title: College (The Sopranos)

text: At a gas station, Tony thinks he spots Fabian "Febby" Petrulio, a former member of the DiMeo family who entered witness protection after turning state's evidence. Tony gets Christopher to run the plate number from his car, and finds that he now goes by the alias "Fred Peters". Tony resolves to locate and execute Petrulio while continuing his trip with Meadow. He leaves her with some students she has met and confirms Petrulio's identity when, in the office of his travel business, he sees a carved bust—a hobby of his when he was in the DiMeo family. Petrulio, who feels someone is watching him, finds the motel where Tony and Meadow are staying and aims his handgun at Tony, who suspects nothing; the presence of two other guests prevents him from taking the shot. The next morning, Tony drops off Meadow for an interview. He finds Petrulio at his office and garrotes him. Later, during a drive to another college, Meadow asks Tony about the mud on his shoes and a cut on his hand. She can tell he is not answering honestly, and after a time asks no more questions.


title: College (The Sopranos)

text: While Tony and Meadow are away, and with A.J. sleeping over at a friend's house, Father Phil Intintola drops by to enjoy Carmela's cooking and wine. Dr. Melfi phones to reschedule Tony's appointment; Carmela, discovering that Tony's therapist is a woman, assumes that he is sleeping with her. During confession, Carmela tells Father Phil about her fears for her family and her soul, and he administers communion. She sips the wine; he drains the cup. They fall asleep together on the sofa; half-waking, they are about to kiss, but Father Phil suddenly desists and walks swaying to the toilet, where he retches. He spends the night on the sofa. In the morning, Carmela firmly says, "We didn't do anything." Tony and Meadow return that day. Carmela tells Tony that Father Phil stayed the night. She counters his sarcastic comments by telling him that Melfi called.


title: College (The Sopranos)

text: The episode was rated as the best of the series by "Time" magazine, and was ranked #2 on "TV Guide"s list of "Top 100 Episodes of All Time".


title: College (The Sopranos)

text: Emily St. James retrospectively wrote that "the genius of the episode is that the storyline blends almost every aspect of the show's world so completely that it feels like a natural thing we're watching, not really a story being told." St. James also praised the cinematography (such as cross-cutting and point-of-view shots) as "very effective at putting us in the headspace of both Febby and Tony as they slowly stalk each other", and lauded the episode as "a strangely funny, incredibly tense meditation on what it means to choose the easy path every single time." Alan Sepinwall praised Chase's use of "only two stories so he could let them both play out in exhaustive, powerful detail", and wrote that the shot of Tony "staring wistfully up at a group of flying ducks, again standing in for the feelings of family and peace that seem to remain forever beyond his grasp – is ... stunning."


title: College (The Sopranos)

text: James Manos Jr. and David Chase won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for their work on this episode. Edie Falco received her first Primetime Emmy Award nomination and win for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for her performance as Carmela in this episode.


title: 1998 Florida gubernatorial election

text: The 1998 Florida gubernatorial election was held on November 3, 1998, to determine the Governor for the State of Florida. Two-term Democratic incumbent Governor Lawton Chiles was term-limited and could not run for re-election. John Ellis "Jeb" Bush, who had previously run for governor in 1994 was the Republican nominee, and incumbent Lieutenant Governor Kenneth Hood "Buddy" MacKay was the Democratic nominee. Bush defeated MacKay by nearly 11% of the vote, and won his first of two terms as governor.


title: 1998 Florida gubernatorial election

text: Jeb Bush was one of four GOP pickups nationwide in the 1998 gubernatorial elections. Nonetheless, the Republican party still netted a loss of one governorship.


title: 1998 Florida gubernatorial election

text: On December 12, 1998, incumbent Governor Lawton Chiles suddenly died of a heart attack, thrusting MacKay into the governor's office, for which he had just lost the election, for 24 days. This was the second election in which MacKay had unsuccessfully run to succeed Chiles in an elected office, the first being the 1988 Senate race.


title: 1998 Florida gubernatorial election

text: The primary season was largely uneventful, as MacKay (D) and Bush (R) officially ran unopposed for their respective nominations. Initially the Democratic primary saw a three-way race between MacKay, Rick Dantzler and J. Keith Arnold, but the latter two dropped out of the race early on. Dantzler became MacKay's running mate for lieutenant governor, and Arnold ran for Education Commissioner instead.


title: 1998 Florida gubernatorial election

text: The lack of competitiveness saw a very low turnout of just 16.6% of voters for the September 1 primary.


title: 1998 Florida gubernatorial election

text: Jeb Bush enjoyed double-digit leads in polling through most of the campaign, and had a large fundraising advantage over MacKay. Bush attempted to revamp his image after appearing too hard-right during the 1994 race. Internal struggles amongst key Democratic constituencies, particularly the African-American community, hurt MacKay. MacKay and the Florida Democratic party drew the ire of the black community after state representative Willie Logan, poised to become the first black speaker of the Florida House, was ousted by party leaders. Logan endorsed Bush in the general election.


title: 1998 Florida gubernatorial election

text: Meanwhile, after receiving only 5% of the African-American vote in 1994, Bush sought to connect to minorities, a group he admittedly ignored in 1994. Setting a tone of compassionate conservatism, and portraying himself as a "consensus-building pragmatist," he met with African American leaders, and reached out to Jews and Hispanics. He introduced his Mexican-born wife Columba on the campaign trail, and demonstrated his fluent bi-lingual abilities, particularly in South Florida. MacKay ran from behind for the entire race, and barely managed closed to gap to ten points in the days leading up to the general election.


title: 1998 Florida gubernatorial election

text: On election day, Bush won by almost 11%. He garnered 61% of the Hispanic vote and 14% of the African American vote, a surprising showing for a Republican seeking statewide office. With his brother George W. Bush winning re-election in Texas, the two brothers became the first siblings to govern two states at the same time since Nelson and Winthrop Rockefeller governed New York and Arkansas from 1967 to 1971. Despite his strong statewide showing, Bush was unable to provide coattails for other Republicans further down the ticket. Charlie Crist was easily defeated in his Senate race, and House Republicans did not pick up any seats in the midterms. In the state legislature, the GOP netted no new Senate seats, and picked up only two seats in the House.


title: 1998 Florida gubernatorial election

text: A little over a month after the election, Lawton Chiles died suddenly of a heart attack. Buddy MacKay, still the sitting lieutenant governor, was sworn in as the 42nd governor of Florida on December 13, 1998, and served out the final 23 days of Chiles' second term. In an ironic twist, MacKay managed to serve in the office he lost the race for, but stated "There's no great pleasure in this." MacKay oversaw the state funeral of Chiles, and made a handful of minor appointments, before Bush was sworn in as the 43rd Governor on January 5, 1999.


title: Gauge block

text: Gauge blocks (also known as gage blocks, Johansson gauges, slip gauges, or Jo blocks) are a system for producing precision lengths. The individual gauge block is a metal or ceramic block that has been precision ground and lapped to a specific thickness. Gauge blocks come in sets of blocks with a range of standard lengths. In use, the blocks are stacked to make up a desired length (or height).


title: Gauge block

text: An important feature of gauge blocks is that they can be joined together with very little dimensional uncertainty. The blocks are joined by a sliding process called "wringing", which causes their ultra-flat surfaces to cling together. A small number of gauge blocks can be used to create accurate lengths within a wide range. By using three blocks at a time taken from a set of 30 blocks, one may create any of the 1000 lengths from 3.000 to 3.999 mm in 0.001 mm steps (or .3000 to .3999 inches in 0.0001 inch steps). Gauge blocks were invented in 1896 by Swedish machinist Carl Edvard Johansson. They are used as a reference for the calibration of measuring equipment used in machine shops, such as micrometers, sine bars, calipers, and dial indicators (when used in an inspection role). Gauge blocks are the main means of length standardization used by industry.


title: Gauge block

text: A gauge block is a block of metal or ceramic with two opposing faces ground precisely flat and parallel, a precise distance apart. Standard grade blocks are made of a hardened steel alloy, while calibration grade blocks are often made of tungsten carbide, chromium carbide or ceramic because they are harder and wear less. Gauge blocks come in sets of blocks of various lengths, along with additional wear blocks, to allow a wide variety of standard lengths to be made up by stacking them. The length of each block is actually slightly shorter than the nominal length stamped on it, because the stamped length includes the length of one "wring film", a film of lubricant which separates adjacent block faces in normal use. The thickness of the wring film is about . The gauge's nominal length is also known as the "interferometric length".


title: Gauge block

text: In use, the blocks are removed from the set, cleaned of their protective coating (petroleum jelly or oil) and "wrung together" to form a stack of the required dimension. Gauge blocks are calibrated to be accurate at and should be kept at this temperature when taking measurements. This mitigates the effects of thermal expansion. The wear blocks, made of a harder substance like tungsten carbide, are included at each end of the stack, whenever possible, to protect the gauge blocks from being damaged in use.


title: Gauge block

text: Machinists and toolmakers try to use a stack with the fewest blocks to avoid accumulation of size errors. For example, a stack totaling .638 that is composed of two blocks (a .500 block wrung to a .138 block) is preferable to a stack also totaling .638 that is composed of four blocks (such as a .200, .149, .151, and .138 all wrung together). As detailed in the Grades section, each block has a size tolerance of a few millionths of an inch, so stacking them together introduces a cumulative uncertainty. However, the stacked error from even multiple blocks is usually negligible in all but the most demanding uses. In a busy shop, some of the blocks will be in use elsewhere, so one creates a stack from the blocks available at the time. Typically the few millionths of an inch difference will not be detectable, or matter, in the context. Contexts demanding ultimate precision are rarer and require additional expense (for example, more sets of blocks and higher grades of blocks).


title: Gauge block

text: "Wringing" is the process of sliding two blocks together so that their faces bond. Because of their ultraflat surfaces, when wrung, gauge blocks adhere to each other tightly. Properly wrung blocks may withstand a pull. The mechanism is a combination of:


title: Gauge block

text: There is no magnetism involved, although to a user the clinging together of the blocks feels a bit like weak refrigerator magnets sticking together. Unlike magnets, however, the cling only lasts while the blocks are completely joined—the blocks do not attract each other across any visible gap, as magnets would.


title: Gauge block

text: After use, the blocks are re-oiled or greased to protect against corrosion. The ability of a given gauge block to wring is called ""; it is officially defined as "the ability of two surfaces to adhere tightly to each other in the absence of external means." The minimum conditions for wringability are a surface finish of AA or better, and a flatness of at least .


