title: Parmo

text: Parmo is said to have been created by Nicos Harris, a Greek American navy chef. He was wounded off the coast of France, and brought to the United Kingdom to be treated at what is now James Cook University Hospital, Middlesbrough. He stayed in Middlesbrough and opened a restaurant, The American Grill, on Linthorpe Road, where he created the parmo in 1958. His son-in-law, Caramello, still lived in Teesside as of 2014, continuing the family tradition.


title: Parmo

text: In 2009, supermarket chain Asda started selling parmo in their shops in Teesside. They claimed they were selling 6,000 chicken parmos a week, making them at the time the shop's fastest-selling line. Asda later expanded this line to branches outside Teesside.


title: Parmo

text: In 2007, North Yorkshire Trading Standards conducted a survey of 25 fast food dishes. A large parmo with chips and salad they tested contained about 2,600 calories and 150g of fat.


title: Krish (singer)

text: Krish is an Indian actor and singer who has worked on Tamil and Telugu films. He was introduced to the Tamil Cinema as a playback singer by the successful duos Gautham Vasudev Menon and Harris Jayaraj in "Vettaiyaadu Vilaiyaadu" for the song "Manjal Veyyil". After beginning his career as a playback singer, he has also appeared in films as an actor.


title: Krish (singer)

text: Krish was born in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India, but shifted to New York City after his father, a banker, had moved abroad on a posting. He thus shifted schools and spent 15 years in the United States. During his time in New York City, Krish worked as an assistant on the sets of "The Cosby Show" and "" (2004), helping the teams conduct pre-production works. He also completed an acting course at the New York Film Academy and performed at the Broadway in a Walt Disney production of "Aladdin", before arriving in Chennai, hoping to get a breakthrough in the industry as an actor.


title: Krish (singer)

text: During the initial months of his return to Chennai, Krish participated in stage shows and cultural events as a singer and was recruited by composer Ganesh Kumar to sing a western song for an album. Ganesh passed over Krish's details to music composer Harris Jayaraj. Krish then made his playback singing debut in Tamil films by rendering the song "Manjal Veiyil" from "Vettaiyaadu Vilaiyaadu" (2006), composed by Harris Jayaraj, alongside Hariharan. He subsequently collaborated with the composer on several other critically acclaimed songs including "June Ponal July Kaatru" from "Unnale Unnale" (2007), "Sakiyae" from "Dhaam Dhoom", "Oru Mugamo" from "Bheema" and "Adiye Kolluthey" from "Vaaranam Aayiram" (2008). His work saw him garner multiple Filmfare Award nominations, as well as securing a Vijay Award for Best Singer. He has also featured as a lyricist, penning two songs for the romantic comedy "Kandaen" (2011).


title: Krish (singer)

text: Film-makers from the Tamil film industry had offered Krish roles as an actor in their ventures, but he was insistent that he would only portray the lead role. He turned down the opportunity from K. V. Anand to play the well-received supporting role portrayed by Ajmal in "Ko" (2011), though he later played a small role as himself in a song from the film. Producer Ibrahim Rowther spotted Krish in the song "Aga Naga" and offered him the chance of portraying the lead role in his production "Puriyadha Anandam Puthithaga Arambam". The film, a romantic love story featuring him alongside Srushti Dange, began shooting in late 2012, but was only released in June 2015. The film had a low key opening, and garnered negative reviews. In June 2015, he also released an independent six-track music album, with compositions by Vijay Ebenezer and videos featuring Nikesha Patel. He had worked alongside Ebenezer for two years for the project, with the song "Maaya" from the album being heavily promoted.


title: Krish (singer)

text: Krish married actress Sangeetha at a private ceremony at Annamalaiyar Temple in Tiruvannamalai on 1 February 2009. The pair's daughter, Shiviya, was born in December 2012.


title: Jean-Philippe Mateta

text: Jean-Philippe Mateta (born 28 June 1997) is a French professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Crystal Palace. He has represented France internationally at U19 and U21 youth levels.


title: Jean-Philippe Mateta

text: Mateta was born in Sevran, a suburb of Paris, to a Congolese father and a French mother. His father is a former professional footballer who played in Congo and in Liège, Belgium.


title: Jean-Philippe Mateta

text: In September 2016, Mateta signed for Ligue 1 side Lyon from Châteauroux on a five-year contract for a fee of €2 million with a further €3 million possible in bonuses. His former club also retained a 20% sell-on clause on the player. Mateta made his debut for the Ligue 1 side on 21 September 2016 against Montpellier, replacing Maxwel Cornet after 76 minutes a 5–1 home win. He played his next match four months later in the Coupe de France, again coming on for Cornet against Montpellier, in the 76th minute of a 5–0 home win. He made his first Ligue 1 start against AS Monaco on 23 April 2017. He played 65 minutes, before being replaced by Mathieu Valbuena in a 2–1 home loss.


title: Jean-Philippe Mateta

text: In July 2017, he joined Ligue 2 side Le Havre on a season-long loan. He scored 19 goals in 37 Ligue 2 matches across the 2017–18 season.


title: Jean-Philippe Mateta

text: On 29 June 2018, Mateta joined Bundesliga club 1. FSV Mainz 05 on a four-year deal. His arrival was the most expensive signing in club history. Upon signing with the club, the player was compared favorably to former Mainz strikers Aristide Bance and Adam Szalai as well as former 1. FC Köln and 1899 Hoffenheim player Anthony Modeste.


title: Jean-Philippe Mateta

text: On 21 January 2021, Mateta signed for English club Crystal Palace on an initial eighteen-month loan deal. Crystal Palace reportedly paid a €3 million loan fee and secured an option to sign Mateta permanently for a further €15 million. He made his debut on 8 February in a 2–0 away league defeat by Leeds United. On 22 February 2021, Mateta scored his first goal for Palace in a 2–1 away league win over rivals Brighton & Hove Albion. The deal was made permanent on 31 January 2022.


title: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders

text: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders is a 2000 American direct-to-video animated science fiction romantic comedy mystery film. It is the third direct-to-video film based on Hanna-Barbera's "Scooby-Doo" Saturday morning cartoons. The film was produced by Hanna-Barbera. It is the third of the first four "Scooby-Doo" direct-to-video films to be animated overseas by Japanese animation studio Mook Animation. Unlike the previous films and in spite of the grimmer atmosphere, it has a lighter tone since the real monsters are on Mystery Inc.'s side and the disguised humans are the primary antagonists.


title: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders

text: It was the last film to feature Mary Kay Bergman as the voice of Daphne, following her untimely death in November 1999, the film was dedicated to her memory.


title: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders

text: At the SALF station somewhere in the United States, Max, Laura and Steve suddenly get a loud reading that is off the charts. When it disappears, Steve gets something on the radar.


title: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders

text: The Mystery Machine is driving through a desert. During a sandstorm, Shaggy accidentally makes a turn into government property, and a subsequent sighting of a UFO causes him to lose control and crash into a cactus, denting the front and severely damaging the radiator. The gang find themselves on the outskirts of a small town. While Scooby-Doo and Shaggy stay with the van, the rest of the gang walk to the town, where they ask for help at a diner. While waiting, Shaggy and Scooby fight over a Scooby Snack before encountering a fictional animal called a jackalope. When they chase it into the mouth of a cave, they see a glow in the distance. Two aliens then approach them from behind and chase them towards the town.


title: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders

text: Shaggy and Scooby run into the diner in panic, claiming to have seen aliens. The diner waitress, Dottie, says that they have never seen aliens, but do see strange lights and hear strange sounds at night. The chef, Sergio, says that cattle have also vanished overnight without a trace and people left town as a result. A man named Lester claims to have been abducted once before and claims that he has pictures. The gang goes to his house to see them, but they turn out to be nothing more than paintings by Lester. Lester then offers to let the gang stay for the night.


