title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: In April 2014, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced a public hearing where a panel of neurological devices experts would consider whether or not the FDA should issue a ban of electric shock aversive conditioning devices like the GED. In April 2016, the FDA took the further step of formally proposing a regulatory ban on electric shock aversive conditioning devices. In 2020 the FDA issued the final rule banning the device with only minor changes from the 2016 draft. The GED was the third medical device ever banned by the FDA in the organization's history. However, the FDA issued an "Administrative Stay" in March 2020, that allowed the center to continue using shock on "individuals who would need a physician-directed plan" indefinitely, pending the end of the COVID-19 pandemic which limited physician contact with many residents. In July 2021, the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the FDA could not issue a "partial stay" but must issue a blanket ban or no ban at all, thus allowing the JRC to continue subjecting 55 people to shock in the meantime.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: Soon after the death of Vincent Milletich in 1985, the Massachusetts Office of Children issued an order to close the center, which was then called the Behavior Research Institute (BRI). The BRI counter-sued the Office of Children, and after seeing the institute's presentation of one of his worst self-harming residents, Judge Ernest Rotenberg sided with the BRI. In the settlement that followed, the Office for Children agreed to pay $580,000 to the BRI in legal fees. The head of the Office of Children later resigned and was sued by a group of parents for $15 million, who claimed that her attempt the shut down the center was a violation of their children's rights. The Behavior Research Institute soon after changed its name to the Judge Rotenberg Center to honor the judge for his ruling.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: In the mid-1990s, the Massachusetts Department of Mental Retardation launched a second attempt to shut down the center. A judge described the case as a "war of harassment" against Matthew Israel and ruled against the attempt to close the center and ordered the state to pay $1.5 million to the JRC in compensation for legal fees and other costs. Additionally, he stripped the agency of its power to regulate the center and awarded it to the courts, and the commissioner of the Department of Mental Retardation was forced to resign.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: Attempts to shut down or limit the JRC at the legislative level have been made in every legislative session since the late 1980s. However, none have passed due to a combination of lobbying from the JRC and the protests of parents. At one time, a group of parents sued the state for $15 million, contending that the state's attempts to close the institute violated their children's rights to treatment. Additionally, Massachusetts state Representative Jeffrey Sanchez, whose nephew, Brandon, has been detained at the JRC since 1992, is a major proponent of the JRC and their practices. Sanchez has repeatedly blocked the passage of legislation that would threaten the center.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: Massachusetts State Senator Brian Joyce tried repeatedly during his tenure in office to close down the center without success. He went on to voice his frustration:


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: There have been repeated attempts to shut down the center by autism rights advocates, disability rights advocates, and human rights advocates. Other notable people who have opposed the center include Ari Ne'eman, Shain Neumeier and Lydia Brown. Organizations the oppose the center include the Autistic Self Advocacy Network, Disability Rights International, and Community Alliance for the Ethical Treatment of Youth.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: It costs $275,000 per year to keep a resident at the JRC, which is paid for in tax dollars. The center advertises a near-zero rejection rate, and has said that it is a good fit for any teen who is failing school, refusing to attend, or in a psychiatric or correctional setting. The center has sent out promotional materials to various institutions, and has had some success in picking up inmates from New York's juvenile jails and from Rikers Island. Some residents are sent to there by the foster care system. the JRC had an annual revenue of $70 million.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: The JRC is incorporated as a tax-exempt nonprofit organization. In 2020, it received $1.7 million in COVID-19 relief funds.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: In 2006, it was found that 14 of the center's 17 psychologists, including the director of psychology, lacked proper licenses. Because the state reimburses the JRC for services rendered by doctors, the JRC had overbilled the state by nearly $800,000. the state had not collected the money. For misrepresenting licensing status of the psychologists, the Board of Registration of Psychologists fined the JRC $43,000, and Matthew Israel $29,600.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: The center regularly lobbies the government to prevent the passage of legislation that could threaten it. In 2010, it spent over $100,000 to lobby against the passage of a bill that would have made the use of electric shocks illegal. The center has also lobbied against bills that would have banned the use of restraints and other aversives in Massachusetts schools. the JRC had spent over $1 million on lobbying efforts.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: In 2008, the JRC spent over $390,000 on advertising and promotion. The JRC advertises at psychiatric and juvenile justice conferences, where it attempts to get professionals to recommend the institution to parents and guardians. It also places ads on New York City radio. If a parent or guardian expresses interest in the center, a JRC recruiter will contact them to provide gifts and promotional materials. They will also help the parents sue their school district into paying the JRC's tuition and housing fees.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: In 1986, the institute filed a lawsuit for $15 million against the director of the Massachusetts Office of Children, alleging that her attempt to shut the center down was a violation of the residents' rights. Several critics of the JRC claim that the center harassed them, and that it sued them for defamation or threatened to sue them if they did not revoke their statements. According to Disability Rights International, former residents, teachers, state officials, and legal advocates have expressed fear about publicly criticizing the JRC. The JRC has filed numerous other lawsuits.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: Some parents and former residents have filed lawsuits against the JRC. In 2006, the family of Evelyn Nicholson sued the center over the use of electric shocks, claiming that the treatment was inhumane and violated her civil rights. The lawsuit was later settled for $65,000. The mother of Andre McCollins sued the center, settling in 2012 for an undisclosed sum. Some parents have filed and won lawsuits against their local school districts to keep their children enrolled at JRC.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, the federal government requires that all states must provide a "free and appropriate" education to all students. Any school district that cannot provide an appropriate education to a student is required to send that student to an approved school that can. The JRC helps families sue their school district to send their children there. It also frequently sues school districts and states to keep individuals at the JRC after they turn 21.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: Employees are encouraged to file anonymous reports against each other, and are forbidden from making casual conversation. The negative write-ups that result from these anonymous reports are called "performance improvement opportunities". Sometimes management will direct an employee to bait another into breaking the rules as a test to see if they will do it. For example, an employee might try to start a casual conversation with another employee at the direction of management. The conversation will be recorded so that staff caught breaking the rules may be disciplined.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: All employees must sign an agreement, which claims to be legally binding, not to talk publicly about the JRC, even after they no longer work there.


title: Judge Rotenberg Educational Center

text: nearly 90% of the center's residents were from New York City, and about 90% of the residents were racial minorities.


The 2022 Russian Figure Skating Championships () were held from 21 to 26 December 2021 in Saint Petersburg. Medals were awarded in the disciplines of men's singles, women's singles, pairs, and ice dance. The results were among the criteria used to select Russia's teams to the 2022 European Championships and 2022 Winter Olympics.


title: 2022 Russian Figure Skating Championships

text: In the 2021–22 season, Russian skaters will compete in domestic qualifying events and national championships for various age levels. The Russian Cup series will lead to three events – the Russian Championships, the Russian Junior Championships, and the Russian Cup Final.


text: The 2022 Russian Championships were held in Saint Petersburg from 21 to 26 December 2021. Competitors qualified through international success or by competing in the Russian Cup series' senior-level events.


text: 2. Qualification based on qualifying for the 2021–22 Junior Grand Prix Final. However, skaters must have been born before July 1, 2007 to be qualified for the Russian senior championships. In addition, junior ice dance teams do not compete at senior national championships due to different program requirements between the junior and senior levels. Consequently, ice dance teams cannot use their junior level programs for senior competition.<br>


text: The Figure Skating Federation of Russia published the official list of participants on 16 December 2021.


text: The 2022 Russian Junior Championships () were held in Saransk, Mordovia on 18–22 January 2022 (originally it were scheduled on 1–5 February 2022). Competitors qualified through international success or by competing in the Russian Cup series' junior-level events. The results of the Junior Championships were supposed to be part of the selection criteria for the 2022 World Junior Championships.


text: In addition, figure skaters who were included in official pre-season national team roster but were unable to participate at the 2021–22 Junior Grand Prix series and/or Russian Cup junior-level series due to good reasons, can be included into list of participants by decision of the Executive Committee of the Figure Skating Federation of Russia.


text: The Figure Skating Federation of Russia published the official list of participants on 14 January 2022.


text: The 2021 Winter Universiade, originally scheduled for 21–31 January 2021 in Lucerne, Switzerland, was postponed to 11–21 December 2021 but finally it was cancelled definitively on 29 November 2021.


text: The 2022 European Championships were held in Tallinn, Estonia from 10 to 16 January 2022. Russia's team was published on 26 December 2021.


text: The 2022 Winter Olympics was held in Beijing, China from 4 to 20 February 2022. Russia's team was published on 20 January 2022.


text: The 2022 European Youth Olympic Winter Festival, originally scheduled for 6–13 February 2021 in Vuokatti, Finland, was postponed to 11–18 December 2021 and then to 20–25 March 2022. However, on 2 March 2022, in accordance with a recommendation by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), European Olympic Committees (EOC) suspended the participation of Russia from 2022 European Youth Olympic Winter Festival due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


text: The 2022 World Championships were held in Montpellier, France from 21 to 27 March 2022. However, on 1 March 2022, in accordance with a recommendation by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the International Skating Union (ISU) banned figure skaters and officials from Russia from attending all international competitions due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


text: Commonly referred to as "Junior Worlds", the 2022 World Junior Championships were originally scheduled for 7–13 March 2022 in Sofia, Bulgaria before postponing to 13–17 April 2022 in Tallinn, Estonia. However, on 1 March 2022, in accordance with a recommendation by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the International Skating Union (ISU) banned figure skaters and officials from Russia from attending all international competitions due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Hard Core (Lil' Kim album)

text: Hard Core is the debut studio album by American rapper Lil' Kim, released on November 12, 1996, by Undeas Recordings, Big Beat Records, and Atlantic Records. After achieving success with the hip hop group Junior M.A.F.I.A. and their album "Conspiracy" (1995), Kim began working on her solo album with the Notorious B.I.G. serving as the executive producer (besides this, he performed on four songs). She collaborated with a number of producers, such as Sean "Puff Daddy" Combs, Stevie J., David "Ski" Willis and Jermaine Dupri, among others. Other rappers, including Jay-Z, Lil' Cease and Puff Daddy were featured on the album.


