title: Investment casting

text: Investment casting is used with almost any castable metal. However, aluminium alloys, copper alloys, and steel are the most common. In industrial use, the size limits are to several hundred kilograms. The cross-sectional limits are to . Typical tolerances are 0.1 mm for the first 25 mm (0.005 in for the first inch) and 0.02 mm for the each additional centimeter (0.002 in for each additional inch). A standard surface finish is 1.3–4 micrometres (50–125 μin) RMS.


title: Investment casting

text: The history of lost-wax casting dates back thousands of years. Its earliest use was for idols, ornaments and jewellery, using natural beeswax for patterns, clay for the moulds and manually operated bellows for stoking furnaces. Examples have been found across the world, such as in the Harappan Civilisation (2500–2000 BC) idols, Egypt's tombs of Tutankhamun (1333–1324 BC), Mesopotamia, Aztec and Mayan Mexico, and the Benin civilization in Africa where the process produced detailed artwork of copper, bronze and gold. By far, one of the earliest identified uses of the investment casting process was seen in objects found in the 'Cave of Treasure', discovered in Southern Israel. These items were identified as being made around 3700 BC using Carbon-14 dating techniques.


title: Investment casting

text: The earliest known text that describes the investment casting process (Schedula Diversarum Artium) was written around 1100 A.D. by Theophilus Presbyter, a monk who described various manufacturing processes, including the recipe for parchment. This book was used by sculptor and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1571), who detailed in his autobiography the investment casting process he used for the Perseus with the Head of Medusa sculpture that stands in the Loggia dei Lanzi in Florence, Italy.


title: Investment casting

text: Investment casting came into use as a modern industrial process in the late 19th century, when dentists began using it to make crowns and inlays, as described by Barnabas Frederick Philbrook of Council Bluffs, Iowa in 1897. Its use was accelerated by William H. Taggart of Chicago, whose 1907 paper described his development of a technique. He also formulated a wax pattern compound of excellent properties, developed an investment material, and invented an air-pressure casting machine.


title: Investment casting

text: In the 1940s, World War II increased the demand for precision net shape manufacturing and specialized alloys that could not be shaped by traditional methods, or that required too much machining. Industry turned to investment casting. After the war, its use spread to many commercial and industrial applications that used complex metal parts.


title: Investment casting

text: Investment casting is used in the aerospace and power generation industries to produce turbine blades with complex shapes or cooling systems. Blades produced by investment casting can include single-crystal (SX), directionally solidified (DS), or conventional equiaxed blades.


title: Investment casting

text: Investment casting is also widely used by firearms manufacturers to fabricate firearm receivers, triggers, hammers, and other precision parts at low cost.


title: Investment casting

text: Karsten Solheim famously revolutionized golf club design through his company PING by incorporating investment casting for the first time for clubheads. Quickly the process became an industry standard to allow weight distribution around the perimeter of the clubhead.


title: Investment casting

text: Other industries that use standard investment-cast parts include military, aerospace, medical, jewelry, airline, automotive and golf clubs especially since the start of 3D printing technology.


title: Investment casting

text: With the increased availability of higher-resolution 3D printers, 3D printing has begun to be used to make much larger sacrificial moulds used in investment casting. Planetary Resources has used the technique to print the mould for a new small satellite, which is then dipped in ceramic to form the investment cast for a titanium space bus with integral propellant tank and embedded cable routing.


title: Tangent half-angle formula

text: In trigonometry, tangent half-angle formulas relate the tangent of half of an angle to trigonometric functions of the entire angle. The tangent of half an angle is the stereographic projection of the circle onto a line. Among these formulas are the following:


title: Tangent half-angle formula

text: From these one can derive identities expressing the sine, cosine, and tangent as functions of tangents of half-angles:


title: Tangent half-angle formula

text: It turns out that the absolute value signs in these last two formulas may be dropped, regardless of which quadrant is in. With or without the absolute value bars these formulas do not apply when both the numerator and denominator on the right-hand side are zero.


title: Tangent half-angle formula

text: In various applications of trigonometry, it is useful to rewrite the trigonometric functions (such as sine and cosine) in terms of rational functions of a new variable formula_25. These identities are known collectively as the tangent half-angle formulae because of the definition of formula_25. These identities can be useful in calculus for converting rational functions in sine and cosine to functions of in order to find their antiderivatives.


title: Tangent half-angle formula

text: Geometrically, the construction goes like this: for any point on the unit circle, draw the line passing through it and the point . This point crosses the -axis at some point . One can show using simple geometry that . The equation for the drawn line is . The equation for the intersection of the line and circle is then a quadratic equation involving . The two solutions to this equation are and . This allows us to write the latter as rational functions of (solutions are given below).


title: Tangent half-angle formula

text: The parameter represents the stereographic projection of the point onto the -axis with the center of projection at . Thus, the tangent half-angle formulae give conversions between the stereographic coordinate on the unit circle and the standard angular coordinate .


title: Tangent half-angle formula

text: By eliminating phi between the directly above and the initial definition of formula_25, one arrives at the following useful relationship for the arctangent in terms of the natural logarithm


title: Tangent half-angle formula

text: In calculus, the Weierstrass substitution is used to find antiderivatives of rational functions of and . After setting


title: Tangent half-angle formula

text: One can play an entirely analogous game with the hyperbolic functions. A point on (the right branch of) a hyperbola is given by . Projecting this onto -axis from the center gives the following:


title: Tangent half-angle formula

text: Finding in terms of leads to following relationship between the inverse hyperbolic tangent formula_37 and the natural logarithm:


title: Tangent half-angle formula

text: Comparing the hyperbolic identities to the circular ones, one notices that they involve the same functions of , just permuted. If we identify the parameter in both cases we arrive at a relationship between the circular functions and the hyperbolic ones. That is, if


title: Tangent half-angle formula

text: where is the Gudermannian function. The Gudermannian function gives a direct relationship between the circular functions and the hyperbolic ones that does not involve complex numbers. The above descriptions of the tangent half-angle formulae (projection the unit circle and standard hyperbola onto the -axis) give a geometric interpretation of this function.


title: Tangent half-angle formula

text: If is a rational number then each of , , , , , and will be a rational number (or be infinite). Likewise if is a rational number then each of , , , , , and will be a rational number (or be infinite). This is helpful with Pythagorean triples; each interior angle has a rational sine because of the SAS area formula for a triangle and has a rational cosine because of the Law of Cosines. These imply that the half-angle tangent is necessarily rational. Vice versa, when a half-angle tangent is a rational number in the interval then the full-angle sine and cosine will both be rational, and there is a right triangle that has the full angle and that has side lengths that are a Pythagorean triple.


title: Tangent half-angle formula

text: Generally, if is a subfield of the complex numbers then implies that }. A similar statement can be made about .


title: Dr. Dog

text: Dr. Dog is an American rock band based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Its lineup consists of Toby Leaman (bass guitar), Scott McMicken (lead guitar), Frank McElroy (rhythm guitar), Zach Miller (keyboard), Eric Slick (drums), and Michael Libramento (percussion, lap steel, acoustic guitar, bass). Lead vocal duties are shared between Leaman and McMicken, with all members contributing harmonies. In addition, each band member has a nickname beginning with the letter T, and they have explained that friends of the band also receive nicknames, which are drawn from aspects of their lives and personalities. (Former member Andrew "Trial" Jones, for example, is a licensed attorney.)


title: Dr. Dog

text: The band's musical styling of indie rock is strongly influenced by bands of the 1960s, such as The Beatles and The Beach Boys, but they have also touched upon more unrelated genres since their inception. Their earlier recordings show influence of the lo-fi sound and pop sensibilities of indie rock bands of the 1990s, such as Guided by Voices and Pavement, although recent albums have featured more polished production.


title: Dr. Dog

text: The origins of Dr. Dog trace back to Leaman and McMicken first playing music together in eighth grade. The two never played covers, instead, opting to write all of their own music. The band began as an offshoot of Leaman's and McMicken's earlier music project, during college at West Chester University, PA, called Raccoon. Dr. Dog formed with the addition of Miller, drummer Ted Mark, and guitarist Doug O'Donnell also while attending West Chester. Their early recordings were experimental and recorded on eight track. They self-recorded and self-released their first album "The Psychedelic Swamp" in 2001. Starting in 2002, Leaman, McMicken, and O'Donnell regularly played bluegrass with friends at the London Grill in the Fairmount Section of Philadelphia under the pseudonym "Conowingo Homeboys". Meanwhile, Leaman and O'Donnell split time in both Dr. Dog and another band, Doublehorse! They released "Toothbrush" in 2002. Mark left the band in 2003 and O'Donnell left in 2004. Juston Stens replaced Ted Mark on drums. The band's early years were spent largely in Philadelphia where they developed a small but dedicated fanbase touring with other local bands such as The Teeth.


title: Dr. Dog

text: In 2004, My Morning Jacket invited them on two tours after a copy of "Toothbrush" was given to Jim James after an MMJ show. Soon after, "The New York Times" music critic Kelefa Sanneh praised the group's album "Easy Beat" in a December 2004 article, leading to attention from other critics. They signed with Park The Van Records, who released the album "Easy Beat", and completed their first cross-country tour in 2005. A music video was released for the song "Fool's Life". Late 2005 saw the departure of Jones, who became a full-time lawyer. Jones was replaced by Frank McElroy, a friend of Stens from New Jersey. The band continued to tour heavily as their popularity grew, due in part to their use of the internet to promote their growing catalog.


title: Dr. Dog

text: By 2006, Dr. Dog started using a new studio as well as new recording equipment. Philadelphia engineer/producer Bill Moriarty, who they share the studio with, is credited in helping the members use this new equipment to create particular sounds they wanted in their new recordings due to his vast knowledge in recording tools and methods. That year, they released the "Takers and Leavers" EP. Two of the tracks on the EP would later be released on their next album. In 2007, they released "We All Belong", which has a markedly cleaner production compared to earlier albums. They appeared on the "Late Show with David Letterman" in support of the album.