title: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders

text: While sleeping on the roof, Scooby and Shaggy are abducted. They attempt to escape but are surrounded by the aliens. They find themselves in the middle of the desert the following morning after being awakened by a hippy photographer, Crystal, and her golden retriever, Amber. Scooby and Shaggy fall head over heels in love the moment they lay eyes on them. Crystal gives them a ride back to the diner, but they are so smitten that they have no appetite, much to the shock of the rest of the gang. The gang go to the grouchy local mechanic to ask if he can fix their vehicle. They then meet Max before Crystal and Amber reappear. Curious about the jackalope, Crystal asks Shaggy to show her where they saw it. Shaggy is more than happy to do so and heads off with Scooby in tow.


title: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders

text: Max takes Velma, Fred and Daphne to meet the other SALF crew. Velma becomes suspicious when she sees dried mud on their boots, since they are in the desert. Later, she decides to take the gang to a canyon where she presumes a river might run. The canyon proves to be dry, but they find mining equipment and gold in the nearby caves. Meanwhile, military police order Shaggy, Crystal, Scooby-Doo and Amber to leave the area as it's government property. Crystal then tells Shaggy she is actually an undercover government agent and wants to go back to investigate. Shaggy leads them to the cave where he first saw the aliens. They hide inside when the MPs come back, but are able to trick them into leaving by pretending that Scooby's tail is a snake. A real snake then scares Shaggy and Scooby into going further into the cave, with Crystal and Amber close behind. They also discover the gold, but are found and chased by the aliens and the MPs, running into the rest of the gang in the process.


title: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders

text: Fred, Velma and Daphne are trapped in a net while the others fall off a ledge after being cornered by the MPs. After the aliens send the MPs after them, it is revealed that the aliens are actually the SALF crew, who explain that they stumbled upon the cave while searching for ground to place another SALF dish. Since it was on government property, they decided not to report it, and plan to keep it that way. They hired fake MPs, disguised a helicopter as a UFO and created a UFO interior out of a movie set to scare the locals away from their operation.


title: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders

text: When the MPs corner the others at another ledge, Shaggy and Scooby try to chase them off, but Crystal and Amber scare them away by revealing their true alien forms. When they return to the others, Crystal and Amber again reveal their alien forms to everyone present and trap Max and the MPs by wrapping a metal beam around them. Laura and Steve try to capture them, but Shaggy and Scooby come to their rescue and Fred traps Laura and Steve under a net.


title: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders

text: Crystal and Amber explain that they are aliens from a distant planet and disguised themselves as hippies because their information on Earth was from TV signals from the 1960s. It also turns out that the UFO that ran the gang off the road at the start of the film was actually Crystal and Amber's ship, which SALF had tracked. Crystal and Amber have to return to their home planet, but they share a heartfelt goodbye with Shaggy and Scooby.


title: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders

text: The SALF crew are arrested by the authorities and are imprisoned for life with no trial. The mechanic arrives with the repaired Mystery Machine.


title: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders

text: A heartbroken Shaggy and Scooby are instantly cheered up at the sight of a box of Scooby Snacks and the gang drives off as the jackalope watches them.


title: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders

text: "Scooby-Doo" direct-to-video films began with "Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island" in 1998, followed by "Witch's Ghost" in 1999. The first films had done so well the studio considered "Scooby-Doo" a tentpole property that would sell "no matter what". "Witch's Ghost" had a troubled production, with studio executives insisting the team follow a script written by outside screenwriters that the crew considered unsatisfactory. Unlike its predecessor, "Alien Invaders" was a largely smooth-sailing production, with little executive oversight. The film was written by Davis Doi and Lance Falk, with Glenn Leopold contributing small elements.


title: Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders

text: David Parkinson of "Radio Times", gave the film a three out of five stars, saying, "This cartoon adventure is the best of a spate of feature-length spin-offs from the much loved TV series." Common Sense Media gave the film a three out of five stars.


title: History of human rights

text: While belief in the sanctity of human life has ancient precedents in many religions of the world, the foundations of modern human rights began during the era of renaissance humanism in the early modern period. The European wars of religion and the civil wars of seventeenth-century Kingdom of England gave rise to the philosophy of liberalism and belief in natural rights became a central concern of European intellectual culture during the eighteenth-century Age of Enlightenment. Ideas of natural rights, which had a basis in natural law, lay at the core of the American and French Revolutions which occurred toward the end of that century, but the idea of human rights came about later. Democratic evolution through the nineteenth century paved the way for the advent of universal suffrage in the twentieth century. Two world wars led to the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.


title: History of human rights

text: The post-war era saw movements arising from specific groups experiencing a shortfall in their rights, such as feminism and the civil rights of African Americans. The human rights movements of members of the Soviet bloc emerged in the 1970s along with workers' rights movements in the West. The movements quickly jelled as social activism and political rhetoric in many nations put human rights high on the world agenda. By the 21st century, historian Samuel Moyn has argued, the human rights movement expanded beyond its original anti-totalitarianism to include numerous causes involving humanitarianism and social and economic development in the Developing World.


title: History of human rights

text: The history of human rights has been complex. Many established rights for instance would be replaced by other systems which deviate from their original western design. Stable institutions may be uprooted such as in cases of conflict such as war and terrorism or a change in culture.


title: History of human rights

text: Some notions of righteousness present in ancient law and religion are sometimes retrospectively included under the term "human rights". While Enlightenment philosophers suggest a secular social contract between the rulers and the ruled, ancient traditions derived similar conclusions from notions of divine law, and, in Hellenistic philosophy, natural law. Samuel Moyn suggests that the concept of human rights is intertwined with the modern sense of citizenship, which did not emerge until the past few hundred years. Nonetheless, relevant examples exist in the Ancient and pre-modern eras, although Ancient peoples did not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights.


title: History of human rights

text: The reforms of Urukagina of Lagash, the earliest known legal code (ca. 2350 BC), is often thought to be an early example of reform. Professor Norman Yoffee wrote that after Igor M. Diakonoff "most interpreters consider that Urukagina, himself not of the ruling dynasty at Lagash, was no reformer at all. Indeed, by attempting to curb the encroachment of a secular authority at the expense of temple prerogatives, he was, if a modern term must be applied, a reactionary." Author Marilyn French wrote that the discovery of penalties for adultery for women but not for men represents "the first written evidence of the degradation of women". The oldest legal code extant today is the Neo-Sumerian "Code of Ur-Nammu" (ca. 2050 BC). Several other sets of laws were also issued in Mesopotamia, including the Code of Hammurabi (ca. 1780 BC), one of the most famous examples of this type of document. It shows rules, and punishments if those rules are broken, on a variety of matters, including women's rights, men's rights, children's rights and slave rights.


title: History of human rights

text: The Northeast African civilization of Ancient Egypt supported basic human rights. For example, Pharaoh Bocchoris (725–720 BC) promoted individual rights, suppressed imprisonment for debt, and reformed laws relating to the transferral of property.


title: History of human rights

text: Many historians suggest that the Achaemenid Persian Empire of ancient Iran established unprecedented principles of human rights in the 6th century BC under Cyrus the Great. After his conquest of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, the king issued the Cyrus cylinder, discovered in 1879 and seen by some today as the first human rights document. The cylinder has been linked by some commentators to the decrees of Cyrus recorded in the Books of Chronicles, Nehemiah, and Ezra, which state that Cyrus allowed (at least some of) the Jews to return to their homeland from their Babylonian Captivity. Additionally it stated the freedom to practice one's faith without persecution and forced conversions. According to art historian Neil MacGregor, the proclamation of full religious freedoms in Babylon and elsewhere in the Persian empire was an important inspiration for human rights by prominent thinkers millennia later, especially in the United States.


title: History of human rights

text: In opposition to the above viewpoint, the interpretation of the Cylinder as a "charter of human rights" has been dismissed by other historians and characterized by some others as political propaganda devised by the Pahlavi regime. The German historian Josef Wiesehöfer argues that the image of "Cyrus as a champion of the UN human rights policy ... is just as much a phantom as the humane and enlightened Shah of Persia", while historian Elton L. Daniel has described such an interpretation as "rather anachronistic" and tendentious. The cylinder now lies in the British Museum, and a replica is kept at the United Nations Headquarters.


