title: Computer Space

text: While at a club for playing the board game Go, Bushnell met researcher Jim Stein, who worked for Stanford University's Artificial Intelligence Project; Bushnell learned from him that "Spacewar!" was running on the laboratory's PDP-6, and played the game against him there when visiting. Bushnell had previously worked during the summer at Lagoon Amusement Park in Utah as a manager of the games department overseeing the arcade games, and when he saw "Spacewar!" he believed that an arcade game version of the game would be very popular. The high price of computers capable of running the game, however, meant that any such arcade game would not be economically feasible. In the spring of 1970, however, he saw an ad for the Data General Nova computer, which cost only , and thought again about his "Spacewar!" arcade game idea. He believed that at that price the game would be economically viable if he were able to connect four monitors and coin slots to allow multiple games to run simultaneously. He showed his office mate and fellow Ampex engineer Ted Dabney "Spacewar!" at the Stanford laboratory, and the two agreed to work together to try and design a prototype of the game. Bushnell had some experience with computers and digital engineering but not enough to create the game on his own, while the older Dabney was more experienced with analog and hardware engineering, as he had designed video processing and control circuits and power supplies.


title: Computer Space

text: After agreeing on an initial idea, Bushnell and Dabney began designing a prototype based on a Data General Nova. Over the summer they made plans for developing the game, and in the early fall they were joined by Larry Bryan, a computer programmer who also worked at Ampex. Bushnell and Dabney put US$100 each into a partnership, named Syzygy by Bryan, in order to purchase components. They soon ran into difficulties with their planned design: the computer was not powerful enough to run multiple simultaneous games and refresh the monitors as fast as was needed to make the games playable. Bryan realized this soon after starting work on the project in August 1970 while trying to design the code needed to run the games, and he left the project before Syzygy was officially formed without ever contributing any money. Bushnell and Dabney continued working on the design for several more months. The pair attempted to reduce the load on the computer by replacing subroutines—such as displaying the background stars—with specialized hardware, but it proved insufficient; even reducing the number of monitors was not enough. By the end of November 1970, Bushnell decided to abandon the project as untenable; Dabney had stopped working on the design a while before. It is unclear if the pair were aware that Data General had demonstrated a more powerful variant of the Nova, sold for US$8,000, running a single game of "Spacewar!" at the Fall Joint Computer Conference in December 1968, though that solution would have been too expensive for an arcade game, which typically cost US$1,000 at the time. Unable to put the game idea out of his mind, however, Bushnell soon thought of a way to manipulate the video signal on the screen with hardware without a computer having to control it, and from there the pair came up with the idea of building hardware components to handle parts of the game on behalf of the computer.


title: Computer Space

text: Bushnell and Dabney began to design custom hardware to run the game's functions, and in January 1971 they had a dot moving on a screen. Bushnell drafted a letter dated January 26 to order six Data Nova computers. He did not send the letter, however; near the end of January, he tried to run their program on a local Nova, and found that they had miscalculated the requirements. Even with several of the functions removed from the program, now named "Cosmic Combat", the computer still could not run multiple instances at once. Although upset, Bushnell soon realized that it would be possible to entirely replace the Nova with custom hardware, and that the cost to build the whole game's computing systems would be much lower. As a result, they would not need to have multiple instances of the game running on the same machine in order to be profitable. On the other hand, the custom hardware was not as powerful as the more expensive Nova computer, which meant that the pair needed to make gameplay modifications. "Spacewar!" was a two-player game featuring dogfights around the gravitational field of a central star; neither of these features could be run on the dedicated circuits the pair were making, so the game was cut down to a single-player game wherein the player would fight against two computer-controlled spaceships in open space.


title: Computer Space

text: In January 1971, Bushnell and Dabney founded Syzygy Engineering as an official company, now with a cash amount of US$350 each. They approached Ampex and a prior manager of Dabney's with their prototype, but found no interest. The major arcade game manufacturers were based out of Chicago at the time, limiting their ability to demonstrate their idea to an existing firm. During a dentist appointment in early 1971, Bushnell told the dentist about the game and that he was looking for a manufacturer; the dentist in turn referred him to another patient of his, Dave Ralstin, the sales manager for Nutting Associates in Mountain View, California. Nutting had been founded in 1966 on the basis of "Computer Quiz", an analog quiz arcade game, and by 1971 was looking for another hit game. After meeting with Bushnell, Nutting felt that his game was the potential success it needed to replace falling sales of "Computer Quiz" updates, as quiz games were growing less popular and it did not have an engineering team that could design successful new games. Nutting not only agreed to manufacture the game but also hired Bushnell as their chief engineer. Furthermore, Syzygy Engineering retained ownership of the game, even though Nutting agreed to give Syzygy space to build the prototype and to manufacture the game once complete. Syzygy would be paid five percent of each cabinet sold. Bushnell negotiated to work on "Cosmic Combat" outside of normal working hours until it went into production in order to keep it conceptually separate from his new job at Nutting, so as to prevent Nutting from later claiming ownership due to paying for time or materials spent building the game. Dabney remained at Ampex until the summer, when he resigned to join Bushnell at Nutting, as he was initially unwilling to leave the stable job he had worked at for ten years without more proof that the game could be a success.


title: Computer Space

text: Once he moved to Nutting, Bushnell took over the majority of the engineering work for the game; Dabney has stated that he advised Bushnell on some of the design. After Dabney joined Bushnell at Nutting, he helped with the creation of the cabinet itself, including the coin slot, control panel, and power supply, and designed a sound system that could make a noise like a rocket engine. By August 1971, an initial prototype of the game—now named "Computer Space" to be similar to "Computer Quiz"—was complete, and Syzygy moved on to location testing. They installed the game at the Dutch Goose bar near Stanford University, where it met with great success. Nutting was heartened by the response and rushed to make several finished cabinets for the Music Operators of America (MOA) Music & Amusement Machines Exposition in October. Further location tests found a less enthusiastic response from customers confused by the game mechanics and controls, and Syzygy hurriedly adjusted the game's instructions to try to be more understandable to players.


title: Computer Space

text: The final "Computer Space" design uses no microprocessor; the entire computer system is a state machine made of 7400-series integrated circuits, with monochrome graphic elements held in diode arrays. The arrays, which Bushnell designed to let him rotate the rocket in 16 directions with only 4 arrays, are laid out in the shape of the ships, to make it obvious to game operators what would need to be replaced if something broke. These arrays reduced the amount of work that the game had to perform to update the screen: instead of refreshing the entire screen for any change, like "Spacewar!", each element could be moved independently of the others. The ships themselves are drawn on the screen as a pattern of dots, rather than connected lines, and were essentially hardwired bitmaps, and are considered an early form of the concept of sprite graphics. The cabinet includes a General Electric 15-inch black and white television screen as the monitor, specially modified for the game. In the rudimentary algorithm constructed by Bushnell, the enemy ships fire towards the quadrant of the screen that the player's rocket is in, rather than directly at the player's rocket.


title: Computer Space

text: As Syzygy and Nutting prepared for the MOA show, Bushnell learned that another pair of engineers, Bill Pitts and Hugh Tuck, were also creating an arcade version of "Spacewar!" In August 1971 Bushnell called Pitts and Tuck, who were operating as Mini-Computer Applications, so that they could meet and discuss their solutions to the problem of running "Spacewar!" on an inexpensive computer. Pitts and Tuck were developing a prototype machine of "Galaxy Game" when they met with Bushnell; the game, however, while a faithful recreation of "Spacewar!", ran on an externally-connected DEC PDP-11 with a Hewlett-Packard 1300A Electrostatic Display, and the total cost of the prototype unit was . The Syzygy duo were relieved, though also somewhat disappointed, to find that "Galaxy Game" was not using an innovative solution Syzygy had missed to build an economically-competitive arcade game. Pitts and Tuck, conversely, felt that "Computer Space" was a pale imitation of "Spacewar!", while "Galaxy Game" was a superior adaptation of the game. They eventually produced two game prototypes, both displayed in the Stanford student union building, but never produced the game commercially due to the high cost of the cabinet.


title: Computer Space

text: "Computer Space" debuted at the MOA show on October 15–17, 1971. Dabney's wooden cabinet for the initial prototype was replaced with a curvy, futuristic fiberglass cabinet designed by Bushnell with modelling clay and built by a swimming pool manufacturer. A control panel extended from the main body of the cabinet and contained the four control buttons; Syzygy had hoped to use a joystick to control the rocket's movement, but found that it broke too easily, failing to last a single night in a location test. The "Galaxy Game" designers had run into the same issue, but had solved it with expensive customized military surplus joysticks. The cabinet displayed the Nutting Associates name and logo, along with the term "Syzygy engineered". Nutting displayed four cabinets at the MOA show, one each in red, blue, white, and yellow, with the implication that the game was already in production, though they were in fact the only four cabinets then produced. These initial cabinets were in solid colors, though later ones would use a sparkle finish. The cabinets were damaged during transport, and one monitor was broken; Syzygy repaired the three working cabinets and opened up the fourth to demonstrate the internals to attendees. The game was popular with viewers, with a crowded display area, and trade magazine "Cash Box" called it "very promising" and "very glamorous". Game distributors, however, were hesitant about the game, with concerns raised about the game's potential, reliability, and the embedded monitor's attractiveness to thieves; recollections are mixed as to whether Nutting took a handful of orders or none at the show. Nutting ordered a large production run regardless, on the expectation that the distributors would come around with further exposure. The game entered initial production sometime in November or December, and began full production around the end of January 1972.