title: Gauge block

text: There is a formal test to measure wringability. First, the block is prepared for wringing using the standard process. The block is then slid across a reference grade ( flatness) quartz optical flat while applying moderate pressure. Then, the bottom of the gauge block is observed (through the optical flat) for oil or color. For Federal Grades 0.5, 1, and 2 and ISO grades K, 00, and 0 no oil or color should be visible under the gauge block. For Federal Grade 3 and ISO grades 1 and 2, no more than 20% of the surface area should show oil or color. This test is hard to perform on gauge blocks thinner than because they tend not to be flat in the relaxed state.


title: Gauge block

text: The pictured accessories provide a set of holders and tools to extend the usefulness of the gauge block set. They provide a means of securely clamping large "stacks" together, along with reference points, scribers, and various shapes of blocks that act like caliper jaws, either external or internal. Conical-tip ones ease measurement of center-to-center distances between hole centers. A stack of gauge blocks with external caliper-jaw accessories, all clamped together, acts as a quickly assembled custom-size go or no-go gauge.


title: Gauge block

text: A special "gauge block stone" that cannot damage the surface is used to remove nicks and burrs to maintain wringability.


title: Gauge block

text: There are two "wringing pads" used to prepare a gauge block for wringing. The first is an "oil pad", which applies a light layer of oil to the block. The second is a "dry pad", which removes any excess oil from the block after the oil pad has been used.


title: Gauge block

text: Gauge blocks are available in various grades, depending on their intended use. The grading criterion is tightness of tolerance on their sizes; thus higher grades are made to tighter tolerances and have higher accuracy and precision. Various grading standards include: JIS B 7506-1997 (Japan)/DIN 861-1980 (Germany), ASME (US), BS 4311: Part 1: 1993 (UK). Tolerances will vary within the same grade as the thickness of the material increases.


title: Gauge block

text: and ANSI/ASME B89.1.9M, which defines both absolute deviations from nominal dimensions and parallelism limits as criteria for grade determination. Generally, grades are equivalent to former U.S. Federal grades as follows:


title: Gauge block

text: The ANSI/ASME standard follows a similar philosophy as set forth in ISO 3650. See the NIST reference below for more detailed information on tolerances for each grade and block size. Also consult page 3 of: Commercial Gauge Block Tolerances (Length refers to the calibrated thickness)


title: Gauge block

text: Gauge blocks are usually made either from hardened alloy tool steels, ceramics or cemented carbides (such as tungsten carbide or tantalum carbide). Often the carbide has a hardness of 1500 Vickers hardness. Long series blocks are made from high-quality steel having cross section (35 × 9 mm) with holes for clamping two slips together. These are also available in carbon steel material. Steel blocks are hardened and tempered. The hardness is important because it slows down the gauge's rate of wear during use (this is why other kinds of gauges, such as pins, thread plugs, and rings, are also hardened.) The cutting of the blocks to size is accomplished with grinding followed by lapping.


title: Gauge block

text: Usually no plating or other coating is involved. Blocks are kept very lightly oiled, and are stored and used in dry climate-controlled conditions; unplated, uncoated steel gauge blocks can last for decades without rusting.


title: Gauge block

text: The gauge block set, also known as "Jo Blocks", was developed by the Swedish inventor Carl Edvard Johansson. Johansson was employed in 1888 as an armourer inspector by the state arsenal Carl Gustafs stads Gevärsfaktori (Rifle Factory of Carl Gustaf's town) in the town of Eskilstuna, Sweden. He was concerned with the expensive tools for measuring parts for the Remington rifles then in production under license at Carl Gustaf. When Sweden adopted a tailored variant of the Mauser carbine in 1894, Johansson was very excited about the chance to study Mauser's methods of measuring, in preparation for production under license at Carl Gustaf (which began several years later). However, a visit to the Mauser factory in Oberndorf am Neckar, Germany, turned out to be a disappointment. On the train home, he thought about the problem, and he came up with the idea of a set of blocks that could be combined to make up any measure.


title: Gauge block

text: There had already been a long history of increasing use of gauges up to this time, such as gauges for filing and go/no go gauges, which were custom-made individually in a toolroom for use on the shop floor; but there had never been super-precision gauge blocks that could be wrung together to make up different lengths, as Johansson now envisioned.


title: Gauge block

text: Back home, Johansson converted his wife's Singer sewing machine to a grinding and lapping machine. He preferred to carry out this precision work at home, as the grinding machines at the rifle factory were not good enough. His wife, Margareta, helped him with the initial prototyping. Once Johansson had demonstrated his set at Carl Gustaf, his employer provided time and resources for him to develop the idea. Johansson was granted his first Swedish patent on 2 May 1901, SE patent No. 17017, called "Gauge Block Sets for Precision Measurement". Johansson formed the Swedish company CE Johansson AB (also known as 'CEJ') on 16 March 1917.


title: Gauge block

text: Johansson spent many years in America; during his life he crossed the Atlantic 22 times. The first CEJ gauge block set in America was sold to Henry M. Leland at the Cadillac Automobile Company around 1908. The first manufacturing plant in America for his gauge block sets was established in Poughkeepsie, Dutchess County, New York, in 1919. The economic environment of the post–World War I recession and depression of 1920–21 did not turn out so well for the company, so in 1923 he wrote a letter to Henry Ford of the Ford Motor Company, where he proposed a cooperation in order to save his company. Henry Ford became interested, and on 18 November 1923 he began working for Henry Ford in Dearborn, Michigan. Hounshell (1984), citing Althin (1948) and various archive primary sources, says, "Henry Ford purchased the famous gaugemaking operation of the Swede C. E. Johansson in 1923 and soon moved it into the laboratory facility in Dearborn. Between 1923 and 1927, the Johansson division supplied 'Jo-blocks' to the Ford toolroom and any manufacturer who could afford them. It also made some of the Ford 'go' and 'no-go' gauges used in production as well as other precision production devices."


title: Gauge block

text: In the early 20th century, the U.S. inch was effectively defined as 25.4000508 mm (with a reference temperature of ) and the U.K. inch at 25.399977 mm (with a reference temperature of ). When Johansson started manufacturing gauge blocks in inch sizes in 1912, Johansson's compromise was to manufacture gauge blocks with a nominal size of 25.4mm, with a reference temperature of , accurate to within a few parts per million of both official definitions. Because Johansson's blocks were so popular, his blocks became the "de facto" standard for manufacturers internationally, with other manufacturers of gauge blocks following Johansson's definition by producing blocks designed to be equivalent to his.


title: Gauge block

text: In 1930, the British Standards Institution adopted an inch of exactly 25.4 mm. The American Standards Association followed suit in 1933. By 1935, industry in 16 countries had adopted the "industrial inch" as it came to be known, effectively endorsing Johansson's pragmatic choice of conversion ratio.


title: Gauge block

text: In 1936, at the age of 72, Johansson felt it was time to retire and go back to Sweden. He was awarded the large gold medal of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences in 1943, shortly after his death.


title: Gauge block

text: In 1948 Brown & Sharpe bought the rights to the C.E. Johansson brand from Ford Motor Co., and blocks co-branded with the C.E. Johansson and Brown & Sharpe logos were made. Blocks co-branded with the C.E. Johansson and Ford logos are also sometimes still seen in use today.


title: Gauge block

text: Similar to gauge blocks, these are precision-ground cylindrical bars, for use as plug gauges to measure hole diameters, or as parts of go/no go gauges or similar applications.


title: Gauge block

text: These are supplied as sets of individual rollers or balls as used in roller or ball bearings or tool and die making applications. Calibration balls can be used to calibrate contact angle goniometers, CNC machines and similar equipment.


title: Anu Prabhakar

text: Anu Prabhakar, also known by her married name Anu Prabhakar Mukherjee, is an Indian actress, who predominantly appears in Kannada films and a few Tamil films.


title: Anu Prabhakar

text: Anu was born in Bangalore to M. V. Prabhakar, an employee with Bharat Heavy Electricals, and dubbing artiste and actress Gayathri Prabhakar. Anu grew up in the Malleswaram suburb of Bangalore, and studied in the Nirmala Rani High School. She appeared as a child artiste in Kannada films "Chapala Chennigaraya" (1990) and "Shanti Kranti" (1991), and English film Mysteries of the Dark Jungle (1990).


title: Anu Prabhakar

text: While she dropped out of college when her career as a heroine took off she later went on to pursue a master's degree in sociology from Karnataka University through correspondence.


title: Anu Prabhakar

text: Anu made her debut as a heroine in 1999 with Hrudaya Hrudaya opposite Shiva Rajkumar and became a top rung heroine in Kannada films. She formed a popular pair with Ramesh Aravind. She has co-starred with superstar Vishnuvardhan in several films like Soorappa, Jamindarru, Hrudayavantha, Sahukaara and Varsha. She has acted in 2-3 Tamil movies as well.


title: Anu Prabhakar

text: In her upcoming 2020 film based on the life of 12th-century Kannada poet Akka Mahadevi, she plays a dual role; one of the poet and the other of Jyothi, a girl who pursues PhD on the poet.


title: Anu Prabhakar

text: Anu Prabhakar was honoured by Bangalore's Kolada Math, with the title 'Abhinaya Saraswathi' for her performance in various films. She has won other awards such as 'Karnataka State Government best actress award 2000–01'.


title: Anu Prabhakar

text: In 2009, she gave her voice to an HIV/AIDS education animated software tutorial created by the nonprofit organisation TeachAids.


title: Anu Prabhakar

text: Anu married Krishna Kumar, son of actress Jayanthi in March 2002. Citing differences, they divorced in January 2014. In April 2016, she married Raghu Mukherjee, a model-turned-actor. They have a daughter named Nandana.


title: Matt Parker

text: Matthew Thomas Parker (born 22 December 1980) is an Australian recreational mathematician, author, comedian, YouTube personality and science communicator based in the United Kingdom. His book "Humble Pi" was the first maths book in the UK to be a Sunday Times No. 1 bestseller. Parker was the Public Engagement in Mathematics Fellow at Queen Mary University of London. He is a former maths teacher and has helped popularise maths via his tours and videos.


title: Matt Parker

text: Matt Parker was born in Perth, Australia, and grew up in the northern suburb of Duncraig. He began showing an interest in maths and science from a young age, and at one point was part of his school's titration team.


title: Matt Parker

text: Parker went to the University of Western Australia and started off studying mechanical engineering before he "realized the very real risk of being employable at the end of it." He switched into physics and later mathematics. His love of maths led him to want a job in the subject.


title: Matt Parker

text: While at university, Parker wrote comedy for "Pelican", the students' magazine, and produced comedy sketches. Having become interested in comedy, he enrolled on course for stand-up.