title: History of human rights

text: Many thinkers point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early poleis of ancient Greece, where all free citizens had the right to speak and vote in the political assembly.


title: History of human rights

text: The Twelve Tables Law established the principle "Privilegia ne irroganto", which literally means "privileges shall not be imposed".


title: History of human rights

text: The Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, who ruled from 268 to 232 BCE, established the largest empire in South Asia. Following the reportedly destructive Kalinga War, Ashoka adopted Buddhism and abandoned an expansionist policy in favor of humanitarian reforms. The Edicts of Ashoka were erected throughout his empire, containing the 'Law of Piety'. These laws prohibited religious discrimination, and cruelty against both humans and animals. The Edicts emphasize the importance of tolerance in public policy by the government. The slaughter or capture of prisoners of war was also condemned by Ashoka. Some sources claim that slavery was also non-existent in ancient India. Others state, however, that slavery existed in ancient India, where it is recorded in the Sanskrit Laws of Manu of the 1st century BC.


title: History of human rights

text: In ancient Rome an "ius gentium" or "jus gentium" was a right which a citizen was due simply by dint of his citizenship. The concept of a Roman "ius" is a precursor to a right as conceived in the Western European tradition. The word "justice" is derived from "ius". Human rights legislation in the Roman Empire included the introduction of the presumption of innocence by Emperor Antoninus Pius and the Edict of Milan by Emperor Constantine the Great establishing complete freedom of religion.


title: History of human rights

text: The coining of the phrase 'Human rights' can be attributed to Tertullian in his letter To Scapula wherein he wrote about the religious freedom in Roman Empire. He equated "fundamental human rights" as a "privilege of nature" in this letter.


title: History of human rights

text: Historians generally agree that Muhammad preached against what he saw as the social evils of his day, and that Islamic social reforms in areas such as social security, family structure, slavery, and the rights of women and ethnic minorities were intended to improve on what was present in existing Arab society at the time. For example, according to Bernard Lewis, Islam "from the first denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents." John Esposito sees Muhammad as a reformer who condemned practices of the pagan Arabs such as female infanticide, exploitation of the poor, usury, murder, false contracts, and theft. Bernard Lewis believes that the egalitarian nature of Islam "represented a very considerable advance on the practice of both the Greco-Roman and the ancient Persian world." Muhammed also incorporated Arabic and Mosaic laws and customs of the time into his divine revelations.


title: History of human rights

text: The Constitution of Medina, also known as the "Charter of Medina", was drafted by Muhammad in 622. It constituted a formal agreement between Muhammad and all of the significant tribes and families of Yathrib (later known as Medina), including Muslims, Jews, and pagans. The document was drawn up with the explicit concern of bringing to an end the bitter intertribal fighting between the clans of the Aws (Aus) and Khazraj within Medina. To this effect it instituted a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish and pagan communities of Medina bringing them within the fold of one community-the Ummah.


title: History of human rights

text: If the prisoners were in the custody of a person, then the responsibility was on the individual. Lewis states that Islam brought two major changes to ancient slavery which were to have far-reaching consequences. "One of these was the presumption of freedom; the other, the ban on the enslavement of free persons except in strictly defined circumstances," Lewis continues. The position of the Arabian slave was "enormously improved": the Arabian slave "was now no longer merely a chattel but was also a human being with a certain religious and hence a social status and with certain quasi-legal rights."


title: History of human rights

text: Esposito states that reforms in women's rights affected marriage, divorce and inheritance. Women were not accorded with such legal status in other cultures, including the West, until centuries later. "The Oxford Dictionary of Islam" states that the general improvement of the status of Arab women included prohibition of female infanticide and recognizing women's full personhood. "The dowry, previously regarded as a bride-price paid to the father, became a nuptial gift retained by the wife as part of her personal property." Under Islamic law, marriage was no longer viewed as a "status" but rather as a "contract", in which the woman's consent was imperative. "Women were given inheritance rights in a patriarchal society that had previously restricted inheritance to male relatives." Annemarie Schimmel states that "compared to the pre-Islamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous progress; the woman has the right, at least according to the letter of the law, to administer the wealth she has brought into the family or has earned by her own work." William Montgomery Watt states that Muhammad, in the historical context of his time, can be seen as a figure who testified on behalf of women's rights and improved things considerably. Watt explains: "At the time Islam began, the conditions of women were terrible—they had no right to own property, were supposed to be the property of the man, and if the man died everything went to his sons." Muhammad, however, by "instituting rights of property ownership, inheritance, education and divorce, gave women certain basic safeguards." Haddad and Esposito state that "Muhammad granted women rights and privileges in the sphere of family life, marriage, education, and economic endeavors, rights that help improve women's status in society." However, other writers have argued that women before Islam were more liberated drawing most often on the first marriage of Muhammad and that of Muhammad's parents, but also on other points such as worship of female idols at Mecca.


title: History of human rights

text: Sociologist Robert Bellah ("Beyond belief") argues that Islam in its 7th-century origins was, for its time and place, "remarkably modern...in the high degree of commitment, involvement, and participation expected from the rank-and-file members of the community." This is because, he argues, that Islam emphasized the equality of all Muslims, where leadership positions were open to all. Dale Eickelman writes that Bellah suggests "the early Islamic community placed a particular value on individuals, as opposed to collective or group responsibility."


title: History of human rights

text: Early Islamic law's principles concerning military conduct and the treatment of prisoners of war under the early Caliphate are considered precursors to international humanitarian law. The many requirements on how prisoners of war should be treated included, for example, providing shelter, food and clothing, respecting their cultures, and preventing any acts of execution, rape or revenge. Some of these principles were not codified in Western international law until modern times. Islamic law under the early Caliphate institutionalised humanitarian limitations on military conduct, including attempts to limit the severity of war, guidelines for ceasing hostilities, distinguishing between civilians and combatants, preventing unnecessary destruction, and caring for the sick and wounded.


title: History of human rights

text: The concept of human rights in the medieval ages built on the natural law tradition. This tradition was heavily influenced by the writings of St Paul's early Christian thinkers such as St Hilary of Poitiers, St Ambrose, and St Augustine. Augustine was among the earliest to examine the legitimacy of the laws of man, and attempt to define the boundaries of what laws and rights occur naturally based on wisdom and conscience, instead of being arbitrarily imposed by mortals, and if people are obligated to obey laws that are unjust.


title: History of human rights

text: This medieval tradition became prominent and influenced the "Magna Carta" is an English charter originally issued in 1215 which influenced the development of the common law and many later constitutional documents related to human rights, such as the 1689 English Bill of Rights, the 1789 United States Constitution, and the 1791 United States Bill of Rights.


title: History of human rights

text: "Magna Carta" was originally written because of disagreements between Pope Innocent III, King John and the English barons about the rights of the King. "Magna Carta" required the King to renounce certain rights, respect certain legal procedures and accept that his will could be bound by the law. It explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects, whether free or fettered—most notably the writ of habeas corpus, allowing appeal against unlawful imprisonment.


title: History of human rights

text: For modern times, the most enduring legacy of "Magna Carta" is considered the right of habeas corpus. This right arises from what are now known as clauses 36, 38, 39, and 40 of the 1215 "Magna Carta". "Magna Carta" also included the right to due process:


title: History of human rights

text: The statute of Kalisz (1264), bestowed privileges to the Jewish minority in the Kingdom of Poland such as protection from discrimination and hate speech.


title: History of human rights

text: At the Council of Constance (1414–1418), scholar and jurist Pawel Wlodkowic delivered an address from his "Tractatus de potestate papae et imperatoris respectu infidelium" ("Treatise on the Power of the Pope and the Emperor Respecting Infidels") in which he advocated the peaceful coexistence of Christians and pagans, making him a precursor of religious tolerance in Europe.