title: Dr. Dog

text: Through the late summer of 2007, Dr. Dog streamed ten unreleased tracks on their website, with a new song debuting weekly. Songs were posted each Monday from July 2 until September 3. These recordings were later released as an album titled "Passed Away, Vol. 1". In 2008, the band released "Fate". They appeared again on "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" on July 17, 2008, in support of the album and on "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon" on April 2, 2009, as well as "The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson". The band went on tour with The Cave Singers and label-mates Golden Boots.


title: Dr. Dog

text: On July 29, 2009, Dr. Dog signed to ANTI- Records. The first album on their new label, titled "Shame, Shame", was released on April 6, 2010. Scott McMicken characterized the album as more modern, and a little more punk rock, more prominently featuring electric guitars, so as to accurately reflect the band's live show. In early 2010, Eric Slick replaced Juston Stens on drums for the Shame, Shame tours although Stens plays most of the drums on the record. Stens continues to make music with Juston Stens and the Get Real Gang. Dr. Dog toured in support of Shame, Shame for about two years and performed again on "The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson". For 2010's Black Friday Record Store Day, the band released a limited red and blue 7" collection of four tracks recorded in summer 2011. These were the first songs recorded with Eric Slick on drums. They were later rereleased with "Shame, Shame" as a deluxe edition of the album.


title: Dr. Dog

text: On October 26, 2011, McMicken announced that their new album, "Be the Void" would be released in February 2012. Recorded at the band's "Meth Beach" studio and co-produced by Nathan Sabatino of Golden Boots. This was the first full album made with Dimitri Manos, also in the band Golden Boots, as an official member of the band. He played drums on "Easy Beat" and once filled in for Juston Stens last minute for a whole tour. They released a new 7" on a variety of colors for the November 2011 Record Store Day including the tracks "Warrior Man" and "Control Yourself" which would appear on "Be The Void". On January 31, 2012, "Be The Void" was first available to be streamed on Conan O'Brien's website one week before its official release. It was officially released on February 7 on ANTI- Records. They performed the song "That Old Black Hole" on "Conan", February 8 and "Lonesome" on "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon", on March 23. Performances in Los Angeles' Orpheum Theatre during their tour were also shown on "Last Call with Carson Daly".


title: Dr. Dog

text: On September 27, 2012, Dr. Dog announced on their Facebook page that their new EP, "Wild Race", would be released digitally on October 2. The EP was recorded and mixed with Nathan Sabatino during the sessions for "Be the Void".


title: Dr. Dog

text: On July 22, 2013, the band announced their next album, "B-Room" and the lead single "The Truth". To record the album the band built an all-new studio in February 2013 in Clifton Heights, PA nicknamed "Mount Slippery. All songs were tracked live in the room that eventually led to the album's name. "B-Room" was released on October 1, 2013 after streaming for free for one week on "Rolling Stone"" website. The album received generally positive reviews.


title: Dr. Dog

text: Dr. Dog's first live album, "Live at a Flamingo Hotel" became available of January 13, 2015. The album was assembled from performances over 20 concerts during the "B-Room" tour.


title: Dr. Dog

text: In September 2015, Leaman revealed that the band has revisited 2001's "Psychedelic Swamp", and the album would finally get an official release in 2016. He told Kelly Rae Smith of the Charleston City Paper, "It's actually weird working on that stuff, because you know usually when you're working on a record — or almost always when you're working on a record — you're working on new tunes. And with this one, we're working on the oldest Dr. Dog tunes around. It's really interesting. You're almost treating your own songs like they're cover songs, and it's songs that we didn't even really play live, so we didn't have any real concept of what the arrangement would end up being like." The album "The Psychedelic Swamp" was released on February 5, 2016, on the ANTI- label and was produced by Nathan Sabatino.


title: Dr. Dog

text: On November 29, 2016, Dr. Dog dropped a surprise album on Bandcamp titled "Abandoned Mansion." The album was made available to stream for free and all proceeds received through January 31, 2017 would benefit the Southern Poverty Law Center. The album was released on the band's new label We Buy Gold Records as they previously ended their relationship with ANTI- over the priorities of "Abandoned Mansion" against "Psychedelic Swamp". The band did not tour in support of "Mansion" and took a brief hiatus.


title: Dr. Dog

text: On January 3, 2018, the band teased their new album titled "Critical Equation" on their website and on Twitter. The album was officially announced for an April 27, 2018 release on the We Buy Gold label releasing via Thirty Tigers. Press and reviews for "Critical Equation" was generally positive. On February 8, 2019, the band released "Critical 7"" featuring two songs from the "Critical Equation" sessions. In October 2019 the band announced a 15-city winter 2020 tour which concluded in late February 2020 before the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States disrupted the live music business.


title: Dr. Dog

text: On January 29, 2021, the band made their 2019 Record Store Day album "Live 2" available for streaming and digital purchase. In mid 2021 the band released a cover of "Here Comes The Hotstepper" by reggae singer Ini Kamoze.


title: Dr. Dog

text: On June 7, 2021, the band announced they were retiring from touring but were not disbanding and would perform one final tour in autumn 2021 across 31 cities in North America, concluding with a five-night residency in their hometown of Philadelphia.


title: Dr. Dog

text: On September 14, 2022 the band announced their February 2020 residency at The Independent in San Francisco would be released as four live albums, titled "Four Nights Live in San Francisco," monthly from September 14 to December 5. In their email newsletter announcement they shared that each individual member of the band is pursuing solo work but they planned to record new music together as Dr. Dog in 2023.


title: Cache coherence

text: In computer architecture, cache coherence is the uniformity of shared resource data that ends up stored in multiple local caches. When clients in a system maintain caches of a common memory resource, problems may arise with incoherent data, which is particularly the case with CPUs in a multiprocessing system.


title: Cache coherence

text: In the illustration on the right, consider both the clients have a cached copy of a particular memory block from a previous read. Suppose the client on the bottom updates/changes that memory block, the client on the top could be left with an invalid cache of memory without any notification of the change. Cache coherence is intended to manage such conflicts by maintaining a coherent view of the data values in multiple caches.


title: Cache coherence

text: In a shared memory multiprocessor system with a separate cache memory for each processor, it is possible to have many copies of shared data: one copy in the main memory and one in the local cache of each processor that requested it. When one of the copies of data is changed, the other copies must reflect that change. Cache coherence is the discipline which ensures that the changes in the values of shared operands (data) are propagated throughout the system in a timely fashion.


title: Cache coherence

text: Theoretically, coherence can be performed at the load/store granularity. However, in practice it is generally performed at the granularity of cache blocks.


title: Cache coherence

text: One type of data occurring simultaneously in different cache memory is called cache coherence, or in some systems, global memory.


title: Cache coherence

text: In a multiprocessor system, consider that more than one processor has cached a copy of the memory location X. The following conditions are necessary to achieve cache coherence:


title: Cache coherence

text: The above conditions satisfy the Write Propagation criteria required for cache coherence. However, they are not sufficient as they do not satisfy the Transaction Serialization condition. To illustrate this better, consider the following example:


title: Cache coherence

text: A multi-processor system consists of four processors - P1, P2, P3 and P4, all containing cached copies of a shared variable "S" whose initial value is 0. Processor P1 changes the value of "S" (in its cached copy) to 10 following which processor P2 changes the value of "S" in its own cached copy to 20. If we ensure only write propagation, then P3 and P4 will certainly see the changes made to "S" by P1 and P2. However, P3 may see the change made by P1 after seeing the change made by P2 and hence return 10 on a read to "S". P4 on the other hand may see changes made by P1 and P2 in the order in which they are made and hence return 20 on a read to "S". The processors P3 and P4 now have an incoherent view of the memory.


title: Cache coherence

text: Therefore, in order to satisfy Transaction Serialization, and hence achieve Cache Coherence, the following condition along with the previous two mentioned in this section must be met:


title: Cache coherence

text: The alternative definition of a coherent system is via the definition of sequential consistency memory model: "the cache coherent system must appear to execute all threads’ loads and stores to a "single" memory location in a total order that respects the program order of each thread". Thus, the only difference between the cache coherent system and sequentially consistent system is in the number of address locations the definition talks about (single memory location for a cache coherent system, and all memory locations for a sequentially consistent system).


title: Cache coherence

text: Another definition is: "a multiprocessor is cache consistent if all writes to the same memory location are performed in some sequential order".


title: Cache coherence

text: Multiple copies of same data can exist in different cache simultaneously and if processors are allowed to update their own copies freely, an inconsistent view of memory can result.


title: Cache coherence

text: The two most common mechanisms of ensuring coherency are "snooping" and "directory-based", each having their own benefits and drawbacks. Snooping based protocols tend to be faster, if enough bandwidth is available, since all transactions are a request/response seen by all processors. The drawback is that snooping isn't scalable. Every request must be broadcast to all nodes in a system, meaning that as the system gets larger, the size of the (logical or physical) bus and the bandwidth it provides must grow. Directories, on the other hand, tend to have longer latencies (with a 3 hop request/forward/respond) but use much less bandwidth since messages are point to point and not broadcast. For this reason, many of the larger systems (>64 processors) use this type of cache coherence.


title: Cache coherence

text: Distributed shared memory systems mimic these mechanisms in an attempt to maintain consistency between blocks of memory in loosely coupled systems.


title: Cache coherence

text: Coherence protocols apply cache coherence in multiprocessor systems. The intention is that two clients must never see different values for the same shared data.


title: Cache coherence

text: The protocol must implement the basic requirements for coherence. It can be tailor-made for the target system or application.


title: Cache coherence

text: Protocols can also be classified as snoopy or directory-based. Typically, early systems used directory-based protocols where a directory would keep a track of the data being shared and the sharers. In snoopy protocols, the transaction requests (to read, write, or upgrade) are sent out to all processors. All processors snoop the request and respond appropriately.


title: Cache coherence

text: If the protocol design states that whenever any copy of the shared data is changed, all the other copies must be "updated" to reflect the change, then it is a write-update protocol. If the design states that a write to a cached copy by any processor requires other processors to discard or invalidate their cached copies, then it is a write-invalidate protocol.