title: Hard Core (Lil' Kim album)

text: The album was notable for its overt raunchy sexual tone and Kim's lyrical delivery, which was praised by music critics and is considered a classic album. "Hard Core" debuted at number 11 on the US "Billboard" 200 and at number three on the "Billboard"s Top R&B Albums, selling 78,000 copies in its first week, while reaching number 26 of the Canadian Albums Chart. The album was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).


title: Hard Core (Lil' Kim album)

text: After making her debut recording appearance on Junior M.A.F.I.A.'s "Conspiracy" album, Lil' Kim appeared on records by artists such as Mona Lisa, the Isley Brothers, and Total. With recording her debut album, "Hard Core" was mainly recorded at The Hit Factory in Manhattan, New York City. Working with a number of producers, including Sean "Puff Daddy" Combs and Jermaine Dupri, the album featured edgy hardcore rap and explicit sexuality, as the title suggested, which at the time were two territories that had long been the province of male rappers. The album was originally titled "Queen Bee".


title: Hard Core (Lil' Kim album)

text: Guest artists included Jay-Z, the Notorious B.I.G., and other members of Junior M.A.F.I.A. The promotional campaign for the album, including the album cover, featured provocative advertisements of Kim dressed in a skimpy bikini and surrounded by furs.


title: Hard Core (Lil' Kim album)

text: During the recording sessions, Kim and B.I.G made a demo for the track "Street Dreams", never released officially. "Big Momma Thang" was originally intended to be a diss towards Faith Evans and 2Pac but was re-recorded after Biggie disapproved of it. The verse containing remarks against Faith was replaced by Jay-Z's vocals while the third verse, which had a diss on 2Pac, was re-recorded by Kim.


title: Hard Core (Lil' Kim album)

text: The first two singles from "Hard Core", the gold-certified "No Time" and the remix version of "Crush on You" both peaked in the top 20 of the "Billboard" Hot 100, top 10 of the Hot R&B Singles chart, and topped the Rap Songs chart, making Lil' Kim the first female rap artist to have two consecutive number-one singles on that chart. Both singles peaked in the top 50 of the UK Singles Chart. A third single, "Not Tonight" (Remix), became a huge top 10 success in 1997, peaking at number six on the Hot 100, number three on the Hot R&B Singles chart, and topping the Rap Songs chart. The single also reached the top 20 on the UK chart and number 10 in Germany. The single was certified platinum by the RIAA. It was nominated in 1998 for a Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group. “Big Momma Thang” was released to commercial radio in the fall of 1996.


title: Hard Core (Lil' Kim album)

text: "Hard Core" received critical acclaim. "The Source" called the album "a solid debut because phat beats and rhymes are really all it takes, and they're both present", while "Rolling Stone" magazine included "Hard Core" in its list of "Essential Recordings of the 90's". In 2003, "PopMatters" wrote, "Track for track, "Hard Core"s thuggette-auctioneering flow melds the perfect hybrid of yoni power Mafioso and Park Avenue duchess." "Rolling Stone" concluded in reviewing the album in the magazine's 2004 version of "The Rolling Stone Album Guide":


title: Hard Core (Lil' Kim album)

text: Hip-hop had never seen anything like Brooklynite Kimberly Jones at the time of her solo debut: She single-handedly raised the bar for raunchy lyrics in hip-hop, making male rappers quiver with fear with lines like "You ain't lickin' this, you ain't stickin' this . . . I don't want dick tonight/Eat my pussy right" ("Not Tonight"). Riding the wing of Notorious B.I.G.'s "Ready to Die" and Jay-Z's "Reasonable Doubt", Kim's "Hard Core" helped put East Coast hip-hop back on top in the late '90s. The album's overreliance on old '70s funk samples doesn't detract a bit from the Queen Bee's fearless rhymes: In "Dreams", she demands service from R. Kelly, Babyface, and nearly every "R&B dick" in the field. A landmark of bold, hilarious filth.


title: Hard Core (Lil' Kim album)

text: "Hard Core" debuted and peaked at number 11 on the US "Billboard" 200 and at number three on the "Billboard" Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, selling 78,000 copies in its first week. Despite not spending another week inside the top 30, the album was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on March 14, 2001, and had sold 1,489,701 copies in the United States by November 2011. In Canada, the album peaked at number 62. As of November 2016, "Hard Core" had sold over five million copies worldwide.


title: Hard Core (Lil' Kim album)

text: In August 2018, the album entered the top 10 Hip Hop/Rap Albums chart on iTunes, reaching number six despite the album being released nearly 22 years prior and eventually reached number one for a short time. It also peaked at number 22 on the overall albums chart on iTunes.


title: Jalfrezi

text: Jalfrezi (Bengali: ঝালফ্রেজী; also jhal frezi, jaffrazi, and many other alternative spellings) is a stir-fried curry dish originating in Bengal and popular throughout the Indian subcontinent and beyond. Jalfrezi means "hot-fry." It consists of a main ingredient such as meat, fish, paneer or vegetables, stir-fried and served in a thick spicy sauce that includes green chilli peppers. Common further ingredients include bell peppers, onions and tomatoes.


title: Jalfrezi

text: Jalfrezi recipes appeared in cookbooks of British India as a way of using up leftovers by frying them with chilli and onion. This English-language usage derived from the colloquial Bengali term "jhāl porhezī": "jhāl" means spicy food; "porhezī" means suitable for a diet. Jalfrezi is usually prepared by stir-frying ingredients, a technique introduced to the region by Chinese cuisine.


title: Jalfrezi

text: Jalfrezi is typically made from green peppers, onions, and tomatoes. Additional ingredients include spices like paprika and coriander. Vegetables or meat are then stir-fried into the mix. Jalfrezi is often served alongside pulao.


title: Jalfrezi

text: In a survey in 2011, jalfrezi was rated the most popular dish in UK Indian and broader South Asian restaurants.


title: Ballast

text: Ballast is material that is used to provide stability to a vehicle or structure. Ballast, other than cargo, may be placed in a vehicle, often a ship or the gondola of a balloon or airship, to provide stability. A compartment within a boat, ship, submarine, or other floating structure that holds water is called a ballast tank. Water should move in and out from the ballast tank to balance the ship. In a vessel that travels on the water, the ballast will remain below the water level, to counteract the effects of weight above the water level. The ballast may be redistributed in the vessel or disposed of altogether to change its effects on the movement of the vessel.


title: Ballast

text: The basic concept behind the ballast tank can be seen in many forms of aquatic life, such as the blowfish or members of the argonaut group of octopus. The concept has been invented and reinvented many times by humans to serve a variety of purposes.


title: Ballast

text: In the fifteenth and sixteenth century, the ballast "did not consist entirely of leakage, but of urine, vomit, and various foul food leavings that lazy sailors discharged into the ballast contrary to orders, in the belief that the pumps would take care of it." In the nineteenth century, cargo boats returning from Europe to North America would carry quarried stone as ballast, contributing to the architectural heritage of some east coast cities (for example Montreal), where this stone was used in building.


title: Ballast

text: During World War 2 ships returning from Great Britain to America used rubble as ballast. The ballast would be dumped in New York and used for construction projects such as FDR Drive and an outcrop colloquially named Bristol Basin since it was made from rubble from bombed-out Bristol.


title: Ballast

text: Ballast takes many forms. The simplest form of ballast used in small day sailers is so-called "live ballast", or the weight of the crew. By sitting on the windward side of the hull, the heeling moment must lift the weight of the crew. On more advanced racing boats, a wire harness called a trapeze is used to allow the crew to hang completely over the side of the hull without falling out; this provides much larger amounts of righting moment due to the larger leverage of the crew's weight, but can be dangerous if the wind suddenly dies, as the sudden loss of heeling moment can dump the crew in the water. On larger modern vessels, the keel is made of or filled with a high density material, such as concrete, iron, or lead. By placing the weight as low as possible (often in a large bulb at the bottom of the keel) the maximum righting moment can be extracted from the given mass. Traditional forms of ballast carried inside the hull were stones or sand.


title: Ballast

text: Sailing ballast is used in sailboats to provide moment to resist the lateral forces on the sail. Insufficiently ballasted boats will tend to tip, or heel, excessively in high winds. Too much heel may result in the boat capsizing. If a sailing vessel should need to voyage without cargo then ballast of little or no value would be loaded to keep the vessel upright. Some or all of this ballast would then be discarded when cargo was loaded.


title: Ballast

text: Ballast weight is also added to a race car to alter its performance. In most racing series, cars have a minimum allowable weight. Often, the actual weight of the car is lower, so ballast is used to bring it up to the minimum. The advantage is that the ballast can be positioned to affect the car's handling by changing its load distribution. This is near-universal in Formula 1. It is also common in other racing series that ballast may only be located in certain positions on the car. In some racing series, for example the British Touring Car Championship, ballast is used as a handicap, the leading drivers at the end of one race being given more ballast for the next race.


title: Ballast

text: Ballast may also be carried aboard an aircraft. For example, in gliding it may be used to increase speed and/or adjust the aircraft's center of gravity, or in a balloon as a buoyancy compensator.