title: Matt Parker

text: After college, Parker taught maths in Australia for a while before moving to London and continuing teaching. He became involved in support education, working with universities and other organizations to arrange maths talks. He later went back to teaching, before stopping after one year. He now helps students communicate mathematics to other people, speaks at schools, does media work, and occasionally writes about maths. His goal is "to get more people more excited about maths."


title: Matt Parker

text: Parker has appeared in numerous YouTube videos, talking about various subjects related to mathematics. He has his own YouTube channel, "Stand-up Maths", with over one million subscribers, and also frequently appears as a guest on other popular channels such as Brady Haran's "Numberphile" and James May's Head Squeeze (now BritLab). Parker has made videos about unboxing calculators, including the Little Professor; he presents these videos as a member of a fictional "Calculator Appreciation Society". He also appeared in a Tom Scott YouTube video, where they gave tips for users of the London Underground.


title: Matt Parker

text: In 2012, Parker and fellow comedian Timandra Harkness co-wrote a comedy show called Your Days are Numbered: The Maths of Death. They performed the show in Australia, at the Adelaide Fringe and Melbourne International Comedy Festival, on tour around England and in Scotland, at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. Parker has also toured the UK solo and as part of comedy group Festival of the Spoken Nerd, along with Helen Arney and Steve Mould. His first solo tour, "Matt Parker: Number Ninja," finished in July 2013, while his second solo tour, "Matt Parker: Now in 4D", started in late 2014.


title: Matt Parker

text: He has written the book "Things to Make and Do in the Fourth Dimension". His second book, "Humble Pi," was released in March 2019 and was a Sunday Times #1 bestseller.


title: Matt Parker

text: In 2014, Parker set up Think Maths, a team of experienced mathematics speakers who visit schools to run workshops and give talks for a wide range of ages and abilities, to show students the wider world of maths beyond school while giving them a chance to develop mathematical thinking skills.


title: Matt Parker

text: Parker is a regular on BBC Radio Four's "Infinite Monkey Cage" with Robin Ince and Brian Cox. He has also talked about maths-related topics on BBC News, Sky News, Channel4, CBBC, and occasionally writes for "The Guardian". On TV, Parker is a regular commentator on Discovery's "Outrageous Acts of Science". For the 2019 edition of the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures, televised on BBC Four, Parker assisted presenter Hannah Fry in several segments.


title: Matt Parker

text: In October 2017, Parker started a petition to "Update the UK Traffic Signs Regulations to a geometrically correct football." In a YouTube video, he explained why the current football shape on traffic signs is incorrect and geometrically impossible. Parker described the current signs as a "national embarrassment" and said he hopes the petition will "help raise public awareness and appreciation of geometry." Parker discussed the issue on You Can't Polish A Nerd. According to him, the government initially dismissed the petition because he is a comedian. By November 2017, the petition had gained over 22,000 signatures. The UK government has responded by saying "the current football symbol has a clear meaning and is understood by the public. Changing the design to show accurate geometry is not appropriate in this context." Parker said he felt "like the Department for Transport had not read the petition properly". The official response stated it would be too costly to replace the current signs; however, Parker said he only asked for a "precedent for the new signs". In regards to the exact geometry of a football, Parker said he is "not asking for angles and measurements on the sign, just for it to look more like a football".


title: Matt Parker

text: Together with another YouTube mathematics populariser, Vi Hart, Parker won the 2018 Communications Award of the Joint Policy Board for Mathematics for "communicating the excitement of mathematics to a worldwide audience through YouTube videos, TV and radio appearances, book and newspaper writings, and stand-up comedy".


title: Matt Parker

text: Parker was awarded the 2020 IMA-LMS Christopher Zeeman Medal in recognition of his "excellence in the communication of mathematics". The award citation highlights work on YouTube, his books, Think Maths, Maths Inspiration, MathsJam, Maths Gear, and his work in broadcast media.


title: Matt Parker

text: Parker introduced the recreational mathematics concept of a grafting number, an integer with the property that the square root of the integer, when expressed in base "b," will contain the original integer itself before or directly after the decimal point .


title: Matt Parker

text: At the 2016 MathsJam Conference, Parker talked about what he called "letterwise magic squares". He believed he was the first to find the magic squares, but on 5 May 2017 he posted a video to explain how the magic squares were more well known as alphamagic squares.


title: Matt Parker

text: Parker married the English solar physicist Lucie Green in July 2014. The couple used wedding rings made of meteoric iron. He now lives in Godalming, England. He has a labrador retriever called Skylab who has her own YouTube channel.


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: Karl Josef Silberbauer (21 June 1911 – 2 September 1972) was an Austrian police officer, SS member and undercover investigator for the West German Federal Intelligence Service. He was stationed in Nazi-occupied Amsterdam during World War II, where he was promoted to the rank of "Hauptscharführer" (master sergeant). In 1963, Silberbauer, by then an Inspector in the Vienna police, was exposed as the commander of the 1944 Gestapo raid on the Secret Annex and the arrests of Anne Frank, her fellow fugitives, and two of their protectors, Victor Kugler and Johannes Kleiman.


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: Born in Vienna, Silberbauer served in the Austrian military before following his father into the police force in 1935. Four years later, he joined the Gestapo, moved to the Netherlands, and in 1943 transferred to the "Sicherheitsdienst" (SD) in The Hague. He was then assigned to Amsterdam and attached to "Sektion IV B4", a unit recruited from Austrian and German police departments and which handled arrests of hidden Jews throughout the occupied Netherlands.


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: On 4 August 1944, Silberbauer was ordered by his superior, SS-"Obersturmführer" (lieutenant) Julius Dettmann, to investigate a tip-off that Jews were being hidden in the upstairs rooms at 263 Prinsengracht. He took a few Dutch policemen with him and interrogated Victor Kugler about the entrance to the hiding place. Miep Gies and Johannes Kleiman were also questioned, and while Kugler and Kleiman were arrested and the young secretary Bep Voskuijl managed to escape with documents that would have incriminated the black market of the Secret Annex protectors, Gies was allowed to stay on the premises. She later surmised this was because she recognized and connected with Silberbauer's Viennese accent. Both Otto Frank and Karl Silberbauer were interviewed after the war about the circumstances of the raid, with both describing Silberbauer's surprise that those in hiding had been there for more than two years. Frank recalled Silberbauer confiscating their valuables and money, taking these spoils away in Otto Frank's briefcase, which he had emptied onto the floor, scattering out the papers and notebooks which made up the diary of Anne Frank.


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: Soon after, Kugler and Johannes Kleiman, together with Otto Frank, Edith Frank-Holländer, Margot Frank, Anne Frank, Hermann van Pels, Auguste van Pels, Peter van Pels, and Fritz Pfeffer, were arrested and taken to Gestapo headquarters in Amsterdam. From there, the eight who had been in hiding were sent to the Westerbork transit camp and then to the Auschwitz concentration camp. Soon after, Margot Frank and Anne Frank were sent to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, where they died from typhus. Victor Kugler and Jo Kleiman were sent to work camps. Of the ten, only Otto Frank, Kugler, and Kleiman survived.


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: Silberbauer returned to Vienna in April 1945 and served a fourteen-month prison sentence for using excessive force against members of the Communist Party of Austria. After his release, Silberbauer was recruited by the West German Federal Intelligence Service (BND), and spent ten years as an undercover operative. According to "Der Spiegel" reporter Peter-Ferdinand Koch, who learned of his postwar activities while researching BND employment of former Nazis, Silberbauer infiltrated neo-Nazi and pro-Soviet organizations in West Germany and Austria. His BND handlers believed, correctly, that Silberbauer's past membership in the SS would blind neo-Nazis to his true loyalties.


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: Possibly due to BND pressure, Silberbauer was reinstated by the Viennese Kriminalpolizei (Kripo) in 1954, four years after the German publication of Anne Frank's diary and was promoted to the rank of "Inspektor".


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: Holocaust survivor and Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal began searching for Silberbauer in 1958, upon being challenged by Austrian Holocaust deniers to prove that Anne Frank actually existed. One Holocaust denier stated that, if Anne Frank's arresting officer were found and admitted it, he would change his mind.


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: During the 1948 Dutch police investigation into the raid on the Secret Annex, Silberbauer's name had been disclosed as "Silvernagel". The Dutch police detectives who had assisted with the raid were identified by Miep Gies, who recalled their commander as having a working-class Vienna accent. The Dutch policemen claimed to remember nothing except an erroneous form of their superior's surname.


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: Wiesenthal considered contacting Anne's father, Otto Frank, but learned that he was speaking out in favor of forgiveness and reconciliation. Otto Frank also believed that the person responsible for the denunciation to the Gestapo, not the arresting officers, bore the greatest responsibility. Wiesenthal, however, was determined to discredit the growing Holocaust denial movement and continued his search for "Silvernagel". In late spring 1963, after ruling out numerous Austrians with similar names, Wiesenthal was loaned a wartime Gestapo telephone book by Dutch investigators. During a two-hour flight from Amsterdam to Vienna, Wiesenthal found the name "Silberbauer" listed as attached to "Sektion IV B 4."


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: Upon his arrival in Vienna, Wiesenthal immediately telephoned Dr. Josef Wiesinger, who investigated Nazi crimes for the Austrian Ministry of the Interior. Upon being told that Silberbauer might still be a policeman, Wiesinger insisted that there were "at least six men on the Vienna police force" with the same surname and demanded a written request. On 2 June 1963, Wiesenthal submitted a detailed request but was told for months that the Vienna police were not yet ready to release their findings.


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: In reality, the Vienna police identified "Inspektor" Silberbauer almost immediately. When he had admitted his role in arresting Anne Frank, the department had been terrified of the bad press that would result from disclosing his past. Therefore, the Vienna police suspended Silberbauer from the Kripo without pay, ordering him to "keep his mouth shut" about the reasons for his suspension. Instead, Silberbauer lamented his suspension and disclosed the reasons for it to a colleague. His fellow officer, a member of the Communist Party of Austria, immediately leaked the story to the Party's official newspaper, who published it on 11 November 1963. After "Izvestia" praised "the detective work of the Austrian comrades", an infuriated Wiesenthal leaked Silberbauer's address to the Dutch media. When reporters descended upon Silberbauer's Vienna home, the policeman freely admitted that he had arrested Anne Frank.


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: Upon being asked about Anne Frank's diary, Silberbauer stated: "I bought the little book last week to see if I am in it. But I am not." Upon being told by a reporter that he "could have been the first to read it", Silberbauer chuckled and said, "Maybe I should have picked it up off the floor."