title: Cache coherence

text: Various models and protocols have been devised for maintaining coherence, such as MSI, MESI (aka Illinois), MOSI, MOESI, MERSI, MESIF, write-once, Synapse, Berkeley, Firefly and Dragon protocol. In 2011, ARM Ltd proposed the AMBA 4 ACE for handling coherency in SoCs. The AMBA CHI (Coherent Hub Interface) specification from ARM Ltd, which belongs to AMBA5 group of specifications defines the interfaces for the connection of fully coherent processors.


title: Christian Rosenkreuz

text: Christian Rosenkreuz (also spelled Rosenkreutz, Rosencreutz, Christiani Rosencreütz and Christian Rose Cross) is the legendary, possibly allegorical, founder of the Rosicrucian Order (Order of the Rose Cross). He is presented in three manifestos that were published early in the 17th century. These were:


title: Christian Rosenkreuz

text: According to the legend, Christian Rosenkreuz was a medieval German aristocrat, orphaned at the age of four and raised in a monastery, where he studied for twelve years. He discovered and learned esoteric wisdom on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, among Turkish, Arab, and Persian sages, possibly Sufi or Zoroastrian masters, supposedly in the early 15th century (see § Symbolism of the numbers in the Manifestos); returned and founded the "Fraternity of the Rose Cross" with himself (Frater C.R.C.) as Head of the Order. Under his direction a Temple, called Sanctus Spiritus, or "The House of the Holy Spirit", was built.


title: Christian Rosenkreuz

text: It is described that his body, as discovered by a Brother of the Order, was in a perfect state of preservation 120 years after his death (which occurred in absolute secrecy) – as Rosenkreuz had predicted — in a heptagonal chamber erected by himself as a storehouse of knowledge. It is described that on the sarcophagus in the centre of the Crypt of Christian Rosenkreutz were written, among other inscriptions the words, "Jesus mihi omnia, nequaquam vacuum, libertas evangelii, dei intacta gloria, legis jugum" ("Jesus is everything to me, by no means empty, the freedom of the gospel, the untouched glory of God, the yoke of the law"), testifying to the builder's Christian character.


title: Christian Rosenkreuz

text: Rosenkreuz's crypt, according to the description presented in the legend, is located in the interior of the Earth, recalling the alchemical motto V.I.T.R.I.O.L.:  Visita Interiora Terrae Rectificando Invenies Occultum Lapidem ("Visit the interior of the Earth; by rectification thou shalt find the hidden stone").


title: Christian Rosenkreuz

text: According to some researchers, Christian Rosenkreuz was the last descendant of the Germelshausen, a German family which flourished in the 13th century. Their castle stood in the Thuringian Forest on the Border of Hesse and they had embraced Albigensian (i.e., Cathar) doctrines, combining Gnostic and Christian beliefs. The whole family was put to death by Konrad von Marburg except for the youngest son, who was only five years old. He was carried away secretly by a monk who was an Albigensian adept from Languedoc. The child was placed in a monastery which had already come under the influence of the Albigenses, where he was educated and made the acquaintance of the four other brothers who were later to be associated with him in the founding of the Rosicrucian Brotherhood. His account derives from oral tradition.


title: Christian Rosenkreuz

text: Some occultists including Rudolf Steiner, Max Heindel and (much later) Guy Ballard, have stated that Rosenkreuz later reappeared as the Count of St. Germain, a courtier, adventurer and alchemist who reportedly died on 27 February 1784. Steiner once identified Rembrandt's painting "A Man in Armour" as a portrait of Christian Rosenkreuz, apparently in a 17th-century manifestation. Others believe Rosenkreuz to be a pseudonym for a more famous historical figure, usually Francis Bacon. Steiner gave lectures on Rosenkreutz and Rosicrucianism.


title: Christian Rosenkreuz

text: The legend presented in the Manifestos has been interpreted symbolically (as were all hermetic and alchemical texts of those times). They do not directly state Christian Rosenkreuz's years of birth and death, but in two sentences in the second Manifesto the year 1378 is presented as being the birth year of "our Christian Father", and it is stated that he lived for 106 years, which would mean he died in 1484. The foundation of the Order can be supposed in similar terms to have occurred in the year 1407. However, these numbers (and deduced years) are not taken literally by many students of occultism, who consider them to be allegorical and symbolic statements for the understanding of the initiated. The justification for this relies on the Manifestos themselves: on the one hand, the Rosicrucians clearly adopted through the Manifestos the Pythagorean tradition of envisioning objects and ideas in terms of their numeric aspects, and, on the other hand, they directly state, "We speak unto you by parables, but would willingly bring you to the right, simple, easy and ingenuous exposition, understanding, declaration, and knowledge of all secrets."


title: Christian Rosenkreuz

text: The metaphorical nature of these legends lends a nebulous quality to the origins of Rosicrucianism. The opening of Rosenkreuz's tomb is thought to be a way of referring to the cycles in nature and to cosmic events; and as well, to the opening of new possibilities for mankind consequent on the advances of the 16th and early 17th centuries. Similarly, Rosenkreuz's pilgrimage seems to refer to the transmutation steps of the Great Work.


title: Christian Rosenkreuz

text: Similar legends may be found in Wolfram von Eschenbach's description of the Holy Grail as the "Lapis Exillis", guarded by the Knights Templar, or in the Philosophers' stone of the alchemists, the "Lapis Elixir".


title: Eastern Iranian languages

text: The Eastern Iranian languages are a subgroup of the Iranian languages emerging in Middle Iranian times (from c. the 4th century BC). The Avestan language is often classified as early Eastern Iranian. As opposed to the Middle Western Iranian dialects, the Middle Eastern Iranian preserves word-final syllables.


title: Eastern Iranian languages

text: The largest living Eastern Iranian language is Pashto, with some 40-60 million speakers between the Oxus River in Afghanistan and the Indus River in Pakistan. The second-largest language is Ossetic with roughly 600,000 speakers. All other languages have fewer than 200,000 speakers combined.


title: Eastern Iranian languages

text: Most living Eastern Iranian languages are spoken in a contiguous area, in southern and eastern Afghanistan as well as the adjacent parts of western Pakistan, Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province of eastern Tajikistan, and the far west of Xinjiang region of China. There are also two living members in widely separated areas: the Yaghnobi language of northwestern Tajikistan (descended from Sogdian), and the Ossetic language of the Caucasus (descended from Scytho-Sarmatian). These are remnants of a vast ethno-linguistic continuum that stretched over most of Central Asia, Eastern Europe, and parts of the Caucasus, and West Asia in the 1st millennium BC, otherwise known as Scythia. The large Eastern Iranian continuum in Eastern Europe would continue up to including the 4th century AD, with the successors of the Scythians, namely the Sarmatians.


title: Eastern Iranian languages

text: Western Iranian is thought to have separated from Proto-Iranian in the course of the later 2nd millennium BC not long after Avestan, possibly occurring in the Yaz culture. Eastern Iranian followed suit, and developed in place of Proto-Iranian, spoken within the Andronovo horizon.


title: Eastern Iranian languages

text: With Greek presence in Central Asia, some of the easternmost of these languages were recorded in their Middle Iranian stage (hence the "Eastern" classification), while almost no records of the Scytho-Sarmatian continuum stretching from Kazakhstan west across the Pontic steppe to Ukraine have survived. Some authors find that the Eastern Iranian people had an influence on Russian folk culture.


title: Eastern Iranian languages

text: Middle Persian/Dari spread around the Oxus River region, Afghanistan, and Khorasan after the Arab conquests and during Islamic-Arab rule. The replacement of the Pahlavi script with the Arabic script in order to write the Persian language was done by the Tahirids in 9th century Khorasan. The Persian Dari language spread and led to the extinction of Eastern Iranic languages like Bactrian and Khorezmian, with only a tiny amount of Sogdian descended Yaghnobi speakers remaining among the now Persian speaking Tajik population of Central Asia, due to the fact that the Arab-Islamic army which invaded Central Asia also included some Persians who later governed the region like the Samanids. Persian was rooted into Central Asia by the Samanids.


title: Eastern Iranian languages

text: Eastern Iranian remains in large part a dialect continuum subject to common innovation. Traditional branches, such as "Northeastern", as well as Eastern Iranian itself, are better considered language areas rather than genetic groups.


title: Eastern Iranian languages

text: Avestan is sometimes classified as Eastern Iranian, but is not assigned to a branch in recent classifications.


title: Eastern Iranian languages

text: Common to most Eastern Iranian languages is a particularly widespread lenition of the voiced stops *b, *d, *g. Between vowels, these have been lenited also in most Western Iranian languages, but in Eastern Iranian, spirantization also generally occurs in the word-initial position. This phenomenon is however not apparent in Avestan, and remains absent from Ormuri-Parachi.


title: Eastern Iranian languages

text: A series of spirant consonants can be assumed to have been the first stage: *b > *β, *d > *ð, *g > *ɣ. The voiced velar fricative has mostly been preserved. The labial member has been well-preserved too, but in most languages has shifted from a voiced bilabial fricative to the voiced labiodental fricative . The dental member has proved the most unstable: while a voiced dental fricative is preserved in some Pamir languages, it has in e.g. Pashto and Munji lenited further to . On the other hand, in Yaghnobi and Ossetian, the development appears to have been reversed, leading to the reappearance of a voiced stop . (Both languages have also shifted earlier *θ > .)


title: Eastern Iranian languages

text: The consonant clusters *ft and *xt have also been widely lenited, though again excluding Ormuri-Parachi, and possibly Yaghnobi.


title: Eastern Iranian languages

text: The neighboring Indo-Aryan languages have exerted a pervasive external influence on the closest neighbouring Eastern Iranian, as it is evident in the development in the retroflex consonants (in Pashto, Wakhi, Sanglechi, Khotanese, etc.) and aspirates (in Khotanese, Parachi and Ormuri). A more localized sound change is the backing of the former retroflex fricative "ṣ̌" , to "x̌" or to "x" , found in the Shughni–Yazgulyam branch and certain dialects of Pashto. E.g. "meat": "ɡuṣ̌t" in Wakhi and "γwaṣ̌a" in Southern Pashto, but changes to in Shughni, "γwax̌a" in Central and Northern Pashto.