title: Ballast

text: If a cargo vessel (such as a tanker, bulk carrier or container ship) wishes to travel empty or partially empty to collect a cargo, it must travel "in ballast". This keeps the vessel in trim and keeps the propeller and rudder submerged. Typically, being "in ballast" will mean flooding the ballast tanks with sea water. Serious problems arise when the ballast water is discharged, as water-borne organisms may create havoc when deposited in new environments.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: The freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus johnstoni), also known as the Australian freshwater crocodile, Johnstone's crocodile or the freshie, is a species of crocodile endemic to the northern regions of Australia. Unlike their much larger Australian relative, the saltwater crocodile, freshwater crocodiles are not known as man-eaters, although they bite in self defence, and brief, nonfatal attacks have occurred, apparently the result of mistaken identity.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: When Gerard Krefft named the species in 1873, he intended to commemorate the man who first reported it to him, Australian native police officer and amateur naturalist Robert Arthur Johnstone (1843–1905). However, Krefft made an error in writing the name, and for many years, the species has been known as "C. johnsoni". Recent studies of Krefft's papers have determined the correct spelling of the name, and much of the literature has been updated to the correct usage, but both versions still exist. According to the rules of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, the epithet "johnstoni" (rather than the original "johnsoni") is correct.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: The genus "Crocodylus" likely originated in Africa and radiated outwards towards Southeast Asia and the Americas, although an Australia/Asia origin has also been considered. Phylogenetic evidence supports "Crocodylus" diverging from its closest recent relative, the extinct "Voay" of Madagascar, around 25 million years ago, near the Oligocene/Miocene boundary.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: Below is a cladogram based on a 2018 tip dating study by Lee & Yates simultaneously using morphological, molecular (DNA sequencing), and stratigraphic (fossil age) data, as revised by the 2021 Hekkala "et al." paleogenomics study using DNA extracted from the extinct "Voay".


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: The freshwater crocodile is a relatively small crocodilian. Males can grow to long, while females reach a maximum size of . Males commonly weigh around , with large specimens up to or more, against the female weight of . In areas such as Lake Argyle and Katherine Gorge, a handful of confirmed individuals exist. This species is shy and has a slenderer snout and slightly smaller teeth than the dangerous saltwater crocodile. The body colour is light brown with darker bands on the body and tail—these tend to be broken up near the neck. Some individuals possess distinct bands or speckling on the snout. Body scales are relatively large, with wide, close-knit, armoured plates on the back. Rounded, pebbly scales cover the flanks and outsides of the legs.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: Freshwater crocodiles are found in Western Australia, Queensland, and the Northern Territory. Main habitats include freshwater wetlands, billabongs, rivers, and creeks. This species can live in areas where saltwater crocodiles cannot, and are known to inhabit areas above the escarpment in Kakadu National Park and in very arid and rocky conditions (such as Katherine Gorge, where they are common and are relatively safe from saltwater crocodiles during the dry season). However, they are still consistently found in low-level billabongs, living alongside the saltwater crocodiles near the tidal reaches of rivers.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: In May 2013, a freshwater crocodile was seen in a river near the desert town of Birdsville, hundreds of kilometres south of their normal range. A local ranger suggested that years of flooding may have washed the animal south, or it may have been dumped as a juvenile.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: A population of freshwater crocodiles has been repeatedly sighted for a number of decades in the Ross River that runs through Townsville. The predominate theory is that the heavy flooding common to the area may have washed a number of the animals in to the Ross River Catchment area.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: They compete poorly with saltwater crocodiles, but are saltwater tolerant. Adult crocodiles eat fish, birds, bats, reptiles, and amphibians, although larger individuals may take prey as large as a wallaby.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: An individual being eaten by an olive python "Liasis olivaceus" has been filmed; it was reported to have succumbed after a struggle of around five hours.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: Eggs are laid in holes during the Australian dry season (usually in August) and hatch at the beginning of the wet season (November/December). The crocodiles do not defend their nests during incubation. From one to five days prior to hatching, the young begin to call from within the eggs. This induces and synchronizes hatching in siblings and stimulates adults to open the nest. If the adult that opens a given nest is the female which laid the eggs is unknown. As young emerge from the nest, the adult picks them up one by one in the tip of its mouth and transports them to the water. Adults may also assist young in breaking through the egg shell by chewing or manipulating the eggs in its mouth.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: Feeding in the wild, freshwater crocodiles eat a variety of invertebrate and vertebrate prey. These prey may include crustaceans, insects, spiders, fishes, frogs, turtles, snakes, birds, and various mammals. Insects appear to be the most common food, followed by fish.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: Small prey is usually obtained by a 'sit-and-wait' method, whereby the crocodile lies motionless in shallow water and waits for fish and insects to come within close range, before they are snapped up in a sideways action. However, larger prey such as wallabies and water birds may be stalked and ambushed in a manner similar to that of the saltwater crocodile.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: The crocodiles have teeth that have adapted for capturing and holding prey, and food is swallowed without chewing. The digestive tract is short, as their food is relatively simple to swallow and digest. The stomach has two compartments - a muscular gizzard that grinds food, and a digestive chamber where enzymes act on the food. The crocodile's stomach is comparatively more acidic than that of any other vertebrate and contains ridges that lead to the mechanical breakdown of food. Digestion takes place at a faster pace at high temperatures.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: The hearts of other reptiles are designed to contain three sections, including two atria and one ventricle. The right atrium, which collects the returned deoxygenated blood and the left atrium, which collects the oxygenated blood collected from pulmonary arteries of the lung, takes the blood to a common ventricle. When just one ventricle is available to receive and mix oxygenated and deoxygenated blood and pump it to the body, the mixture of blood the body receives has relatively less oxygen.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: Crocodiles have a more complex vertebrate circulatory system, with a four-chambered heart, including two ventricles. Like birds and mammals, crocodiles have heart valves that direct blood flows in a single direction through the heart chambers.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: When under water, the crocodile's heart rate slows down to one to two beats a minute, and muscles receive less blood flow. When it comes out of the water and takes a breath, its heart rate speeds up in seconds, and the muscles receive oxygen-rich blood. Unlike many marine mammals, crocodiles have only a small amount of myoglobin to store oxygen in their muscles.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: Until recently, the freshwater crocodile was common in northern Australia, especially where saltwater crocodiles are absent (such as more arid inland areas and higher elevations). In recent years, the population has dropped dramatically due to the ingestion of the invasive cane toad. The toad is poisonous to freshwater crocodiles, although not to saltwater crocodiles, and the toad is rampant throughout the Australian wilderness. The crocodiles are also infected by "Griphobilharzia amoena", a parasitic trematode, in regions such as Darwin.


title: Freshwater crocodile

text: Although the freshwater crocodile does not attack humans as potential prey, it can deliver a nasty bite. Brief and rapidly abandoned attacks have occurred, and were likely the result of mistaken identity (mistaking a part of the human as a typical prey item). Other attacks have occurred in self defense when the crocodile was touched or approached too closely. No human fatalities are known to have been caused by this species. A few incidents have been reported where people have been bitten whilst swimming with freshwater crocodiles, and others incurred during scientific study. An attack by a freshwater crocodile on a human was recorded at Barramundi Gorge (also known as Maguk) in Kakadu National Park and resulted in minor injuries; the victim managed to swim and walk away from the attack. He had apparently passed directly over the crocodile in the water. In general, though, swimming with this species is still considered safe, so long as they are not aggravated. There has, however, been a freshwater crocodile attack at Lake Argyle.


title: Catcher

text: Catcher is a position in baseball and softball. When a batter takes their turn to hit, the catcher crouches behind home plate, in front of the (home) umpire, and receives the ball from the pitcher. In addition to this primary duty, the catcher is also called upon to master many other skills in order to field the position well. The role of the catcher is similar to that of the wicket-keeper in cricket.


title: Catcher

text: Positioned behind home plate and facing toward the outfield, the catcher can see the whole field, and is therefore in the best position to direct and lead the other players in a defensive play. The catcher typically calls for pitches using hand signals. The calls are based on the pitcher's mechanics and strengths, as well as the batter's tendencies and weaknesses. Essentially, the catcher controls what happens during the game when the ball is not "in play". Foul tips, bouncing balls in the dirt, and contact with runners during plays at the plate are all events to be handled by the catcher, necessitating the use of protective equipment. This includes a mask, chest and throat protectors, shin guards, and a heavily padded catcher's mitt. Though rare, some chest protectors may extend lower to provide some shield to the genitalia; wearing a pelvic protector or cup, depending on the case, is preferred and more common.


title: Catcher

text: Because the position requires a comprehensive understanding of the game's strategies, the pool of former catchers yields a disproportionate number of managers in both Major League Baseball and Minor League Baseball, including such prominent examples as Yogi Berra, Connie Mack, Steve O'Neill, Al López, Mike Scioscia, and Joe Torre. The physical and mental demands of being involved on every defensive play can wear catchers down over a long season, and can have a negative effect on their offensive output. As a result, catcher is the only position (other than pitcher) to not have a member of the 3,000 hit club.


title: Catcher

text: Because of the strategic defensive importance of catching, if a catcher has exceptional defensive skills, teams are often willing to overlook their relative offensive weaknesses. A knowledgeable catcher's ability to work with the pitcher, via pitch selection and location, can diminish the effectiveness of the opposing team's offense. Many great defensive catchers toiled in relative anonymity, because they did not produce large offensive numbers. Notable examples of light-hitting, defensive specialists were Jerry Grote, Ray Schalk, Jim Hegan, Jim Sundberg and Brad Ausmus. Schalk's career batting average of .253 is the lowest of any position player in the Baseball Hall of Fame. His selection for enshrinement in 1955 was largely a tribute to his outstanding defensive skills.