title: Computer Space

text: Nutting ordered an initial production run of 1,500 units of "Computer Space", an optimistic decision given that a hit arcade game at the time would sell around 2,000 units, though a handful had reached 10,000. Reception to the game from distributors was mixed. While some were excited by the game, others felt it confusing and would amount to nothing more than a passing fad at best. By spring 1972 the game had sold over 1,000 units, and according to Bushnell in 1976 ended up selling between 1,300 and 1,500 units. While this was a commercial success, making over , it was a disappointment to Nutting, which had been hoping for a large-scale success like "Computer Quiz". The game's relative lack of success was attributed to the complexity of its controls and a steep learning curve, which pushed away customers used to less complex games. Bushnell noted that the locations in which the game did well, like the Dutch Goose playtest location, were generally located near university campuses; the general market for coin-operated games, however, was in working-class bars, where the patrons were less interested in deciphering a complicated game. In the documentary "Video Game Invasion: The History of a Global Obsession", Bushnell explained, "Sure, I loved it, and all my friends loved it, but all my friends were engineers. It was a little too complicated for the guy with the beer in the bar." Bushnell has also stated that part of the difficulty lay in the novelty of the game; he said that even a few years later the controls and gameplay would have been more understandable to players who would have seen other video games by then. Conversely, Bushnell and Dabney have said that the game's novelty was also part of its appeal to players—most people had never seen a television screen displaying images being controlled by a person in front of it, rather than displaying a broadcast from a remote television station.


title: Computer Space

text: While the game did not meet the high hopes of Nutting, it was successful enough that Nutting produced a two-player version of the game in July 1973 built by Steve Bristow with a green fiberglass cabinet; the design was initially contracted to Bushnell, but his design was either uncompleted or unused. Bushnell and Dabney did not work further on the game, and it was not a large success. Although the biggest successes in arcade games at the time generally spawned a dozen copycat games, only a single "Computer Space" clone is known, produced in 1972 by For-Play Manufacturers as "Star Trek". A custom white "Computer Space" cabinet appeared in the 1973 film "Soylent Green" as a futuristic entertainment device, marking the first appearance of a video game in a movie.


title: Computer Space

text: In June 1972, Bushnell and Dabney quit Nutting Associates after Bushnell was unable to convince Nutting to give him a 33 percent stake in the company, and moved to incorporate Syzygy Engineering; they instead named it Atari due to another company with a similar name. Bushnell later stated that he was encouraged by the success of "Computer Space" in regards to future game ideas, as he had never before created something that made so much money, and additionally felt that his time at Nutting gave him confidence in running his own company because he "couldn't screw it up more than they did". Nutting Associates did not make any further "Computer Space" games before closing in 1976. Bushnell's enthusiasm was soon vindicated, as Atari's first game, "Pong", went on to substantially greater success than "Computer Space". Although not as influential as "Pong", as the first arcade video game, "Computer Space" had a strong influence on future video game design, such as using terms and designs from prior mechanical arcade games, and providing a template for transforming a medium previously designed and played on research mainframes into a commercial model for general consumers. It directly inspired several video games and game designers, such as Steve Bristow, who came up with the idea for "Tank" (1974) to correct the perceived shortcomings of the game by having easier-to-control tanks instead, and Jerry Lawson, the designer of the Fairchild Channel F home console (1976). It also influenced Larry Rosenthal, who was partially inspired to make the vector graphics-based "Space Wars" (1977) by his dislike of "Computer Space"s simplification of "Spacewar!", and Ed Logg, who combined the controls and movement of the game with elements of "Space Invaders" (1978) to make "Asteroids" (1979). "Computer Space"s release marked the ending of the early history of video games and the start of the commercial video game industry.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Mössbauer spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique based on the Mössbauer effect. This effect, discovered by Rudolf Mössbauer (sometimes written "Moessbauer", German: "Mößbauer") in 1958, consists of the nearly recoil-free emission and absorption of nuclear gamma rays in solids. The consequent nuclear spectroscopy method is exquisitely sensitive to small changes in the chemical environment of certain nuclei.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Typically, three types of nuclear interactions may be observed: the isomer shift due to differences in nearby electron densities (also called the chemical shift in older literature), quadrupole splitting due to atomic-scale electric field gradients; and magnetic Zeeman splitting due to non-nuclear magnetic fields. Due to the high energy and extremely narrow line widths of nuclear gamma rays, Mössbauer spectroscopy is a highly sensitive technique in terms of energy (and hence frequency) resolution, capable of detecting changes of just a few parts in 10. It is a method completely unrelated to nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Just as a gun recoils when a bullet is fired, conservation of momentum requires a nucleus (such as in a gas) to recoil during emission or absorption of a gamma ray. If a nucleus at rest "emits" a gamma ray, the energy of the gamma ray is slightly "less" than the natural energy of the transition, but in order for a nucleus at rest to "absorb" a gamma ray, the gamma ray's energy must be slightly "greater" than the natural energy, because in both cases energy is lost to recoil. This means that nuclear resonance (emission and absorption of the same gamma ray by identical nuclei) is unobservable with free nuclei, because the shift in energy is too great and the emission and absorption spectra have no significant overlap.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Nuclei in a solid crystal, however, are not free to recoil because they are bound in place in the crystal lattice. When a nucleus in a solid emits or absorbs a gamma ray, some energy can still be lost as recoil energy, but in this case it always occurs in discrete packets called phonons (quantized vibrations of the crystal lattice). Any whole number of phonons can be emitted, including zero, which is known as a "recoil-free" event. In this case conservation of momentum is satisfied by the momentum of the crystal as a whole, so practically no energy is lost.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Mössbauer found that a significant fraction of emission and absorption events will be recoil-free, which is quantified using the Lamb–Mössbauer factor. This fact is what makes Mössbauer spectroscopy possible, because it means that gamma rays emitted by one nucleus can be resonantly absorbed by a sample containing nuclei of the same isotope, and this absorption can be measured.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: The recoil fraction of the Mössbauer absorption is analyzed by nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: In its most common form, Mössbauer absorption spectroscopy, a solid sample is exposed to a beam of gamma radiation, and a detector measures the intensity of the beam transmitted through the sample. The atoms in the source emitting the gamma rays must be of the same isotope as the atoms in the sample absorbing them.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: If the emitting and absorbing nuclei were in identical chemical environments, the nuclear transition energies would be exactly equal and resonant absorption would be observed with both materials at rest. The difference in chemical environments, however, causes the nuclear energy levels to shift in a few different ways, as described below. Although these energy shifts are tiny (often less than a micro-electronvolt), the extremely narrow spectral linewidths of gamma rays for some radionuclides make the small energy shifts correspond to large changes in absorbance. To bring the two nuclei back into resonance it is necessary to change the energy of the gamma ray slightly, and in practice this is always done using the Doppler shift.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: During Mössbauer absorption spectroscopy, the source is accelerated through a range of velocities using a linear motor to produce a Doppler effect and scan the gamma ray energy through a given range. A typical range of velocities for Fe, for example, may be ± ().