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: Silberbauer's memories of the arrest were notably vivid – he in particular recalled Otto and Anne Frank. When he asked Otto Frank how long they had been in hiding, Frank replied, "Two years and one month." Silberbauer was understandably incredulous, until Otto stood Anne against the marks made on the wall to measure her height since they had arrived in the Annex, showing that she had grown even since the last mark had been made. Silberbauer said that Anne "looked like the pictures in the books, but a little older, and prettier. 'You have a lovely daughter', I said to Mr. Frank".


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: Although he disclosed what he knew, Silberbauer was unable to provide any information that could help further the Dutch police's investigation into the Dutch collaborator who provided the tip. He explained that the call was taken by his commanding officer, SS Lieutenant Julius Dettmann, who said only that the information came from "a reliable source". As Dettmann had committed suicide in prison (Huis van Bewaring, Havenstraat 6, Amsterdam, the Netherlands) on the 25th of July, 1945, the second investigation also hit a dead end.


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: Although the Austrian government stated that the arrest of Anne Frank "did not warrant Silberbauer's arrest or prosecution as a war criminal", the Vienna Police convened a disciplinary hearing. Among the witnesses was Otto Frank, who testified that Silberbauer had "only done his duty and behaved correctly" during the arrest; however, Otto Frank added: "The only thing I ask is not to have to see the man again."


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: As a result, the police review board exonerated Silberbauer of any official guilt. His unpaid suspension was lifted and the Vienna police assigned him to a desk job in the "Identification Office", or "Erkennungsamt".


title: Karl Silberbauer

text: Silberbauer died in Vienna in 1972. He is interred in Mauer Friedensstrasse cemetery, where his wife Barbara is also interred.


title: Lyle Mays

text: Lyle David Mays (November 27, 1953 – February 10, 2020) was an American jazz pianist, composer, and member of the Pat Metheny Group. Metheny and Mays composed and arranged nearly all of the group's music, for which Mays won eleven Grammy Awards.


title: Lyle Mays

text: While growing up in rural Wisconsin, Mays had a lot of curiosity but had to learn many things all by himself due to a lack of available resources and information. He had four main interests: chess, mathematics, architecture, and music. His mother Doris played piano and organ, and his father Cecil, a truck driver, taught himself to play guitar by ear. His teacher allowed him to practice improvisation after the structured elements of the lesson were completed. At the age of nine, he played the organ at a family member's wedding, and fourteen he began to play in church. During his senior year of high school, at summer national stage band camp in Normal, Illinois, he was introduced to jazz pianist Marian McPartland.


title: Lyle Mays

text: "Bill Evans at the Montreux Jazz Festival" and "Filles de Kilimanjaro" by Miles Davis (both recorded in 1968) were important influences. He attended the University of North Texas after transferring from the University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire. He composed and arranged for the One O'Clock Lab Band and was the composer and arranger for the Grammy Award-nominated album "Lab 75".


title: Lyle Mays

text: After leaving the University of North Texas, Mays toured in the US and Europe with Woody Herman's jazz big band, Thundering Herds, for approximately eight months. In 1975 he met Pat Metheny at the Wichita Jazz Festival and later founded the Pat Metheny Group. Mays had an extraordinary career as a core musical architect and sound designer of the group for more than three decades. He won total 11 Grammy awards and was nominated 23 times.


title: Lyle Mays

text: After the Pat Metheny Group’s long-form recording The Way Up in 2005, and the unofficial Songbook Tour in Europe and Japan in 2010, Mays decided to retire from public music performance, although he did perform at the Western Michigan University Jazz Club in 2010 and at a Ted Talk event at Caltech in 2011 with his own groups. In an interview with "JAZZIZ" magazine in 2016, Mays said he had been working as a software development manager because of changes in the music industry.


title: Lyle Mays

text: Mays composed, orchestrated, and arranged as a core member of the Pat Metheny Group, playing piano, organ, synthesizers, and occasionally trumpet, accordion, agogô bells, autoharp, toy xylophone, and electric guitar. He composed and recorded children's audiobooks, such as "East of the Sun, West of the Moon," "Moses the Lawgiver," "The Lion and the Lamb," "The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher," and "Tale of Peter Rabbit" with text read by Meryl Streep. In 1985, Metheny's and Mays's compositions were performed by the Steppenwolf Theater in Chicago in the critically-acclaimed production of "Orphans" by Lyle Kessler. Lyle's Oberheim analog synth pad and his voice counting the second hand of a clock at the recording session, "55..., 3..," which can be heard from the bridge part of ""As Falls Wichita, So Falls Wichita Falls (1981)"," was used for Christian Dior's Fahrenheit Cologne commercials for almost 30 years, from 1988 to 2016.


title: Lyle Mays

text: He was regarded by both professional musicians and music fans as one of the most innovative and creative contemporary jazz pianists and keyboardists, but as a composer, he was even more serious about classical music in terms of advanced harmonic aesthetics and structural development through long forms. He composed several contemporary classical pieces, such as "Twelve Days in the Shadow of a Miracle", a piece for harp, flute, viola, and synthesizer recorded in 1996 by the Debussy Trio. Mays also composed “Distance” for Pat Metheny Group’s Grammy-winning and RIAA-certified Gold album, "Still Life" (1987, Geffen), "Mindwalk" in 2009 for renowned marimba player, Nancy Zeltsman, and previously "Somewhere in Maine" in 1988 for her duo with violinist Sharan Leventhal, Marimolin, and “Street Dreams 3” for his solo album, "Street Dreams" (Geffen, 1988) with top classical performers in New York City.


title: Lyle Mays

text: Apart from the Metheny group, he recorded or performed in a trio with Marc Johnson (contrabass), Jack DeJohnette (drums), and Peter Erskine (drums) and formed the Lyle Mays Quartet with Marc Johnson or Eric Hochberg (contrabass), Mark Walker (drums), and Bob Sheppard (saxophone). Naxos Germany released the quartet’s live album "The Ludwigsburg Concert" recorded in 1993 and released in 2015.


title: Lyle Mays

text: He collaborated with electronic keyboard instrument makers, Kurzweil and Korg, to develop their new sounds since he had great knowledge of both computer programming and music synthesis that he learned by himself.


title: Lyle Mays

text: The renowned R&B/funk group, Earth, Wind & Fire, recorded Lyle's most beloved original composition from his first solo album, "Close to Home" for their 1990 album, "Heritage" as an interlude and he participated in the arranging and recording session for the piece. The prominent Brazilian singer-songwriter, Milton Nascimento, also recorded a remake version of the same piece, "Quem é Você," with Portuguese lyrics for his 1991 album, "O Planeta Blue Na Estrada Do Sol." Another Brazilian singer, Zizi Possi, sang "Quem é Você" for her 1994 album, "Valsa Brasileira."


title: Lyle Mays

text: Since Mays was a young child, he enthusiastically exhibited his architectural fantasies with LEGO bricks and kept the passion until his late years. As an amateur architect, he designed his own house, home studio, and his sister Joan's house in Wisconsin.


title: Lyle Mays

text: Mays was particularly influenced by the legendary American architect, designer, the father of American modernism, and fellow Wisconsinian, Frank Lloyd Wright. Mays brought intellectual and organic architectural concepts in his music and sound design based on the innovative integration of many different sources to create a completely new soundscape as Wright achieved through his unique architectural landscape.


title: Lyle Mays

text: Mays died in Los Angeles at the age of 66 on February 10, 2020 "after a long battle with a recurring illness".


title: Lyle Mays

text: Mays was posthumously awarded the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards in 2022 for his composition "Eberhard".


title: Ruco Chan

text: Chan is the first TVB actor to win My Favourite TVB Actor at the StarHub TVB Awards for three consecutive years (2014, 2015, 2016), and is also the first actor to make two consecutive wins for Favourite TVB Actor at the TVB Star Awards Malaysia (2015, 2016). In 2016, Chan won the TVB Anniversary Award for Best Actor with his performance in the action drama "A Fist Within Four Walls".


title: Ruco Chan

text: Chan was born in Hong Kong with ancestral roots from Xiamen, Fujian. His father was a firefighter and his mother was a tailor. Influenced by his father at a young age, Chan developed a love for table tennis and joined the Hong Kong Table Tennis team after receiving rigorous training at the Jubilee Sports Academy when he was thirteen. He was the youngest player to represent Hong Kong in overseas competitions at the time. After five years of committing to the sport, Chan left the team upon finishing his high school education exams. After graduation, Chan was accepted into a technical institution and, attracted by the 3,000 HKD monthly income, also joined TVB's Artiste Training Class. Being only seventeen at the time, Chan was required to have his parents' signed approval before signing a management contract with TVB. His father initially refused, but later gave in when TVB offered an automatic contract cancellation if Chan didn't do well in his classes. Chan graduated from TVB's Seventh Artiste Training Class of 1994.


title: Ruco Chan

text: Chan's television debut was in the serial drama "Instinct" in 1994, where he briefly appeared as the young friend of Ekin Cheng's character Pao Man-lung. Weeks later, he made a brief appearance in the sitcom "A Kindred Spirit" as the friend of Andy, portrayed by Hawick Lau, who was Chan's training class classmate. For the next three years, Chan performed in minor roles in over eighteen TVB television dramas. Chan left TVB in 1998 after signing a record deal with PolyGram. Prior to the release of his debut EP, Universal acquired PolyGram and Chan's contract with PolyGram became defunct. For the next few years, Chan won several small supporting roles in various Hong Kong films. When he had no filming jobs, he would work as a renovation worker, earning only 300 HKD per day.


title: Ruco Chan

text: In 2001, Chan signed with ATV to start working on television acting again. According to Chan, his first two years at ATV were "rough, uncomfortable, and filled with regret." Despite his past acting experiences in both television and film, ATV only gave him minor roles and spots in music videos. Chan's first major role was in the 2004 period drama "Love in a Miracle", playing the main antagonist. He was then given a major supporting role in "My Date with a Vampire III" (2004). Besides performing in television dramas, Chan also made appearances in many variety shows, and hosted many gala ceremonies for ATV.


title: Ruco Chan

text: Unsatisfied with his career at ATV, Chan returned to TVB in 2008 and signed an eight-year management contract with the company. He was cast into supporting roles in several successful television dramas, such as "The Threshold of a Persona" (2009), "Burning Flame III" (2009), "The Mysteries of Love" (2010), "Ghost Writer" (2010), "When Lanes Merge" (2010), and "Every Move You Make" (2010), most of them being villainous roles. In 2011, Chan garnered media attention and critical acclaim for his portrayal of barrister Keith Lau in the television legal drama "The Other Truth". He earned his first nominations for Best Actor and My Favourite Male Character at the 2011 TVB Anniversary Awards.