title: Catcher

text: In the numbering system used to record baseball plays, the catcher is assigned the number '2'. (See "Baseball scorekeeping".)


title: Catcher

text: In the middle of the nineteenth century, the game of baseball began to evolve from a sport played by amateurs for recreation into a more serious game played by professionals. One of the most dramatic changes was the transition of the pitcher's delivery from an underhand motion to an overhanded throw. Before the American Civil War, the pitcher's role was to initiate the action by offering an underhanded throw to the batter, in much the same way that a basketball referee offers up a jump ball to begin play. Since this type of pitching often caused the batter to hit lazy, foul pop-ups, catchers played their position approximately twenty to twenty-five feet behind the batter, and wore no protective equipment.


title: Catcher

text: As the game progressed towards professionals and became more serious, pitchers began to attempt to prevent the batter from hitting the ball by throwing faster pitches. With the introduction of the called strike in , catchers began inching closer to home plate due to the rules requirement that a strikeout could only be completed by a catch. The rules governing the delivery of pitches proved to be hard to enforce, and pitchers continued to stretch the boundaries of the rules until the 1870s when the release point of pitches had reached the pitcher's waist level. Pitchers had begun throwing overhand by , when the National League made a rule change removing all restrictions on the pitcher's delivery.


title: Catcher

text: These developments meant that catchers began to take on a crucial defensive role, as a pitcher's deceptive deliveries could only be effective if the catcher was capable of fielding them. The progression of the catcher positioning themselves closer to the plate would lead to changes in pitching deliveries that would revolutionize the sport. In the 1870s, pitcher Candy Cummings was able to introduce the curveball because his catcher, Nat Hicks, fielded his position in close proximity to home plate and was able to catch the deceptive pitch. Other specialized pitches such as the spitball and the knuckleball followed, which further emphasized the defensive importance of the catcher's position.


title: Catcher

text: At about the same time that catchers began fielding their position closer to home plate, baseball teams began using a less rubbery ball which led to a decline in the number of runs scored. In the 1860s it was common for teams to score fifty or sixty runs in a game. The combination of the new, harder ball and the continuation of the rise in pitcher's release points helped usher in what became known as the Dead-ball era. The decrease in run production placed greater significance on stolen bases and bunts, which in turn emphasized the crucial defensive role played by catchers. In , the National League introduced a new rule specifying that the catcher must stand within 10 feet of home plate. The American League adopted the rule the following year.


title: Catcher

text: The rising velocity of pitches in conjunction with catchers gradually moving closer to home plate significantly increased the risk of injuries for catchers, especially face and hand injuries. By the late 1870s, catchers began to use padded, fingerless gloves to protect their hands, and in the first protective catcher's mask was used. The first catchers to use protective masks sometimes had their courage called into question, but the effectiveness of the masks in preventing injuries meant that they became widely accepted. In the 1880s, the first padded chest protectors came into use, and in specialized catcher's mitts used on the non-throwing hand began to be used. The final pieces of protective gear were shin guards which were first worn by catcher Roger Bresnahan in . Together, the rules changes and the new protective equipment transformed the catcher's defensive role to the way that it is presently played.


title: Catcher

text: The catcher is usually the first to notice the tendencies, quirks, and peculiarities of each home-plate umpire. Some umpires favor high strikes, pitched balls that are technically above the strike zone but appear, to the umpire, to be good. Conversely, some umpires will call low pitches strikes even when they are slightly below the knees. Other umpires have an inside bias or an outside bias; some umpires have more than one bias; some are uniformly lenient; some have very restricted notions of the strike zone, and the pitcher will constantly feel that their pitches are unfairly judged. The catcher can exploit an umpire's tendencies by taking them into account in when receiving the ball.


title: Catcher

text: The catcher can help their pitcher get more strike calls from the umpire by using a technique called "framing". This practice is a matter of a catcher keeping the mitt inside the strike zone, or making the pitch appear as close to the strike zone, when receiving the pitch, thereby giving the plate umpire the impression that the pitch is in the strike zone, even if it is not. When framing, a catcher will also hold their mitt still for a second or two so that the umpire has an opportunity to thoroughly consider their call (and, hopefully, let their innate biases influence their decision in a direction favorable to the catcher's team).


title: Catcher

text: The catcher, when receiving a borderline pitch, usually has several options in how they make the catch. They can catch the pitch in the webbing of their mitt or in the heel; they can catch the pitch on their forehand or backhand, as necessary; they can catch a low pitch with the mitt pointed upward or downward. These choices help the catcher to create a favorable presentation (or frame) for the umpire.


title: Catcher

text: A variation on "framing" is called "pulling pitches". The general approach is to catch the half of the ball that is outside the strike zone and show the umpire only the half of the ball, lodged in the mitt, that is closer to the zone. The illusion is often enhanced with a slight 'tug' of the mitt (of an inch or two) toward the strike zone.


title: Catcher

text: By rule, the catcher must station directly back of the plate (generally in the catcher's box) the moment a pitch is thrown but may leave at any time to catch a pitch or make a play. The moment an intentional ball leaves a pitcher's hand, the catcher must have both feet in the catcher's box. The catcher is the only defensive player who is allowed to be in foul territory when a pitch is thrown.


title: Catcher

text: If at the time a pitch is about to be thrown in play, and the catcher has overextended the arm resulting in the catcher's glove being contacted by the batter's swinging bat, a catcher's interference is called and the batter walks to first base. This is recorded as an error. If the bases would be loaded and the batter would walk to first base, thus resulting in a run being scored, since it is an error it is not awarded to the batter as run batted in. The catcher's interference call is not very commonly seen. Also, interference may be declined by the batting team, as in the case where a better result ensues.


title: Catcher

text: To block balls that a pitcher throws on a bounce toward home plate (pitches that are said to be "in the dirt"), the catcher will slide their body to the left or right, as necessary, to place themselves directly in the path of the ball. Once in position, they push towards the ball while dropping to their knees, place their mitt between their legs to prevent the ball from passing through, and lean forward to deaden the rebound when, and if, the ball bounces off their thigh or torso. Although inexperienced catchers may try to catch the errant pitch with the mitt, coaches often prioritize the catcher's ability to "keep the ball in front of the body" than to make a catch with their mitt. Ideally, the catcher will be able to knock the ball to the ground where it will stop within arm's reach. To perform this properly, without the ball being deflected in an undesirable direction, the catcher must angle their body so that their chest is always leaning forward, toward home plate. Tucking your chin or looking the ball in will help with deadening the ball like this. This maneuver is often difficult, and its difficulty depends largely on how fast the ball is traveling, the angle at which the ball is thrown into the ground, where it first hits the ground, the firmness of the ground it hits, and the manner in which it is spinning.


title: Catcher

text: 15 of 30 Major League Baseball managers were former catchers. Because catchers are considered a captain on the field (and some, such as Thurman Munson and Jason Varitek were in fact team captains), they are often in charge of planning defensive plays; thus, the catcher will give signs to the pitcher for what pitch is to be thrown.


title: Catcher

text: Calling the game refers to the act of catchers deciding the type of pitch delivered to home plate. The responsibility for selecting the type of pitch was traditionally made by the catcher. It is not unusual for a catcher to briefly look at the posture and position of the batter-in-turn prior to calling the next pitch; even the way a batter holds the bat may shed some indication of what the strategy may be. The selection of which pitch to use can depend on a wide variety of situations such as the type of hitter that is being faced, whether there are any base runners, how many outs have been made in the inning, or the current score, among others.


title: Catcher

text: Since a catcher uses their fingers to signal and communicate with the pitcher, they may wear colorful stickers on their nails to accentuate the motion of the fingers and thus help with the visibility of the signal. As an alternative, the catcher may wear painted nails, such as with fluorescent polish.


title: Catcher

text: A catcher nearly always throws with their right hand since most hitters are right-handed and stand to the left side of the plate when batting, a catcher who throws left-handed is forced to take some time to sidestep (or otherwise avoid) the right-handed hitter when they throw from behind the plate. In addition, a lefty's throw would tend to come in on the shortstop side of the bag, while a righty's throw would be on the second base side of the bag, which is where the runner is coming in. Consequently, players who are left-handed rarely play catcher. Left-handed catchers have only caught eleven big-league games since 1902, and Jack Clements, who played for 17 years at the end of the nineteenth century, is the only man in the history of baseball to play more than three hundred games as a left-handed catcher. However, some observers, including the famed statistician Bill James and ESPN writer Rob Neyer, have suggested that the real reason that there are no left-handed catchers is because left-handed players with strong throwing arms are almost always encouraged, at an early age, to become pitchers. Benny Distefano, the last lefty thrower to catch a big-league game (in 1989), noted that lefty catchers have difficulty on bunts up the third base line and on fielding throws home for plays at the plate. Others suggest that fielding bunts up the 3rd base line would give the catcher a better throw to 1st base or 2nd base.


title: Catcher

text: Unlike the other fielders, the catcher and pitcher must start every play in a designated area. The catcher must be behind home plate in the catcher's box, while the pitcher must be on the pitcher's mound, with one foot in contact with the pitcher's rubber. Once the ball is in play, however, the catcher and pitcher, like the other fielders, can respond to any part of the field necessary to make or assist in a defensive play. The defensive plays expected of catchers, aside from managing the pitcher by calling for pitches and catching them, include:


title: Catcher

text: Preventing wild pitches and avoiding passed balls. Although the pitcher has a responsibility to throw with reasonable accuracy, catchers must be mobile enough to catch (or block) errant pitches. By doing so, a catcher prevents baserunners from advancing while the loose ball is retrieved. An errant pitch that eludes the catcher and allows a baserunner to take one or more additional bases is called a wild pitch. (Techniques for blocking wild pitches are described in the previous section.) A pitched ball which would require only ordinary effort to be caught or blocked by the catcher—but is nonetheless misplayed, allowing a base runner to advance—is called a "passed ball".