title: History of human rights

text: The conquest of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries by Spain, during the Age of Discovery, resulted in vigorous debate about human rights in Colonial Spanish America. This led to the issuance of the Laws of Burgos by Ferdinand the Catholic on behalf of his daughter, Joanna of Castile. Friar Antonio de Montesinos, a Friar of the Dominican Order at the Island of Hispaniola, delivered a sermon on December 21, 1511, which was attended by Bartolomé de las Casas. It is believed that reports from the Dominicans in Hispaniola motivated the Spanish Crown to act. The sermon, known as the Christmas Sermon, gave way to further debates from 1550–51 between Las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda at Valladolid. Among the provisions of the Laws of Burgos were child labor; women's rights; wages; suitable accommodations; and rest/vacation, among others.


title: History of human rights

text: Several 17th- and 18th-century European philosophers, most notably John Locke, developed the concept of "natural rights", the notion that people are naturally free and equal. Though Locke believed natural rights were derived from divinity since humans were creations of God, his ideas were important in the development of the modern notion of rights. Lockean natural rights did not rely on citizenship nor any law of the state, nor were they necessarily limited to one particular ethnic, cultural or religious group. Around the same time, in 1689, the English Bill of Rights was created which asserted some basic human rights, most famously freedom from cruel and unusual punishment.


title: History of human rights

text: In the 1700s, the novel became a popular form of entertainment. Popular novels, such as "Julie, or the New Heloise" by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and "Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded" by Samuel Richardson, laid a foundation for popular acceptance of human rights by making readers empathize with characters unlike themselves.


title: History of human rights

text: Two major revolutions occurred during the 18th century in the United States (1776) and in France (1789). The Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 sets up a number of fundamental rights and freedoms. The later United States Declaration of Independence includes concepts of natural rights and famously states "that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness". Similarly, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen defines a set of individual and collective rights of the people. These are, in the document, held to be universal—not only to French citizens but to "all men without exception".


title: History of human rights

text: Philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill and Hegel expanded on the theme of universality during the 18th and 19th centuries.


title: History of human rights

text: In 1831 William Lloyd Garrison wrote in "The Liberator" newspaper that he was trying to enlist his readers in "the great cause of human rights" so the term "human rights" may have come into use sometime between Paine's "The Rights of Man" and Garrison's publication. In 1849, a contemporary, Henry David Thoreau, wrote about human rights in his treatise "On the Duty of Civil Disobedience" which was later influential on human rights and civil rights thinkers. United States Supreme Court Justice David Davis, in his 1867 opinion for "Ex parte Milligan", wrote: "By the protection of the law, human rights are secured; withdraw that protection and they are at the mercy of wicked rulers or the clamor of an excited people."


title: History of human rights

text: Many groups and movements have managed to achieve profound social changes over the course of the 20th century in the name of human rights. In Western Europe and North America, labour unions brought about laws granting workers the right to strike, establishing safer work conditions and forbidding or regulating child labor. The women's suffrage movement succeeded in gaining for many women the right to vote. National liberation movements in the Global South succeeded in gaining many countries independence from Western colonialism, one of the most influential being Mahatma Gandhi's leadership of the Indian independence movement. Movements by ethnic and religious minorities for racial and religious equality succeeded in many parts of the world, among them the American civil rights movement, and more recent diverse identity politics movements, on behalf of women and minorities which have occurred around the world.


title: History of human rights

text: The foundation of the International Committee of the Red Cross, the 1864 Lieber Code and the first of the Geneva Conventions in 1864 laid the foundations of international humanitarian law, to be further developed following the two World Wars.


title: History of human rights

text: Auguries of United Nations human rights law have been located in the late-19th century movement to suppress and abolish slavery across the world as well as in the conventional protection of minorities from religious, racial, and national discrimination within states under the auspices of unilateral, bilateral, and multilateral treaty law, first found in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin.


title: History of human rights

text: Pope Leo XIII's Apostolic Exhortation Rerum Novarum in 1891 marked the official beginning of Catholic Social Teaching. The document was principally concerned with discussing workers' rights, property rights, and citizens' rights against State intrusion. From that time forward, popes (and Vatican II) would release apostolic exhortations and encyclicals on topics that touched on human rights more and more frequently.


title: History of human rights

text: The proposition that a state's agents could be held criminally responsible for atrocities perpetrated against the state's own nationals was advanced by the British, French, and Russian governments in May 1915 in response to Turkey's genocide of Armenians.


title: History of human rights

text: The League of Nations was established in 1919 at the negotiations over the Treaty of Versailles following the end of World War I. The League's goals included disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global welfare. Enshrined in its Charter was a mandate to promote many of the rights which were later included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.


title: History of human rights

text: The League of Nations had mandates to support many of the former colonies of the Western European colonial powers during their transition from colony to independent state.


title: History of human rights

text: Established as an agency of the League of Nations, and now part of United Nations, the International Labour Organization also had a mandate to promote and safeguard certain of the rights later included in the UDHR:


title: History of human rights

text: Also of particular note is the ILO's 1919 convention protecting women from pregnancy discrimination in employment, the 1921 Right of Association (Agriculture) Convention, and the 1930 Forced Labour Convention.


title: History of human rights

text: The Geneva Conventions came into being between 1864 and 1949 as a result of efforts by Henry Dunant, the founder of the International Committee of the Red Cross. The conventions safeguard the human rights of individuals involved in conflict, and follow on from the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions, the international community's first attempt to define laws of war. Despite first being framed before World War II, the conventions were revised as a result of World War II and readopted by the international community in 1949.


title: History of human rights

text: All four conventions were last revised and ratified in 1949, based on previous revisions and partly on some of the 1907 Hague Conventions. Later, conferences have added provisions prohibiting certain methods of warfare and addressing issues of civil wars. Nearly all 200 countries of the world are "signatory" nations, in that they have ratified these conventions. The International Committee of the Red Cross is the controlling body of the Geneva conventions.


title: History of human rights

text: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a non-binding declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, partly in response to the barbarism of World War II. The Declaration urges member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights are part of the "foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world". It was declared by the United Nations General Assembly to be a common standard of achievements for all peoples and all nations. It sets forth, for the first time in history, fundamental human rights to be universally protected.


title: History of human rights

text: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was framed by members of the Human Rights Commission, with Eleanor Roosevelt as Chair, who began to discuss an "International Bill of Rights" in 1947. The members of the Commission did not immediately agree on the form of such a bill of rights, and whether, or how, it should be enforced. The Commission proceeded to frame the UDHR and accompanying treaties, but the UDHR quickly became the priority. Canadian law professor John Humphrey and French lawyer Rene Cassin were responsible for much of the cross-national research and the structure of the document respectively, where the articles of the declaration were interpretative of the general principle of the preamble. The document was structured by Cassin to include the basic principles of dignity, liberty, equality and brotherhood in the first two articles, followed successively by rights pertaining to individuals; rights of individuals in relation to each other and to groups; spiritual, public and political rights; and economic, social and cultural rights. The final three articles place, according to Cassin, rights in the context of limits, duties and the social and political order in which they are to be realized. Humphrey and Cassin intended the rights in the UDHR to be legally enforceable through some means, as is reflected in the third clause of the preamble:


title: History of human rights

text: Some of the Declaration was researched and written by a committee of international experts on human rights, including representatives from all continents and all major religions, and drawing on consultation with leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi. The inclusion of both civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights was predicated on the assumption that basic human rights are indivisible and that the different types of rights listed are inextricably linked. Though this principle was not opposed by any member states at the time of adoption (the declaration was adopted unanimously, with the abstention of the Soviet Bloc, Apartheid South Africa and Saudi Arabia), this principle was later subject to significant challenges.


title: History of human rights

text: The UN declaration was succeeded by the European Convention on Human Rights, a binding convention drafted by the Council of Europe in 1950 and signed by 47 countries. The Convention has 18 articles, 13 of which are rights guaranteed under it:


title: History of human rights

text: The other five articles address enforcement of the rights enumerated in the convention and special circumstances in which these rights can be restricted. The United Kingdom, one of the signatories of the ECHR, later passed the Human Rights Act 1998 enshrining these rights in UK law and giving the judiciary the ability to enforce them under UK law.