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: In the resulting spectra, gamma ray intensity is plotted as a function of the source velocity. At velocities corresponding to the resonant energy levels of the sample, a fraction of the gamma rays are absorbed, resulting in a drop in the measured intensity and a corresponding dip in the spectrum. The number, positions, and intensities of the dips (also called peaks; dips in transmitted intensity are peaks in absorbance) provide information about the chemical environment of the absorbing nuclei and can be used to characterize the sample.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Suitable gamma-ray sources consist of a radioactive parent that decays to the desired isotope. For example, the source for Fe consists of Co, which decays by electron capture to an excited state of Fe, which in turn decays to a ground state via a series of gamma-ray emissions that include the one exhibiting the Mössbauer effect. The radioactive cobalt is prepared on a foil, often of rhodium. Ideally the parent isotope will have a convenient half-life. Also, the gamma-ray energy should be relatively low, otherwise the system will have a low recoil-free fraction resulting in a poor signal-to-noise ratio and requiring long collection times. The periodic table below indicates those elements having an isotope suitable for Mössbauer spectroscopy. Of these, Fe is by far the most common element studied using the technique, although I, Sn, and Sb are also frequently studied.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: As described above, Mössbauer spectroscopy has an extremely fine energy resolution and can detect even subtle changes in the nuclear environment of the relevant atoms. Typically, there are three types of nuclear interactions that are observed: isomeric shift, quadrupole splitting, and hyperfine magnetic splitting.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Isomer shift (δ) (also sometimes called chemical shift, especially in the older literature) is a relative measure describing a shift in the resonance energy of a nucleus (see Fig. 2) due to the transition of electrons within its "s" orbitals. The whole spectrum is shifted in either a positive or negative direction depending upon the "s" electron charge density in the nucleus. This change arises due to alterations in the electrostatic response between the non-zero probability "s" orbital electrons and the non-zero volume nucleus they orbit.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Only electrons in "s" orbitals have a non-zero probability of being found in the nucleus (see atomic orbitals). However, "p", "d", and "f" electrons may influence the "s" electron density through a screening effect.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Isomer shift can be expressed using the formula below, where "K" is a nuclear constant, the difference between "R" and "R" is the effective nuclear charge radius difference between excited state and the ground state, and the difference between [Ψ(0)] and [Ψ(0)] is the electron density difference in the nucleus (a = source, b = sample). The Chemical Isomer shift as described here does not change with temperature, however, Mössbauer spectra do have a temperature sensitivity due to a relativistic effect known as the second-order Doppler effect. Generally, the impact of this effect is small, and the IUPAC standard allows the Isomer Shift to be reported without correcting for it.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: The isomer shift is useful for determining oxidation state, valency states, electron shielding and the electron-drawing power of electronegative groups.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Quadrupole splitting reflects the interaction between the nuclear energy levels and the surrounding electric field gradient (EFG). Nuclei in states with non-spherical charge distributions, i.e. all those with spin quantum number ("I") greater than 1/2, may have a nuclear quadrupole moment. In this case an asymmetrical electric field (produced by an asymmetric electronic charge distribution or ligand arrangement) splits the nuclear energy levels.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: In the case of an isotope with a "I" = 3/2 excited state, such as Fe or Sn, the excited state is split into two substates "m" = ±1/2 and "m" = ±3/2. The ground to excited state transitions appear as two specific peaks in a spectrum, sometimes referred to as a "doublet". Quadrupole splitting is measured as the separation between these two peaks and reflects the character of the electric field at the nucleus.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: The quadrupole splitting can be used for determining oxidation state, spin state, site symmetry, and the arrangement of ligands.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Magnetic hyperfine splitting is a result of the interaction between the nucleus and any surrounding magnetic field, as described by the Zeeman Effect. A nucleus with spin "I" splits into 2"I" + 1 sub-energy levels in the presence of a magnetic field. For example, the first excited state of the Fe nucleus with spin state "I" = 3/2 will split into 4 non-degenerate sub-states with "m" values of +3/2, +1/2, −1/2 and −3/2. The equally-spaced splits are said to be hyperfine, being on the order of 10 eV. The selection rule for magnetic dipole transitions means that transitions between the excited state and ground state can only occur where "m" changes by 0 or 1 or −1. This gives 6 possible for a 3/2 to 1/2 transition.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: The extent of splitting is proportional to the magnetic field strength at the nucleus, which in turn depends on the electron distribution ("chemical environment") of the nucleus. The splitting can be measured, for instance, with a sample foil placed between an oscillating source and a photon detector (see Fig. 5), resulting in an absorption spectrum, as illustrated in Fig. 4. The magnetic field can be determined from the spacing between the peaks if the quantum "g-factors" of the nuclear states are known. In ferromagnetic materials, including many iron compounds, the natural internal magnetic fields are quite strong and their effects dominate the spectra.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: The three Mössbauer parameters: isomer shift, quadrupole splitting, and hyperfine splitting can often be used to identify a particular compound by comparison to spectra for standards. In some cases, a compound may have more than one possible position for the Mössbauer active atom. For example, the crystal structure of magnetite (FeO) supports two different sites for the iron atoms. Its spectrum has 12 peaks, a sextet for each potential atomic site, corresponding to two sets of Mössbauer parameters.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Many times all effects are observed: isomer shift, quadrupole splitting, and magnetic Zeeman effect. In such cases the isomer shift is given by the average of all lines. The quadrupole splitting when all the four excited substates are equally shifted (two substates are lifted and other two are lowered) is given by the shift of the outer two lines relative to the inner four lines (all inner four lines shift in opposition to the outermost two lines). Usually fitting software is used for accurate values.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: In addition, the relative intensities of the various peaks reflect the relative concentrations of compounds in a sample and can be used for semi-quantitative analysis. Also, since ferromagnetic phenomena are size-dependent, in some cases spectra can provide insight into the crystallite size and grain structure of a material.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Mössbauer emission spectroscopy is a specialized variant of Mössbauer spectroscopy where the emitting element is in the probed sample, and the absorbing element is in the reference. Most commonly, the technique is applied to the Co/Fe pair. A typical application is the characterization of the cobalt sites in amorphous Co-Mo catalysts used in hydrodesulfurization. In such a case, the sample is doped with Co.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Among the drawbacks of the technique are the limited number of gamma ray sources and the requirement that samples be solid in order to eliminate the recoil of the nucleus. Mössbauer spectroscopy is unique in its sensitivity to subtle changes in the chemical environment of the nucleus including oxidation state changes, the effect of different ligands on a particular atom, and the magnetic environment of the sample.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: As an analytical tool Mössbauer spectroscopy has been especially useful in the field of geology for identifying the composition of iron-containing specimens including meteorites and moon rocks. "In situ" data collection of Mössbauer spectra has also been carried out on iron rich rocks on Mars.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: In another application, Mössbauer spectroscopy is used to characterize phase transformations in iron catalysts, e.g., those used for Fischer–Tropsch synthesis. While initially consisting of hematite (FeO), these catalysts transform into a mixture of magnetite (FeO) and several iron carbides. The formation of carbides appears to improve catalytic activity, but it can also lead to the mechanical break-up and attrition of the catalyst particles, which can cause difficulties in the final separation of catalyst from reaction products.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Mössbauer spectroscopy has also been used to determine the relative concentration change in the oxidation state of antimony (Sb) during the selective oxidation of olefins. During calcination, all the Sb ions in an antimony-containing tin dioxide catalyst transform into the +5 oxidation state. Following the catalytic reaction, almost all Sb ions revert from the +5 to the +3 oxidation state. A significant change in the chemical environment surrounding the antimony nucleus occurs during the oxidation state change which can easily be monitored as an isomer shift in the Mössbauer spectrum.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: This technique has also been used to observe the second-order transverse Doppler effect predicted by the theory of relativity, because of very high energy resolution.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Mossbauer spectroscopy has been widely applied to bioinorganic chemistry, especially for the study of iron-containing proteins and enzymes. Often the technique is used to determine the oxidation state of iron. Examples of prominent iron-containing biomolecules are iron-sulfur proteins, ferritin, and hemes including the cytochromes. These studies are often supplemented by analysis of related model complexes. An area of particular interest is the characterization of intermediates involved in oxygen activation by iron proteins.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Vibrational spectra of Fe-enriched biomolecules can be acquired using nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy (NRVS), in which the sample is scanned through a range of synchrotron-generated X-rays, centered at the Mössbauer absorbance frequency. Stokes and anti-Stokes peaks in the spectrum correspond to low frequency vibrations, many below 600 cm with some below 100 cm.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: A Mössbauer spectrometer is a device that performs Mössbauer spectroscopy, or a device that uses the Mössbauer effect to determine the chemical environment of Mössbauer nuclei present in the sample. It is formed by three main parts; a source that moves back and forth to generate a Doppler effect, a collimator that filters out non-parallel gamma rays and a detector.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: A miniature Mössbauer Spectrometer, named (MB) MIMOS II, was used by the two rovers in NASA's Mars Exploration Rover missions.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: The chemical isomer shift and quadrupole splitting are generally evaluated with respect to a reference material. For example, in iron compounds, the Mössbauer parameters were evaluated using iron foil (of a thickness less than 40 micrometers). The centroid of the six-line spectrum from metallic iron foil is −0.1 mm/s (for a Co/Rh source). All shifts in other iron compounds are computed relative to this −0.10 mm/s (at room temperature), i.e., in this case isomer shifts are relative to the Co/Rh source. In other words, the centre point of the Mössbauer spectrum is zero. The shift values may also be reported relative to 0.0 mm/s; here, shifts are relative to the iron foil.


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: where "c" is the speed of light, "B" is the internal magnetic field of the metallic iron (), "μ" is the nuclear magneton (), "E" is the excitation energy (14.412497(3) keV), "g" is the ground state nuclear splitting factor (/("I"), where Isospin "I" = ) and "g" is the excited state splitting factor of Fe (-0.15532/("I"), where "I" = ).


title: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: Other values are sometimes used to reflect different qualities of iron foils. In all cases any change in "V" only affects the isomer shift and not the quadrupole splitting. As the IBAME, the authority for Mössbauer spectroscopy, does not specify a particular value, anything between 10.60 mm/s to 10.67 mm/s can be used. For this reason it is highly recommended to provide the isomer shift values relative to the source used, not to the iron foil, mentioning the details of the source (centre of gravity of the folded spectrum).


title: Administrative divisions of South Korea

text: South Korea is made up of 17 first-tier administrative divisions: 6 metropolitan cities ("gwangyeoksi" ), 1 special city ("teukbyeolsi" ), 1 special self-governing city ("teukbyeol-jachisi" ), and 9 provinces ("do" ), including one special self-governing province ("teukbyeol jachido" ). These are further subdivided into a variety of smaller entities, including cities ("si" ), counties ("gun" ), districts ("gu" ), towns ("eup" ), townships ("myeon" ), neighborhoods ("dong" ) and villages ("ri" ).


title: Administrative divisions of South Korea

text: The top tier of administrative divisions are the provincial-level divisions, of which there are several types: provinces (including special self-governing provinces), metropolitan cities, special cities, and special self-governing cities. The governors of the provincial-level divisions are elected every four years.


title: Administrative divisions of South Korea

text: A "si" (, pronounced ) is one of the divisions of a province, along with "gun". A city must have a neighborhood("dong") and can have towns("eup"), townships("myeon") if the city is combined with urban and rural areas. Once an eup of a county ("gun") attains a population of 50,000, the county can become a city. A city with a population of over 500,000 (such as Suwon, Cheongju, Cheonan and Jeonju) is considered as a specific city, which can set non-autonomous districts("gu"). An administrative city doesn't have a city council and the mayor of the city is appointed by the provincial governor.


title: Administrative divisions of South Korea

text: A "gun" () is one of the divisions of a province (along with "si"), and of the metropolitan cities of Busan, Daegu, Incheon and Ulsan (along with "gu"). A "gun" has a population of less than 150,000 (more than that would make it a city or "si"), is less densely populated than a "gu", and is more rural in character than either of the other 2 divisions. "Gun" are comparable to British non-metropolitan districts. Counties are divided into towns ("eup") and townships ("myeon"). Specially, the size of a "gun" is less than a US "county".


title: Administrative divisions of South Korea

text: A "gu" () is equivalent to "district" in the West. The metropolitan cities of Busan, Daegu, Incheon and Ulsan contain "gun" as well. "Gu" are similar to boroughs in some Western countries, and a "gu" office handles many of the functions that would be handled by the city in other jurisdictions. "Gu" are divided into neighborhoods ("dong").


title: Administrative divisions of South Korea

text: An "eup" () is similar to the unit of town. Along with "myeon", an "eup" is one of the divisions of a county ("gun"), and of some cities ("si") with a population of less than 500,000. The main town or towns in a county—or the secondary town or towns within a city's territory—are designated as "eup". Towns are subdivided into villages ("ri"). In order to form an "eup", the minimum population required is 20,000.