title: Catcher

text: Fielding high pop flies, often hit at unusual angles. In this case, the catcher must turn their back to the field in order to properly account for the spin of the ball, which often follows unpredictable paths.


title: Catcher

text: Fielding weakly hit fair ground balls (including bunts) in front of home plate in order to throw to a base to complete a groundout or a fielder's choice play. The catcher must avoid hitting the batter-runner with the thrown ball, implying that they must move to a position in which they have a clear throw to the infielder at first base.


title: Catcher

text: Guarding home plate on plays in which a baserunner attempts to score a run. The catcher is often obliged to catch a ball thrown from a fielder and to tag out a runner arriving from third base. Naturally, the runner's objective, in this situation, is to elude the catcher's tag and touch the plate. Prior to 2014, the catcher's best strategy was to block the runner's path so as to prevent the runner from reaching the plate at all. Collisions between runners and catchers were common. Since the start of the 2014 season, a catcher may only obstruct a runner's path to home plate when he, the catcher, is in possession of the ball. Without the ball in hand, the catcher must allow the runner to score uncontested. If the catcher drops the ball while tagging the runner, the runner is safe. Although contact between a runner and a catcher was generally allowed in the major leagues until the beginning of the 2014 season, little league, high school, and college runners are encouraged or mandated to avoid significant contact.


title: Catcher

text: Preventing stolen bases by throwing to second base or third base to allow an infielder to tag a baserunner attempting to reach the base. A catcher who is very good at preventing stolen bases is said to have a low stolen-base percentage. (A pitcher who is slow to deliver is often more at fault for stolen bases than the catcher is.) Ideally, a catcher should be able to get the ball from their glove to that of the player covering second base in under two seconds. This is referred to as a catcher's "pop time", the time elapsing between the popping sound of the pitch striking the catcher's mitt and the similar pop when the ball arrives at the glove of the fielder covering second base.


title: Catcher

text: Rarely, a catcher can make a successful pick-off throw to a base to surprise an inattentive or incautious baserunner. Especially at the higher levels of baseball (where this play almost never results in an out), the catcher's snap throws are mainly for psychological effect. If the runner knows that the catcher often attempts snap throws, the runner is likely to take a smaller lead from their base before each pitch, which will allow the infielders an extra fraction of a second to throw the runner out at the next base if they attempt to advance (as, for example, when a ground ball is hit). Yadier Molina of the St. Louis Cardinals and former MLB catcher Iván Rodríguez are known for using pickoffs with success, particularly at first base. Teams may sometimes call a deliberate play, the pitchout, wherein the pitcher intentionally throws the ball wide and high to the catcher, who comes out of their crouch to receive it and relays the ball quickly to a base to put a runner out.


title: Catcher

text: Rarely, a catcher will run to first base or third base to participate in rundown plays at those bases.<br>


title: Catcher

text: In certain game situations, typically a ball batted to the shortstop or third baseman with no runners on base, the catcher may be expected to back-up first base in case the first baseman misses or mishandles a throw.<br>


title: Catcher

text: In certain game situations, when a runner is on first and the batter bunts the ball or hits the ball softly, which causes the third baseman to rush in to get the ball and throw to first base, the catcher must cover third base so that the runner from first base does not advance to third base on the play and this then forces the third baseman to cover home plate.


title: Catcher

text: Any failure by the catcher can have dire consequences for their team. Passed balls are possible whenever one or more runners are on base. A failure to catch a ball thrown from the outfield on a play at home plate, or a failure to tag a runner, means that the defensive team fails to record an all-important out and, instead, it allows a run. On an attempt to prevent a stolen base, a catcher's bad throw might careen past the infielder and skip into the outfield, allowing an additional advance by the baserunner.


title: Catcher

text: Though not exactly a play, "psyching the batter" refers to a casual attempt by the catcher to distract the batter prior to the pitcher throwing the ball. As long as it does not fall in a lack of sportsmanship, such as offensiveness, and as long as the umpire permits it, the catcher may mention a specific throw or say something funny to try to distract the opponent to cause them to err.


title: Catcher

text: Because of the close mental relationship and trust that a successful pitcher must have with his catcher, a number of catchers throughout history have become preferred by pitchers, to the point that the catcher will almost always (especially during the regular season) start along with the pitcher. The catcher is then informally referred to as that pitcher's "personal catcher".


title: Catcher

text: Naturally, the potential problem with this arrangement is that if the pitcher prefers to work with the team's backup catcher, then the regular catcher—presumably the better player—must be benched. However, because of the physically grueling nature of the position, many "regular" catchers are asked to rest relatively frequently.


title: Catcher

text: Personal catchers are often used for pitchers who specialize in throwing knuckleballs because of the difficulty of catching such an inconsistent and erratic pitch.


title: Catcher

text: The catcher is the most physically demanding position in baseball, more so than the pitcher. Despite being heavily padded, catchers routinely suffer some of the worst physical abuse in baseball. The catcher has the physically risky job of blocking the plate to prevent base runners from reaching home and scoring runs. Catchers also constantly get bruised and battered by pitches, foul balls, and occasionally the bat in an undisciplined follow-through of the batter's swing.


title: Catcher

text: Catchers also are prone to knee ailments stemming from the awkward crouching stance they assume. Because of this, catchers have a reputation for being slow baserunners (perhaps the most notable of whom is Ernie Lombardi); even if they have speed at the beginning of their careers, the eventual toll taken on their knees slows them down, although there are some exceptions, such as Manny Sanguillén and Jason Kendall. Some players who begin their career as catchers are moved to other positions in order to preserve their running speed, increase their availability for games (mainly catchers with either poor defensive skills or recurring injuries), and take advantage of their prowess with the bat. Prominent examples of catchers switching position (mainly first base) in mid-career include Mike Napoli, Craig Biggio, B. J. Surhoff, Joe Torre, Víctor Martínez, Joe Mauer, Carlos Santana, Brandon Inge, and Dale Murphy (although Murphy was also known as a poor thrower to the pitcher and to second base, nearly hitting pitchers in the process).


title: Catcher

text: As a result, catchers often have shorter careers than players at other positions; consequently, few catchers hold batting records that require many seasons of play to compile. Mike Piazza is the only catcher in history with more than 400 career home runs, and no catcher has amassed 3,000 career hits (Iván Rodríguez leads all Major League catchers with 2,844 hits). Although 3,000 hit club member Craig Biggio played his first three full seasons as a catcher, he played his remaining sixteen seasons at second base and in the outfield.


title: Catcher

text: The larger or heavier the catcher, the greater the health risks associated with repeatedly assuming a crouching or squatting position; knees and backs are especially vulnerable to "wear-and-tear" injuries. Catchers also have an increased risk of circulatory abnormalities in the catching hand. A study of minor-league ballplayers showed that, of 36 players in various positions, all nine of the catchers had hand pain during a game, and several had chronic pain in the catching hand. Catching high-speed pitches can, in some cases, cause the index finger on the gloved hand to swell to twice the size of the other fingers. Ultrasound and blood-pressure tests showed altered blood flow in the gloved hand of five of the catchers, a far higher incidence than in the hands of players at other baseball positions.


title: Catcher

text: In addition to their protective equipment, a catcher usually also adopts practices that minimize the risk of injury. For instance, unlike fielders elsewhere on the field, a catcher tries, to the extent possible, to catch the ball with their gloved hand alone. An outfielder may catch a fly ball by covering the ball, once it strikes the pocket of their glove, with their bare hand in order to secure it. The catcher, however, tries to keep their bare hand, which is highly vulnerable to injury, out of harm's way by presenting the pitcher with a target (the large round glove) while hiding their unprotected throwing hand behind their back or ankle. By doing so, the bare hand cannot be struck by a foul tip. Many broken fingers, split fingernails, and grotesque dislocations are avoided by adherence to this simple expedient.


title: Catcher

text: Given the physical punishment suffered by catchers, the pieces of equipment associated with the position are often referred to as "the tools of ignorance". This is an ironic expression; the catcher typically has the most thorough understanding of baseball tactics and strategies of any player on a team.


title: Catcher

text: Catchers often experience knee tendinitis because of the constant squatting and bending of the knees while catching.


title: Catcher

text: As of 2019, eighteen men who played primarily as catchers have been inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame, in Cooperstown, New York. One more catcher will be inducted into the Hall in July 2020. They are:


title: Catcher

text: Catchers are also represented in a number of other Baseball Halls of Fame around the world, such as in the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame or the Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame.


title: Mujhe Kucch Kehna Hai

text: Mujhe Kucch Kehna Hai () is a 2001 Indian Hindi-language romance film directed by Satish Kaushik and produced by Vashu Bhagnani. The film was the debut performance of Tusshar Kapoor, who starred alongside Kareena Kapoor. The film was an official remake of the 1998 Telugu film "Tholi Prema". It was released on 25 May 2001.