title: History of human rights

text: According to historian Samuel Moyn the next major landmark in human rights happened in the 1970s. Human rights were included in point VII of the Helsinki Accords, which was signed in 1975 by thirty-five states, including the United States, Canada, and all European states except Albania and Andorra.


title: History of human rights

text: During his inaugural speech in 1977, the 39th President of the United States Jimmy Carter made human rights a pillar of United States foreign policy. Human rights advocacy organization Amnesty International later won the Nobel Peace Prize also in 1977. Carter, who was instrumental to the Camp David accord peace treaty would himself win the Nobel Peace Prize in 2002 "for his decades of untiring effort to find peaceful solutions to international conflicts, to advance democracy and human rights, and to promote economic and social development".


title: History of human rights

text: Human rights advocacy has continued into the early 21st century, centred around achieving greater economic and political freedom. In July 2022, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution in which it is recognized that everyone on the planet has a right to a healthy environment. It called on states to step up efforts to ensure their people have access to a "clean, healthy and sustainable environment."


title: Chemiosmosis

text: Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane bound structure, down their electrochemical gradient. An important example is the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the movement of hydrogen ions (H) across a membrane during cellular respiration or photosynthesis.


title: Chemiosmosis

text: Hydrogen ions, or protons, will diffuse from a region of high proton concentration to a region of lower proton concentration, and an electrochemical concentration gradient of protons across a membrane can be harnessed to make ATP. This process is related to osmosis, the movement of water across a selective membrane, which is why it is called "chemiosmosis".


title: Chemiosmosis

text: ATP synthase is the enzyme that makes ATP by chemiosmosis. It allows protons to pass through the membrane and uses the free energy difference to phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate (ADP), making ATP. The generation of ATP by chemiosmosis occurs in mitochondria and chloroplasts, as well as in most bacteria and archaea. For instance, in chloroplasts during photosynthesis, an electron transport chain pumps H ions (protons) in the stroma (fluid) through the thylakoid membrane to the thylakoid spaces. The stored energy is used to photophosphorylate ADP, making ATP, as protons move through ATP synthase.


title: Chemiosmosis

text: Peter D. Mitchell proposed the chemiosmotic hypothesis in 1961. The theory suggests essentially that most adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis in respiring cells comes from the electrochemical gradient across the inner membranes of mitochondria by using the energy of NADH and FADH formed from the breaking down of energy-rich molecules such as glucose.


title: Chemiosmosis

text: Molecules such as glucose are metabolized to produce acetyl CoA as a fairly energy-rich intermediate. The oxidation of acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) in the mitochondrial matrix is coupled to the reduction of a carrier molecule such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD).


title: Chemiosmosis

text: The carriers pass electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC) in the inner mitochondrial membrane, which in turn pass them to other proteins in the ETC. The energy of the oxygen, the terminal acceptor in the ETC, is used to pump protons from the matrix into the intermembrane space, storing energy in the form of a transmembrane electrochemical gradient. The protons move back across the inner membrane through the enzyme ATP synthase. The flow of protons back into the matrix of the mitochondrion via ATP synthase provides enough energy for ADP to combine with inorganic phosphate to form ATP.


title: Chemiosmosis

text: This was a radical proposal at the time, and was not well accepted. The prevailing view was that the energy of electron transfer was stored as a stable high potential intermediate, a chemically more conservative concept. The problem with the older paradigm is that no high energy intermediate was ever found, and the evidence for proton pumping by the complexes of the electron transfer chain grew too great to be ignored. Eventually the weight of evidence began to favor the chemiosmotic hypothesis, and in 1978 Peter Mitchell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.


title: Chemiosmosis

text: Lipid bilayers of biological membranes, however, are barriers for ions. This is why energy can be stored as a combination of these two gradients across the membrane. Only special membrane proteins like ion channels can sometimes allow ions to move across the membrane (see also: Membrane transport). In chemiosmotic theory transmembrane ATP synthases are very important. They convert energy of spontaneous flow of protons through them into chemical energy of ATP bonds.


title: Chemiosmosis

text: Hence researchers created the term proton-motive force (PMF), derived from the electrochemical gradient mentioned earlier. It can be described as the measure of the potential energy stored (chemiosmotic potential) as a combination of proton and voltage (electrical potential) gradients across a membrane. The electrical gradient is a consequence of the charge separation across the membrane (when the protons H move without a counterion, such as chloride Cl).


title: Chemiosmosis

text: In most cases the proton-motive force is generated by an electron transport chain which acts as a proton pump, using the Gibbs free energy of redox reactions to pump protons (hydrogen ions) out across the membrane, separating the charge across the membrane. In mitochondria, energy released by the electron transport chain is used to move protons from the mitochondrial matrix (N side) to the intermembrane space (P side). Moving the protons out of the mitochondrion creates a lower concentration of positively charged protons inside it, resulting in excess negative charge on the inside of the membrane. The electrical potential gradient is about -170 mV , negative inside (N). These gradients - charge difference and the proton concentration difference both create a combined electrochemical gradient across the membrane, often expressed as the proton-motive force (PMF). In mitochondria, the PMF is almost entirely made up of the electrical component but in chloroplasts the PMF is made up mostly of the pH gradient because the charge of protons H is neutralized by the movement of Cl and other anions. In either case, the PMF needs to be greater than about 460 mV (45 kJ/mol) for the ATP synthase to be able to make ATP.


title: Chemiosmosis

text: The proton-motive force is derived from the Gibbs free energy. Let N denote the inside of a cell, and let P denote the outside. Then


title: Chemiosmosis

text: The molar Gibbs free energy change formula_2 is frequently interpreted as a molar electrochemical ion potential formula_12.


title: Chemiosmosis

text: Note that for spontaneous proton import from the P side (relatively more positive and acidic) to the N side (relatively more negative and alkaline), formula_21 is negative (similar to formula_2) whereas PMF is positive (similar to redox cell potential formula_23).


title: Chemiosmosis

text: It is worth noting that, as with any transmembrane transport process, the PMF is directional. The sign of the transmembrane electric potential difference formula_24 is chosen to represent the change in potential energy per unit charge flowing into the cell as above. Furthermore, due to redox-driven proton pumping by coupling sites, the proton gradient is always inside-alkaline. For both of these reasons, protons flow in spontaneously, from the P side to the N side; the available free energy is used to synthesize ATP (see below). For this reason, PMF is defined for proton import, which is spontaneous. PMF for proton export, i.e., proton pumping as catalyzed by the coupling sites, is simply the negative of PMF(import).


title: Chemiosmosis

text: The spontaneity of proton import (from the P to the N side) is universal in all bioenergetic membranes. This fact was not recognized before the 1990s, because the chloroplast thylakoid lumen was interpreted as an interior phase, but in fact it is topologically equivalent to the exterior of the chloroplast. Azzone et al. stressed that the inside phase (N side of the membrane) is the bacterial cytoplasm, mitochondrial matrix, or chloroplast stroma; the outside (P) side is the bacterial periplasmic space, mitochondrial intermembrane space, or chloroplast lumen. Furthermore, 3D tomography of the mitochondrial inner membrane shows its extensive invaginations to be stacked, similar to thylakoid disks; hence the mitochondrial intermembrane space is topologically quite similar to the chloroplast lumen.:


title: Chemiosmosis

text: The energy expressed here as Gibbs free energy, electrochemical proton gradient, or proton-motive force (PMF), is a combination of two gradients across the membrane:


title: Chemiosmosis

text: When a system reaches equilibrium, formula_27; nevertheless, the concentrations on either side of the membrane need not be equal. Spontaneous movement across the potential membrane is determined by both concentration and electric potential gradients.


