014–2016), Bunga on the Disney Junior series "The Lion Guard" (2016–2019) and the titular character on the DreamWorks series "Where's Waldo?" (2019–present).


title: Joshua Rush

text: Rush was born in Houston, Texas. His father is a marketing strategist and his mother is a corporate documentary producer.


title: Joshua Rush

text: He came out as bisexual on August 6, 2019. In February 2020, Rush opened up about his parents' divorce and his mental health issues in a "Teen Vogue" article.


title: Joshua Rush

text: Rush was ten months old when he first appeared in a local television special. By age 2, he had the ability to identify cars by logo and body style, and was featured on the KHOU morning news in a segment on how to raise "smart kids." Before working on "Heroes", Rush appeared on "Private Practice", and tailored several film credits, such as "Blue Boy", "The Journal", and "Mindsight". He also acted in commercials for Space Center Houston and Safeco Insurance, and an e-card for americangreetings.com.


title: Joshua Rush

text: In 2009, Rush appeared on "The Jay Leno Show" as the "Super Duper Nanny Son." The same year he also appeared on "Medium" as Tanner Campbel, the boy in the banana costume, and on "Criminal Minds" as Ronny Downey. Rush's first major television role came in 2009 when he was cast on "Heroes". He played Zachary Quinto's character, Sylar, at a young age. This recurring role was part of a major plot point in season three. After "Heroes", Rush had minor roles on "Parenthood", "", and "Special Agent Oso".


title: Joshua Rush

text: In 2010, Rush began portraying a young version of Zachary Levi's character Chuck Bartowski on "Chuck". In this role, he worked with such actors as Scott Bakula and Linda Hamilton. Following his work on "Chuck", Rush did ADR work on the Hallmark Channel movie "November Christmas", and commercials for McDonald's and GameStop. In 2012, Rush appeared as Turner Simmons in the feature film "Parental Guidance", which earned him a Young Artist Award nomination as Best Supporting Young Actor Age Ten and Under in a Feature Film.


title: Joshua Rush

text: From 2017 to 2019, he gained prominence through his role as Cyrus Goodman, one of the two best friends of the title character on the Disney Channel series "Andi Mack". Rush, who is Jewish, requested "Andi Mack" creator and executive producer Terri Minsky, also Jewish, to write a bar mitzvah scene for his character, which occurs in Season 2 Episode 13, "Cyrus' Bash-Mitzvah!". Rush's performance was praised, and he is noted for having played the first gay main character on Disney Channel, and the first to have a same-sex love interest, TJ Kippen (Luke Mullen).


title: Joshua Rush

text: Rush also appeared as Jacob in the 2015 thriller film "Emelie". He voiced Toby in Netflix and DreamWorks Animation's "The Adventures of Puss in Boots" and Breehn on Cartoon Network's "Clarence". From 2016 to 2019, he voiced Bunga on the Disney Junior series "The Lion Guard".


title: Joshua Rush

text: Rush started a weekly news series on social media in 2018, titled "News in a Rush", covering politics and current events in minute-long videos aimed to make younger viewers understand certain topics. Rush volunteered for the 2018 congressional campaigns of Beto O'Rourke, Ben McAdams, Harley Rouda, and Katie Porter. He served as the Under 18 Ambassador for National Absentee Ballot Day.


title: Joshua Rush

text: In 2019, Rush interned at the United States House of Representatives. He told "Teen Vogue" in an October 2019 interview that he identifies "as a Democrat, probably on the more progressive wing." Rush was a surrogate for the Bernie Sanders 2020 presidential campaign. He then volunteered for Senator Ed Markey's reelection campaign, as well as interviewing several down-ballot congressional candidates. He is a panelist for the Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media.


title: Joshua Rush

text: In April 2019, it was announced he would voice the titular character in DreamWorks Animation Television series on Universal Kids, "Where's Waldo?". In February 2021, Rush announced that he has started a new job as the communications director for the Utah Democratic Party.