title: Administrative divisions of South Korea

text: A "myeon" () is one of the divisions – along with "eup" – of a county ("gun") and some cities ("si") of fewer than 500,000 population. "Myeon"s have smaller populations than "eup" and represent the rural areas of a county or city. "Myeon" are subdivided into villages ("ri"). The minimum population limit is 6,000.


title: Administrative divisions of South Korea

text: A "dong" () is the primary division of districts ("gu"), and of those cities ("si") which are not divided into districts. The "dong" is the smallest level of urban government to have its own office and staff. In some cases, a single legal "dong" is divided into several administrative "dong". Administrative "dong" are usually distinguished from one another by number (as in the case of Myeongjang 1-dong and Myeongjang 2-dong). In such cases, each administrative "dong" has its own office and staff.


title: Administrative divisions of South Korea

text: The primary division of a "dong" is the "tong" (), but divisions at this level and below are seldom used in daily life. Some populous "dong" are subdivided into "ga" (), which are not a separate level of government, but only exist for use in addresses. Many major thoroughfares in Seoul, Suwon, and other cities are also subdivided into "ga".


title: Administrative divisions of South Korea

text: A "ri" () is the only division of towns ("eup") and districts ("myeon"). The "ri" is the smallest level of rural government to contain any significant number of people.


title: Administrative divisions of South Korea

text: Although the details of local administration have changed dramatically over time, the basic outline of the current three-tiered system was implemented under the reign of Gojong in 1895. A similar system also remains in use in North Korea.


title: Thibault de Montalembert

text: Thibault Charles Marie Septime de Montalembert (born 10 February 1962) is a French theatre, film and television actor. He is perhaps best known for his roles in the television series "The Tunnel" (2013–2018) and "Call My Agent!" (2015–2020).


title: Liability insurance

text: Liability insurance (also called third-party insurance) is a part of the general insurance system of risk financing to protect the purchaser (the "insured") from the risks of liabilities imposed by lawsuits and similar claims and protects the insured if the purchaser is sued for claims that come within the coverage of the insurance policy.


title: Liability insurance

text: Originally, individual companies that faced a common "peril" formed a group and created a self-help fund out of which to pay compensation should any member incur loss (in other words, a mutual insurance arrangement). The modern system relies on dedicated carriers, usually for-profit, to offer protection against specified perils in consideration of a premium.


title: Liability insurance

text: Liability insurance is designed to offer specific protection against third-party insurance claims, i.e., payment is not typically made to the insured, but rather to someone suffering loss who is not a party to the insurance contract. In general, damage caused intentionally as well as contractual liability are not covered under liability insurance policies. When a claim is made, the insurance carrier has the duty (and right) to defend the insured.


title: Liability insurance

text: The legal costs of a defence normally do not affect policy limits unless the policy expressly states otherwise; this default rule is useful because defence costs tend to soar when cases go to trial. In many cases, the defense portion of the policy is actually more valuable than the insurance, as in complicated cases, the cost of defending the case might be more than the amount being claimed, especially in so-called "nuisance" cases where the insured must be defended even though no liability is ever brought to trial.


title: Liability insurance

text: Commercial liability is an important segment for the insurance industry. With premium income of USD 160 billion in 2013, it accounted for 10% of global non-life premiums of USD 1 550 billion, or 23% of the global commercial lines premiums. Liability insurance is far more prevalent in the advanced than emerging markets. The advanced markets accounted for 93% of global liability premiums in 2013, while their share of global non-life premiums was 79%.


title: Liability insurance

text: The US is by far the largest market, with 51% of the global liability premiums written in 2013. This is due to the size of the US economy and high penetration of liability insurance (0.5% of GDP). In 2013, US businesses spent USD 84 billion on commercial liability covers, of which USD 50 billion was on general liability, including USD 12 billion for Errors and Omissions (E&O) and USD 5.4 billion for Directors and Officers (D&O). US businesses spent another USD 13 billion on the liability portion of commercial multi-peril policies, USD 9.5 billion for medical malpractice and USD 3 billion for product liability covers.


title: Liability insurance

text: The UK is the world’s second largest market for liability insurance, with USD 9.9 billion of liability premiums in 2013. The largest sub-line of business is public and product liability. This is followed by professional indemnity and employers’ liability (cover for employment-related accidents and illnesses). There has been a significant shift in the sub-segments of UK liability insurance. In the last decade, the share of professional indemnity has increased from about 14% to 32%, highlighting the shift towards a more services-driven economy. Manufacturing, meanwhile, comprises a lower share of liability claims as accidents related to injuries and property damages have declined.


title: Liability insurance

text: In continental Europe, the largest liability insurance markets are Germany, France, Italy and Spain. Together they made up almost USD 22 billion of global liability premiums in 2013. Typically governed by civil law systems, these markets rely on local conditions and historical experience to determine which liability policies and covers are available. Penetration ranges from 0.16% to 0.25%, which is low compared to the common law countries such as the US, the UK and Australia.


title: Liability insurance

text: Japan and Australia are the largest markets in the Asia Pacific region, with commercial liability premiums of USD 6.0 billion and USD 4.8 billion, respectively, in 2013. At 0.12% of GDP, the penetration of liability insurance in Japan is much lower than in other advanced economies. In Australia, penetration is much higher at 0.32% of GDP. This is due to the country’s English law derived legal framework, which has increased demand for employers’ liability insurance. Australia has mandatory covers for aviation, maritime oil pollution and residential construction and, in certain states, for medical practitioners, property brokers and stock brokers. Liability insurance premiums have grown at an average annual rate of 11% since 2000.


title: Liability insurance

text: China is the ninth largest commercial liability market globally, with premiums of USD 3.5 billion in 2013 and strong annual average growth of 22% since 2000. However, penetration remains low at 0.04% of GDP. Growth has been driven by increasing risk awareness and regulatory changes.


title: Liability insurance

text: The duty to defend is prevalent in the United States and Canada, where most liability insurance policies provide that the insurer "has the right and duty" to defend the insured against all "suits" to which the policies apply. It is usually triggered when the insured is sued (or in some instances, given pre-suit notice that they are about to be sued) and subsequently "tenders" defense of the claim to its liability insurer. Usually this is done by sending a copy of the complaint along with a cover letter referencing the relevant insurance policy or policies and demanding an immediate defense.


title: Liability insurance

text: The duty to defend is generally broader than the duty to indemnify, because most (but not all) policies that provide for such a duty also specifically promise to defend against claims that are groundless, false, or fraudulent. Therefore, the duty to defend is normally triggered by a potential for coverage. The test for a potential for coverage is whether the complaint adequately pleads at least one claim or cause of action which would be covered under the terms of the policy if the plaintiff were to prevail on that claim at trial, and also does not plead any allegations which would entirely vitiate an essential element of coverage or trigger a complete exclusion to coverage. It is irrelevant whether the plaintiff will prevail or actually prevails on the claim; rather, the test is whether the claim if proven would be covered. Vague or ambiguous allegations broad enough to encompass a range of possibilities both within and without coverage are usually construed in favor of a potential for coverage, but speculation about unpled allegations (that is, matters on which the complaint is totally silent) is insufficient to create a potential for coverage. Some jurisdictions allow extrinsic evidence to be considered, either because it is expressly described in the complaint or it is relevant to the facts expressly alleged in the complaint.


title: Liability insurance

text: If there is a duty to defend, it means the insurer must defend the insured against the entire lawsuit even if most of the claims or causes of action in the complaint are clearly not covered. An insurer can choose to defend unconditionally without reserving any rights, but by doing so, it waives (or is later estopped from asserting) the absence of coverage as a defense to the duty to defend and impliedly commits to defending the insured to a final judgment or a settlement regardless of how long it takes (unless the policy expressly provides that defense costs reduce policy limits). In the alternative, the insurer may defend under a reservation of rights: it sends a letter to the insured reserving its rights to immediately withdraw from the insured's defense if it becomes clear there is no coverage or no potential for coverage for the entire complaint, and to recover from the insured any funds expended to that point on defending against any particular claims or causes of action which were never covered or even potentially covered to begin with.


title: Liability insurance

text: If the insurer chooses to defend, it may either defend the claim with its own in-house lawyers (where allowed), or give the claim to an outside law firm on a "panel" of preferred firms which have negotiated a standard fee schedule with the insurer in exchange for a regular flow of work. The decision to defend under a reservation of rights must be undertaken with extreme caution in jurisdictions where the insured has a right to independent counsel, also known as Cumis counsel.


title: Liability insurance

text: The insurer can also seek a declaratory judgment against the insured that there is no coverage for the claim, or at least no potential for coverage. This option generally allows the insurer to insulate itself from a bad faith claim, in the sense that an insurer acts in good faith when it promptly brings coverage disputes to the attention of a court, even though it also places the insured in the awkward position of defending itself against "two" lawsuits: the plaintiff's original complaint and the insurer's complaint for declaratory judgment. Indeed, in some jurisdictions an insurer acting in good faith "must" seek declaratory relief from a court before declining to defend its insured (e.g., Illinois) or withdrawing from its defense pursuant to an earlier reservation of rights (e.g., Georgia).


title: Liability insurance

text: Finally, the insurer can decline to defend and also refrain from seeking declaratory judgment. If the insurer is absolutely certain that there is no coverage or no potential for coverage, then in most jurisdictions the insurer adequately preserves its defenses to coverage by sending a letter to the insured explaining its position and declining to provide a defense. But this option can be very risky, because if a court later determines that there was a duty to defend all along, then it will hold that the insurer necessarily breached that duty, and may also hold that the insurer is subject to tort liability for bad faith. So insurers will often defend under a reservation of rights rather than decline coverage altogether.