title: Fried ice cream

text: Fried ice cream is a dessert made of a scoop of ice cream that is frozen hard, breaded or coated in a batter, and quickly deep-fried, creating a warm, crispy shell around the still-cold ice cream.


title: Fried ice cream

text: There are conflicting stories about the dessert's origin. Some claim that it was first served during the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, where the ice cream sundae was also invented. Though in 1894, a Philadelphia company was given credit for its invention describing: "A small, solid [cake] of the ice cream is enveloped in a thin sheet of pie crust and then dipped into boiling lard or butter to cook the outside to a crisp. Served immediately, the ice cream is found to be as solidly frozen as it was first prepared." A third claim, beginning in the 1960s proposes that fried ice cream was invented by Japanese tempura.


title: Fried ice cream

text: In the United States, fried ice cream has been associated with Asian cuisine, appearing in reviews of Chinese, Japanese, and Polynesian restaurants in the "Dining Out" section of the "New York Times" in the 1970s. It also came to be associated with Mexican cuisine, in large part due to national chain Chi-Chi's adopting a fried ice cream made with tortillas and cinnamon as its "signature dessert" when it opened in the early 1980s.


title: Fried ice cream

text: In Australia, fried ice cream is strongly associated with Asian cuisine and particularly Australian Chinese cuisine. It is frequently served with caramel sauce.


title: Fried ice cream

text: The dessert is commonly made by taking a scoop of ice cream frozen well below the temperature at which ice cream is generally kept, possibly coating it in raw egg, rolling it in cornflakes or cookie crumbs, and briefly deep frying it. The extremely low temperature of the ice cream prevents it from melting while being fried. It may be sprinkled with cinnamon and sugar and a touch of peppermint, though whipped cream or honey may be used as well.


title: Fried ice cream

text: The Asian recipe usually uses tempura batter. Mexican versions use corn flakes, nuts, cookie crumbs, or tortillas for coating. Common flavors in Asian restaurants are green tea, vanilla, taro, and red bean.


title: Fried ice cream

text: In the 1984 Scottish film "Comfort and Joy", two branches of an Italian-Scottish family come to blows when the side known for its fish and chips starts selling ice cream under the name "Mr Bunny" in direct competition with the other branch, which is already selling ice cream under the brand "McCool." Local DJ Alan "Dickie" Bird successfully mediates a solution the radio station's Katy Pollock mention a Chinese delicacy called ice cream fritters. McCool and Mr Bunny thus embark on a joint venture to make and sell them under the trade name "Frosty Hots."


title: The Wave (novel)

text: The Wave is a 1981 young adult novel by Todd Strasser under the pen name Morton Rhue (though it has been reprinted under Todd Strasser's real name). It is a novelization of a teleplay by Johnny Dawkins for the movie "The Wave", a fictionalized account of the "Third Wave" teaching experiment by Ron Jones that took place in an Ellwood P. Cubberley High School history class in Palo Alto, California. The novel by Strasser won the 1981 Massachusetts Book Award for Children's/Young Adult literature.


title: The Wave (novel)

text: The setting of the book is Gordon High School in Spring 1969. The plot revolves around a history teacher Mr. Ben Ross, his high school students, and an experiment he conducts in an attempt to teach them what it may have been like living in Third Reich Germany. Unsatisfied with his own inability to answer his students' earnest questions of how and why, Mr. Ross initiates the experiment (The Wave) in hopes that it answers the question of why the Germans allowed Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party to rise to power, acting in a manner inconsistent with their own lies and sins.


title: The Wave (novel)

text: Ross considers this and plans an experiment: the next day, he starts to indoctrinate the class using the slogan STRENGTH THROUGH DISCIPLINE, ordering them around in ways such as sitting in a specific way, and telling how to answer questions. The class reacts well to this, embracing the sense of empowerment it gives them, and they continue their newly disciplined behavior into a second day of class, surprising Ross. He decides to take the experiment further and create a group, The Wave, adding two more slogans—STRENGTH THROUGH COMMUNITY and STRENGTH THROUGH ACTION—which leads to further rules of conduct, a symbol, a salute, and an organizational structure.


title: The Wave (novel)

text: Laurie Saunders, a student in Mr. Ross's class early in the week, starts to think that The Wave is having too much of an impact. Laurie receives a letter for the school paper, of which she is editor in chief, detailing how members try to recruit others with bullying. That weekend, the football team is unable to win against Clarkstown, as their newfound drive does not compensate for a lack of proper training and planning. Laurie's boyfriend David is confused by this turn of events, as the football team had joined the Wave, while Laurie and her staff on The Grapevine plan a special issue of the paper devoted exclusively to The Wave and the negative impact it has had on the school. While some thank her, especially the teachers and the principal, others do not. David, who has been in The Wave since the beginning and her boyfriend either, tries to get her to stop bad-mouthing it. He eventually shoves her to the ground and this makes him realize how dangerous The Wave really is. Now united in the belief that The Wave must be stopped, Laurie and David go to the Ross home in order to convince Ben Ross to terminate the program. He tells them he will do exactly that, but that they must trust his moves the next day.


title: The Wave (novel)

text: He calls a Wave meeting in the auditorium and requests that only Wave members be present. They gather in a similar fashion to the Nazi rallies, even equipped with banners and armbands emblazoned with the Wave. Ben tells The Wave members that they are only one in many schools across the nation that is involved in the Wave, and that they are about to see the leader of the whole organization and that he is going to speak to all of them on television to create a National Wave Party for Youths. Everyone is shocked when Mr. Ross projects the image of Adolf Hitler. He explains that there is no leader, and that there is no National Wave Party. If there were a leader, it would be the man on the projection screen. He explains how their obedience led them to act like Nazis. The shocked students drop all their Wave-branded trinkets and items, and slowly leave the room. As Ben turns to leave, the one person who really flourished in the Wave, Robert, is standing alone, upset that The Wave ended. During The Wave, he was finally accepted as an equal, no one picked on him, and he had friends, but his new-found social status is now worthless without The Wave.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: Dugway Proving Ground (DPG) is a U.S. Army facility established in 1942 to test biological and chemical weapons, located about southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah, United States, and south of the Utah Test and Training Range.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: Dugway Proving Ground is located about southwest of Salt Lake City, Utah, in southern Tooele County and just north of Juab County. It encompasses of the Great Salt Lake Desert, an area the size of the state of Rhode Island, and is surrounded on three sides by mountain ranges. It had a resident population of 795 as of the 2010 United States Census, all of whom lived in the community of Dugway, Utah, at its extreme eastern end.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: It is south of the Utah Test and Training Range and together they form the largest block of overland contiguous special use airspace measured from surface or near surface within the continental U.S.().