title: Ruco Chan

text: Chan's subsequent performances won him critical acclaim, most notably in "Brother's Keeper" (2013), "Ruse of Engagement" (2014), and "Captain of Destiny" (2015), the latter winning him the TVB Anniversary Award for Most Popular Male Character. He is the first actor to win My Favourite TVB Actor at the StarHub TVB Awards for three consecutive years (2014, 2015, 2016), and is also the first actor to make two consecutive wins for My Favourite TVB Actor at the TVB Star Awards Malaysia (2015, 2016). In 2016, Chan won the TVB Anniversary Award for Best Actor for "A Fist Within Four Walls".


title: Ruco Chan

text: In the next few years, there were rumours of Chan dating actresses, but none have resulted in quite as much media attention as his "Brother's Keeper" and "All That is Bitter is Sweet" partner Linda Chung and later, "A Fist Within Four Walls" and "The Unholy Alliance" partner Nancy Wu.


title: Ruco Chan

text: In 2016, while a guest judge for Miss Hong Kong, he met contestant Phoebe Sin and subsequently in March 2017, was photographed in a car with her on The Peak. The media highlighted this relationship, with the vast majority of public response taking negative views of Phoebe and also Chan's handling of the matter. On 10 September 2018, Chan announced his engagement to Phoebe. They were married on 13 October the same year. On 10 November 2018, the couple announced that they were expecting their first child via Instagram. Their daughter Quinta Chan was born on 14 April 2019.


title: David Greenglass

text: David Greenglass (March 2, 1922 – July 1, 2014) was an atomic spy for the Soviet Union who worked on the Manhattan Project. He was briefly stationed at the Clinton Engineer Works uranium enrichment facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and then worked at the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico from August 1944 until February 1946.


title: David Greenglass

text: He provided testimony that helped convict his sister and brother-in-law Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, who were executed for their spying activity. Greenglass served nine and a half years in prison.


title: David Greenglass

text: Greenglass was born in 1922 in the Lower East Side of Manhattan in New York City. His parents, Barnet and Tessie, were Jewish immigrants from Russia and Austria, respectively. He attended Haaren High School, and graduated in 1940. He attended Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute but did not graduate.


title: David Greenglass

text: Greenglass married Ruth Printz in 1942, when she was 18 years old. The two joined the Young Communist League shortly before Greenglass entered the U.S. Army in April 1943. They had a son and a daughter. He worked as a machinist at Fort Ord, California, and then at the Mississippi Ordnance Plant in Jackson, Mississippi. In July 1944, Greenglass was assigned to the secret Manhattan Project, the wartime project to develop the first atomic weapons. He was first stationed at the Clinton Engineer Works uranium enrichment facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, but was there for less than two weeks. In August 1944 he was sent to the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico. In order to pass his security clearance, he disguised or omitted details of his communist associations, and had friends write glowing references.


title: David Greenglass

text: Julius Rosenberg, who had married Greenglass' sister, Ethel, in 1939, had become an agent for the Soviet Union (USSR), working under Alexander Feklisov. In September 1944, Feklisov suggested to Rosenberg that he should consider recruiting his brother-in-law, David Greenglass, and his wife. On September 21, 1944, Feklisov reported to Moscow: "They are young, intelligent, capable, and politically developed people, strongly believing in the cause of communism and wishing to do their best to help our country as much as possible. They are undoubtedly devoted to us." David wrote to his wife, Ruth: "My darling, I most certainly will be glad to be part of the community project [espionage] that Julius and his friends [the Soviets] have in mind."


title: David Greenglass

text: After Julius Rosenberg recommended his sister-in-law Ruth Greenglass to his NKVD superiors for the use of her apartment as a safe house for photography, the NKVD realized that David was working on the Manhattan Project. He was then recruited into Soviet espionage by Ruth at Rosenberg's behest in November 1944. Greenglass began to pass nuclear secrets to the USSR via the courier Harry Gold, and more directly with a Soviet official in New York City.


title: David Greenglass

text: According to the Venona project intercepts decrypted by the National Security Agency between 1944 and some time in the 1970s, Greenglass and his wife Ruth were given code names. David was codenamed "KALIBR" ("calibre") and Ruth "OSA" ("wasp").


title: David Greenglass

text: Greenglass turned down requests from the Los Alamos Laboratory (and Rosenberg) to work on the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll because he wanted to be with Ruth. He was honorably discharged from the Army on February 29, 1946. Greenglass returned to Manhattan, where, with his brother Bernie, and Julius Rosenberg, he ran a small machine shop known as G & R Engineering.


title: David Greenglass

text: On February 14, 1950, Ruth, who was pregnant with their second child, came too close to the gas heater in their Lower East Side apartment, and her nightgown caught on fire. Greenglass extinguished the blaze, but she suffered severe burns. She was taken to Gouverneur Hospital for skin grafts. He suffered second degree burns to his right hand. He was already aware that the UK and US intelligence agencies had discovered that a Los Alamos theoretical physicist, Klaus Fuchs, had spied for the USSR during the war.


title: David Greenglass

text: Through Fuchs' confession, they found that one of his American contacts had been a man named Harry Gold from Brooklyn, New York. Gold had passed Fuchs' information on to a Soviet agent, performing the role of courier, and Anatoli Yakovlev would then pass the information on to his controllers in the USSR. Through Gold, the FBI's trail led to Greenglass and the Rosenbergs, who had allegedly also used Gold as a courier. When Fuchs was first captured, Julius allegedly gave the Greenglasses $5,000 to finance an escape to Mexico. Instead, they went to the Catskills and used the money to seek legal advice.


title: David Greenglass

text: David Greenglass was arrested by the FBI for espionage in June 1950 and quickly implicated Julius Rosenberg. He explicitly denied his sister Ethel's involvement when he testified before a grand jury in August 1950. In February 1951, weeks before the trial, he changed his testimony to claim that Ethel had typed up his notes. He testified against his sister and her husband in court in 1951 as part of an immunity agreement. In exchange for that testimony, the government allowed Ruth to stay with their two children. She was named a co-conspirator, but was never indicted. Greenglass told the court, "I had a kind of hero worship there with Julius Rosenberg and I did not want my hero to fail ..."


title: David Greenglass

text: During subsequent testimony in 1951, Greenglass related in detail the secrets he passed on to the Soviet Union. He falsely attributed passing the cross-section drawing of the Atom Bomb to the Soviets to Julius and he also acknowledged passing other sketches through Gold. He described his work on the molds into which were poured the component of the explosive lenses of the Fat Man bombs used for the Trinity nuclear test and in the bombing of Nagasaki. At first this was a matter of difficulty for the prosecution, who wanted Greenglass to testify in open court about the secrets he had given—something which would by definition make them no longer "secret".


title: David Greenglass

text: The Atomic Energy Commission decided that the implosion concept could be declassified for the trial, and limited all discussion to the weapons used in World War II (fearing that Greenglass may have seen prototypes for future weapons while at Los Alamos). As a result of a surprise defense motion that all testimony about the alleged "secret of the atomic bomb" be impounded, Federal Judge Irving Kaufman at first made all spectators and news reporters leave the room when Greenglass began testifying about his "secrets".


title: David Greenglass

text: Ten minutes later, Judge Kaufman invited the news reporters back in, asking them to use their discretion in reporting on Greenglass's testimony. The Rosenbergs' defense attorney, Emanuel H. Bloch, attempted to convince the jury that his clients were concerned about issues of national security, but failed. Greenglass' testimony, later seen to be crude and in the words of many scientists who examined it "worthless", remained sealed until 1966. He also testified that Rosenberg had stolen and given to the Soviets a proximity fuze.


title: David Greenglass

text: However, Aleksander Feklisov also claimed that Julius Rosenberg supplied him with a whole proximity fuze, which would corroborate at least this part of Greenglass' testimony. During the trial, Bloch claimed Greenglass wanted revenge for the machine shop business failure. Bloch attempted to discredit Greenglass' character and testimony. At Greenglass' sentencing hearing, his attorney O. John Rogge repeatedly told the court his client deserved "a pat on the back" for his testimony and argued that a light sentence, no more than five years, would encourage others to follow his example. Greenglass was sentenced to 15 years in prison. He was released after nine and a half years and reunited with his wife.


title: David Greenglass

text: In March 1953, three months before the Rosenbergs' executions, he wrote a letter for his attorney to deliver to President Eisenhower asking for their sentences to be commuted to prison terms so that they would have an opportunity to confess. He wrote: "if these two die, I shall live the rest of my life with a very dark shadow on my conscience". He described his own testimony as "an act of contrition for the wrong I had done my country, my family and myself" and explained how he now viewed its consequences: "Here I had to take the choice of hurting someone dear to me, and I took it deliberately. I could not believe that this would be the outcome. May God in His mercy change that awful sentence." That same month he admitted he had stolen a few ounces of uranium-238 from a bomb laboratory at Los Alamos years before and had tossed it into the East River in 1950 after he first denied having stolen it.


title: David Greenglass

text: After his release in 1960, Greenglass and his family lived in New York City under an assumed name. For some years they lived on 228th Street in Laurelton, Queens, New York. In 1996, Greenglass recanted his sworn testimony in an interview with "The New York Times" reporter Sam Roberts and stated he had lied under oath about the extent of his sister's involvement in the spying plot in order to protect his wife. At the trial, Greenglass had testified that Ethel Rosenberg typed his notes to give to the Soviets. However, in the Roberts interview, he stated, "I frankly think my wife did the typing, but I don't remember ... My wife is more important to me than my sister. Or my mother or my father, okay? And she was the mother of my children." When Roberts asked Greenglass if he would have done anything differently, he replied, "Never."


title: David Greenglass

text: In 2008, when a group of academic historians sought the release of the transcripts of the grand jury proceedings that indicted the Rosenbergs, Greenglass objected to the government's release of his testimony. U.S. District Judge Alvin Hellerstein declined to order the release of the testimony of Greenglass and other surviving witnesses who withheld their consent or could not be located.


title: David Greenglass

text: The grand jury testimony was finally released in July 2015. Greenglass never mentioned involvement by his sister in Rosenberg's delivery of atomic secrets to the Soviets.


title: David Greenglass

text: David Greenglass died on July 1, 2014. He was predeceased by his wife, Ruth, who died on April 7, 2008. His death was not publicly announced by his family and was only discovered on October 14, 2014, when "The New York Times" called the nursing home where he had been living under an assumed name.