title: Mujhe Kucch Kehna Hai

text: The story revolves around a sensitive young adult Karan Sharma (Tusshar Kapoor), who frequently skips college. Despite his poor academic performance, he displays many other talents. He is clever, an excellent musician, and plays in a band. His father constantly expresses his disappointment in him which often leads to Karan having outbursts of frustration and anger. One day in a deserted street, he lays eyes on Pooja Saxena (Kareena Kapoor) for the first time and falls in love with her. Following this brief acquaintance, he looks all over for her but fails to find her. He slowly begins to lose hope in his quest, stops playing music and decides to move to another city with his uncle. While on his way there, his car breaks down, and he is forced to hitch a ride. To his amazement, he finds Pooja in the driver's seat. As they introduce themselves, an accident occurs when a truck collides with their car, which subsequently falls into a valley. Karan and Pooja find themselves hanging from a cliff, and even though Karan manages to haul Pooja back up the steep cliff, he loses his grip and falls into the ravine.


title: Mujhe Kucch Kehna Hai

text: When Pooja regains consciousness, she assumes responsibility for Karan's death and offers to help in the search for his body. Meanwhile, Karan has survived the fall but is seriously injured and unconscious. He is found by a man who takes him to the hospital and soon after, Karan is reunited with his family. As he recovers, he reflects on how he should have confessed his love to Pooja in the few moments they were together. He also begins to focus on his education instead of his music. In time, Pooja arrives at his doorstep to apologize and offers her friendship. They become good friends and then Pooja tells Karan that she must leave for the United States for further studies. Devastated, he finally confesses his love for her. Pooja feels the same way and cannot deny her feelings for Karan, and promises that she will return to him once she completes her education. Karan agrees to patiently wait for her.


title: Mujhe Kucch Kehna Hai

text: Anu Malik composed the soundtrack for the movie and Sameer penned the lyrics. According to the Indian trade website Box Office India, with around 32,00,000 units sold, this film's soundtrack album was the year's second highest-selling. The album was released in April 2001


title: Mujhe Kucch Kehna Hai

text: Rehna Hai Tere Dil Mein which was composed by Vishal-Shekhar and sung by Shekhar. The film version of that song was sung by Shaan, Vishal Dadlani penned the lyrics. A remix version of Rabba mere Rabba was remixed by DJ khalif. These two songs were added as bonus tracks in the cassette which was released in February 2002


title: Murder of Larry King

text: Lawrence Fobes King, also known as Latisha King (January 13, 1993 – February 14, 2008) was a 15-year-old student at E.O. Green Junior High School in Oxnard, California, who was shot twice by a fellow student, 14-year-old Brandon McInerney, and kept on life support until two days later.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: "Newsweek" described the shooting as "the most prominent gay-bias crime since the 1998 murder of Matthew Shepard", bringing attention to issues of gun violence as well as gender expression and sexual identity of teenagers.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: Following many delays and a change of venue, McInerney's first trial began on July 5, 2011, in the Los Angeles district of Chatsworth. That trial ended on September 1, 2011, when Judge Charles Campbell declared a mistrial because the jury was unable to reach a unanimous verdict. Prosecutors decided to try McInerney again, but dropped the hate crime charge. On November 21, 2011, McInerney avoided the scheduled retrial by pleading guilty to second degree murder, voluntary manslaughter and use of a firearm. His plea resulted in a sentence of 21 years behind bars.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: Lawrence Fobes King was born on January 13, 1993<ref name="latimes3/8/2008">Pringle, Paul, Salliant, Catherine (March 8, 2008). "A deadly clash of emotions before Oxnard shooting." "Los Angeles Times" pg. A1.</ref> at the Ventura County Medical Center in Ventura, California, to a 15-year-old mother who was addicted to crack-cocaine and alcohol. King was half African-American. His biological father had abandoned his wife, and his mother, who was unable to care for King, resorted to prostitution to support her children and her drug habit. Two years later, King and his brother, who was a newborn, were adopted by Gregory and Dawn King.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: King was prescribed medication for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and, according to Gregory King, had been diagnosed with reactive attachment disorder, a condition in which a child fails to develop relationships with his or her caregivers. He was also forced to repeat the first grade. By the third grade, King began to be bullied by his fellow students due to his effeminacy and openness about being gay, having come out at ten years old.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: At the age of twelve, King was placed on probation for theft and vandalism, after taking food from the refrigerator in the home where he was living. In November 2007, he was removed from his adoptive home and placed in a group home and treatment center named Casa Pacifica after he alleged that his adoptive father was physically abusing him, a charge Gregory King denied.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: King found a marginally more accepting environment at E.O. Green Junior High School in the seventh grade. He hung out with a group of girls, however was still ridiculed by boys in his gym class. Boys openly bullied him when he began attending school wearing women's accessories and clothing, high heels and makeup in January 2008. King's younger brother Rocky also suffered bullying because of his relationship with Larry.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: Some teachers believed King's manner of dress to be distracting, and therefore a violation of school dress code. California anti-discrimination law prevents discrimination based on gender, including gender expression, so he was not prevented from dressing to his preference. In addition to dressing in feminine clothing, King had begun to ask to be called Latisha in the week and a half prior to the shooting.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: The school issued a formal notice via email to every teacher on January 29, 2008. Written by eighth-grade assistant principal Sue Parsons, it said, in part:


title: Murder of Larry King

text: In the months before the shooting, King began to respond in kind to sustained harassment from his peers. He would tell boys who harassed him in the locker room that they looked attractive, or ask if he could sit at their table in the cafeteria. Some boys reported to their teachers that he would tell them, "I know you want me," in the halls between classes. In court documents, prosecutors described these behaviors as a response to increasing aggression from other boys, particularly Brandon McInerney, with whom King had had a number of "acrimonious" verbal disputes in the weeks prior to the shooting.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: Several teachers and King's father accused Joy Epstein, one of the school's assistant principals, of encouraging King's flamboyance as part of a perceived "political agenda".


title: Murder of Larry King

text: Brandon David McInerney was born on January 24, 1994 in Ventura, California. His mother, Kendra, had a criminal history and was addicted to methamphetamine. In 1993, Kendra accused her husband William of shooting her in the arm with a .45-caliber pistol. In another incident, William McInerney choked his wife almost to unconsciousness after she accused him of stealing ADHD medication from her older son. He pleaded no contest and served ten days in jail and 36 months probation on a charge of domestic violence. Between August 2000 and February 2001, William McInerney had contacted Child Protective Services at least five times to express concern about his son living with his mother. In 2001, he filed a restraining order against Kendra, and in 2004, Brandon was placed in the custody of his father, as his mother had entered a drug rehabilitation program.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: In July 2008, "Newsweek" reported that a day or two before the shooting, King walked onto the basketball court in the middle of a game and asked McInerney to be his Valentine in front of the team members who then made fun of McInerney. Just after lunchtime on February 11, King passed McInerney in a corridor and allegedly called out, "Love you, baby." Later that day King was seen "parading" back and forth in high-heeled boots and makeup in front of McInerney. According to a teacher, a group of boys were laughing at McInerney who was getting visibly upset and assistant principal Joy Epstein, noticing McInerney's reaction, wagged her finger at him. When McInerney endured teasing because of the incident, he attempted to recruit other students to assault King but no one expressed interest. He then told one of King's friends to say goodbye to him "because she would never see [King] again".


title: Murder of Larry King

text: On the morning of February 12, 2008, McInerney was witnessed repeatedly looking at King during a class in a computer laboratory. At approximately 8:15 a.m. local time, McInerney drew from his backpack a .22-caliber revolver belonging to relatives and shot King twice in the back of the head. Following the shooting, McInerney tossed the handgun on the floor and walked out of the classroom. He was apprehended by police five blocks away from the school campus about seven minutes later.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: King was transported to St. John's Regional Medical Center where he was listed in serious condition. He was declared brain dead on February 13 but kept on life support for two days so that his organs could be donated.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: Vigils and marches were organized across the United States following King's death.<ref name="latimes2/17/08"></ref> Condolences were expressed by, among many others, Judy Shepard, Human Rights Campaign president Joe Solmonese, Senator Hillary Clinton, and television host Ellen DeGeneres. A thousand students in the Hueneme School District, where E.O. Green is located, marched to pay tribute to King on February 16, 2008, four days after the shooting.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: A new diversity education bill was introduced on behalf of King by California Assemblyperson Mike Eng, saying, "We need to teach young people that there's a curriculum called tolerance education that should be in every school. We should teach young people that diversity is not something to be assaulted, but diversity is something that needs to be embraced because diversity makes California the great state that it is." The bill would require mandatory classes on diversity and tolerance in California school districts.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: A local vigil in Ventura, California, was organized one year after King's death. The Day of Silence for 2008, which is intended to protest LGBT harassment and occurred on April 25, was specially dedicated to King. King's father, Greg, was reportedly unconvinced his adoptive son was gay, as Larry had only recently told him that he was actually bisexual. Greg believes that Larry was sexually harassing McInerney, and has expressed concern that King is being made a poster child for gay rights issues.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: Teachers also showed some sympathy for McInerney, stating, "We failed Brandon ... We didn't know the bullying was coming from the other side—Larry was pushing as hard as he could, because he liked the attention". Hundreds of students from the school signed a petition requesting that McInerney be tried as a juvenile.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: In August 2008, King's family filed a claim against E.O. Green Junior High School at Ventura County Superior Court, alleging that the school's allowing King to wear makeup and feminine clothing was a factor leading to his death. According to the California Attorney General's Office, however, the school could not legally have stopped King from wearing girls' clothes because state law prevents gender discrimination.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: According to a "Newsweek" article published on July 19, 2008, some teachers at E.O. Green alleged that assistant principal Joy Epstein was "encouraging King's flamboyance to help further an 'agenda' ". When Epstein was later promoted to principal at another local public school, King's father described it as a "slap in the face of my family". The superintendent, Jerry Dannenberg, stated that Epstein received the promotion because "she was the most qualified person for the new principal job".