title: Megaphone

text: A megaphone, speaking-trumpet, bullhorn, blowhorn, or loudhailer is usually a portable or hand-held, cone-shaped acoustic horn used to amplify a person's voice or other sounds and direct it in a given direction. The sound is introduced into the narrow end of the megaphone, by holding it up to the face and speaking into it, and the sound waves radiate out the wide end. A megaphone increases the volume of sound by increasing the acoustic impedance seen by the vocal cords, matching the impedance of the vocal cords to the air, so that more sound power is radiated. It also serves to direct the sound waves in the direction the horn is pointing. It somewhat distorts the sound of the voice because the frequency response of the megaphone is greater at higher sound frequencies.


title: Megaphone

text: Since the 1960s the voice-powered "acoustic megaphone" described above has been replaced by the "electric megaphone", which uses a microphone, an electrically-powered amplifier and a folded horn loudspeaker to amplify the voice.


title: Megaphone

text: The initial inventor of the speaking trumpet is a subject of historical controversy. There have been references to speakers in Ancient Greece (5th Century B.C.) wearing masks with cones protruding from the mouth in order to amplify their voices in theatres. Hellenic architects may have also consciously utilized acoustic physics in their design of theatre amphitheaters.


title: Megaphone

text: A drawing by Louis Nicolas "(right)" on page 14 of the Codex canadensis, circa 1675 to 1682, shows a Native American chief named Iscouakité using a megaphone made of birch bark. The text of the illustration says that he is addressing his soldiers through a birch bark tube.


title: Megaphone

text: Both Samuel Morland and Athanasius Kircher have been credited with inventing megaphones around the same time in the 17th century. Morland, in a work published in 1655, wrote about his experimentation with different horns. His largest megaphone consisted of over 20 feet of copper tube and could reportedly project a person's voice a mile and a half.


title: Megaphone

text: Twenty years earlier, Kircher described a device that could be used as both a megaphone and for "overhearing" people speaking outside a house. His coiled horn would be mounted into the side of a building, with a narrow end inside that could be either spoken into or listened to, and the wide mouth projecting through the outside wall.


title: Megaphone

text: Morland favored a straight, tube-shaped speaking device. Kircher's horn, on the other hand, utilized a "cochleate" design, where the horn was twisted and coiled to make it more compact.


title: Megaphone

text: Additionally, in ruins of Tiwanaku are stones around the central place with holes shaped in a megaphone's profile. Their purpose is today unknown, but as local guards can show, it is possible to amplify a human voice loud enough to hear it across a large area.


title: Megaphone

text: The term 'megaphone' was first associated with Thomas Edison's instrument 200 years later. In 1878, Edison developed a device similar to the speaking trumpet in hopes of benefiting the deaf and hard of hearing. His variation included three separate funnels lined up in a row. The two outer funnels, which were six feet and eight inches long, were made of paper and connected to a tube inserted in each ear. The middle funnel was similar to Morland's speaking trumpet, but had a larger slot to insert a user's mouth.


title: Megaphone

text: With Edison's megaphone, a low whisper could be heard a thousand feet away, while a normal tone of voice could be heard roughly two miles away. On the listening end, the receiver could hear a low whisper at a thousand feet away. However the apparatus was much too large to be portable, limiting its use. George Prescott wrote: "The principal drawback at present is the large size of the apparatus."


title: Megaphone

text: Since the 1960s, acoustic megaphones have generally been replaced by electric versions "(below)", although the cheap, light, rugged acoustic megaphone is still used in a few venues, like cheering at sporting events and cheerleading, and by lifeguards at pools and beaches where the moisture could damage the electronics of electric megaphones.


title: Megaphone

text: An electric megaphone is a handheld public address system, an electronic device that amplifies the human voice like an acoustic megaphone, using electric power. It consists of a microphone to convert sound waves into an electrical audio signal, an amplifier powered by a battery to increase the power of the audio signal, and a loudspeaker to convert the audio signal to sound waves again. Although slightly heavier than acoustic megaphones, electric megaphones can amplify the voice to a higher level, to over 90 dB. They have replaced acoustic megaphones in most applications, and are generally used to address congregations of people wherever stationary public address systems are not available; at outdoor sporting events, movie sets, political rallies, and street demonstrations.