title: Liability insurance

text: Outside of the United States and Canada, liability insurers generally do not assume a duty to defend, in the sense of assuming a direct responsibility for hiring and paying a lawyer to defend the insured. Many write policies which promise to reimburse the insured for reasonable defense costs incurred with the insurer's consent, but this is essentially a form of indemnification (covered in the next section below), under which the insured remains primarily responsible for hiring a lawyer to defend themselves. Such insurers often expressly reserve a right to defend the insured, presumably so they can intervene to protect their own interests if the insured's counsel of choice is not providing an adequate defense against the underlying claim.


title: Liability insurance

text: An indemnity case arises when an individual is obliged to pay for the loss or damage incurred by another person in an event of an accident, collision etc. The duty of indemnity generally originates from the agreement in between insurer and insured which protects the insured against any liability, damage or loss.


title: Liability insurance

text: The duty to indemnify is the insurer's duty to pay all covered sums for which the insured is held liable, up to the limits of coverage and subject to any deductibles, retained limits, self-insured retention, excess payments, or any other amounts of money which the insured is required to pay out-of-pocket as a precondition to the insurer's duty.


title: Liability insurance

text: It is generally triggered when a final judgement is entered against the insured, and it is satisfied when the insurer pays such covered amounts to the plaintiff who obtained the judgement. Most policies provide for payment of monetary damages as well as any costs, expenses, and attorney's fees which the plaintiff may also be entitled to as the prevailing party.


title: Liability insurance

text: Unlike the duty to defend, the duty to indemnify extends only to those claims or causes of action in the plaintiff's complaint which are actually covered under the policy, since a final judgement against the insured would normally be supported by a factual record in the trial court showing exactly why the plaintiff prevailed (or failed to prevail) on each claim or cause of action. Thus, an insurer could have a duty to defend based on mere allegations that show a potential for coverage, but may not have a duty to indemnify if the evidence supporting a final judgement against the insured also takes those claims or causes of action completely outside of the policy's scope of coverage. Conversely, it is also possible that an insurer may have no duty to defend based on the initial allegations of the plaintiff's original complaint, but may have a duty to indemnify based upon the policyholder's proven liability.


title: Liability insurance

text: While the duty to defend and the duty to settle are rare outside of English-speaking North America, the duty to indemnify is universally found in liability insurance policies.


title: Liability insurance

text: In some jurisdictions, there is a third duty, the duty to settle a reasonably clear claim against the insured. This duty is generally triggered only if a reasonable opportunity to settle actually arises, either because the plaintiff makes a settlement offer, or the insurer is aware of information to the effect that the plaintiff would accept a settlement offer. The insurer is neither required to initiate an offer to a plaintiff likely to refuse it, nor required to accept an outrageous offer from a plaintiff who filed a frivolous lawsuit and cannot prevail against the insured under any theory.


title: Liability insurance

text: The duty to settle is of the greatest importance in the scenario where the insured may have some liability exposure (i.e., there is some evidence apparently linking the insured to the causation of the plaintiff's alleged injuries), the plaintiff has evidence of substantial damages which may exceed policy limits, and the plaintiff makes a settlement demand which equals or exceeds policy limits. In that situation, the insurer's interests conflict with the insured's interests, because the insurer has an incentive to "not" immediately settle. That is, if the insurer refuses to settle and the case then goes to trial, there are only two possible outcomes: (1) the insured loses and the insurer must pay the ensuing judgment against the insured up to the policy limits, or (2) the insured wins, meaning both the insured and the insurer bear no liability. If the first outcome occurs, then it is essentially "nothing gained nothing lost" from the insurer's point of view, because either way it will pay out its policy limits. (For simplicity, this analysis disregards sunk costs in the form of defense costs incurred to that point, as well as additional costs sustained by the insurer in defending the insured to a verdict at trial, and opportunity costs sustained by the insured while participating in trial.)


title: Liability insurance

text: While the insurer may be indifferent in this scenario as to whether it pays out its policy limits before or after trial, the insured is most certainly not. If the first outcome above were to occur, the insured may be held liable to the plaintiff for a sum far in excess of both the pretrial settlement offer and the policy limits. Then after the insurer pays out its policy limits, the plaintiff may attempt to recover the remaining balance of the judgment by enforcing writs of attachment or execution against the insured's valuable assets.


title: Liability insurance

text: This is where the duty to settle comes in. To discourage the insurer from gambling with the insured's assets in pursuit of the remote possibility of a defense verdict (under which it can avoid having to pay the plaintiff anything at all), the insurer is subject to a duty to settle reasonably clear claims. The standard judicial test is that an insurer must settle a claim if a reasonable insurer, notwithstanding any policy limits, would have settled the claim. This does not require an insurer to accept or pay settlement offers that actually exceed policy limits, but in that instance, the insurer must discharge its duty to settle by at least making an attempt to bring about a settlement in which it would have to pay only its policy limits (either because the plaintiff agrees to lower their demand or the insured or another primary or excess insurer agrees to contribute the difference).


title: Liability insurance

text: Generally, an insurer who breaches any of the foregoing duties will be held liable for breach of contract. In most jurisdictions, the result is a judgment requiring payment of the insured's expectation damages—the sums that the insurer should have paid under its duty to indemnify. But this will be circumscribed by the policy limits, and will generally not compensate the insured for losses incurred as a consequence of the insurer's breach, such as lost business opportunities when money intended to be invested in those opportunities was diverted (or seized) to pay judgments.


title: Liability insurance

text: In the United States (and to a lesser extent, Canada), an insurer who breaches "any" of these three duties in a particularly egregious fashion may also be held liable for the tort of insurance bad faith, under which the insured may be able to recover compensatory damages in excess of the policy limits, as well as punitive damages.


title: Liability insurance

text: Traditionally, liability insurance was written on an occurrence basis, meaning that the insurer agreed to defend and indemnify against any loss which allegedly "occurred" during the policy period as a result of an act or omission of the insured. This was originally not a problem because it was thought that insureds' tort liability was predictably limited by doctrines like proximate cause and statutes of limitations. In other words, it was thought that no sane plaintiffs' lawyer would sue in 1978 for a tortious act that allegedly caused a covered loss in 1953, because the risk of dismissal was so obvious.


title: Liability insurance

text: In the 1970s and 1980s, a large number of major toxic tort (primarily involving asbestos and diethylstilbestrol) and environmental liabilities resulted in numerous judicial decisions and statutes that radically extended the so-called "long tail" of vulnerable policies. Policyholders started to argue that losses began to occur not only at the time of a plaintiff's diagnosis or the belated discovery of underground pollution, but from the time a plaintiff received the first of many cumulative exposures to a toxic substance or when the defendant initially released pollutants, and that such losses continued to keep occurring through every subsequent policy period (though they did not ripen into lawsuits until much later). The result was that insurers who had long ago closed their books on policies written 20, 30, or 40 years earlier now found that their insureds were being hit with hundreds of thousands of lawsuits that potentially implicated those old policies. A body of law has developed concerning which policies must respond to these continuous injury or "long tail" claims, with many courts holding multiple policies may be implicated by the application of an exposure, continuous injury, or injury-in-fact trigger and others holding that only the policy in effect at the time the injuries or damages are discovered is implicated.


title: Liability insurance

text: The insurance industry reacted in two ways to these developments. First, premiums on "new" occurrence policies skyrocketed, since the industry had come to a better appreciation of the true risks associated with such policy language. Second, the industry began issuing claims-made policies, in which the policy covers only those claims that are first "made" against the insured during the policy period. A related variation is the claims-made-and-reported policy, in which the policy covers only those claims that are first made against the insured "and" reported by the insured to the insurer during the policy period (which often include a grace period for reporting after the end of the policy period to protect insureds who are sued at the very end of the policy term).


title: Liability insurance

text: Claims-made policies enable insurers to again sharply limit their own long-term liability on each policy and in turn, to close their books on policies and record a profit. Hence, such policies are much more affordable than occurrence policies and are very popular for that reason. Of course, claims-made policies shift the burden to insureds to immediately report new claims to insurers. They also force insureds to become more proactive about risk management and finding ways to control their own long-tail liability.


title: Liability insurance

text: Claims-made policies often include strict clauses that require insureds to report even "potential" claims and that combine an entire series of related acts into a single claim. This puts insureds in a position of trading off timely reporting of every "potential" claim (i.e., every slip-and-fall on their premises), even if those never ripen into actual lawsuits, and thereby protect their right to coverage, at the expense of making themselves look more risky and driving up their own insurance premiums. Or they can wait until they actually get sued, but then they run the risk that the claim will be denied because it should have been reported back when the underlying accident first occurred.


title: Liability insurance

text: Claims-made coverage also makes it harder for insureds to switch insurers, as well as to wind up and shut down their operations. It is possible to purchase "tail coverage" for such situations, but only at premiums much higher than for conventional claims-made policies, since the insurer is being asked to re-assume the kind of liabilities which claims-made policies were intended to push to insureds to begin with.


title: Liability insurance

text: Not surprisingly, insureds recognized what the insurance industry was up to in trying to use claims-made policies to push a substantial amount of risk back to insureds, and claims-made coverage was the subject of extensive litigation in several countries throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. This led to important decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court in 1978 and 1993 and of the Supreme Court of Canada in 1993.


title: Liability insurance

text: One way for businesses to cut down their liability insurance premiums is to negotiate a policy with a retained limit or self-insured retention (SIR), which is somewhat like a deductible. With such policies, the insured is essentially agreeing to self-insure and self-defend for smaller claims, and to tender and demand a defense only for liability claims that exceed a certain value. However, writing such insurance is itself risky for insurers. The California Courts of Appeal have held that primary insurers on policies with a SIR must still provide an "immediate, 'first dollar' defense" (subject, of course, to their right to later recover the SIR amount from the insured) unless the policy expressly imposes exhaustion of the SIR as a precondition to the duty to defend.