title: Murder of Larry King

text: In February 2008, McInerney's lawyer, William Quest, was considering asking for a change of venue. On July 24, 2008, Judge Douglas Daily of Ventura County Superior Court ruled that McInerney would stand trial as an adult, with the decision being appealed. On August 7, 2008, in the same court, McInerney pleaded not guilty to premeditated murder and a hate crime. A preliminary hearing was set for September 23, 2008, which had been rescheduled for October 14, 2008.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: On September 23, 2008, the court appointed Willard Wiksell, a lawyer from Ventura, guardian ad litem for McInerney. Previously, McInerney's family took steps to fire his lawyer, William Quest, of the Public Defenders Office and hire the United Defense Group, a criminal defense law firm from Los Angeles. However, the Public Defenders Office filed a petition stating that the United Defense Group might not have McInerney's best interests in mind.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: On October 14, 2008, after the court received a report from the appointed guardian ad litem and determined that the defendant had not been coerced into changing representation and knew what he was doing, the Ventura County Superior Court allowed McInerney to fire his Public Defender, William Quest, and the Public Defenders Office, and hire the United Defense Group together with attorney Robyn Bramson as his attorneys. The court also denied a motion to gag the defendant's former representatives from the Public Defenders Office from speaking about the case, especially to the media.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: On December 8, 2008, Ventura County Superior Court ruled that McInerney, after being evaluated by a psychiatrist and a psychologist, was competent to stand trial. That same day, Scott S. Wippert, of the United Defense Group, filed a legal motion for discovery, asking the court to order the district attorney to provide documents to uncover whether prosecutors exercised discretion in sending McInerney's case to the adult court system. On December 29, 2008, Judge Rebecca Riley denied the motion, on the grounds that there was no evidence of abuse of discretion in transferring McInerney from juvenile to adult court.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: On January 26, 2009, the preliminary hearing was postponed until March 17, to give McInerney's lawyers time to appeal Judge Riley's rejection of the December motion for discovery. On March 18, 2009, the hearing was again postponed, when William McInerney, the father of Brandon, was found dead in his living room in the Silver Strand area near Oxnard after he sustained an accidental head injury in a fall. Judge Riley granted Brandon McInerney permission to leave the juvenile detention facility and attend his father's funeral.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: On August 27, 2009, at his arraignment in Ventura County Superior Court, McInerney pleaded not guilty to all charges. The judge, Bruce Young, set the pretrial hearing date for October 23, 2009, and a trial start date for December 1, 2009.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: On September 1, 2009, Ventura County Superior Court Judge Kevin DeNoce ruled that the addition of a lying-in-wait allegation to the list of charges was acceptable. The addition of this allegation would automatically mean that the case must be heard in an adult court. The addition was petitioned, and in November the Ventura 2nd District Appellate Court denied the request to overturn the earlier ruling, finding that the District Attorney's Office did not act vindictively in adding the lying-in-wait allegation to the murder charge.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: On January 21, 2010, the State Supreme Court rejected the petition to overturn the earlier ruling by the Ventura County Superior Court judge.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: After a postponement from May 14, 2010, McInerney's trial was set to begin on July 14, 2010, in Ventura County Superior Court, but was again postponed. A hearing was scheduled for April 4, 2011, to determine whether McInerney's attorneys would be ready for a trial starting May 2. Previous postponements followed motions from defense attorneys requesting recusal of the district attorney, a change of venue, and more time for fact-finding.<ref name="ap/advocate"></ref> In August 2010, Ventura County Superior Court Judge Charles Campbell ruled that the trial would proceed in Ventura County with jurors selected from Santa Barbara County. On December 6, 2010, Campbell denied the motion for recusal.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: A California appeals court affirmed on May 5, 2011, that the juvenile records of King will remain sealed after a lower court refused the request of the McInerney defense team for the release of said records.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: After multiple delays, the trial began on July 5, 2011, with a change of venue to Chatsworth, Los Angeles. Multiple previously scheduled dates were bypassed for various reasons, and plans or requests to move the venue or use jurors from other locations in California were not realized.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: On the first day of trial, James Bing, McInerney's half-brother, was admonished by Judge Campbell because it was overheard that Bing went to the jury outside of the courtroom and addressed them. He said: "The fate of my brother is in your hands." Bing was then banned from the courtroom unless he was summoned to testify. The prosecutor depicted McInerney as a popular teenager, who was skilled in martial arts and firing guns as well as being a white supremacist. She went on to describe King as a small guy who had often been picked on, saying that King wore high-heeled boots, makeup and jewelry along with his school uniform to school. Scott Wippert, McInerney's attorney, described King as the aggressor, saying he often was sexually aggressive and often made inappropriate remarks, provoking McInerney.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: Witnesses who were students and classmates of McInerney testified on July 7, 2011. One witness said that King told her he had changed his name to Leticia. Another witness said many students made fun of King and called him offensive names behind his back when he came to school wearing makeup and jewelry. A few of the witnesses said that they never noticed King making sexual advances toward other students but that sexual comments he made were "just messing" with McInerney.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: The former vice principal of E.O. Green School, Joy Epstein testified on July 11, 2011. She said she had discussed King's behavior with other school officials of the school district and they decided it was, according to the constitutional rights of California, legitimate for King to wear what he wanted unless it violated the school dress code. Joy Epstein said high-heeled boots, makeup and jewelry were all allowed according to the Oxnard school dress policy. She said another administrator within the district said that the school must protect the students' civil and equal rights. Another teacher testified that pupils had told her King would seek them out and follow them into the bathroom, behavior she considered to be sexual harassment. She was told by Epstein the school could do nothing about the behavior.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: On July 22, 2011, the jury was shown footage of a video in which McInerney was fighting in the Ventura County Juvenile hall, where he currently lives. One of the corrections officers, testified that the defendant was a "good kid" in the honors program for good behavior and had relationships with people of different backgrounds and origins. He said that within the juvenile hall environment fighting was a routine occurrence and that McInerney was not prone to violence as the prosecution alleged.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: Dawn Boldrin, an English teacher, had testified and said she counseled King and told him he should not wear attention-getting clothing if he did not want to receive negative attention. She also gave the teen, who was exploring his sexual and/or gender identity, a strapless, green, chiffon gown. She meant for him to wear it outside school. A photo was shown of Larry King holding up the dress and many people in the courtroom were crying. Greg King, Larry's father became upset and gathered his family to leave, but before doing so, Dawn King, Larry's mother, swore at Boldrin's 13-year-old daughter and a relative. The judge later barred Dawn King from the remainder of the trial. Because the school administrators were allowing King to wear whatever he wanted as long as it did not violate the dress code, the defense was arguing that this allowed King to sexually harass McInerney.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: The trial ended without a verdict and was declared a mistrial by the judge, Ventura County Superior Court Judge Charles Campbell, on Thursday, September 1, 2011, after the jury reported that they were hopelessly deadlocked and unable to reach a unanimous verdict. There were eight weeks of testimony with almost 100 witnesses, and the jury had been deliberating since August 26, 2011. The jury had taken four votes and the last vote was split between seven jurors voting for voluntary manslaughter and five jurors voting for either first-degree or second-degree murder. Later analysis showed defense attorneys had chosen to pursue the gay panic defense strategy, with several jurors later stating on the television program "20/20" that King had been bullying McInerney, leaving McInerney with "no way out".<ref name="NYT 2016/03/27"></ref>


title: Murder of Larry King

text: On September 2, 2011, the district attorney's office announced that they intended to retry McInerney, and a hearing was scheduled for October 5, 2011. For the second trial, the prosecutors dropped the hate crime charge.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: On November 21, 2011 McInerney pleaded guilty to second-degree murder, voluntary manslaughter and use of a firearm. He was sentenced to 21 years behind bars, initially in a juvenile facility and then in prison upon turning 18, with no credit given for time served prior to the trial or for good behavior. He was sentenced on December 19. , McInerney is imprisoned in the California Correctional Center.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: Many celebrities commented on the murder of Lawrence King. Some, like Janet Jackson, Calpernia Adams, Sara Bareilles, and Taylor Swift, used their fame and recognition to create a public service announcement about the murder which ran on Logo and across MTV networks. Victim of police brutality Rodney King compared the murder to his own experience as a victim of hate crime stating, "What have we learned? What have we changed?"


title: Murder of Larry King

text: An examination of the circumstances that preceded and followed the 2008 murder was captured in the 2013 HBO documentary film, "Valentine Road".


title: Murder of Larry King

text: The murder was a central inspiration for Canadian writer Raziel Reid's award-winning young adult novel "When Everything Feels Like the Movies", published in 2014. and 's novel "L'enfant mascara", published in 2016.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: A book by clinical psychologist Ken Corbett, "A Murder Over a Girl", was published in March 2016 circling around the tragedy and how bullying, homophobia and transphobia caused the murder of Larry King. The book also goes into the detail about the personal lives of Larry King, Brandon McInerney, and those close to the boys while also talking about how the trials went during that time.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: E.O. Green Junior High School installed an alliance called Prism, a safe space for LGBTQ youth and allies, years after the death of Larry King.


title: Murder of Larry King

text: The podcast "Criminal" covered the murder of Larry King in their episode, "Panic Defense", about the gay panic defense.


title: 1987–88 NBA season

text: The 1987–88 NBA season was the 42nd season of the National Basketball Association. The season ended with the Los Angeles Lakers winning their second straight Championship, beating the Detroit Pistons in seven hard-fought games in the NBA Finals, becoming the NBA's first repeat champions since the Boston Celtics did it in the 1968–69 NBA season.