title: Megaphone

text: Although electronic public address systems have existed since vacuum tube amplifiers were developed in the early 1920s, vacuum tube versions were too heavy to be portable. Practical portable electric megaphones had to await the development of microelectronics which followed the invention of the transistor in 1947. In 1954, TOA Corporation developed the EM-202, the world's first transistorized megaphone.


title: Megaphone

text: Handheld versions are shaped generally like the old acoustic megaphone, with a microphone at one end and a horn speaker at the other, and a pistol grip on the side, with a trigger switch to turn it on. In use, the device is held up to the mouth, and the trigger is pressed to turn it on while speaking. Other larger versions hang from the shoulder on a strap, and have a separate handheld microphone on a cord to speak into, so users can address a crowd without the instrument obscuring their faces. A vast array of modern electric megaphones are available to purchase, and characteristics like power, weight, price, and the presence of alarms and shoulder straps all contribute to a consumer's choice.


title: Megaphone

text: The shape of the megaphone directly affects the range of projection; narrower horns compensate for lower power by concentrating sound more sharply than wide horns.


title: Megaphone

text: Portable megaphones are widely used for crowd management and mass communication. When needing to communicate information or directions to a large crowd of people in one place, an electric megaphone is valuable when other public address systems are not present.


title: Megaphone

text: Besides their practical implications, public address systems, including megaphones, also had a social impact. Public address systems helped promote women's participation in society. In events like the National Republican and Democratic Conventions of 1920, when electronic public address systems were first becoming popularized, women used these amplifying technologies during roll call of participants. Later, portable electric megaphones extended this equalizing influence to outdoor events. Some protest leaders use electric megaphones to speak to an outdoor crowd or to other protesters.


title: Megaphone

text: As of the 2010s, cheerleading is one of the few fields that still uses acoustic megaphones. Cheerleaders at the University of Minnesota are credited with first using acoustic megaphones in routines in 1898. Since then, cheerleaders have relied heavily on acoustic megaphones during performances at sporting events. Generally, female cheerleaders would use pom poms while male cheerleaders, with loud booming voices, would project cheers through megaphones. Vocal projection is an important aspect for cheerleading, so experts recommend the use of acoustic megaphones not only to increase the volume of sound, but also to protect performers’ voices in the process.


title: Megaphone

text: For decades, film directors have used megaphones to communicate with their cast and crew on sets where it was hard to hear. The acoustic megaphone became an iconic clichéd symbol of a movie director, although modern directors use electric megaphones. A major contributor to this cliche was Cecil B. DeMille, director of epic movies like "The Ten Commandments" and "The King of Kings". Many of his films were biblical epics set on vast outdoor sets that required communication with hundreds of extras.


title: Megaphone

text: The distinctive distorted sound of a human voice amplified by a megaphone is widely recognized, from its use in train and bus stations and sports arenas. Applied to music, it gives the sound of an antique acoustic gramophone record player. It has been used in radio advertisements and popular music to give retro and often humorous effects. A recorded voice or music can be processed to give it a "megaphone" sound effect without using an actual megaphone, by audio recording decks and software. In recording software like Logic Pro and Pro Tools, selecting certain filters and settings will produce an artificial sound almost indistinguishable from an electric megaphone.