title: Liability insurance

text: In many countries, liability insurance is a compulsory form of insurance for those at risk of being sued by third parties for negligence. The most usual classes of mandatory policy cover the drivers of motor vehicles (vehicle insurance), those who offer professional services to the public, those who manufacture products that may be harmful, constructors and those who offer employment. The reason for such laws is that the classes of insured are deliberately engaging in activities that put others at risk of injury or loss. Public policy therefore requires that such individuals should carry insurance so that, if their activities do cause loss or damage to another, money will be available to pay compensation. In addition, there are a further range of perils that people insure against and, consequently, the number and range of liability policies has increased in line with the rise of contingency fee litigation offered by lawyers (sometimes on a class action basis). Such policies fall into three main classes:


title: Liability insurance

text: Industry and commerce are based on a range of processes and activities that have the potential to affect third parties (members of the public, visitors, trespassers, sub-contractors, etc. who may be physically injured or whose property may be damaged or both). It varies from state to state as to whether either or both employer's liability insurance and public liability insurance have been made compulsory by law. Regardless of compulsion, however, most organizations include public liability insurance in their insurance portfolio even though the conditions, exclusions, and warranties included within the standard policies can be a burden. A company owning an industrial facility, for instance, may buy pollution insurance to cover lawsuits resulting from environmental accidents.


title: Liability insurance

text: Many small businesses do not secure general or professional liability insurance due to the high cost of premiums. However, in the event of a claim, out-of-pocket costs for a legal defence or settlement can far exceed premium costs. In some cases, the costs of a claim could be enough to shut down a small business.


title: Liability insurance

text: Businesses must consider all potential risk exposures when deciding whether liability insurance is needed, and, if so, how much coverage is appropriate and cost-effective.


title: Liability insurance

text: Those with the greatest public liability risk exposure are occupiers of premises where large numbers of third parties frequent at leisure including shopping centres, pubs, clubs, theatres, cinemas, sporting venues, markets, hotels and resorts. The risk increases dramatically when consumption of alcohol and sporting events are included. Certain industries such as security and cleaning are considered high risk by underwriters. In some cases underwriters even refuse to insure the liability of these industries or choose to apply a large deductible in order to minimise the potential compensations.


title: Liability insurance

text: Private individuals also occupy land and engage in potentially dangerous activities. For example, a rotten branch may fall from an old tree and injure a pedestrian, and many people ride bicycles and skateboards in public places. The majority of states require motorists to carry insurance and criminalise those who drive without a valid policy. Many also require insurance companies to provide a default fund to offer compensation to those physically injured in accidents where the driver did not have a valid policy.


title: Liability insurance

text: In many countries, claims are dealt with under common law principles established through a long history of case law and if litigated, are made by way of civil actions in the relevant jurisdiction.


title: Liability insurance

text: Product liability insurance is not a compulsory class of insurance in all countries, but legislation such as the EC Directive on Product Liability (25/7/85) and the UK's Consumer Protection Act 1987 create a strict liability regime "without fault", and businesses manufacturing or supplying goods often carry some form of product liability insurance, usually as part of a combined liability policy. The scale of potential liability is illustrated by cases such as those involving Mercedes-Benz for unstable vehicles and Perrier for benzene contamination, but the full list covers pharmaceuticals and medical devices, asbestos, tobacco, recreational equipment, mechanical and electrical products, chemicals and pesticides, agricultural products and equipment, food contamination, and all other major product classes.


title: Liability insurance

text: Laws regarding workers compensation, which compensate an employee, vary by country, but the Workers’ Accident Insurance system put into place by Otto von Bismarck in 1881 is often cited as a model for Europe and later the United States.


title: Liability insurance

text: In many legal jurisdictions workers compensation is compulsory depending upon the business, including the United Kingdom and many states of the United States with the notable exception of Texas as of 2018. Regardless of compulsory requirements, businesses may purchase insurance voluntarily, and in the United States policies typically include Part One for compulsory coverage and Part Two for non-compulsory coverage.


title: Liability insurance

text: Original jurisdiction over workers' compensation claims has been diverted in much of the United States to administrative proceedings outside of the federal and state courts. They operate as no-fault schemes in which the employee need not prove the employer's fault; it is sufficient for the employee to prove that the injury occurred in the course of employment. If a third party other than the employer actually caused the injury, then the workers' compensation insurer (or self-insured employer) who is ordered to pay an employee's claim is usually entitled to initiate a subrogation action in the regular court system against the third party. In turn, workers' compensation insurance is regulated and underwritten separately from liability insurance. Just as the Insurance Services Office develops standard liability insurance forms and obtains approval for them from state insurance commissioners, the National Council on Compensation Insurance (NCCI) and various state rating bureaus provide similar services in the workers' compensation context.


title: Liability insurance

text: U.S. workers' compensation insurance generally covers only bodily injury to and death of employees, but it does not always cover other persons who may suffer injury as a direct result of such bodily injury or death. U.S. employers often carry Employers' Liability coverage (which is not necessarily compulsory) to protect themselves from lawsuits from such persons who would still have the right to sue them in the courts, such as an employee's spouse who claims loss of consortium as a result of the employee's bodily injury on the job which was allegedly caused by the employer's negligence.


title: Liability insurance

text: Workers' compensation also does not cover intangible torts that merely cause emotional distress, or torts arising from management negligence and liability to shareholders. General management liability coverage may include directors and officers (D&O) liability insurance, employment practices liability (EPL) insurance, fiduciary liability insurance, and "special crime" insurance (kidnap, ransom, and extortion), either individually or as part of a cohesive package.


title: Liability insurance

text: Employment practices liability arose in the 1980s, after U.S. employees began to obtain jury verdicts against their employers due to workplace actions such as wrongful dismissal. Insurance Services Office (ISO), a vendor of standard form contract insurance policies, revised the Commercial General Liability insurance policy form to exclude coverage for torts related to the employer-employee relationship like racial or gender discrimination in the workplace, as well as liability for negligent supervision of midlevel managers who committed such torts. Thereafter, specific policy forms were created to cover this specific risk.


title: Liability insurance

text: General Liability Insurance is the kind of coverage that provides an individual with protection against variety of claims which may include bodily injuries, physical damage to car, property damage etc arising from business operations.


title: Liability insurance

text: General Liability Insurance (GP) covers a number of businesses and the norms of insurance may vary from company to company as well as area to area. Many of the public and product liability risks are often covered together under a general liability policy. These risks may include bodily injury or property damage caused by direct or indirect actions of the insured.


title: Liability insurance

text: In the United States, general liability insurance coverage most often appears in the Commercial General Liability policies obtained by businesses, and in homeowners' insurance policies obtained by individual homeowners.


title: Liability insurance

text: Generally, liability insurance covers only the risk of being sued for negligence or strict liability torts, but not any tort or crime with a higher level of "mens rea". This is usually mandated by the policy language itself or case law or statutes in the jurisdiction where the insured resides or does business.


title: Liability insurance

text: In other words, liability insurance does not protect against liability resulting from crimes or intentional torts committed by the insured. This is intended to prevent criminals, particularly organised crime, from obtaining liability insurance to cover the costs of defending themselves in criminal actions brought by the state or civil actions brought by their victims. A contrary rule would encourage the commission of crime, and allow insurance companies to indirectly profit from it, by allowing criminals to insure themselves from adverse consequences of their own actions.


title: Liability insurance

text: Crime is not uninsurable "per se". In contrast to liability insurance, it is possible to obtain "loss" insurance to compensate one's losses as the victim of a crime.


title: Liability insurance

text: In the United States, most states make only the carrying of motor vehicle insurance mandatory. Where the carrying of a policy is not mandatory and a third party makes a claim for injuries suffered, evidence that a party has liability insurance is generally inadmissible in a lawsuit on public policy grounds, because the courts do not want to discourage parties from carrying such insurance. There are two exceptions to this rule:


title: Liability insurance

text: Because technology companies represent a relatively new industry that deals largely with intangible yet highly valuable data, some definitions of legal liability may still be evolving in this field. Technology firms must carefully read and fully understand their policy limits to ensure coverage of all potential risks inherent in their work.


title: Liability insurance

text: Typically, professional liability insurance protects technology firms from litigation resulting from charges of professional negligence or failure to perform professional duties. Covered incidents may include errors and omissions that result in the loss of client data, software or system failure, claims of non-performance, negligent overselling of services, contents of a forum post or email of an employee that are incorrect or cause harm to a reputation, getting rid of office equipment such as fax machines without properly clearing their internal memory, or failing to notify customers that their private data has been breached. For example, some client companies have won large settlements after technology subcontractors’ actions resulted in the loss of irreplaceable data. Professional liability insurance would generally cover such settlements and legal defense, within policy limits.


title: Liability insurance

text: Additionally, client contracts often require technology subcontractors working on-site to provide proof of general liability and professional liability insurance.


title: Demario Davis

text: Demario Davis (born January 11, 1989) is an American football linebacker for the New Orleans Saints of the National Football League (NFL). He was drafted by the New York Jets in the third round of the 2012 NFL Draft. He played college football at Arkansas State.


title: Demario Davis

text: Davis' mother gave birth to him when she was 16, and his father was a career enlisted soldier in the US Army and combat veteran. Davis attended Brandon High School in Brandon, Mississippi, where he was a three-sport athlete in football, basketball, and track. In football, he played mostly wide receiver as sophomore and junior, helping lead the team to its 14th playoff appearance in the last 16 years with a 7–5 record. As a senior, he recorded 81 tackles, six interceptions and one sack, while also receiving over 30 passes for 386 receiving yards with four scores. He was also a starter on the Brandon basketball team and competed as a high jumper with the varsity track & field team. He was named to the Clarion Ledger All-Metro team in football.