title: Mercury Montego

text: The Mercury Montego is a nameplate that was applied to three separate generations of vehicles marketed by the Mercury division of Ford Motor Company. Taking its name from Montego Bay, Jamaica, the nameplate made its first appearance for 1967 in the Canadian market as part of the Mercury-derived Meteor model line. For 1968, the Mercury Montego made its debut across North America, becoming the Mercury counterpart of the Ford Torino intermediate-size model line for two generations.


title: Mercury Montego

text: For the 1977 model year, Ford revised the intermediate-size product ranges of both its Ford and Mercury divisions; as part of a mid-cycle update, Mercury discontinued the Montego nameplate and expanded the Mercury Cougar line to include a full range of sedans and wagons (with the Ford Gran Torino becoming the Ford LTD II).


title: Mercury Montego

text: After a 28-year absence, the Montego nameplate was revived for the 2005 model year, this time applied to a full-size sedan. Slotted in size between the Mercury Milan and Grand Marquis, the 2005 Montego was the Mercury counterpart of the Ford Five Hundred. For the 2008 model year, the Montego adopted the nameplate of the car it had replaced, becoming the final generation of the Mercury Sable.


title: Mercury Montego

text: For 1968, Mercury introduced the Montego as part of its intermediate Mercury Comet product line, consolidating the Comet Capri and Comet Caliente into a single nameplate; the high-performance Mercury Cyclone became a distinct model line. As the Comet was the Mercury counterpart of the Ford Fairlane, the Montego was introduced alongside the Ford Torino. For 1970, Mercury intermediates adopted the Montego name entirely (as the Comet became the Mercury counterpart of the Ford Maverick).


title: Mercury Montego

text: The first-generation Montego was offered as a four-door sedan, two-door hardtop, four-door station wagon, and two-door convertible. The model line was offered in base and MX trims (replacing the Comet Capri and Comet Caliente, respectively).


title: Mercury Montego

text: For 1970, the Montego underwent a mid-cycle exterior redesign to add a forward-thrusting hood and grille design. The convertible was withdrawn, replaced by a four-door hardtop. For all sedans, a MX Brougham trim was added (with a woodgrained MX Villager station wagon), distinguished by concealed headlamps.


title: Mercury Montego

text: For 1972, the second-generation Montego was introduced alongside the redesigned Ford Torino. In a major design shift, the intermediate Ford/Mercury model lines shifted from unibody to body-on-frame construction; similarly to the General Motors A-platform, the Montego adopted a split-wheelbase chassis (114-inch for two-doors, 118-inch for four-doors and station wagons). True four-door hardtops were replaced by "pillared hardtops" (frameless door glass remained, supported by a thin B-pillar), while two-door Montegos retained hardtop roofs, though with much wider C-pillars.


title: Mercury Montego

text: The Cyclone had reverted from a stand-alone model line to an option package for 1972 for the Montego; only 30 1972 Cyclones would be produced, making it among the rarest Mercury vehicles. As a replacement for the Cyclone, Mercury introduced the Montego GT, a counterpart of the Ford Gran Torino SportsRoof for the first time; the Montego GT was offered from 1972 to 1973.


title: Mercury Montego

text: As a standard engine, the Montego was equipped with a 250 cubic-inch inline-six, with five different V8 engines available as options. Starting in 1974, the Mercury Montego was available with a 460 V8, shared with the Mercury Marquis/Colony Park.


title: Mercury Montego

text: The redesign was initially met with success, as 1972 Montego sales increased 136% over 1971; the MX Brougham saw the largest increases in sales, as the two-door increased its sales by 897% while the four-door increased by 1,021%.


title: Mercury Montego

text: Following the 1973 gas crisis, sales were depressed by industry-wide fuel economy concerns. The redesigned 1974 Mercury Cougar shifted from the Ford Mustang chassis and upsized to Montego two door bodies which were also shared with the mid-year addition of the Ford Elite. The new Cougar which was more competitive in the growing intermediate personal luxury car segment produced model overlap causing slower sales of the Montego along with the success of the Mercury Monarch, as buyers shifted from intermediates and full-size cars towards fuel-efficient compact sedans.


title: Mercury Montego

text: For 1975, the six-cylinder and 302 V8 engines were dropped from the lineup, leaving the 351 V8 as the standard engine.


title: Mercury Montego

text: For 1977, in a mid-cycle redesign of the Ford intermediate lines, several nameplates were shifted. Mercury rebranded the Montego as the Cougar, in favor of offering a full range of body styles for the Cougar line alongside the flagship XR7 personal luxury coupe; Ford rebranded the Torino/Gran Torino as a facelifted LTD II, with the Elite rebranded as a downsized 1977 Thunderbird.


title: Mercury Montego

text: For the 2005 model year, Mercury revived the Montego nameplate after a 28-year hiatus. The Mercury counterpart of the Ford Five Hundred, the third-generation Montego entered production on July 12, 2004. Slotted below the Grand Marquis, the third-generation Montego was introduced as a replacement for the Sable alongside the 2006 Milan.


title: Mercury Montego

text: The third-generation Montego was manufactured at the Chicago Assembly facility in Chicago, Illinois alongside the Ford Five Hundred and the Ford Freestyle; the latter was a CUV wagon serving as a replacement for the Taurus/Sable station wagon.


title: Mercury Montego

text: The third-generation Montego was built on the Ford D3 platform. Developed in collaboration with Volvo, the D3 chassis is the first full-size Ford platform to utilize front-wheel drive (or its optional all-wheel drive). Shifting away from the body-on-frame Panther platform, the D3 chassis utilizes unibody construction. Only two inches shorter than the Grand Marquis in wheelbase, the Montego was nearly 500 pounds lighter in curb weight.


title: Mercury Montego

text: The Montego was equipped with a single engine, shared with the previous Taurus/Sable, a 203 hp version of the 3.0L DOHC "Duratec" V6. Front-wheel drive versions were equipped with a 6-speed Aisin AW F21++ automatic while AWD versions were equipped with a ZF CVT.


title: Mercury Montego

text: The Montego, Five Hundred and Ford Freestyle were manufactured using a Volvo-derived system called Total Vehicle Geometry (TVG) to ensure fit, finish and craftsmanship — by requiring comprehensive participation by all engineers as well as suppliers and vendors. Heavily using computer-aided design, TVG tracks all design modifications, translating them into the central CAD database which in turn allows each engineer access to current project data. The system improves part tolerance at the body-in-white stage as well as early cabin integrity testing, via air leakage testing. TVG improved fit and finish at the first prototype stage and decreases pilot manufacturing times.


title: Mercury Montego

text: For side impact protection the bodywork is braced at the B-pillar via an energy-channeling structural cross-car roof tube and a corresponding undercar energy channelling cross-tube — with the front seats mounted above the lower tube, locating them above a side impact energy path. The system derives from a side-impact safety design marketed by Volvo as its Side Impact Protection System (SIPS).


title: Mercury Montego

text: The first completely new full-size Mercury since the 1992 model year, the third-generation Montego was offered solely as a four-door sedan. With a height over five feet tall (matching the far-longer Maybach 57), the Montego was the tallest Mercury sedan in over 50 years.


title: Mercury Montego

text: While visibly sharing much of its exterior with its Ford Five Hundred counterpart, the third-generation Montego was distinguished by exterior several design features. In line with other Mercury vehicles, the Montego was styled with a vertical waterfall-style grille with satin aluminum exterior trim (limiting chrome to the roofline). Exclusive to the Montego, HID headlamps and LED taillamps were standard equipment (the latter, the largest array of LED lights on any Ford vehicle worldwide).


title: Mercury Montego

text: Ford chief designer, George Bucher, said "it was a challenge to sculpt a Ford-styled body around a Volvo chassis, and added that designers used what he calls plainer surfaces with taut lines to give the car a modern look without losing its passenger-car proportions."


title: Mercury Montego

text: In contrast to both the Grand Marquis and the Sable, the third-generation Montego was available solely in a five-passenger configuration. In line with the 2001-2003/2005 Grand Marquis LSE and 2003-2004 Marauder, the Montego was configured with bucket seats and a console-mounted shifter.


title: Mercury Montego

text: Slotted in between the Five Hundred SE and SEL, the Montego Luxury featured cloth seats as standard, with leather seats as optional. The Mercury equivalent of a Five Hundred Limited, the Montego Premier featured leather seats as standard; all-wheel drive and a sunroof were among the few available options.


title: Mercury Montego

text: In contrast to the Grand Marquis, the Montego offered a 60/40 fold-down rear seat, expanding the 21 cubic-foot trunk space. With the decklid closed, objects up to 10 feet in length could be transported within the car (when using the optional fold-down front passenger seat).


title: Mercury Montego

text: At its launch, two airbags were standard, with four more available as an option (front-seat airbags and side-curtain)


title: Mercury Montego

text: A design feature of the Montego includes its overall height to add interior space to the vehicle. To appeal to buyers of both sedans and sport-utility vehicles, Ford raised the viewpoint of the driver. Marketed as "Command Seating", the Montego features high H-point seating (the location of the occupants hip-point relative to the road or the vehicle floor); its H-point is closer to the ground than that of a sport utility vehicle, but higher than a typical sedan, easing entry and exit. Also, the distance from the H-point to the floor of the vehicle is reflective of more upright seating. At its press launch, Ford said the Five Hundred's H-point is up to four and a half inches higher than its competitors. The Montego also features theater seating, where second row seats are higher: in the front row, the distance between the H-point and the heel point, where the occupant's foot touches the floor, is 12.7 inches — in the second row the distance between the H-point and the heel point is 15.7 inches.


title: Mercury Montego

text: Following a poor critical reception, the Mercury Montego and Ford Five Hundred fell under sales projections from the 2005 to 2007 model years. For the 2008 model year, the Montego and Five Hundred underwent a mid-cycle update, with pre-production prototypes unveiled at 2007 auto shows. After his installation as Ford CEO, Alan Mulally ordered the model lines renamed before entering production, claiming higher brand value and recognition; the 2008 Mercury Montego adopted the Mercury Sable nameplate.


title: Mercury Montego

text: For 2008, Mercury received an exterior styling update that better differentiated the two model lines; a powertrain upgrade replaced the 3.0L engine with a 3.5L engine (increasing output to 263 hp).


title: Mercury Montego

text: In the 1968 NASCAR Grand National stock car season, the fastback Fairlane body style proved much slicker than other makes, but the nose of the Mercury Cyclone Fastback was the main reason pointed to it being even slightly faster than its Ford counterpart. Cale Yarborough drove a Wood Brothers Cyclone to victory in the Daytona 500, and the Mercury bodies would remain a major force in NASCAR through 2 generations of bodies.