title: Megaphone

text: Governments can pass laws restricting the use of electronically amplified megaphones. In the US the ability to use a megaphone in public can be restricted to certain decibel levels, time of day or banned in residential neighborhoods. However, under the First Amendment, the specific kinds of speech used with a megaphone cannot be restricted.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: Adela of Normandy, of Blois, or of England (c. 1067 – 8 March 1137), also known as in Roman Catholicism, was a daughter of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders who later became the countess of Blois, Chartres, and Meaux by marriage to Stephen II of Blois. Her husband greatly benefited from the increased social status and prestige that came with such a marriage. She brought with her not only her bloodline but a dowry of money and other movable goods from the prodigious store of Anglo-Norman wealth. She was regent of Blois during the absence of her spouse in 1096–1100 and 1101–02, and during the minority of her son from 1102 until 1120. Adela was the mother of King Stephen of England and Bishop Henry of Winchester.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: It is generally believed that Adela was born between 1066 and 1070 after her father's accession to the English throne. Her royal blood marked her as noble in the eyes of her peers. She was the favorite sister of King Henry I of England, and they were probably the youngest of the Conqueror's children. Adela was a high-spirited and educated woman with a knowledge of Latin. She had three older brothers and one younger, and thus she would not inherit her father's honors; however her bloodline would be a valuable asset to a spouse.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: Adela married Stephen Henry, son and heir to the count of Blois, between 1080 and 1083, around her fifteenth birthday. Stephen was nearly twenty years her senior. Stephen inherited Blois, Chartres and Meaux upon his father's death in 1089, as well as lands and right in parts of Berry and Burgundy. The Thibaudian dynasty had other possessions east of Paris, and by the end of Adela's life these were coalescing into the county of Champagne. While Theobald IV takes most of the credit for the emergence of that principality, Adela helped lay its foundations. Adela and her husband had a relationship based on trust and mutual respect, if not affection, and she made decisions along with Stephen. She swore, for instance, to bind herself and her husband to protect the bishop of Chartres, then in a dispute with the king of France.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: Stephen-Henry joined the First Crusade in 1096, along with his brother-in-law Robert Curthose. Adela filled in as regent for her husband during his extended absence as a leader of the First Crusade (1095–1098) as well as during his second expedition in 1101. Stephen's letters to Adela form a uniquely intimate insight into the experiences of the Crusade's leaders and show that he trusted Adela to rule as regent while he was on crusade.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: Adela's regency included granting monks the right to build new churches, as well as other charters. Adela also worked with Ivo of Chartres at various points, exchanging letters throughout her regency to discuss matters such as the control of misbehaving nuns and larger issues such as disputes about sworn oaths. While her husband was away, Adela would continue to tour their lands, settling disputes, promoting economic growth, and even commanding knights to go to battle with the king. This however was not unique, as during the crusades it was common for noble women to take upon themselves the duties of their male counterparts.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: The Count of Blois returned to France in 1100 bringing with him several cartloads of maps, jewels and other treasures, which he deposited at Chartres. According to Orderic Vitalis, when Stephen-Henry abandoned the First Crusade returning to France in ignominy, "Adela constantly berated him, even during their love-making", urging him to return to the Holy Land. He was under an obligation to the pope for agreements made years earlier and returned to Antioch to participate in the crusade of 1101. He was ultimately killed in a last stand after the Battle of Ramla in 1102. The image of Adela persuading her ease-loving husband to redeem his reputation through action has proved popular with historians attempting to account for the crusader motivations.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: Adela continued to act as regent after her husband's death and through her son Thibaud's early rule until her retirement in 1120. Even after Thibaud came of age and no longer needed a regent, Adela continued to issue charters and act as co-ruler of many parts of their land. Adela did not secure a marriage alliance for Thibaud, who did not get married until after Adela's retirement, which helped to maintain her power and influence over both her son and her lands.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: Adela, a devout Benedictine sympathizer, employed several high-ranking tutors to educate her children. Her youngest son, Henry, was conceived during the single year Stephen was in France between crusading duties. At two years of age Henry was pledged to the Church at Cluny Abbey, Saône-et-Loire, France, as an oblate child, that is, he was dedicated to the service of God, according to medieval practice. Henry went on to be appointed Abbot of Glastonbury and Bishop of Winchester. In that capacity, he sponsored hundreds of constructions including bridges, canals, palaces, forts, castles, and whole villages. In addition, Bishop Henry built dozens of abbeys and chapels and sponsored books including the treasured Winchester Bible.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: In 1105, after St Anselm visited her during a sickness, she was responsible for communicating the archbishop's earnestness in threatening excommunication to her brother Henry I. Orderic Vitalis praises her as a ""wise and spirited woman"" who ably governed her husband's estates and her own. Adela's power and interests are reflected in letters collected, they demonstrate her religiosity and intellect. In one such letter to the public from 1104, Adela gifts a monastery a portion of land with all the wildlife inhabiting it, but she reserves the power to pass judgment upon crimes committed in the area. She also makes sure to mark her place as a woman, tying herself to not only her late husband but her sons.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: Adela quarrelled with her eldest son William and despite his previously being named heir-designate, she appointed his younger brother Theobald to replace him as heir in 1107. Another son, Stephen of Blois, moved to London in 1111 to join the court of his uncle, King Henry I (Beauclerc), and became his favorite. Upon Beauclerc's death in Normandy (1135), Stephen seized the English throne from Holy Roman Empress Dowager Matilda, King Henry I's daughter, whom the monarch had named as his successor. This started a protracted civil war in England that lasted nearly twenty years.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: Adela retired to Marcigny Convent in 1120. Though she may have considered retiring to an abbey in Normandy where members of her family, including sisters and nieces, may have already been living, Adela was drawn to and chose the larger, more prestigious convent at Marcigny near her son Henry at Cluny Abbey. Adela may have acted as prioress within the community at Marcigny, though this is not certain. She continued to interact and communicate with her children and the ecclesiastical leaders of lands that she had once ruled, maintaining her influence over the area. In one instance, Adela sent letters to both her son Thibaud and Geoffrey, bishop of Chartres, reminding them of her settlement of a monastic case. In these letters she reminds her son how his father and she felt about alms gifting to monasteries.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: Later that same year, her daughter Lucia-Mahaut drowned in the wreck of the "White Ship" alongside her husband. Adela lived long enough to see her son Stephen on the English throne, though any response she may have had to this development has been lost. She likely took pride in the ascension of her youngest child, Henry of Blois, to the bishopric of Winchester in 1129. After her death in 1137 at Marcigny, prayers were offered at a number of churches that she had endowed personally or had recognized at some point during her life. Her money, influence, and entry into the convent resulted in Adela becoming a saint of the Catholic Church.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: Adela and Stephen's children are listed here in probable birth order. Their birth order is uncertain.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: Some of the daughters may have been step-daughters of Adela, rather than biological children. It is known that Adela had five biological sons and may have had three or more daughters, though not all of the daughters were necessarily Adela's biological children. The daughters are not mentioned by name during their youth, only appearing when they reached marriageable age and played an important part in building alliances.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: Adela is a saint in the Roman Catholic church. Her feast day is 24 February. She was deeply religious and supported scholars and poets. Throughout her life she generously endowed various abbeys and churches, helping to expand and preserve the culture and art of her time.