title: Chemiosmosis

text: is also called phosphorylation potential. The equilibrium concentration ratio formula_30 can be calculated by comparing formula_31 and formula_28, for example in case of the mammalian mitochondrion:


title: Chemiosmosis

text: H / ATP = ΔG / (Δp / 10.4 kJ·mol/mV) = 40.2 kJ·mol / (173.5 mV / 10.4 kJ·mol/mV) = 40.2 / 16.7 = 2.4. The actual ratio of the proton-binding c-subunit to the ATP-synthesizing beta-subunit copy numbers is 8/3 = 2.67, showing that under these conditions, the mitochondrion functions at 90% (2.4/2.67) efficiency.


title: Chemiosmosis

text: In fact, the thermodynamic efficiency is mostly lower in eukaryotic cells because ATP must be exported from the matrix to the cytoplasm, and ADP and phosphate must be imported from the cytoplasm. This "costs" one "extra" proton import per ATP, hence the actual efficiency is only 65% (= 2.4/3.67).


title: Chemiosmosis

text: The complete breakdown of glucose releasing its energy is called cellular respiration. The last steps of this process occur in mitochondria. The reduced molecules NADH and FADH are generated by the Krebs cycle, glycolysis, and pyruvate processing. These molecules pass electrons to an electron transport chain, which releases the energy of oxygen to create a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. ATP synthase then uses the energy stored in this gradient to make ATP. This process is called oxidative phosphorylation because it uses energy released by the oxidation of NADH and FADH to phosphorylate ADP into ATP.


title: Chemiosmosis

text: The light reactions of photosynthesis generate ATP by the action of chemiosmosis. The photons in sunlight are received by the antenna complex of Photosystem II, which excites electrons to a higher energy level. These electrons travel down an electron transport chain, causing protons to be actively pumped across the thylakoid membrane into the thylakoid lumen. These protons then flow down their electrochemical potential gradient through an enzyme called ATP-synthase, creating ATP by the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. The electrons from the initial light reaction reach Photosystem I, then are raised to a higher energy level by light energy and then received by an electron acceptor and reduce NADP to NADPH. The electrons lost from Photosystem II get replaced by the oxidation of water, which is "split" into protons and oxygen by the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC, also known as WOC, or the water-oxidizing complex). To generate one molecule of diatomic oxygen, 10 photons must be absorbed by Photosystems I and II, four electrons must move through the two photosystems, and 2 NADPH are generated (later used for carbon dioxide fixation in the Calvin Cycle).


title: Chemiosmosis

text: Bacteria and archaea also can use chemiosmosis to generate ATP. Cyanobacteria, green sulfur bacteria, and purple bacteria synthesize ATP by a process called photophosphorylation. These bacteria use the energy of light to create a proton gradient using a photosynthetic electron transport chain. Non-photosynthetic bacteria such as "E. coli" also contain ATP synthase. In fact, mitochondria and chloroplasts are the product of endosymbiosis and trace back to incorporated prokaryotes. This process is described in the endosymbiotic theory. The origin of the mitochondrion triggered the origin of eukaryotes, and the origin of the plastid the origin of the Archaeplastida, one of the major eukaryotic supergroups.


title: Chemiosmosis

text: Chemiosmotic phosphorylation is the third pathway that produces ATP from inorganic phosphate and an ADP molecule. This process is part of oxidative phosphorylation.


title: Chemiosmosis

text: A stepwise model for the emergence of chemiosmosis, a key element in the origin of life on earth, proposes that primordial organisms used thermal cycling as an energy source (thermosynthesis), functioning essentially as a heat engine:


title: Chemiosmosis

text: Deep-sea hydrothermal vents, emitting hot acidic or alklaine water, would have created external proton gradients. These provided energy that primordial organisms could have exploited. To keep the flows separate, such an organism could have wedged itself in the rock of the hydrothermal vent, exposed to the hydrothermal flow on one side and the more alkaline water on the other. As long as the organism's membrane (or passive ion channels within it) is permeable to protons, the mechanism can function without ion pumps. Such a proto-organism could then have evolved further mechanisms such as ion pumps and ATP synthase.


title: Chemiosmosis

text: A proposed alternative source to chemiosmotic energy developing across membranous structures is if an electron acceptor, ferricyanide, is within a vesicle and the electron donor is outside, quinones transported by carbonaceous meteorites pick up electrons and protons from the donor. They would release electrons across the lipid membrane by diffusion to ferricyanide within the vesicles and release protons which produces gradients above pH 2, the process is conducive to the development of proton gradients.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003), was a landmark case of the Supreme Court of the United States concerning affirmative action in student admissions. The Court held that a student admissions process that favors "underrepresented minority groups" does not violate the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause so long as it takes into account other factors evaluated on an individual basis for every applicant.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: The case arose after a prospective student to the University of Michigan Law School alleged that she had been denied admission because the school gave certain minority groups a significantly greater chance of admission. The school admitted that its admission process favored certain minority groups, but argued that there was a compelling state interest to ensure a "critical mass" of students from minority groups. In a majority opinion joined by four other justices, Justice Sandra Day O'Connor held that the Constitution "does not prohibit the law school's narrowly tailored use of race in admissions decisions to further a compelling interest in obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body."


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: In her majority opinion, O'Connor wrote that "race-conscious admissions policies must be limited in time," adding that the "Court expects that 25 years from now, the use of racial preferences will no longer be necessary to further the interest approved today." Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer concurred in the judgment, but did not subscribe to the belief that the affirmative measures in question would be unnecessary in 25 years. In a dissent joined by three other justices, Chief Justice William Rehnquist argued that the university's admissions system was, in fact, a thinly veiled and unconstitutional quota system.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: The decision largely upheld the Court's decision in "Regents of the University of California v. Bakke" (1978), which allowed race to be a consideration in admissions policy but held racial quotas to be unconstitutional. In "Gratz v. Bollinger" (2003) a separate case decided on the same day as "Grutter", the Court struck down a points-based admissions system that awarded an automatic bonus to the admissions scores of minority applicants.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: When the University of Michigan Law School denied admission to Barbara Grutter, a Michigan resident with a 3.8 GPA and 161 LSAT score, she filed this suit, alleging that respondents had discriminated against her on the basis of race in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment, Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as well as 42 U.S.C. § 1981; that she was rejected because the Law School uses race as a "predominant" factor, giving applicants belonging to certain minority groups a significantly greater chance of admission than students with similar credentials from disfavored racial groups; and that respondents had no compelling interest to justify that use of race. Lee Bollinger (then-President of the University of Michigan), was the named defendant of this case.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: The University argued that there was a compelling state interest to ensure a "critical mass" of students from minority groups, particularly African Americans and Hispanics, which is realized within the student body. They argued that this aims to "ensure that these minority students do not feel isolated or like spokespersons for their race; to provide adequate opportunities for the type of interaction upon which the educational benefits of diversity depend; and to challenge all students to think critically and re-examine stereotypes."