title: 1987–88 NBA season

text: Teams in bold advanced to the next round. The numbers to the left of each team indicate the team's seeding in its conference, and the numbers to the right indicate the number of games the team won in that round. The division champions are marked by an asterisk. Home court advantage does not necessarily belong to the higher-seeded team, but instead the team with the better regular season record; teams enjoying the home advantage are shown in italics.


title: County town

text: In the United Kingdom and Ireland, a county town is the most important town or city in a county. It is usually the location of administrative or judicial functions within a county and the place where the county's members of Parliament are elected. Following the establishment of the English county councils in 1889, the headquarters of the new councils were usually located in the county town of each county. However, the concept of a county town pre-dates the establishment of these councils.


title: County town

text: The concept of a county town is ill-defined and unofficial. Some counties have their administrative bodies located elsewhere. For example, Lancaster is the county town of Lancashire, but the county council is located in Preston. Some county towns are no longer situated within the administrative county because of changes in the county's boundaries. For example, Nottingham is administered by a unitary authority separate from the rest of Nottinghamshire.


title: County town

text: Note – Despite the fact that Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland, it is not the county town of any county. Greater Belfast straddles two counties ("Antrim" and "Down").


title: County town

text: With the creation of elected county councils in 1889 the location of administrative headquarters in some cases moved away from the traditional county town. Furthermore, in 1965 and 1974 there were major boundary changes in England and Wales and administrative counties were replaced with new metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties. The boundaries underwent further alterations between 1995 and 1998 to create unitary authorities and some of the ancient counties and county towns were restored. (Note: not all headquarters are or were called County Halls or Shire Halls e.g.: Cumbria County Council's HQ up until 2016 was called "The Courts" and have since moved to Cumbria House.) Before 1974 many of the county halls were located in towns and cities that had the status of a county borough i.e.: a borough outside of the county council's jurisdiction.


title: County town

text: The follow lists the location of the administration of each of the 31 local authorities in the Republic of Ireland, with 26 of the traditional counties.


title: County town

text: Jamaica's three counties were established in 1758 to facilitate the holding of courts along the lines of the British county court system, with each county having a county town. The counties have no current administrative relevance.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: A clandestine cell system is a method for organizing a group of people (such as resistance fighters, sleeper agents, mobsters, or terrorists) such that such people can more effectively resist penetration by an opposing organization (such as law enforcement or military units).


title: Clandestine cell system

text: In a cell structure, each of the small groups of people in the cell know the identities of the people only in their own cell. Thus any cell member who is apprehended and interrogated (or who is a mole) will not likely know the identities of the higher-ranking individuals in the organization.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: The structure of a clandestine cell system can range from a strict hierarchy to an extremely distributed organization, depending on the group's ideology, its operational area, the communications technologies available, and the nature of the mission.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: Criminal organizations, undercover operations, and unconventional warfare units led by special forces may also use this sort of organizational structure.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: Covert and clandestine operations are not the same when it comes to tradecraft. The modern NATO definition of a covert operation says the identity of the sponsor is concealed, but in a clandestine operation the operation itself is concealed from the participants. Put differently, clandestine means "hidden", and covert means "deniable"—that is to say that the sponsor of a covert action is sufficiently removed from it that the sponsor can claim ignorance in the event the plot is discovered.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: A sleeper cell refers to a cell, or isolated grouping of sleeper agents, that lies dormant until it receives orders or decides to act.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: In World War II, Operation Jedburgh teams were formed to lead unconventional warfare against German units by acts of sabotage and leading local resistance forces. They also acted as a liaison between Allied command and the resistance units. They were composed of two officers – one American or British, and the other a native to the area they would operate, preferably from the area into which they landed – and a third member who was a radio operator. They operated in France and the Netherlands and similar teams operated in South East Asia.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: On the night of the 5/6 June 1944, the first Operation Jedburgh teams parachuted into occupied France


title: Clandestine cell system

text: Especially through the French member, they would contact trusted individuals in the area of operation, and ask them to recruit a team of trusted subordinates (a subcell). If the mission was sabotage, reconnaissance, or espionage, there was no need to meet in large units. If the team was to carry out direct action (often an unwise mission unless an appreciable number of the locals had military experience) it would be necessary to assemble into larger units for combat. Even then, the hideouts of the leadership were known only to subcell leaders. The of the Jedburgh team came from its known affiliation with Allied powers, and it was a structure more for unconventional warfare than for truly clandestine operations.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: Also known as the Viet Cong, this organization grew from earlier anticolonial groups fighting the French and from anti-Japanese guerrillas during World War II.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: The modern Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) has a history going back to Irish revolutionary forces in the early 20th century. It has little control. Its doctrine and organization have changed over time, as political, technological, and cultural situations have changed in Ireland.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: Officially, the PIRA was hierarchical, but as British security forces became more effective it changed to a semiautonomous model for its operational and for certain of its support cells (such as transportation, intelligence, cover, and security). Its leadership saw itself as guiding and as building consensus. The lowest-level cells, typically of 2–5 people, tended to be built from people with existing personal relationships. British counterinsurgents could understand the command structure, but not the workings of the operational cells.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: The had an extensive network of inactive or sleeper cells, so it could summon new "ad hoc" organizations for any specific operation.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: The NLF (Viet Cong) and PIRA, as well as other movements, have chosen to have political and military organizations. In the case of the NLF, except for some individuals with sanctuary in North Vietnam, people in the political organization could not be overt during the Vietnam War. After the war ended, surviving NLF officials held high office.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: In the case of the PIRA, its political wing, Sinn Féin, became increasingly overt, and then a full participant in politics. Hamas and Hezbollah also have variants of overt political/social service and covert military wings.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: Many cell systems receive support from outside the cell. This can include leaders, trainers, and supplies (such as the Jedburgh assistance to the French Resistance), or a safe haven for overt activities (such as the NLF spokesmen who could operate in Hanoi).


title: Clandestine cell system

text: External support need not be overt. Certain Shi'a groups in Iraq, for example, receive assistance from Iran, but this is not a public position of the government of Iran, and may even be limited to factions of that government. Early U.S. support to the Afghan Northern Alliance against the Taliban used clandestine operators from the CIA and United States Army Special Forces. As the latter conflict escalated, U.S. participation became overt.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: Note that both unconventional warfare (guerrilla operations) and foreign internal defense (counterinsurgency) may be covert and use cellular organization.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: In a covert counterinsurgency mission, only selected host nation leaders are aware of the foreign support organization. Under Operation White Star, for example, U.S. personnel gave covert counterinsurgency assistance to the Royal Lao Army starting in 1959, this became overt in 1961, and finally ceased operations in 1962.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: Different kinds of insurgency differ in where they place clandestine or covert cells. Also, when certain types of insurgency grow in power, they deemphasize the cell system. They may still use cells for leadership security, but if overt violence by organized units becomes significant, cells become less important. In Mao's three-stage doctrine, cells are still useful in Phase II to give cover to part-time guerillas, but as the insurgency creates full-time military units in Phase III, the main units become the focus, not the cells.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: Different varieties of insurgency place their cells differently with respect to the existing government. The U.S. Army Field Manual FM3-07 distinguishes between varieties of insurgencies. Drawing on this work, Nyberg (a United States Marine Corps officer) describes four types of cell system (there is also a new type associated with transnational terrorist insurgencies):


title: Clandestine cell system

text: The examples here will use CIA cryptonyms as a naming convention used to identify members of the cell system. Cryptonyms begin with a two-letter country or subject name (e.g., AL), followed by more letters so as to form an arbitrary word, such as "BERRY", "BEN", and "BEATLE" in the example below.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: Station BERRY operates, on behalf of country B, in target country BE. The station has three case officers and several support officers. Case officer BETTY supervises the local agents BEN and BEATLE. Case officer BESSIE supervises BENSON and BEAGLE.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: Some recruits, due to the sensitivity of their position or their personalities not being appropriate for cell leadership, might not enter cells but be run as singletons, perhaps by other than the recruiting case officer. In this example, asset BARD is singleton, who is a joint asset of the country B, and the country identified by prefix AR. ARNOLD is a case officer from the country AR embassy, who knows only the case officer BERTRAM and the security officer BEST. ARNOLD does not know the station chief of BERRY or any of its other personnel. Other than BELL and BEST, the Station personnel only know BERTRAM as someone authorized to be in the Station, and who is known for his piano playing at embassy parties. He is as Cultural Attache, in a country that has very few pianos. Only the personnel involved with BARD know that ARNOLD is other than another diplomat.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: In contrast, BESSIE and BETTY know one another, and procedures exist for their taking over each other's assets in the event one of the two is disabled.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: Some recruits, however, would be qualified to recruit their own subcell, as BEATLE has done. BETTY knows the identity of BEATLE-1 and BEATLE-2, since he or she had them checked by headquarters counterintelligence before they were recruited.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: The diagram in this section shows that two teams, ALAN and ALICE, have successfully entered an area of operation, the country coded AL, but are only aware of a pool of potential recruits, and have not yet actually recruited anyone. They communicate with one another only through headquarters, so compromise of one team will not affect the other.


title: Clandestine cell system

text: Assume that in team ALAN, ALASTAIR is one of the officers with local contacts, and might recruit two cell leaders: ALPINE and ALTITUDE. The other local officer in the team, ALBERT, recruits ALLOVER. When ALPINE recruited two subcell members, they would be referred to as ALPINE-1 and ALPINE-2.