title: Adela of Normandy

text: Adela was portrayed by Nike Arrighi in the two-part BBC TV play "Conquest" (1966), about her father's conquest of England, part of the series "Theatre 625".


title: Adela of Normandy

text: Adela is a featured figure on Judy Chicago's installation piece "The Dinner Party", being represented as one of the 999 names on the "Heritage Floor."


title: 1980 World Series

text: The 1980 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball's (MLB) season. The 77th edition of the World Series, it was a best-of-seven playoff played between the National League (NL) champion Philadelphia Phillies and the American League (AL) champion Kansas City Royals.


title: 1980 World Series

text: The Phillies defeated the Royals in six games to secure their first World Series championship in franchise history. Third baseman Mike Schmidt was named the World Series MVP. The series concluded with Game 6 in Philadelphia, which ended with closer Tug McGraw striking out Willie Wilson at 11:29 pm EDT on Tuesday, October 21. Wilson set a World Series record by striking out 12 times in the six-game set (after 230 hits (and 81 strikeouts) in the regular season).


title: 1980 World Series

text: Game 6 is also significant because it stands as the most-watched game in World Series history, with a television audience of 54.9 million viewers.


title: 1980 World Series

text: The Kansas City Royals became the second expansion team, and the first from the American League, to appear in the World Series. The AL had to wait until before one of their expansion teams—the Royals—won a World Series.


title: 1980 World Series

text: This was also the first World Series since 1920, and the most recent, in which neither team had a previous World Series title. As of 2022, this can only happen again if the Tampa Bay Rays, Seattle Mariners, or Texas Rangers face the Milwaukee Brewers, San Diego Padres, or Colorado Rockies in a future series.


title: 1980 World Series

text: With their victory, the Phillies became the final team out of the original 16 MLB teams to win a World Series. However, a Philadelphia team had won a World Series before, the last being the Athletics in , exactly a half-century earlier; in a twist of fate, the Athletics played 13 years in Kansas City (1955–1967) before relocating to Oakland.