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: The transcontinental Lincoln Highway passed through the present site of the Dugway Proving Ground, and is the only section of the old highway closed to the public. At least one old wooden bridge over a creek still stands. The name "Dugway" comes from a technique of digging a trench into a hillside to create a flat surface along which a wagon can travel.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: Dugway's mission is to test United States and Allied biological and chemical weapon defense systems in a secure and isolated environment. DPG also serves as a facility for US Army Reserve and US National Guard maneuver training, and US Air Force flight tests, mostly from nearby Hill Air Force Base in Clearfield. DPG is controlled by the United States Army Test and Evaluation Command (ATEC). The area has also been used by Army special forces for training in preparation for deployments to the War in Afghanistan.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: In 1941, the US Army Chemical Warfare Service (CWS) determined it needed a testing facility more remote than the US Army's Edgewood Arsenal in Maryland. The CWS surveyed the Western U.S. for a new location to conduct its tests, and in the spring of 1942, construction of Dugway Proving Ground began, including the establishment of Michael Army Airfield. Since its founding, much of Dugway Proving Ground activity has been a closely guarded secret.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: Testing commenced in the summer of 1942. During World War II, DPG tested toxic agents, flamethrowers, chemical spray systems, biological warfare weapons, fire bombing tactics, antidotes for chemical agents, and protective clothing. During 1943 the "German Village" and "Japanese Village" set-piece domestic "hamlets" were built at Dugway, for practice in the fire-bombing of homes of the types in urbanized areas of Nazi Germany and the Japanese Empire's Home Islands.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: In October 1943, DPG established biological warfare facilities at UTTR's range telemetry and tracking radar installation, which is an isolated area within DPG known as the Granite Peak Installation. DPG was slowly phased out after World War II, becoming inactive in August 1946.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: The base was reactivated during the Korean War, under Commanding Officer Lieutenant Colonel Speers Ponder, and in 1954 was confirmed as a permanent Department of the Army installation. In October 1958, the United States Army Chemical Center, Maryland, moved the U.S. Army Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Weapons School to Dugway Proving Ground. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Project Bellwether—a study of weaponized, mosquito-spread infections—was based at DPG.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: From 1985 to 1991, Dugway Proving Ground was home to the Ranger School's short-lived Desert Training Phase. It was first known as the Desert Ranger Division (DRD) until redesignated the Ranger Training Brigade's 7th Ranger Training Battalion in 1987, and taught students basic desert survival skills and small unit tactics. The program was later moved back to its original site at Fort Bliss, Texas, in 1991, where it was deactivated in 1995.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: On September 8, 2004, the Genesis, a NASA spacecraft, was directed to impact into the desert floor of the Dugway Proving Ground because the topsoil there is like talcum powder, or moondust, and would likely cushion the troubled spacecraft's impact. The Genesis spacecraft's accelerometer had been installed backwards, which caused the spacecraft to malfunction upon re-entry to Earth's atmosphere preventing the originally planned air retrieval.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: On January 26, 2011, Dugway Proving Ground was placed on lockdown. Al Vogel, a public affairs specialist for the installation, would only say that the lockdown began at 5:24 p.m. Employees were not allowed to leave, and those coming to work were not allowed in. Vogel said there were no injuries, no damage and no threats reported at the proving ground. There were about 1,200 to 1,400 people at Dugway when the lockdown occurred. It was later announced that the lockdown was in response to the temporary loss of a vial containing VX nerve agent. The lockdown was lifted on January 27 following recovery of the material. The incident was described simply as a mislabeling problem.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: Dugway Proving Ground was also home to the High Resolution Fly's Eye Cosmic Ray Detector, which discovered the first ultra-high-energy cosmic ray. Dugway is home to several radio telemetry and tracking radar (i.e. RIR-777, TPQ-39 (Ver. V) and MPQ-39) sites which track national flight assets during flight tests at UTTR.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: Activities included aerial nerve agent testing. According to reports from "New Scientist", Dugway was still producing quantities of anthrax spores as late as 2015 to be used to develop anthrax testing detection and countermeasures, more than four decades after the United States renounced biological weapons, and shipping material intended to be inert to military bases and military contractors around the globe. There were at least 1,100 other chemical tests at Dugway during the time period of the Dugway sheep incident (see below). In total, almost 500,000 lb (230,000 kg) of nerve agent were dispersed during open-air tests. There were also tests at Dugway involving other weapons of mass destruction, including 328 open-air tests of biological weapons, 74 dirty bomb tests, and eight furnace heatings of nuclear material under open-air conditions to simulate the dispersal of fallout in the case of meltdown of aeronautic nuclear reactors.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: In March 1968, 6,249 sheep died in Skull Valley, an area nearly thirty miles from Dugway's testing sites. When examined, the sheep were found to have been poisoned by an organophosphate chemical. The sickening of the sheep, known as the Dugway sheep incident, coincided with several open-air tests of the nerve agent VX at Dugway. Local attention focused on the Army, which initially denied that VX had caused the deaths, instead blaming the local use of organophosphate pesticides on crops. Necropsies conducted on the dead sheep later definitively identified the presence of VX. The Army never admitted liability, but did pay the ranchers for their losses. On the official record, the claim was for 4,372 "disabled" sheep, of which about 2,150 were either killed outright by the VX exposure or were so critically injured that they needed to be euthanized on-site by veterinarians. Another 1,877 sheep were "temporarily" injured, or showed no signs of injury but ultimately were not marketable due to their potential exposure. All of the exposed sheep that survived the initial exposure were eventually euthanized by the ranchers, since even the potential for exposure had rendered the sheep permanently unsalable for either meat or wool.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: The incident, coinciding with the birth of the environmental movement and anti-Vietnam War protests, created an uproar in Utah and the international community.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: The U.S. General Accounting Office issued a report on September 28, 1994, which stated that between 1940 and 1974, DOD and other national security agencies performed "hundreds, perhaps thousands" of weapons tests and experiments involving hazardous substances.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: More specifically, there are reports that certain nerve agents such as tetrodotoxin and datura stramonium have been tested at this military base. The complete nerve agent was code-named "VX"—one of a series of "V" nerve agents tested at the base.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: In May 2015 it was revealed that Dugway lab had inadvertently shipped live anthrax bacillus to locations around the country. Shipped samples, it was said, were supposed to be inert. Labs receiving the live samples were in Texas, Maryland, Wisconsin, Delaware, New Jersey, Tennessee, New York, California and Virginia, the Associated Press reported. Days after the first report, the military divulged that the mis-shipments had been broader than initially reported and launched an investigation. Dugway was involved in developing a test to identify biological threats in the field.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: In September 2018, the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) released findings of an investigation into the anthrax shipping lapses made at Dugway. The investigation looked into whether "systemic oversight changes regarding biosecurity have since been implemented across DOD facilities. The findings are mixed." The U.S. Army had sought 35 specific changes, but only 18 of those 35 changes have been made, as of the GAO report. According to the report, the DOD "had not fully identified the infrastructure capabilities required to address threats, had not planned to identify potential duplication without considering information from existing federal studies, and had not updated its guidance and planning process to include specific responsibilities and time frames for risk assessments." On December 13, 2019, the U.S. Air Force said it had kept the Ultra Long Endurance Aircraft Platform (Ultra LEAP) at the Dugway Proving Ground in Utah airborne for two days during testing of the surveillance drone at the site.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: Following the public attention drawn to Area 51 in the early 1990s, UFOlogists and concerned citizens have suggested that whatever covert operations may have been underway at that location, if any, were subsequently transferred to DPG.


title: Dugway Proving Ground

text: The "Deseret News" reported that Dave Rosenfeld, president of Utah UFO Hunters, claimed but provided no proof for "Numerous UFOs have been stored and reported in the area in and around Dugway ... [military aircraft can't account for] all the unknowns seen in the area. It might be that our star visitors are keeping an eye on Dugway too. ... [Dugway is] the "new" Area 51. And probably the new military spaceport."


title: Column chromatography

text: Column chromatography in chemistry is a chromatography method used to isolate a single chemical compound from a mixture. Chromatography is able to separate substances based on differential adsorption of compounds to the adsorbent; compounds move through the column at different rates, allowing them to be separated into fractions. The technique is widely applicable, as many different adsorbents (normal phase, reversed phase, or otherwise) can be used with a wide range of solvents. The technique can be used on scales from micrograms up to kilograms. The main advantage of column chromatography is the relatively low cost and disposability of the stationary phase used in the process. The latter prevents cross-contamination and stationary phase degradation due to recycling. Column chromatography can be done using gravity to move the solvent, or using compressed gas to push the solvent through the column.


title: Column chromatography

text: A thin-layer chromatograph can show how a mixture of compounds will behave when purified by column chromatography. The separation is first optimised using thin-layer chromatography before performing column chromatography.


title: Column chromatography

text: A column is prepared by packing a solid adsorbent into a cylindrical glass or plastic tube. The size will depend on the amount of compound being isolated. The base of the tube contains a filter, either a cotton or glass wool plug, or glass frit to hold the solid phase in place. A solvent reservoir may be attached at the top of the column.


title: Column chromatography

text: Two methods are generally used to prepare a column: the dry method and the wet method. For the dry method, the column is first filled with dry stationary phase powder, followed by the addition of mobile phase, which is flushed through the column until it is completely wet, and from this point is never allowed to run dry. For the wet method, a slurry is prepared of the eluent with the stationary phase powder and then carefully poured into the column. The top of the silica should be flat, and the top of the silica can be protected by a layer of sand. Eluent is slowly passed through the column to advance the organic material.


title: Column chromatography

text: The individual components are retained by the stationary phase differently and separate from each other while they are running at different speeds through the column with the eluent. At the end of the column they elute one at a time. During the entire chromatography process the eluent is collected in a series of fractions. Fractions can be collected automatically by means of fraction collectors. The productivity of chromatography can be increased by running several columns at a time. In this case multi stream collectors are used. The composition of the eluent flow can be monitored and each fraction is analyzed for dissolved compounds, e.g. by analytical chromatography, UV absorption spectra, or fluorescence. Colored compounds (or fluorescent compounds with the aid of a UV lamp) can be seen through the glass wall as moving bands.


title: Column chromatography

text: The "stationary phase" or "adsorbent" in column chromatography is a solid. The most common stationary phase for column chromatography is silica gel, the next most common being alumina. Cellulose powder has often been used in the past. A wide range of stationary phases are available in order to perform ion exchange chromatography, reversed-phase chromatography (RP), affinity chromatography or expanded bed adsorption (EBA). The stationary phases are usually finely ground powders or gels and/or are microporous for an increased surface, though in EBA a fluidized bed is used. There is an important ratio between the stationary phase weight and the dry weight of the analyte mixture that can be applied onto the column. For silica column chromatography, this ratio lies within 20:1 to 100:1, depending on how close to each other the analyte components are being eluted.


title: Column chromatography

text: The "mobile phase" or "eluent" is a solvent or a mixture of solvents used to move the compounds through the column. It is chosen so that the retention factor value of the compound of interest is roughly around 0.2 - 0.3 in order to minimize the time and the amount of eluent to run the chromatography. The eluent has also been chosen so that the different compounds can be separated effectively. The eluent is optimized in small scale pretests, often using thin layer chromatography (TLC) with the same stationary phase, using solvents of different polarity until a suitable solvent system is found. Common mobile phase solvents, in order of increasing polarity, include hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, acetone, and methanol. A common solvent system is a mixture of hexane and ethyl acetate, with proportions adjusted until the target compound has a retention factor of 0.2 - 0.3. Contrary to common misconception, methanol alone can be used as an eluent for highly polar compounds, and does not dissolve silica gel.


title: Column chromatography

text: There is an optimum flow rate for each particular separation. A faster flow rate of the eluent minimizes the time required to run a column and thereby minimizes diffusion, resulting in a better separation. However, the maximum flow rate is limited because a finite time is required for the analyte to equilibrate between the stationary phase and mobile phase, see Van Deemter's equation. A simple laboratory column runs by gravity flow. The flow rate of such a column can be increased by extending the fresh eluent filled column above the top of the stationary phase or decreased by the tap controls. Faster flow rates can be achieved by using a pump or by using compressed gas (e.g. air, nitrogen, or argon) to push the solvent through the column (flash column chromatography).


title: Column chromatography

text: The particle size of the stationary phase is generally finer in flash column chromatography than in gravity column chromatography. For example, one of the most widely used silica gel grades in the former technique is mesh 230 – 400 (40 – 63 µm), while the latter technique typically requires mesh 70 – 230 (63 – 200 µm) silica gel.


title: Column chromatography

text: A spreadsheet that assists in the successful development of flash columns has been developed. The spreadsheet estimates the retention volume and band volume of analytes, the fraction numbers expected to contain each analyte, and the resolution between adjacent peaks. This information allows users to select optimal parameters for preparative-scale separations before the flash column itself is attempted.


title: Column chromatography

text: Column chromatography is an extremely time-consuming stage in any lab and can quickly become the bottleneck for any process lab. Many manufacturers like Biotage, Buchi, Interchim and Teledyne Isco have developed automated flash chromatography systems (typically referred to as LPLC, low pressure liquid chromatography, around ) that minimize human involvement in the purification process. Automated systems will include components normally found on more expensive high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) systems such as a gradient pump, sample injection ports, a UV detector and a fraction collector to collect the eluent. Typically these automated systems can separate samples from a few milligrams up to an industrial many kilogram scale and offer a much cheaper and quicker solution to doing multiple injections on prep-HPLC systems.