title: Demario Davis

text: Davis played college football for the Arkansas State Red Wolves. He recorded a team-leading 80 tackles as a sophomore and earned various all-conference honors in his junior and senior years.


title: Demario Davis

text: Davis attended the NFL Scouting Combine in Indianapolis, Indiana and completed all of the combine and positional drills. On March 27, 2012, he attended Arkansas State's pro day and chose to perform the 40-yard dash (4.52s), 20-yard dash (2.72s), 10-yard dash (1.63s), vertical jump (38.5"), and positional drills. At the conclusion of the pre-draft process, Davis was projected to be a third round pick by the majority of NFL draft experts and scouts. He was ranked as the ninth best outside linebacker prospect in the draft by DraftScout.com.


title: Demario Davis

text: The New York Jets selected Davis in the third round (77th overall) of the 2012 NFL Draft. Davis was the tenth linebacker drafted in 2012.


title: Demario Davis

text: On May 31, 2012, the New York Jets signed Davis to a four-year, $2.81 million contract with a signing bonus of $618,000.


title: Demario Davis

text: Throughout training camp, Davis competed against veteran Bart Scott for the job as the starting weakside linebacker. Head coach Rex Ryan named Davis the third-string backup weakside linebacker to start the regular season, behind Bart Scott and Josh Mauga.


title: Demario Davis

text: He made his professional regular season debut in the Jets' season-opening 48–28 victory against the Buffalo Bills. On September 23, 2012, Davis made his first career tackle during a one-yard punt return by Marcus Thigpen in the first quarter of a 23–20 overtime victory at the Miami Dolphins in Week 3. In Week 6, Davis was promoted to the Jets' primary backup weakside linebacker role after Josh Mauga was placed on injured reserve after tearing a pectoral muscle the previous week. On October 21, 2012, Davis earned his first career start in place of Bart Scott and recorded a season-high seven combined tackles during a 29–26 loss at the New England Patriots in Week 7. He remained as the starting weakside linebacker for the next two games (Weeks 8–10) as Bart Scott recovered from a toe injury he sustained in Week 7. He finished his rookie season in with 36 combined tackles (31 solo) and a fumble recovery in 16 games and three starts. He registered 15 of his tackles while playing on special teams.


title: Demario Davis

text: Davis entered training camp slated as a starting inside linebacker after the Jets' new defensive coordinator Dennis Thurman switched from a base 4–3 defense to a base 3–4 defense. Head coach Rex Ryan named Davis and David Harris the starting inside linebackers to begin the regular season in 2013.


title: Demario Davis

text: He started in the Jets' season-opener against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and recorded eight combined tackles in their 18–17 victory. On September 22, 2013, Davis collected six combined tackles and made his first career sack during a 27–20 win against the Buffalo Bills in Week 3. He sacked quarterback E. J. Manuel for a three-yard loss in the third quarter. On November 3, 2013, Davis made four tackles, deflected a pass, and made his first career interception during a 26–20 win against the New Orleans Saints in Week 9. He intercepted a pass thrown by quarterback Drew Brees that was originally intended for Benjamin Watson and was tackled for no gain in the first quarter. In Week 13, he collected a season-high ten combined tackles (six solo) in the Jets' 23–3 loss to the Miami Dolphins. He finished the season with 107 combined tackles (63 solo), a pass deflection, a sack, and an interception in 16 games and 16 starts.


title: Demario Davis

text: Head coach Rex Ryan retained Davis and David Harris as the starting inside linebackers to begin the 2014 season, along with outside linebackers Calvin Pace and Quinton Coples. On September 14, 2014, Davis recorded six combined tackles and sacked quarterback Aaron Rodgers twice in the Jets' 31–24 loss at the Green Bay Packers in Week 2. In Week 10, he collected a season-high 12 combined tackles (11 solo) and broke up a pass during a 20–13 victory against the Pittsburgh Steelers. It was his fourth game with over ten combined tackles in 2014. He finished his third season with 116 combined tackles (79 solo), five pass deflections, and 3.5 sacks in 16 games and 16 starts. On December 30, 2014, New York Jets' owner Woody Johnson fired general manager John Idzik and head coach Rex Ryan after the Jets finished with a 4–12 record in 2014.


title: Demario Davis

text: Head coach Todd Bowles chose to retain the Jets' starting linebackers and officially named Davis, Harris, Coples, and Pace the starters to begin the regular season. In Week 3, he collected a season-high 13 combined tackles (six solo) in the Jets' 24–17 loss to the Philadelphia Eagles. The following week, Davis made a season-high two pass deflections and a tackle during a 27–14 win at the Miami Dolphins in Week 4. Davis finished the season with 90 combined tackles (57 solo), two pass deflections, and two sacks in 16 games and 16 starts. Although the Jets finished second in the AFC East with a 10–6 record they did not qualify for the playoffs. He earned the 15th highest overall grade among 60 qualifying inside linebackers by Pro Football Focus.


title: Demario Davis

text: Davis became an unrestricted free agent after the 2015 season and reportedly received interest with multiple teams, including the Cleveland Browns.


title: Demario Davis

text: On March 16, 2016, the Cleveland Browns signed Davis to a two-year, $8 million contract that includes $4.10 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $2 million. Head coach Hue Jackson named Davis and Christian Kirksey the starting inside linebackers to begin the regular season, along with outside linebackers Nate Orchard and Emmanuel Ogbah.


title: Demario Davis

text: He made his Cleveland Browns' regular season debut in their season-opener at the Philadelphia Eagles and recorded seven combined tackles in their 29–10 loss. In Week 10, Davis recorded three combined tackles and sacked quarterback Joe Flacco during a 28–7 loss at the Baltimore Ravens. On December 18, 2016, Davis collected a season-high tying ten combined tackles (eight solo) in the Browns' 33–13 loss at the Buffalo Bills in Week 15. He finished his only season with the Cleveland Browns with 99 combined tackles (59 solo), two pass deflections, and two sacks in 16 games and 16 starts.


title: Demario Davis

text: On June 1, 2017, the Cleveland Browns traded Davis to the New York Jets in exchange for Calvin Pryor. Davis became expendable after Browns' defensive coordinator Gregg Williams switched to a base 4–3 defense that required a single middle linebacker. They also acquired Jamie Collins from the New England Patriots and had Christian Kirksey and Joe Schobert develop into viable starters.


title: Demario Davis

text: He entered training camp slated as a starting inside linebacker, but saw competition from Bruce Carter, Julian Stanford, Spencer Paysinger, Frank Beltre, and Connor Harris. Head coach Todd Bowles named Davis and Darron Lee the starting inside linebackers to begin the regular season.


title: Demario Davis

text: He started in the Jets' season-opener at the Buffalo Bills and collected a season-high 14 combined tackles (eight solo) and was credited for half a sack in their 21–12 loss. On September 24, 2017, he recorded a season-high 11 solo tackles, assisted on a tackle, and deflected a pass in the Jets' 20–6 win against the Miami Dolphins in Week 3. In Week 14, Davis collected 13 combined tackles (ten solo) and half a sack during a 23–0 loss at the Denver Broncos. He finished the season with a career-high 135 combined tackles (97 solo), a career-high five sacks, and three pass deflections in 16 games and 16 starts. His 135 combined tackles finished sixth in the league in 2017. He earned an overall grade of 87.3 from Pro Football Focus and received the eighth highest among all qualified linebackers in 2017.


title: Demario Davis

text: Davis became an unrestricted free agent in 2018 and received interest from multiple teams as he was considered to be the top linebacker available in free agency. Davis stated he intended to return to New York and considered the Jets his home. The Jets and Davis failed to reach an agreement and Davis claimed the Jets never officially made him contract offer, but it was possibly due to his asking price. On March 19, 2018, the New Orleans Saints signed Davis to a three-year, $24 million contract with $16 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $9.20 million.


title: Demario Davis

text: In Week 4, Davis recorded 11 tackles, two for a loss, and two sacks in a 33–18 win over the New York Giants, earning him NFC Defensive Player of the Week.


title: Demario Davis

text: In week 10 against the Atlanta Falcons, Davis recorded a team high 11 tackles and sacked Matt Ryan once in the 26–18 win.


title: Demario Davis

text: In Week 1 against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Davis recorded his first sack of the season on Tom Brady in the 34–23 win. In the Week 3 against the Green Bay Packers, Davis sacked Aaron Rodgers in the 37–30 loss.


title: Demario Davis

text: In Week 10 against the San Francisco 49ers, Davis recorded a team high 12 tackles and sacked Nick Mullens once during the 27–13 win.


title: Demario Davis

text: Davis is a devout Christian. His cousin was former NFL quarterback Steve McNair. Davis married in 2012 and has five children. During the 2019 season, Davis was fined $7,000 by the NFL for wearing a headband in Week 3 with the words "Man of God" on it, though the fine was later repealed.


title: Teat

text: A teat is the projection from the mammary glands of mammals from which milk flows or is ejected for the purpose of feeding young. In many mammals the teat projects from the udder. The number of teats varies by mammalian species and often corresponds to the average litter size for that animal. In some cases, the teats of female animals are milked for the purpose of human consumption.


title: Teat

text: The quality of some domesticated animals is determined by the establishment of desired characteristics, such as teat size and placement.


title: Teat

text: The number and positioning of mammary glands and teats varies widely among mammals. The protruding teats and accompanying glands can be located anywhere along the two milk lines. In general most mammals develop mammary glands in pairs along these lines, with a number approximating the number of young typically birthed at a time. The number of teats varies from 2 (in elephants and anthropoids) to 18 (in pigs). Marsupials usually have 4 to 12 teats, but the Virginia opossum has 13, one of the few mammals with an odd number. The following table lists the number and position of teats and glands found in a range of mammals:


title: Teat

text: Teat is derived from the Old French or Dutch word, "tete" or the Greek word τιτθύς. An alternative, but possibly not unrelated, would be the Welsh word "teth" or the Old English, "titt" which is still used as a slang term. The words "teat" and "tit" share a Germanic ancestor. The second of the two, tit, was inherited directly from Proto-Germanic, while the first entered English via Old French.