title: Mercury Montego

text: The battle over aerodynamics would prompt Chrysler to respond with specialized "winged wonder" Daytona and Superbird bodies after its own fastback bodies proved disappointing.


title: Shoji

text: A is a door, window or room divider used in traditional Japanese architecture, consisting of translucent (or transparent) sheets on a lattice frame. Where light transmission is not needed, the similar but opaque "fusuma" is used (oshiire/closet doors, for instance). Shoji usually slide, but may occasionally be hung or hinged, especially in more rustic styles.


title: Shoji

text: Shoji are very lightweight, so they are easily slid aside, or taken off their tracks and stored in a closet, opening the room to other rooms or the outside. Fully traditional buildings may have only one large room, under a roof supported by a post-and-lintel frame, with few or no permanent interior or exterior walls; the space is flexibly subdivided as needed by the removable sliding wall panels. The posts are generally placed one "tatami"-length (about 2 m or 6 ft) apart, and the shoji slide in two parallel wood-groove tracks between them. In modern construction, the shoji often do not form the exterior surface of the building; they sit inside a sliding glass door or window.


title: Shoji

text: Shoji are valued for not setting a sharp barrier between the interior and the exterior; outside influences such as the swaying silhouettes of trees, or the chorus of frogs, can be appreciated from inside the house. As exterior walls, shoji diffuse sunlight into the house; as interior partitions between rooms, they allow natural light deep into the interior. While shoji block wind, they do allow air to diffuse through, important when buildings were heated with charcoal. Like curtains, shoji give visual privacy, but they do not block sounds. Shoji are also thought to encourage a home's inhabitants to speak and move softly, calmly, and gracefully, an important part of the ethos behind "sukiya-zukuri" architecture. Sliding doors cannot traditionally be locked.


title: Shoji

text: Shoji rose in popularity as an integral element of the "shoin-zukuri" style, which developed in the Kamakura Period (1123–1333), as loss of income forced aristocrats into more modest and restrained architecture. This style was simplified in teahouse-influenced "sukiya-zukuri" architecture, and spread to the homes of commoners in the Edo Period (1603–1868), since which shoji have been largely unchanged. Shoji are used in both traditional-style Japanese houses and in Western-style housing, especially in the "washitsu" (traditional Japanese-style room). The traditional wood-and-paper construction is highly flammable.


title: Shoji

text: The shoji frame is a panel called a . It is assembled from interlocking laths of wood or bamboo called "kumiko". "" literally means "woven"; the halved joints alternate in direction so that the laths are interwoven. The interweaving is structural, and the paper (which is tensioned by spraying it with water) further strengthens the finished panel. Frames can easily be broken by stepping on them when they are dismounted and stripped for re-papering. No fasteners are traditionally used to hold the frame together. Rice glue can also be used in the frame joints.


title: Shoji

text: Coniferous wood is preferred for its fine, straight grain. Shoji with "kōshi" made of split bamboo are called "take-shōji" (). "Kōshi" are sometimes made of aluminium, shaped to resemble wood.


title: Shoji

text: Most shoji lattices are rectangular. However, about 200 traditional patterns are used; each has a symbolism, associated with the natural pattern it stylistically represents. Patterns may also be combined. While these are traditionally used for shoji, they are increasingly used for other woodwork items, in and outside Japan. Patterns can be classified according to "jigumi", the foundational grid; this may be square, diamond-shaped, or hexagonal. Rectangular shoji may skew, in which case bent springs of bamboo are inserted into the short diagonal to push them back square. There can be substantial artistry in frame design.


title: Shoji

text: The "kumiko" are the fine wooden laths of the screen, and the "tsukeko" are the heavier members (usually around the edge). The "tsukeko" are joined with mortise-and-tenon joints, with either a "jaguchi" joint or a more complex mitered joint. The "jigumi kumiko" are generally joined with simple halved joints, but where "jigumi kumiko" cross at a non-right-angle, or three cross at the same point ("mitsu-kude"), the angles can become complicated, and specialized tools are used to cut them rapidly. Small "kumiko" may simply be friction-fitted and glued.


title: Shoji

text: While frames can be produced with minimal hand tools, specialized hand tools, power tools, and jigs for cutting identical lengths and angles speed the process. These tools are often homemade; as shoji-making is highly competitive, these give "kumiko" craftspeople a critical competitive advantage. While frames are handcrafted, there is also industrial mass-production.


title: Shoji

text: The lowest portions of the shoji, which are the most likely to get wet or kicked, might be filled with a solid wood-panel dado, called a "koshi" (; literally, waist or hip; not to be confused with "kōshi", above). Such a shoji is called a "koshizuke" shoji.


title: Shoji

text: If the panel is over 60 cm high, or around a third of the height of the whole shoji, the shoji may be called a "koshi-daka-shōji" (; literally, high-"koshi" shoji). These are somewhat archaic, as they were designed to protect against rain. Now that shoji are rarely exposed to rain (due to being behind glass), the form in common use has a much lower panel, and is called "koshi-tsuki-shōji" (). "Manaka koshishōji" () have a central "koshi".


title: Shoji

text: The wood panels were often quite elaborately ornamented, from the late 1500s onwards. The outside of the "koshi" may covered with wickerwork, or the inside papered. Pictures on paper were sometimes pasted onto the "koshi" board ("haritsuke-e", ); pasted-on pictures are characteristic of the Shoin style.


title: Shoji

text: The "koshi" boards may be fastened to straight vertical or horizontal rails, which stand proud of the planks; older rails are thicker and often chamfered. The rails are often grouped in clusters; this clustering is called "fukiyose" ().


title: Shoji

text: The spaces between the "kumiko" are sometimes left open, and the kōshi panel used as an open lattice, especially in summer, for more air circulation. Kōshi may be made into windows ("kōshi-mado", ) or doors ("kōshi-do", ). Kōshi that are traditionally left open are now often filled with glass; this does not require much change to their appearance or structure, and glazed kōshi are still considered kōshi. Some lattice patterns have heraldic meanings, identifying the trade of a shopowner, for instance.


title: Shoji

text: Frames may also be backed with wire mesh, for ventilation without insects. "Sudare-shōji" (; also called "sudo", ) are filled with "Phragmites" reed, cat-tail stalks, pampas grass, or fine bamboo, held together by a few rows of thread woven around the stems. These provide more shade and ventilation than paper-backed shoji, and are also called "natsu-shōji" (, "summer shoji"), as they may be used seasonally. For instance, in Kyoto, both paper shoji and "fusuma" will be removed and replaced with "sudo" doors and "sudare" blinds; this is usually done towards the end of June, before the rainy season ends and the Gion Festival begins.


title: Shoji

text: Shoji are most commonly filled with a single sheet of paper, pasted across the back of the frame (on the outer side). Shoji may also be papered on both sides, which increases thermal insulation and sound absorption; the frame is still visible in silhouette.


title: Shoji

text: Shoji are not made with rice paper, though this is commonly asserted outside of Japan, possibly simply because "rice paper" sounds oriental.


title: Shoji

text: Cloth, usually a fine silk, has traditionally been used, but usage declined with improvements in the quality of "washi" (a specialized paper which diffuses light particularly well, and excludes wind). Washi is traditionally made from "kōzo" (mulberry, "Broussonetia papyrifera"), "mitsumata" ("Edgeworthia papyrifera") or "gampi" ("Wikstroemia canescens"), or hemp fibers and it is sold in a broad range of types. Washi was formerly made in narrower strips, which were overlapped by a few millimeters as they were glued on; it now comes in wider widths, and in rolls or lengths the height of a short Japanese door. Bright white paper is most popular in Japan; off-whites are also available, but darker colours are avoided, as they would not transmit light. Washi began to be mass-produced in the 1800s, making it much more affordable. Synthetic fibers were first used in washi paper in the 1960s (mid Shōwa period). A small proportion of synthetic fibers may be used to increase tear strength. The optical characteristics of washi, such as its reflectance and scatter, are selected by the maker.


title: Shoji

text: Paper is decoratively patched if torn, and, traditionally, replaced once a year in late December (sometimes less frequently, such as every two years). The rice glue used to hold it to the "kumiko" is water-soluble (wheatpaste is also sometimes used and double-sided tape may also be used, especially for laminated paper).


title: Shoji

text: Laminated papers, coated in vinyl, last longer and are sufficiently waterproof to be wiped clean, but the thicker the plastic film, the harder it is to install. After glue is dry (~6 hours), non-laminated paper can be sprayed with water to tauten it (removing small wrinkles), but laminated paper cannot. Shoji paper cannot be used in places where it will get wet, like a bathroom; even laminated paper will be affected, as water bleeds in from the edges.


title: Shoji

text: Traditionally, "abura-shōji" (: "oil-shoji"), also called "ama-shōji" (: "rain-shoji"), used paper (generally "nishi-no-uchigami", ) that was glued on with vinegar-based paste and then oiled. This made them water-resistant, so they were used where rain might reach under the eaves. Oiled-paper windows were common in Europe, as European-style shallow eaves exposed the windows to precipitation. In Japan, deep eaves were conventional, and oiled-paper windows were rare.


title: Shoji

text: The smooth sheet of paper covering the back of a shoji can make it difficult to grip and slide the shoji from the outside. To solve this, a single square in the frame may be papered only on the opposite side, and/or a groove may be cut in the outside of the frame (see image). This doorpull is called a "hikite".


title: Shoji

text: While washi paper blocks wind, it does allow air to diffuse through, allowing air circulation. This is particularly important in traditional buildings, in which charcoal is burned, and damp evaporates from the ground in the crawlspace under the raised wooden floor. "Ranma" (transom/fanlight panels above the sliding panels and "kamoi") may have openings to further encourage breezes to pass through the building.


title: Shoji

text: Less traditionally, rigid light-diffusing panels of plastics are also used, such as approximately 2 mm-thick acrylic or polycarbonate which can be frosted or bonded to a printed film. Fiberglass-reinforced acrylic is also used. Rigid translucent panels cannot readily be spliced; one continuous sheet must usually be used per frame. Plastic panels are waterproof, and some may be used outdoors year-round.


title: Shoji

text: Paperlike sheets of plastic nonwoven fabrics may also be used, including polypropylene (like that used in surgical masks and other disposable clothing). A peel-and-stick film made of epoxy and white non-woven fiberglass is also used. Nonwoven sheets of composite plastic (vinyl-coated polyester) fibers are also used, and may be attached with removable fasteners rather than glue, although they are still single-use.