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: In March 2001, U.S. District Court Judge Bernard A. Friedman ruled that the admissions policies were unconstitutional because they "clearly consider" race and are "practically indistinguishable from a quota system." Due to the significance of the case, the Court of Appeals agreed to hear the case "en banc". In May 2002, in a closely divided 5–4 ruling, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the decision, citing the "Bakke" decision and allowing the use of race to further the "compelling interest" of diversity. The plaintiffs subsequently requested the Supreme Court review. The Court agreed to hear the case, the first time the Court had heard a case on affirmative action in education since the landmark "Bakke" decision of 25 years prior.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: On April 1, 2003 the US Supreme Court heard oral arguments for "Grutter". The Court allowed the recordings of the arguments to be released to the public the same day, only the second time the Court had allowed same-day release of oral arguments. The first time was "Bush v. Gore", 531 U.S. 98 (2000), the case that ultimately ended the 2000 presidential election.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: The Court's majority ruling, authored by Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, held that the United States Constitution "does not prohibit the law school's narrowly tailored use of race in admissions decisions to further a compelling interest in obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body." The Court held that the law school's interest in obtaining a "critical mass" of minority students was indeed a "tailored use". O'Connor noted that sometime in the future, perhaps twenty-five years hence, racial affirmative action would no longer be necessary in order to promote diversity. It implied that affirmative action should not be allowed permanent status and that eventually a "colorblind" policy should be implemented. The opinion read, "race-conscious admissions policies must be limited in time." "The Court takes the Law School at its word that it would like nothing better than to find a race-neutral admissions formula and will terminate its use of racial preferences as soon as practicable. The Court expects that 25 years from now, the use of racial preferences will no longer be necessary to further the interest approved today." The phrase "25 years from now" was echoed by Justice Thomas in his dissent. Justice Thomas, writing that the system was "illegal now", concurred with the majority only on the point that he agreed the system would still be illegal 25 years hence.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: The decision largely upheld the position asserted in Justice Powell's concurrence in "Regents of the University of California v. Bakke", which allowed race to be a consideration in admissions policy, but held that quotas were illegal.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: Public universities and other public institutions of higher education across the nation are now allowed to use race as a plus factor in determining whether a student should be admitted. While race may not be the only factor, the decision allows admissions bodies to take race into consideration along with other individualized factors in reviewing a student's application. O'Connor's opinion answers the question for the time being as to whether "diversity" in higher education is a compelling governmental interest. As long as the program is "narrowly tailored" to achieve that end, it seems likely that the Court will find it constitutional.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: In the majority were Justices O'Connor, Stevens, Souter, Ginsburg, and Breyer. Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justices Scalia, Kennedy, and Thomas dissented. Much of the dissent concerned a disbelief in the validity of the law school's claim that the system was necessary to create a "critical mass" of minority students and provide a diverse educational environment. In the dissent, Chief Justice Rehnquist used admissions data to argue that unconstitutional discrimination occurred, despite the precedent set in McCleskey v. Kemp that dismiss statistical racial disparities as doctrinally irrelevant in equal protection claims.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: The case was heard in conjunction with "Gratz v. Bollinger", , in which the Court struck down the University of Michigan's more rigid, point-based undergraduate admission policy, which was essentially deemed a quota system. The case generated a record number of amicus curiae briefs from institutional supporters of affirmative action. A lawyer who filed an amicus curiae brief on behalf of members and former members of the Pennsylvania legislature, State Rep. Mark B. Cohen of Philadelphia, said that Sandra Day O'Connor's majority decision in "Grutter v. Bollinger" was a "ringing affirmation of the goal of an inclusive society." In both "Grutter" and "Gratz", O'Connor was the swing vote.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: Chief Justice Rehnquist, joined by Justice Scalia, Justice Kennedy, and Justice Thomas, argued the Law School's admissions policy was an attempt to achieve an unconstitutional type of racial balancing. The Chief Justice attacked the Law School's asserted goal of reaching a "critical mass" of minority students, finding the absolute number of African-American, Hispanic, and Native American students varied markedly, which is inconsistent with the concept in that one would think the same size critical mass would be needed for all minority groups. He noted that "[f]rom 1995 through 2000, the Law School admitted... between 13 and 19... Native American[s], between 91 and 108... African American[s], and between 47 and 56... Hispanic[s]... One would have to believe that the objectives of 'critical mass' offered by respondents are achieved with only half the number of Hispanics, and one-sixth the number of Native Americans as compared to African Americans." Citing admissions statistics, the Chief Justice noted the tight correlation between the percentage of applicants and admittees of a given race and argued that the numbers were "far too precise to be dismissed as merely the result of the school paying 'some attention to [the] numbers.'"


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: Justice Thomas, joined by Justice Scalia, issued a strongly worded opinion, concurring in part and dissenting in part, arguing that if Michigan could not remain a prestigious institution and admit students under a race-neutral system, the "Law School should be forced to choose between its classroom aesthetic and its exclusionary admissions system." In Justice Thomas' opinion, there is no compelling state interest in Michigan maintaining an elite law school, because a number of states do not have law schools, let alone elite ones. Moreover, Justice Thomas noted that in "United States v. Virginia", , the Court required the Virginia Military Institute to radically reshape its admissions process and the character of that institution.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: Another criticism raised by Justice Thomas compared Michigan Law to the University of California, Berkeley School of Law, where California's Proposition 209 had barred Berkeley Law from "granting preferential treatment on the basis of race in the operation of public education." Despite Proposition 209, however, Berkeley Law was still able to achieve a diverse student body. According to Thomas, "the Court is willfully blind to the very real experience in California and elsewhere, which raises the inference that institutions with 'reputations for excellence'...rivaling [Michigan Law's] have satisfied their sense of mission without resorting to prohibited racial discrimination."


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: A final criticism leveled at Justice O'Connor's opinion was the length of time the racial admissions policy will be lawful. Justice Thomas concurred that racial preferences would be unlawful in 25 years, however, he noted that in fact the Court should have found race-based affirmative action programs in higher education unlawful now:


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: I therefore can understand the imposition of a 25-year time limit only as a holding that the deference the Court pays to the Law School's educational judgments and refusal to change its admissions policies will itself expire. At that point these policies will clearly have failed to "'eliminate the [perceived] need for any racial or ethnic'" discrimination because the academic credentials gap will still be there. [citation omitted] The Court defines this time limit in terms of narrow tailoring, [internal citation omitted] but I believe this arises from its refusal to define rigorously the broad state interest vindicated today. [internal citation omitted]. With these observations, I join the last sentence of Part III of the opinion of the Court.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: For the immediate future, however, the majority has placed its imprimatur on a practice that can only weaken the principle of equality embodied in the Declaration of Independence and the Equal Protection Clause. "Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens." "Plessy v. Ferguson", 163 U.S. 527, 559, [...] (1896) (Harlan, J., dissenting). It has been nearly 140 years since Frederick Douglass asked the intellectual ancestors of the Law School to "[d]o nothing with us!" and the Nation adopted the Fourteenth Amendment. Now we must wait another 25 years to see this principle of equality vindicated. I therefore respectfully dissent from the remainder of the Court's opinion and the judgment.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: Following the decision, petitions were circulated to change the Michigan State Constitution. The measure, called the Michigan Civil Rights Initiative, or Proposal 2, passed in November 2006 and prohibited the use of race in the Law School admissions processes. In this respect, Proposal 2 is similar to California's Proposition 209 and Washington's Initiative 200, other initiatives that also banned the use of race in public university admissions decisions.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit overturned MCRI on July 1, 2011. Judges R. Guy Cole Jr. and Martha Craig Daughtrey said that "Proposal 2 reorders the political process in Michigan to place special burdens on minority interests." This decision was upheld by the full Court of Appeals on November 16, 2012. After the ruling, Michigan Attorney General Bill Schuette announced he would appeal the court ruling to the Supreme Court. On March 25, 2013 the Supreme Court granted a writ of certiorari, agreeing to hear the case. The Court ultimately upheld MCRI in "Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action".


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: The Supreme Court decided a challenge to the University of Texas at Austin's admission policy, Fisher v. University of Texas, in June 2013. In this case, the Court reaffirmed that universities were entitled to deference on their judgment that diversity is a compelling state interest. Importantly, though, the Court ruled that a university was entitled to "no deference" on its judgment that race-based affirmative action was necessary to achieve diversity and its educational benefits. The Court remanded the case to the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals for reconsideration, and that court again upheld UT's use of race. The plaintiff again appealed to the Supreme Court in 2016, which held that the Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit correctly found that the University of Texas at Austin's undergraduate admissions policy survived strict scrutiny, in accordance with Fisher v. University of Texas (2013).