title: Column chromatography

text: The resolution (or the ability to separate a mixture) on an LPLC system will always be lower compared to HPLC, as the packing material in an HPLC column can be much smaller, typically only 5 micrometre thus increasing stationary phase surface area, increasing surface interactions and giving better separation. However, the use of this small packing media causes the high back pressure and is why it is termed high pressure liquid chromatography. The LPLC columns are typically packed with silica of around 50 micrometres, thus reducing back pressure and resolution, but it also removes the need for expensive high pressure pumps. Manufacturers are now starting to move into higher pressure flash chromatography systems and have termed these as medium pressure liquid chromatography (MPLC) systems which operate above .


title: Column chromatography

text: Typically, column chromatography is set up with peristaltic pumps, flowing buffers and the solution sample through the top of the column. The solutions and buffers pass through the column where a fraction collector at the end of the column setup collects the eluted samples. Prior to the fraction collection, the samples that are eluted from the column pass through a detector such as a spectrophotometer or mass spectrometer so that the concentration of the separated samples in the sample solution mixture can be determined.


title: Column chromatography

text: For example, if you were to separate two different proteins with different binding capacities to the column from a solution sample, a good type of detector would be a spectrophotometer using a wavelength of 280 nm. The higher the concentration of protein that passes through the eluted solution through the column, the higher the absorbance of that wavelength.


title: Column chromatography

text: Because the column chromatography has a constant flow of eluted solution passing through the detector at varying concentrations, the detector must plot the concentration of the eluted sample over a course of time. This plot of sample concentration versus time is called a chromatogram.


title: Column chromatography

text: The ultimate goal of chromatography is to separate different components from a solution mixture. The resolution expresses the extent of separation between the components from the mixture. The higher the resolution of the chromatogram, the better the extent of separation of the samples the column gives. This data is a good way of determining the column's separation properties of that particular sample. The resolution can be calculated from the chromatogram.


title: Column chromatography

text: The separate curves in the diagram represent different sample elution concentration profiles over time based on their affinity to the column resin. To calculate resolution, the retention time and curve width are required.


title: Column chromatography

text: Retention time is the time from the start of signal detection by the detector to the peak height of the elution concentration profile of each different sample.


title: Column chromatography

text: Curve width is the width of the concentration profile curve of the different samples in the chromatogram in units of time.


title: Column chromatography

text: A simplified method of calculating chromatogram resolution is to use the plate model. The plate model assumes that the column can be divided into a certain number of sections, or plates and the mass balance can be calculated for each individual plate. This approach approximates a typical chromatogram curve as a Gaussian distribution curve. By doing this, the curve width is estimated as 4 times the standard deviation of the curve, 4σ. The retention time is the time from the start of signal detection to the time of the peak height of the Gaussian curve.


title: Column chromatography

text: From the variables in the figure above, the resolution, plate number, and plate height of the column plate model can be calculated using the equations:


title: Column chromatography

text: For an adsorption column, the column resin (the stationary phase) is composed of microbeads. Even smaller particles such as proteins, carbohydrates, metal ions, or other chemical compounds are conjugated onto the microbeads. Each binding particle that is attached to the microbead can be assumed to bind in a 1:1 ratio with the solute sample sent through the column that needs to be purified or separated.


title: Column chromatography

text: Binding between the target molecule to be separated and the binding molecule on the column beads can be modeled using a simple equilibrium reaction K = [CS]/([C][S]) where K is the equilibrium constant, [C] and [S] are the concentrations of the target molecule and the binding molecule on the column resin, respectively. [CS] is the concentration of the complex of the target molecule bound to the column resin.


title: Column chromatography

text: Using this as a basis, three different isotherms can be used to describe the binding dynamics of a column chromatography: linear, Langmuir, and Freundlich.


title: Column chromatography

text: The linear isotherm occurs when the solute concentration needed to be purified is very small relative to the binding molecule. Thus, the equilibrium can be defined as:


title: Column chromatography

text: For industrial scale uses, the total binding molecules on the column resin beads must be factored in because unoccupied sites must be taken into account. The Langmuir isotherm and Freundlich isotherm are useful in describing this equilibrium.


title: Column chromatography

text: The Freundlich isotherm is used when the column can bind to many different samples in the solution that needs to be purified. Because the many different samples have different binding constants to the beads, there are many different Ks. Therefore, the Langmuir isotherm is not a good model for binding in this case.


title: Addax

text: The addax (Addax nasomaculatus), also known as the white antelope and the screwhorn antelope, is an antelope native to the Sahara Desert. The only member of the genus Addax, it was first described scientifically by Henri de Blainville in 1816. As suggested by its alternative name, the pale antelope has long, twisted horns – typically in females and in males. Males stand from at the shoulder, with females at . They are sexually dimorphic, as the females are smaller than the males. The colour of the coat depends on the season – in the winter, it is greyish-brown with white hindquarters and legs, and long, brown hair on the head, neck, and shoulders; in the summer, the coat turns almost completely white or sandy blonde.


title: Addax

text: The addax mainly eats grasses and leaves of any available shrubs, leguminous herbs and bushes. They are well-adapted to exist in their desert habitat, as they can live without water for long periods of time. Addax form herds of five to 20 members, consisting of both males and females. They are led by the oldest female. Due to its slow movements, the addax is an easy target for its predators: humans, lions, leopards, cheetahs and African wild dogs. Breeding season is at its peak during winter and early spring. The natural habitat of the addax are arid regions, semideserts and sandy and stony deserts.


title: Addax

text: The addax is a critically endangered species of antelope, as classified by the IUCN. Although extremely rare in its native habitat due to unregulated hunting, it is quite common in captivity. The addax was once abundant in North Africa; however it is currently only native to Chad, Mauritania, and Niger. It is extirpated from Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Sudan, and Western Sahara, but has been reintroduced into Morocco and Tunisia.


title: Addax

text: The scientific name of the addax is "Addax nasomaculatus". This antelope was first described by French zoologist and anatomist Henri Blainville in 1816. It is placed in the monotypic genus "Addax" and the family Bovidae. Henri Blainville observed syntypes in Bullock's Pantherion and the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. English naturalist Richard Lydekker stated their type locality to be probably Senegambia, though he did not have anything to support the claim. Finally, from a discussion in 1898, it became more probable that British hunters or collectors obtained the addax from the part of the Sahara in Tunisia.


title: Addax

text: The generic name "Addax" is thought to be obtained from an Arabic word meaning a wild animal with crooked horns. It is also thought to have originated from a Latin word. The name was first used in 1693. The specific name "nasomaculatus" comes from the Latin words "nasus" (or the prefix "naso-") meaning nose, and "maculatus" meaning spotted, referring to the spots and facial markings of the species. Bedouins use another name for the addax, the Arabic "bakr" (or "bagr") "al wahsh", which literally means "the cow of the wild". That name can be used to refer to other ungulates as well. The other common names of addax are "white antelope" and "screwhorn antelope".


title: Addax

text: The addax has 29 pairs of chromosomes. All chromosomes are acrocentric except for the first pair of autosomes, which are submetacentric. The X chromosome is the largest of the acrocentric chromosomes, and the Y chromosome is medium-sized. The short and long arms of the pair of submetacentric autosomes correspond respectively to the 27th and 1st chromosomes in cattle and goats. In a study, the banding patterns of chromosomes in addax were found to be similar to those in four other species of the subfamily Hippotraginae.


title: Addax

text: In ancient times, the addax occurred from northern Africa through Arabia and the Levant. Pictures in a tomb, dating back to 2500 BCE, show at least the partial domestication of the addax by the ancient Egyptians. These pictures show addax and some other antelopes tied with ropes to stakes. The number of addax captured by a person were considered an indicator of his high social and economic position in the society. The "pygarg" ("white-buttocked") beast mentioned in Deuteronomy 14:5 is believed to have been an addax. But today, excess poaching has resulted in the extinction of this species in Egypt since the 1960s.


title: Addax

text: Addax fossils have been found in four sites of Egypt – a 7000 BCE fossil from the Great Sand Sea, a 5000–6000 BCE fossil from Djara, a 4000–7000 BCE fossil from Abu Ballas Stufenmland and a 5000 BCE fossil from Gilf Kebir. Apart from these, fossils have also been excavated from Mittleres Wadi Howar (6300 BCE fossil), and Pleistocene fossils from Grotte Neandertaliens, Jebel Irhoud and Parc d'Hydra.


title: Addax

text: The addax is a spiral-horned antelope. Male addaxes stand from at the shoulder, with females at . They are sexually dimorphic, as the females are smaller than the males. The head and body length in both sexes is , with a long tail. The weight of males varies from , and that of females from .


title: Addax

text: The coloring of the addax's coat varies with the season. In the winter, it is greyish-brown with white hindquarters and legs, and long, brown hair on the head, neck, and shoulders. In the summer, the coat turns almost completely white or sandy blonde. Their head is marked with brown or black patches that form an 'X' over their noses. They have scraggly beards and prominent red nostrils. Long, black hairs stick out between their curved and spiralling horns, ending in a short mane on the neck.


title: Addax

text: The horns, which are found on both males and females, have two to three twists and are typically in females and in males, although the maximum recorded length is . The lower and middle portions of the horns are marked with a series of 30 to 35 ring-shaped ridges. The tail is short and slender, ending in a puff of black hair. The hooves are broad with flat soles and strong dewclaws to help them walk on soft sand. All four feet possess scent glands. The life span of the addax is up to 19 years in the wild, which can be extended to 25 years under captivity.


title: Addax

text: The addax closely resembles the scimitar oryx, but can be distinguished by its horns and facial markings. While the addax is spiral-horned, the scimitar oryx has decurved long horns. The addax has a brown hair tuft extending from the base of its horns to between its eyes. A white patch, continuing from the brown hair, extends until the middle of the cheek. On the other hand, the scimitar oryx has a white forehead with only a notable brown marking: a brown lateral stripe across its eyes. It differs from other antelopes by having large, square teeth like cattle and lacking the typical facial glands.