title: Shoji

text: "Nekoma" shoji (, also called "mago" shoji, ) have a horizontally-sliding translucent sub-panel (or two, for Osaka "nekoma" shoji), which can be opened from inside to give a view outwards. Until the late 1800s, these small panels were the only use of glass in shoji; blown plate glass was expensive and available in small panes.


title: Shoji

text: Cheaper plate glass was introduced to Japan circa the late 1800s. It was widely applied to traditional kōshi doors, without much change to the traditional form and structure. The oiled paper in "ama-shōji" was also replaced with glass.


title: Shoji

text: "Yukimi shoji" (, snow-watching shoji) have a larger full-width section of glass, at seated-eye level, affording a view of the outside in cold weather. Glass can be used in large sheets or in small panes (the "kumiko" becoming muntins). "Yukimi" shoji also contain non-transparent translucent sections, for privacy. In "suriage" shoji, there is a vertically-sliding translucent section; the translucent sections are divided horizontally like a sash windows. When closed, these then look much like standard shoji (see images). Peel-and-stick films that give glass some of the appearance of washi are also sold.


title: Shoji

text: "Sukimi" shoji (, moon-watching shoji) are similar; they have upper panels that give a view, while the lower ones are translucent.


title: Shoji

text: Shoji doors are often designed to slide open, (and thus conserve space that would be required by a swinging door); they may also be hung or fixed.


title: Shoji

text: Most commonly, a shoji panel slides in a grooved wooden track. The upper groove is substantially deeper than the lower groove. The lower groove is cut in the "shikii", or threshold beam ("the shikii is high" means "it is difficult to visit the place", or expresses self-consciousness). The upper groove is cut in the "kamoi", a lintel between adjacent posts. The traditional wooden track requires precise fitting, and the wood may wear with use, or warp due to changes in humidity. A well-made traditional groove system is light enough that the door can be slid with one finger. Traditionally, grooves were waxed; more modernly, grooves may be lined with low-friction plastic.


title: Shoji

text: Shoji are often mounted in pairs, with two panels and two grooves in each opening. When closed, adjacent sliding shoji overlap by the width of the wooden frame edge.


title: Shoji

text: Shoji are also mounted four panels to the opening. In this case, the innermost pair are generally mounted on the same track, and the outermost pair on a different track; A rounded tongue and groove are cut so that the innermost pair interlock. The double parallel grooves allow the shoji to be slid so that they occupy nearly half of their closed width; if a larger opening is needed, the shoji must be removed. As the panels are usually slightly different, it is important to put them back in the same order, without swapping them around, so that they will continue to slide easily. This type of mounting, where the panels overlap by a stile-width when closed, is called hiki-chigai (). Hiki-chigai came to be used in minka (commoners' homes) in the mid-Edo Period (c. 1700s).


title: Shoji

text: Katabiki shoji () are single panels sliding in a single groove. They slide on rails mounted on a solid wall, and when open partly or fully overlap the wall. They are used for smaller windows in opaque walls; this is common in chashitsu (see image). Small windows and katabiki mounting were used in minka until the mid-Edo period, but were then replaced by larger openings with sliding panels. Full-height shoji set up so that they can be slid in front of an opaque wall are not common in modern Japan. Washi-on-frame panels can also be used to diffuse an artificial light source; in Japanese lampshades, this use is both common and traditional in Japan.


title: Shoji

text: Less traditionally, hiki () shoji (sliding panels) can be hung on rollers, which run on metal rails mounted on the side of the "kamoi". This avoids fit problems caused by humidity-related changes in the dimensions of wood. Such rail-mount shoji require an anti-sway pin, but may otherwise have a smooth, unobstructed threshold. Such shoji are also fairly easy to remove.


title: Shoji

text: Shoji may also be installed as pocket doors between rooms, called hikikomi () shoji. This is a historical practice, but it is no longer common in Japan, though it is sometimes used in western-style homes. Shoji in Europe are commonly suspended on panel-blind track, by 'touch-and-close' fastener such as Velcro. No bottom channel is required or used – panels are typically 16–17 mm thick made from Obeche timber rather than traditional conifer wood. This method has the advantage of being less likely to break but can move in strong draughts.


title: Shoji

text: Other suspension methods are sometimes used. Kake-shōji (hanging shoji) are mostly used in traditionally rustic chashitsu (tea rooms). They are commonly hung over small windows in opaque walls of mud plaster; they hang from bent-nail hooks, one on either side of the top of the window, and the topmost frame member is extended into two horizontal projections that rest in the hooks (see photo above). Like katabiki shoji, kake shoji may be placed on the inside or the outside of the wall, depending on what suits the window.


title: Shoji

text: Hiraki shoji are mounted on hinges in a doorframe, and open like a standard western door. Some are single doors, some double doors. Double doors, whether bifold doors or not, are termed ryōbiraki shoji ().


title: Shoji

text: Traditional Japanese buildings are post-and-lintel structures. They are built around vertical posts, connected by horizontal beams (rafters were traditionally the only structural member that was neither horizontal nor vertical). The rest of the structure is non-load-bearing.


title: Shoji

text: The roof completed, all but the cheapest buildings also added a raised plank floor (except in the kitchen). The remaining question was what to do with the space between the pillars, the hashira-ma (, ).


title: Shoji

text: The hashira-ma might be filled with fixed walls, in cheaper Japanese homes. For example, there might be lath-and-plaster walls, or in colder areas thatch walls; these are still used in rustic teahouses and historic buildings (see images). Bark-and-bamboo walls, clapboard, and board-and-batten walls were also used. Where affordable, though, the tendency was against permanent walls. Instead, openable or removable screens were used, and their type, number, and position adjusted according to the weather without and the activities within. These items can collectively be termed hashira-ma equipment.


title: Shoji

text: The technology of hashira-ma equipment has developed over time, and shoji were among those developments. Shoji have imposed constraints on other types of hashira-ma equipment: being translucent, non-waterproof, light, and fragile, they need protection, but they also need access to light.


title: Shoji

text: Literally, "shoji" means "small obstructing thing" (; it might be translated as "screen"), and though this use is now obsolete, "shoji" was originally used for a variety of sight-obstructing panels, screens, or curtains, many portable, either free-standing or hung from lintels, used to divide the interior space of buildings (see List of partitions of traditional Japanese architecture). While "shoji" now exclusively means a translucent framework screen, and "fusuma" an opaque one, historic terminology is less clear-cut.


title: Shoji

text: Cloth-covered frame panels that fit between pillars (but did not yet slide in grooves) were invented in the 600s. They were used to screen bedrooms (like the curtains on a canopy bed), and called "fusuma" shoji (there were also bedclothes called "fusuma"). When paper came to be used instead of cloth, fusuma shoji were also called karakami shoji. From the late 1100s to the early 1200s, translucent cloth and paper shoji were called akari-shōji (), "illuminating shoji". It is not clear when translucent shoji were first used.


title: Shoji

text: The symmetrical round-pillared shinden style developed in the mid-900s, for the lakeside palaces of aristocrats. The outside could be closed off with heavy wooden shutters called shitomi-do (), which were usually horizontally split and hinged (hajitomi), but were occasionally vertically split and hinged.


title: Shoji

text: Sliding partitions (hiki-do, , literally "sliding door") did not come into use until the tail end of the Heian, and the beginning of the Kamakura period. Early sliding doors were heavy; some were made of solid wood. Initially used in expensive mansions, they eventually came to be used in more ordinary houses as well.


title: Shoji

text: Smooth fitting of panel and groove is critical to allow the panels to move easily, and the woodworking of the sliding mechanism developed over time (modern shoji can be moved with one finger). Formerly, the grooves were made by dobumizo (), nailing strips of wood to the kamoi (lintel) and shikii (sill) beams. The grooves were later cut into the beams, using a specialized saw to cut the sides, a chisel to remove the waste, and specialized groove planes to smooth. A shakuri kanna (plow plane) was used to smooth the bottom of the groove, and a wakitori kanna for the sides of the groove (these planes also became more elaborate, later adding screw adjustments and other machined-metal refinements). Before hiki-chigai (sliding panels that overlap when closed) became standard in the Muromachi period, hiki-do had a central vertical rail (nakahōdate, ) in the middle of each opening to cover the gap between the panels when they were closed.


title: Shoji

text: In the Muromachi period, hiki-do improved, and the Shoin style of architecture was developed. The rising warrior class seeking to emulate the aristocratic fashions, and the aristocrats, who had lost wealth, could no longer afford Shiden-style palaces. Conrad Totman argues that deforestation was a factor in the style changes, including the change from panelled wooden sliding doors to the lightweight covered-frame shoji and fusuma.


title: Shoji

text: A core part of the style was the shoin ("library" or "study"), a room with a desk built into an alcove containing a shoji window, in a monastic style; this desk alcove developed in the Kamakura period. The Shoin style also made extensive use of sliding doors. In order to fit better against closed hiki-do, support pillars were squared; these were called kaku-bashira (). Suspended ceilings were added, and tatami were used wall-to-wall, entirely covering the floorboards. Tatami dimensions were regionally standardized, and the other elements of the room became proportioned to the mats; standardization of building components reduced waste and the need for custom fabrication, and thus cost (standard lumber, for instance, came in exactly the dimensions needed by the carpenter). Lower-class buildings adopted some of the cheaper elements of the Shoin style, where the law permitted it (class-based limitations were not lifted until the Meiji Era, in the late 1800s). Minka (commoner's houses) rarely used sliding mountings at this time, and generally had only small windows.


title: Shoji

text: A variety of specialized hiki-do were developed (along with intermediate forms). Apart from shoji, there were fusuma, similar but with opaque paper, and maira-do, plank-and-batten wooden doors (). Maira-do replaced shitomi-do as rain-protection doors. Initially, the beams between the outer support posts were cut with three grooves; the innermost one for the shoji, and the outer two for mairado-do. This meant that the hashira-ma was generally at least half-obscured, although the other half could be open, shoji-filled, or closed.


title: Shoji

text: In the first half of the 1600s, at the beginning of the Edo period, the outermost groove was moved outside the line of pillars. The wooden shutters placed in this groove interlocked edge-to-edge, and were called "ama-do" (, "rain-door"): they were storm shutters, used only at night and in poor weather. To open the building in the morning, each ama-do would be slid along (rotating at corners) to the end of groove, where they were stacked in a box called a to-bukuro (, : literally, "door-container"). The to-bukuro might be designed to swing out of the way. The inner two grooves remained as they were, but both could now be filled with shoji, doubling the number of shoji in a building. Lightweight shoji could be lifted out and carried away easily. This new structure allowed the entire side of the building to be opened, giving either twice as much light, from an uninterrupted wall of shoji, or an unobstructed view of the garden; gardens changed accordingly.