title: Fitz Roy

text: Monte Fitz Roy (also known as Cerro Chaltén, Cerro Fitz Roy, or simply Mount Fitz Roy) is a mountain in Patagonia, on the border between Argentina and Chile. It is located in the Southern Patagonian Ice Field, near El Chaltén village and Viedma Lake. It was first climbed in 1952 by French alpinists Lionel Terray and .


title: Fitz Roy

text: The first Europeans recorded as seeing Mount Fitz Roy were the Spanish explorer Antonio de Viedma and his companions, who reached the shores of Viedma Lake in 1783. Argentine explorer Francisco Moreno saw the mountain on 2 March 1877; he named it Fitz Roy in honour of Robert FitzRoy who, as captain of , had travelled up the Santa Cruz River in 1834 and charted large parts of the Patagonian coast.


title: Fitz Roy

text: "Cerro" is a Spanish word meaning ridge or hill, while "Chaltén" comes from a Tehuelche (Aonikenk) word meaning "smoking mountain", because a cloud usually forms around the mountain's peak. Fitz Roy is one of several peaks the Tehuelche called Chaltén.


title: Fitz Roy

text: Argentina and Chile have agreed that their international border detours eastwards to pass over the main summit, but a large part of the border to the south of the summit, as far as Cerro Murallón, remains undefined. The mountain is the symbol of the Argentine Santa Cruz Province, which includes its representation on its flag and its coat of arms.


title: Fitz Roy

text: Nevertheless, most of the summit remains in uncontested Argentinian territory, including its famous peak -which is inaccessible from the Chilean side- and even enjoying its sight remains -in practical terms- pretty much restricted to the Eastern slopes of the Andes.


title: Tori Amos discography

text: Tori Amos is an American pianist and singer-songwriter whose musical career began in 1980, at the age of seventeen, when she and her brother co-wrote the song "Baltimore". The song was selected as the winning song in a contest for the Baltimore Orioles and was recorded and pressed locally as a 7" single. From 1984 to 1989, Amos fronted the synth-pop band Y Kant Tori Read, which released one self-titled album with Atlantic Records in 1988 before breaking up. Shortly thereafter, Amos began writing and recording material that would serve as the debut of her solo career. Still signed with Atlantic, and its UK counterpart East West, Amos' initial solo material was rejected by the label in 1990. Under the guidance of co-producers Eric Rosse, Davitt Sigerson and Ian Stanley, a second version of the album was created and accepted by the label the following year.


title: Tori Amos discography

text: Amos' solo career began in October 1991 with the UK release of the "Me and a Gun" EP. The following month, after the first track on the EP was receiving more airplay than the title track, the label reissued the EP with the same artwork, but changed the title to "Silent All These Years". Although the second version of the EP reached only number 51 on the UK chart, BBC Radio 1 picked it as "Record of the Week", which helped Amos get her initial exposure. Her debut solo album, "Little Earthquakes", was released two months later in January 1992. The album peaked at number 14 on the Australian and UK Albums Chart and at number 54 on the "Billboard" 200. Upon its release, the album received mostly positive reviews and was labeled an important album that kick-started the female singer-songwriter movement of the 1990s. Despite reaching only number 54 on the "Billboard" 200, "Little Earthquakes" was a mainstay on the chart for 38 weeks and remains Amos' highest-selling album in the United States.


title: Tori Amos discography

text: Subsequent albums with Atlantic were released at approximately two-year intervals. Amos' sophomore effort, "Under the Pink", co-produced with Eric Rosse, debuted in February 1994 at number 12 on the "Billboard" 200 and number 1 on the UK Albums Chart. "Boys for Pele", Amos' third solo album and the first album that was self-produced, debuted in January 1996 at number 2 on both the US and UK charts, making it her highest simultaneous trans-Atlantic debut. "From the Choirgirl Hotel", Amos' first album written and recorded with bandmates Matt Chamberlain on drums, Jon Evans on bass and Steve Caton on guitar, and her first album recorded at her in-home recording studio, Martian Engineering, debuted in May 1998 at number 5 on the "Billboard" 200 and at number 6 on the UK Albums Chart. The following year, "To Venus and Back", a double album of studio and live material recorded with Chamberlain, Evans and Caton, debuted in September 1999 at number 12 in the US and at number 22 in the UK. In September 2001, "Strange Little Girls", a covers album recorded with Chamberlin on drums, Evans and Justin Meldal-Johnsen on bass and Adrian Belew on guitar, debuted at number 4 on the "Billboard" 200 and at number 16 on the UK Albums Chart.


title: Tori Amos discography

text: Due to professional conflicts, after working with Atlantic for the first 15 years of her career, Amos decided to seek another label. She joined Epic Records and released three albums over the next five years: "Scarlet's Walk" in October 2002, "The Beekeeper" in February 2005 and "American Doll Posse" in May 2007. On all three albums, Amos performed with Chamberlin on drums, Evans on bass and Mac Aladdin on guitar. Each album debuted in the Top 10 of the "Billboard" 200, placing Amos in an elite group of women who have secured five or more Top 10 album debuts.


title: Tori Amos discography

text: Amos negotiated an end to her contract with Epic following the release of "American Doll Posse", announcing in 2008 that she will be operating independently of record labels. In early 2009, Amos signed a distribution, or joint-venture, deal with Universal Republic Records, a division of Universal Music Group, which granted her greater creative control over her work than traditional recording contracts. Amos released two albums her first year under the contract: "Abnormally Attracted to Sin" in May 2009 and the seasonal album "Midwinter Graces", featuring reworked Christmas carols and some original songs, in November 2009. "Abnormally Attracted to Sin" is Amos's seventh album to debut on the US Top 10 on the "Billboard" 200. Amos followed up with her first classical music album, "Night of Hunters", recorded with Andreas Ottensamer of the Berlin Philharmonic and the award-winning string quartet, Apollon Musagète. "Night of Hunters" was released in September 2011, through the Deutsche Grammophon label, the classical music division of Universal Music Group. With "Night of Hunters", Amos made "Billboard" history by being the first female artist to have an album place in the Top 10 of the Classical, Alternative, and Rock charts simultaneously.


title: Tori Amos discography

text: To date in her solo career, Amos has recorded and released a total of 16 solo studio albums, multiple live releases, three compilation albums, one of which is a five-disc box set released through Rhino Entertainment, and numerous singles and EPs. Amos has contributed to numerous film soundtracks as well.


title: Tori Amos discography

text: Although all of Amos' singles released by Atlantic were in an EP-style format, only two of her releases are labeled as such. To date, "Scarlet's Hidden Treasures" and "Christmastide" are Amos' only EPs completely comprising non-LP tracks.


title: Tori Amos discography

text: Early in her career Amos released many CD singles in conjunction with her albums—so many that a book called "Tori Amos Collectibles" was published in 1997 cataloging her worldwide releases, test pressings and bootlegs to that date. One of Amos' best selling early releases is the five-track "Crucify" EP. Amos' penchant for including non-album B-sides on each of her singles was a major factor in her initial popularity, particularly her cover of the Nirvana song "Smells Like Teen Spirit" from the aforementioned EP, which garnered significant press attention and critical praise. Many of Amos' B-sides are featured on the box set "A Piano: The Collection" (2006). With the production of CD singles becoming less common in the music business around the turn of the century, Amos has released far fewer B-sides since her contract with Epic Records began. As a result, B-sides for "Scarlet's Walk" were released through the internet and on an EP titled "Scarlet's Hidden Treasures" (2004), the sole B-side for "The Beekeeper" was released as on the DVD included in the album's limited edition version, and B-sides for "American Doll Posse" were distributed depending on packaging and place of purchase.


title: Tori Amos discography

text: Below is an alphabetical list of all of Amos' known B-sides, including information on initial and subsequent releases.


title: Quintic function

text: where , , , , and are members of a field, typically the rational numbers, the real numbers or the complex numbers, and is nonzero. In other words, a quintic function is defined by a polynomial of degree five.


title: Quintic function

text: Because they have an odd degree, normal quintic functions appear similar to normal cubic functions when graphed, except they may possess one additional local maximum and one additional local minimum. The derivative of a quintic function is a quartic function.


title: Quintic function

text: Solving quintic equations in terms of radicals ("n"th roots) was a major problem in algebra from the 16th century, when cubic and quartic equations were solved, until the first half of the 19th century, when the impossibility of such a general solution was proved with the Abel–Ruffini theorem.


title: Quintic function

text: Solving linear, quadratic, cubic and quartic equations by factorization into radicals can always be done, no matter whether the roots are rational or irrational, real or complex; there are formulae that yield the required solutions. However, there is no algebraic expression (that is, in terms of radicals) for the solutions of general quintic equations over the rationals; this statement is known as the Abel–Ruffini theorem, first asserted in 1799 and completely proved in 1824. This result also holds for equations of higher degrees. An example of a quintic whose roots cannot be expressed in terms of radicals is .


title: Quintic function

text: Some quintics may be solved in terms of radicals. However, the solution is generally too complicated to be used in practice. Instead, numerical approximations are calculated using a root-finding algorithm for polynomials.


title: Quintic function

text: Some quintic equations can be solved in terms of radicals. These include the quintic equations defined by a polynomial that is reducible, such as . For example, it has been shown that


title: Quintic function

text: has solutions in radicals if and only if it has an integer solution or "r" is one of ±15, ±22440, or ±2759640, in which cases the polynomial is reducible.