title: Addax

text: The addax is most prone to parasites in moist climatic conditions. Addaxes have always been infected with nematodes in the Trichostrongyloidea and Strongyloidea superfamilies. In an exotic ranch in Texas, an addax was found host to the nematodes "Haemonchus contortus" and "Longistrongylus curvispiculum" in its abomasum, of which the former was dominant.


title: Addax

text: These animals are mainly nocturnal, particularly in summer. In the day, they dig into the sand in shady locations and rest in these depressions, which also protect them from sandstorms. Addax herds contain both males and females, and have from five to 20 members. They will generally stay in one place and only wander widely in search of food. The addax has a strong social structure, probably based on age, and herds are led by the oldest female. Herds are more likely to be found along the northern edge of the tropical rain system during the summer and move north as winter falls. They are able to track rainfall and will head for these areas where vegetation is more plentiful. Males are territorial and guard females, while the females establish their own dominance hierarchies.


title: Addax

text: Due to its slow movements, the addax is an easy target for predators such as humans, lions, leopards, cheetahs and African wild dogs. Caracals, servals and hyenas attack calves. The addax is normally not aggressive, though individuals may charge if they are disturbed.


title: Addax

text: The addax is amply suited to live in the deep desert under extreme conditions. It can survive without free water almost indefinitely, because it gets moisture from its food and dew that condenses on plants. Scientists believe the addax has a special lining in its stomach that stores water in pouches to use in times of dehydration. It also produces highly concentrated urine to conserve water. The pale colour of the coat reflects radiant heat, and the length and density of the coat helps in thermoregulation. In the day the addax huddles together in shaded areas, and on cool nights rests in sand hollows. These practices help in dissipation of body heat and saving water by cooling the body through evaporation.


title: Addax

text: In a study, eight addaxes on a diet of grass hay ("Chloris gayana") were studied to determine the retention time of food from the digestive tract. It was found that food retention time was long, taken as an adaptation to a diet including a high proportion of slow fermenting grasses; while the long fluid retention time could be interpreted to be due to water-saving mechanisms with low water turnover and a roomy rumen.


title: Addax

text: The addax lives in desert terrain where it eats grasses and leaves of what shrubs, leguminous herbs and bushes are available. Primarily a grazer, its staple foods include "Aristida", "Panicum", and "Stipagrostis", and it will only consume browse, such as leaves of "Acacia" trees in the absence of these grasses. It also eats perennials which turn green and sprout at the slightest bit of humidity or rain. The addax eats only certain parts of the plant and tends to crop the "Aristida" grasses neatly to the same height. By contrast, when feeding on "Panicum" grass, the drier outer leaves are left alone while it eats the tender inner shoots and seeds. These seeds are important part of the addax's diet, being its main source of protein.


title: Addax

text: Females are sexually mature at 2 to 3 years of age and males at about 2 years. Breeding occurs throughout the year, but it peaks during winter and early spring. In the northern Sahara, breeding peaks at the end of winter and the beginning of spring; in the southern Sahara, breeding peaks from September to October and from January to mid-April. Each estrus bout lasts for one or two days.


title: Addax

text: In a study, the blood serum of female addaxes was analyzed through immunoassay to know about their luteal phase. Estrous cycle duration was of about 33 days. During pregnancy, ultrasonography showed the uterine horns as coiled. The maximum diameters of the ovarian follicle and the corpus luteum were and . Each female underwent an anovulatory period lasting 39 to 131 days, during which there was no ovulation. Anovulation was rare in winter, which suggested the effect of seasons on the estrous cycle.


title: Addax

text: Gestation period lasts 257–270 days (about nine months). Females may lie or stand during the delivery, during which one calf is born. A postpartum estrus occurs after two or three days. The calf weighs at birth and is weaned at 23–29 weeks old.


title: Addax

text: The addax inhabits arid regions, semideserts and sandy and stony deserts. It even occurs in extremely arid areas, with less than 100 mm annual rainfall. It also inhabits deserts with tussock grasses ("Stipagrostis" species) and succulent thorn scrub "Cornulaca". Formerly, the addax was widespread in the Sahelo-Saharan region of Africa, west of the Nile Valley and all countries sharing the Sahara Desert; but today the only known self-sustaining population is present in the Termit Massif Reserve (Niger). However, there are reports of sightings from the eastern Air Mountains (Niger) and Bodélé (Chad). Rare nomads may be seen in northern Niger, southern Algeria and Libya; and the addax is rumoured to be present along the Mali/Mauritania border, though there have been no confirmed sightings. The addax was once abundant in North Africa, native to Chad, Mauritania and Niger. It is extinct in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Sudan and the Western Sahara. It has been reintroduced into Morocco and Tunisia.


title: Addax

text: Declines in the population of the addax have been ongoing since the mid-1800s. More recently, addaxes were found from Algeria to Sudan, but due mainly to overhunting, they have become much more restricted and rare.


title: Addax

text: Addaxes are easy to hunt due to their slow movements. Roadkill, firearms for easy hunting and nomadic settlements near waterholes (their dry-season feeding places) have also decreased their numbers. Moreover, their meat and leather are highly prized. Other threats include chronic droughts in the deserts, habitat destruction due to more human settlements and agriculture. Fewer than 500 individuals are thought to exist in the wild today, most of the animals being found between the Termit area of Niger, the Bodélé region of western Chad, and the Aoukar in Mauritania.


title: Addax

text: Today there are over 600 addaxes in Europe, Yotvata Hai-Bar Nature Reserve (Israel), Sabratha (Libya), Giza Zoo (Egypt), North America, Japan and Australia under captive breeding programmes. There are thousands more in private collections and ranches in the United States and the Middle East. Addaxes are legally protected in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria; hunting of all gazelles is forbidden in Libya and Egypt. Although enormous reserves, such as the Hoggar Mountains and Tasilli in Algeria, the Ténéré in Niger, the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve in Chad, and the newly established Wadi Howar National Park in Sudan, cover areas where the addax previously occurred, some do not keep addaxes at the present time because they lack the resources. The addax has been reintroduced into Bou-Hedma National Park (Tunisia) and Souss-Massa National Park (Morocco). Reintroductions in the wild are ongoing in Jebil National Park (Tunisia) and Grand Erg Oriental (the Sahara), and another is planned for Morocco.


title: Mesopotamian myths

text: Mesopotamian mythology refers to the myths, religious texts, and other literature that comes from the region of ancient Mesopotamia which is a historical region of Western Asia, situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system that occupies the area of present-day Iraq. In particular the societies of Sumer, Akkad, and Assyria, all of which existed shortly after 3000 BCE and were mostly gone by 400 CE. These works were primarily preserved on stone or clay tablets and were written in cuneiform by scribes. Several lengthy pieces have survived, some of which are considered the oldest stories in the world, and have given historians insight into Mesopotamian ideology and cosmology.


title: Mesopotamian myths

text: There are many different accounts of the creation of the earth from the Mesopotamian region. This is because of the many different cultures in the area and the shifts in narratives that are common in ancient cultures due to their reliance on word of mouth to transmit stories. These myths can share related themes, but the chronology of events vary based on when or where the story was written down.


title: Mesopotamian myths

text: Atra-Hasis refers both to one of the Mesopotamian myths focusing on the earth’s creation, and also the main character of that myth. The myth possibly has Assyrian roots, as a fragmented version may have been found in the library of Ashurbanipal, though translations remain unsure. Its most complete surviving version was recorded in Akkadian. The myth begins with humans being created by the mother goddess Mami to lighten the gods' workload. She made them out of a mixture of clay, flesh, and blood from a slain god. Later in the story though, the god Enlil attempts to control overpopulation of humans through various methods, including famine, drought, and finally, a great flood. Mankind is saved by Atrahasis, who was warned of the flood by the god Enki and built a boat to escape the waters, eventually placating the gods with sacrifices.


title: Mesopotamian myths

text: Eridu Genesis has a similar plot to that of the Akkadian myth, Atra-Hasis, though it is harder to tell what happens exactly in Eridu Genesis because the tablet upon which it was recorded is badly damaged. The two stories share the flood as the major event however, although the hero who survives in Eridu Genesis is called Zi-ud-sura instead of Artahasis. Eridu Genesis was recorded around the same time as Atra-Hasis, however the fragmented tablet that held it was found in Nippur, located in modern-day east Iraq, while the version of Atra-hasis that came from the same time was found in the library of Ashurbanipal, in modern-day north Iraq.


title: Mesopotamian myths

text: Enuma Elis (also spelled Enuma Elish) is a Babylonian creation myth with an unclear composition, though it possibly dates back to the Bronze Age. This piece was thought to be recited in a ritual celebration of the Babylonian new year. It chronicles the birth of the gods, the world, and man, whose purpose was to serve the gods and lighten their work load. The focus of the narrative is on praising Marduk, the patron god of Babylon, who creates the world, the calendar, and humanity.


title: Mesopotamian myths

text: These stories tended to focus on a great hero, following their journey through trials or simply important events in their life. Stories like these can be found in many different cultures around the world, and often give insight into the values of those societies. For example, in a culture that celebrated a hero that was devout to the gods or respecting their father, it can be inferred that the society valued those traits.


title: Mesopotamian myths

text: The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the most well known Mesopotamian myths, and is often regarded as the oldest known piece of literature in the world. It was initially a number of individual short stories, and was not combined into one cohesive epic until the 18th century BCE. The story follows the Sumerian king Gilgamesh, typically regarded as a historical figure, and his good friend, Enkidu through various adventures and quests that eventually lead to Enkidu's death. The second half of the epic deal with Gilgamesh, distressed about the death of his friend and his own impending mortality, as he searches for immortality. In the end he fails, but he comes to terms with the fact that he is eventually going to die and returns to his city of Uruk a wiser king.


title: Mesopotamian myths

text: The earliest record of myth of Adapa is from the 14th century BCE. Adapa was a Sumerian citizen who was blessed by the god Enki with immeasurable intelligence. However, one day Adapa was knocked into the sea by the south wind, and in a rage he broke the south wind’s wings so that it could no longer blow. Adapa was summoned to be judged by An, and before he left Enki warned him not to eat or drink anything offered to him. However, An had a change of heart when he realized just how smart Adapa was, and offered him the food of immortality, which Adapa, dutiful to Enki, turned down. This story is used as an explanation for humankind’s mortality, it is associated with the fall of man narrative that is also present in Christianity.


title: Mesopotamian myths

text: Immortality is a constant goal of the characters in Mesopotamian epics. No matter the version of the story, the man who survives the flood, whether Atrahasis, Zi-ud-sura, or Utnapishtim, is granted immortality by the gods. This character then makes a reappearance in the Epic of Gilgamesh, when Gilgamesh is searching for immortality after coming to fear death and the underworld after hearing stories from his friend, Enkidu, about what awaits humanity after death. Enkidu says:On entering the House of Dust,everywhere I looked there were royal crowns gathered in heaps,everywhere I listened, it was the bearers of crowns,who, in the past, had ruled the land,but who now served Anu and Enlil cooked meats,served confections, and poured cool water from waterskins.Upon hearing that his position in life did not matter in the underworld, Gilgamesh is terrified and seeks out Utnapishtim, who has achieved immortality after surviving the flood sent by the gods to wipe out humanity. Immortality is also touched on in the myth of Adapa. Adapa’s accidental refusal to eat the food of immortality offered to him by the gods is used as an explanation for the fact that humans die.


title: Mesopotamian myths

text: Also common in Mesopotamian myths is the reoccurring concept that humanity’s purpose is to serve the gods. In all of the creation myths, humans are only made by the gods in order to help in the fields or offer sacrifices. When they get to be too numerous, loud, or otherwise bothersome, the gods attempt to control the population through plagues, droughts, and most famously, the great flood. This disregard for human life emphasizes the hierarchy that existed in the Mesopotamian consciousness, with humans existing as subjects to the will of the gods.


title: Mesopotamian myths

text: Modern understanding of Mesopotamian mythology has been provided through archeological excavations of West Asia and the recovery of many stone and clay tablets, some of which contained the records of many myths. There have been different versions of each myth found in various locations across the region, with inconsistencies between each but maintaining overall common themes and narratives. These versions were written in different languages, including Akkadian, Sumerian, and Old Babylonian, and were often translated from one to another, leading to further inconsistencies due to the inherently imperfect nature of these translations.


title: Frederick R. Koch

text: Frederick Robinson Koch ( ; August 26, 1933 – February 12, 2020) was an American collector and philanthropist, the eldest of the four sons born to American industrialist Fred Chase Koch, founder of what is now Koch Industries, and Mary Clementine (née Robinson) Koch.


title: Frederick R. Koch

text: Koch was born in Wichita, Kansas. His paternal grandfather, Harry Koch, was a Dutch immigrant, who founded the "Quanah Tribune-Chief" newspaper and was a founding shareholder of Quanah, Acme & Pacific Railway. Among his maternal great-great-grandparents were William Ingraham Kip, an Episcopal bishop; William Burnet Kinney, a politician; and Elizabeth Clementine Stedman, a writer.


title: Frederick R. Koch

text: Beginning in eighth grade, Koch attended a boarding school called Pembroke-Country Day School in Kansas City, Missouri. He attended high school at Hackley School in Tarrytown, New York.


title: Frederick R. Koch

text: Koch studied humanities at Harvard College and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1955. His father and his three younger brothers, Charles G. Koch and twins David H. Koch and William I. Koch, studied chemical engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and pursued business careers. After college, Koch enlisted in the U.S. Navy, serving in Millington, Tennessee and then on the aircraft carrier USS "Saratoga". Upon his return to civilian life, Koch enrolled at the Yale School of Drama, where his focus was playwriting. He received a Master of Fine Arts degree from the school in 1961.


title: Frederick R. Koch

text: Through personal and foundation acquisitions, Koch assembled large and important collections of photographs, rare books, literary and musical manuscripts, and fine and decorative arts. Works of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries predominated in his collections. Among his private collections is the archival estate of George Platt Lynes and a vast archive of the works of society photographer Jerome Zerbe.


title: Frederick R. Koch

text: The Frederick R. Koch Foundation, which he founded, is a major donor to the Pierpont Morgan Library and Frick Collection in New York City and to the Carnegie Museum of Art in Pittsburgh. Of particular note are The Frederick R. Koch Collections at the Harvard Theater Collection, Houghton Library at Harvard University, and at Yale University's Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Yale president Richard C. Levin described the Koch collection as "one of the greatest collections to come to Yale since the year of its founding".


title: Frederick R. Koch

text: Starting in the 1980s, Koch bought, restored and maintained a number of historic properties in the United States and abroad. These properties include the Donahue house, a Woolworth mansion in Manhattan; the Habsburg hunting lodge near Salzburg, Austria; the Romanesque Villa Torre Clementina in Cap Martin, France; and Elm Court, a Tudor Gothic manse in Butler, Pennsylvania. Koch financed the reconstruction of the Royal Shakespeare Company's Swan Theater in England from its 1879 remains, although his role as the project's patron was kept secret for years.


title: Frederick R. Koch

text: In 1990, Koch bought Sutton Place near Guildford, Surrey, England. Sutton Place is the former residence of J. Paul Getty and the meeting place of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Koch purchased the property from another reclusive art collector, Stanley J. Seeger. He "redecorated the house and hung his art collection, but is said never to have spent a night under its roof before selling it for £32m" in 1999. Other sources say he operated it as the Sutton Place Foundation, open to the public for more than 25 years, and that he ultimately sold the property in 2005.


title: Frederick R. Koch

text: Koch served for many years on the boards of directors of the Spoleto Festival and The Royal Shakespeare Company. In 2010, "The New Yorker" reported that Koch had "moved to Monaco, which has no income tax". Despite lavish philanthropy and millions spent on art acquisitions and property restoration, Koch was said to have a frugal streak. He reportedly "prefers taking the public bus in New York and typically flies commercial", according to "Vanity Fair".


title: Frederick R. Koch

text: Frederick Koch and his younger brother Bill had inherited stock in Koch Industries. In June 1983, after a bitter legal and boardroom battle, the stakes of Frederick and Bill were bought out for $1.1 billion and Charles Koch and David Koch became majority owners in the company. Legal disputes against Charles and David lasted roughly two decades. Frederick and Bill sided with J. Howard Marshall III, J. Howard Marshall II's eldest son, against Charles and David at one point, in order to take over the company. In 2001, Bill reached a settlement in a lawsuit where he had alleged that the company was taking oil from federal and Indian land; this settlement ended all litigation between the brothers. CBS News reported that Koch Industries settled for $25 million.


title: Mitrovica, Kosovo

text: Mitrovica (; ) or Kosovska Mitrovica () is a city and municipality located in Kosovo. Settled on the banks of Ibar and Sitnica rivers, the city is the administrative center of the District of Mitrovica.


title: Mitrovica, Kosovo

text: In 2013, following the North Kosovo crisis, the Serb-majority municipality of North Mitrovica was created, dividing the city in two administrative units. According to the 2011 Census, in Mitrovica live 97,686 inhabitants, 85,360 of which in the southern municipality and 12,326 in North Mitrovica.


title: Mitrovica, Kosovo

text: The name of Mitrovica derives from the name "Demetrius". It was most probably named after the 8th century Byzantine church "St. Demetrius" which was built near Zvečan Fortress, just above the modern Mitrovica, in honor of Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki.


title: Mitrovica, Kosovo

text: In 1660, the Ottoman explorer Evliya Çelebi mentions for the first time the city with the name "Mitrovica".


title: Mitrovica, Kosovo

text: After President Tito's death, each of the constituent parts of Yugoslavia had to have one place named with the word "Tito" (or "Tito's") included, the city was then known as "Titova Mitrovica" (Титова Митровица) in Serbian or "Mitrovica e Titos" in Albanian, until 1991.


title: Mitrovica, Kosovo

text: There is archaeological evidence that proves the region of Mitrovica has been inhabited since the Neolithic era. Two settlements were discovered in 1955 in the industrial park near the FAFOS factory (phosphates productions), from which the archaeological site got the name. In Fafos, settlements revealed different objects of everyday use, but the most characteristic were cult objects (small anthropomorphic figures) of the Vinča culture.


title: Mitrovica, Kosovo

text: The city is one of the oldest known settlements in Kosovo, being first mentioned in written documents during the Middle Ages. Near Mitrovica is the medieval fortress of Zvečan, which played an important role during the Kingdom of Serbia under Nemanjić rule.


title: Mitrovica, Kosovo

text: Under Ottoman rule Mitrovica was a typical small Oriental city. Rapid development came in the 19th century after lead ore was discovered and mined in the region, providing what has historically been one of Kosovo's largest industries.


title: Mitrovica, Kosovo

text: It became an industrial town, formerly the economic centre of Kosovo because of the nearby Trepça Mines. It grew in size as a centre of trade and industry with the completion of the railway line to Skopje in 1873–1878, which linked Mitrovica to the port of Thessaloniki. Another line later linked the town to Belgrade and Western Europe. During World War II, the city was part of Axis-occupied Serbia. In 1948, Mitrovica had a population of 13,901 and in the early 1990s of about 75,000.


title: Mitrovica, Kosovo

text: Both the town and municipality were badly affected by the 1999 Kosovo War. According to the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the area had been the scene of guerrilla activity by the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) prior to the war. It came under the command of NATO's French sector; 7,000 French troops were stationed in the western sector with their headquarters in Mitrovica. They were reinforced with a contingent of 1,200 troops from the United Arab Emirates, and a small number of Danish troops.


title: Mitrovica, Kosovo

text: Most of the approximately 6,000 Roma fled to Serbia, or were relocated to one of two resettlement camps, Cesmin Lug, or Osterode, in North Mitrovica. In the north, live some 17,000 Kosovo Serbs, with 2,000 Kosovo Albanians and 1,700 Bosniaks inhabiting discrete enclaves on the north bank of the Ibar River. Almost all of the Serbs living on the south bank were displaced to North Mitrovica after the Kosovo War. In 2011, the city had an estimated total population of 71,601.