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: The same advocacy group and legal team challenging UT Austin also filed lawsuits against Harvard University and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in November 2014. These cases are pending in U.S. District Courts and are partially on hold until the Supreme Court provides further guidance in its second UT Austin ruling.


title: Grutter v. Bollinger

text: The Supreme Court granted certification to "Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College" and "Students for Fair Admissions, Inc. v. University of North Carolina", two cases dealing with race-based admissions at Harvard College and The University of North Carolina in January 2022. Both cases seek to overturn "Grutter" and the use of race in admissions.


title: Efficacy

text: Efficacy is the ability to perform a task to a satisfactory or expected degree. The word comes from the same roots as "effectiveness", and it has often been used synonymously, although in pharmacology a distinction is now often made between efficacy and effectiveness.


title: Efficacy

text: The word "efficacy" is used in pharmacology and medicine to refer both to the maximum response achievable from a pharmaceutical drug in research settings, and to the capacity for sufficient therapeutic effect or beneficial change in clinical settings.


title: Efficacy

text: In pharmacology, efficacy () is the maximum response achievable from an applied or dosed agent, for instance, a small molecule drug. Intrinsic activity is a relative term for a drug's efficacy relative to a drug with the highest observed efficacy. It is a purely descriptive term that has little or no mechanistic interpretation.


title: Efficacy

text: In order for a drug to have an effect, it needs to bind to its target, and then to affect the function of this target. The target of a drug is commonly referred to as a receptor, but can in general be any chemically sensitive site on any molecule found in the body. The nature of such binding can be quantified by characterising how tightly these molecules, the drug and its receptor, interact: this is known as the affinity. Efficacy, on the other hand, is a measure of the action of a drug once binding has occurred. The maximum response, , will be reduced if efficacy is sufficiently low.


title: Efficacy

text: The definition of efficacy has been object for discussion. The only way in which absolute measures of efficacy have been obtained is by single ion channel analysis of ligand gated ion channels. It is still not possible to do this for G protein-linked receptors.


title: Efficacy

text: In the case of the glycine receptor and the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (muscle type), it has been proposed by Sivilotti "et al". that opening of the ion channel involves two steps after agonist is bound. Firstly a conformation change to a higher affinity (but still shut) form, followed by the conformation change from shut to open. It was found that partial agonism results from deficiency in the first step, and that the opening and shutting steps are essentially the same for both full and partial agonists. This has been confirmed and extended by Sine and colleagues (2009). The implication of this work is that efficacy has to be defined by at least two equilibrium constants (or, more generally, by four rate constants).


title: Efficacy

text: The combined influences of affinity and efficacy determine how effectively a drug will produce a biological effect, a property known as potency.


title: Efficacy

text: In medicine, efficacy is the capacity for beneficial change (or therapeutic effect) of a given intervention (for example a drug, medical device, surgical procedure, or a public health intervention). Establishment of the efficacy of an intervention is often done relative to other available interventions, with which it will be compared. Specifically, efficacy refers to "whether a drug demonstrates a health benefit over a placebo or other intervention when tested in an ideal situation, such as a tightly controlled clinical trial." These studies focus on a primary parameter to be shown statistically different between placebo and intervention groups. Comparisons of this type are called 'explanatory' randomized controlled trials, whereas 'pragmatic' trials are used to establish the "effectiveness" of an intervention regarding also non-specific parameters.


title: Efficacy

text: Effectiveness refers to "how the drug works in a real-world situation", and is "often lower than efficacy because of interactions with other medications or health conditions of the patient, sufficient dose or duration of use not prescribed by the physician or followed by the patient, or use for an off-label condition that had not been tested."


title: Efficacy

text: In Protestant Theology (esp. in Lutheran but also in Calvinist doctrine) "efficacy" is an attribute of Scripture. The efficacy of Scripture means that it is united with the power of the Holy Spirit and with it, not only demands, but also creates the acceptance of its teaching and that this teaching produces faith and obedience. Efficacy further means that Holy Scripture is not a dead letter, but rather, the power of the Holy Spirit is inherent in it and that Scripture does not compel a mere intellectual assent to its doctrine, resting on logical argumentation, but rather it creates the living agreement of faith. The Smalcald Articles affirm, "in those things which concern the spoken, outward Word, we must firmly hold that God grants His Spirit or grace to no one, except through or with the preceding outward Word." The Formula of Concord teaches that when humans reject the calling of the Holy Spirit, it is not a result of the Word being less efficacious. Instead, contempt for the means of grace is the result of "the perverse will of man, which rejects or perverts the means and instrument of the Holy Ghost, which God offers him through the call, and resists the Holy Ghost, who wishes to be efficacious, and works through the Word..."


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Aaron is a fictional character from the comic book series "The Walking Dead" and television series of the same name. He is portrayed by Ross Marquand in the television series.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: In both media, he acts as a recruiter for the Alexandria Safe-Zone located in Washington, D.C. for Rick Grimes and his fellow survivors on the road. Although initially mistrusted by Rick's group, he gradually gains their trust and becomes a respected and resourceful ally to the group. Aaron is the longest surviving Alexandria character and is notable for being the comic book's first openly gay character.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Aaron is introduced as a recruiter for the Alexandria Safe-Zone Community who came into contact with Rick's group shortly after they exterminate the Hunters. He and his fellow recruiter and boyfriend Eric watch over the group from afar for several days until they find them suitable for the community. Although the survivors are initially suspicious of Aaron's motives, they go along with him to Washington, D.C. and eventually join the Alexandria Safe-Zone. The leader of Alexandria, Douglas Monroe, is hesitant about the prospect of the group staying, but Aaron defends them, sensing that they are the genuinely good people they are. He remains fiercely loyal to Rick and company from then on.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Days after the group's arrival, Eric is stabbed by a random woman whom they had been trying to recruit. Eric is taken back by a panic-stricken Aaron and is quickly healed by the town's surgeon, Denise Cloyd. In the wake of this traumatic event, the couple mutually decides to stop recruiting and focus on maintaining things within the safety of their walls.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: A zombie attack puts the community in disarray and culminates in Rick becoming leader in the wake of Douglas' death. Aaron and Eric are both assigned inventory together where they keep track of the community's rations, as well as supplies to ensure that things continue to run properly. They also both further indulge in training with Rick and the rest of the group, in order to defend themselves better against the undead. The two soon begin to grow more comfortable venturing outside the walls again, assisting other members in supply runs, while occasionally stealing items like bottles of wine for themselves.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Aaron and Eric are both shaken by Abraham's death at the hands of the Saviors, with the two of them attending his memorial service. They later participate in the war with the Saviors, led by Negan, and form The Militia, an army consisting of many members from Alexandria, The Hilltop Colony, and The Kingdom. Eric is killed in battle with the Saviors, leaving Aaron devastated. His grief quickly turns into fury, however, as he vows to kill every remaining member of the Saviors in order to avenge Eric's death.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Two years later, however, he appears to have moved on from Eric's death and continues to be a productive member of the community. He is attacked by the Whisperers and is taken to the Hilltop to recover. When the Whisperers invade and burn down the Hilltop, despite his injuries, Aaron manages to rescue Rick's son Carl. After the war, he starts a relationship with Paul "Jesus" Monroe. When out on the road they are ambushed by Whisperer leader Beta and his last few remaining followers. In the ensuing fight, Aaron shoots and kills Beta.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Prior to the events of the series Aaron became a recruiter for the Alexandria Safe-Zone, along with his boyfriend Eric. At some point Aaron recruited a group of three led by Davidson, who Aaron believed would be a good addition to the community. However Davidson's violent nature led to Deanna exiling him and Aaron, Aiden and Nicholas were forced to escort Davidson's group out, taking all their weapons and leaving them only a few days worth of supplies.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: In the episode "Them", Aaron (Ross Marquand) introduces himself, first, to Maggie Greene (Lauren Cohan) and Sasha Williams (Sonequa Martin-Green), stating his name and that he wishes to speak to the leader, which he already knows is Rick. Then he notes that he has good news for the group. In the next episode, "The Distance", Sasha and Maggie take him as a prisoner and bring him to Rick. Aaron tells them that he has been following them for quite some time and wants to invite them to live in a safe community nearby. Rick does not believe him and orders everyone to check if the things he said are true. They come to the conclusion that Aaron is telling the truth and decide to go along with him to the community. Rick, Glenn (Steven Yeun), Michonne (Danai Gurira) and Aaron are attacked by walkers, but they manage to reunite with the rest of the group and Aaron's partner, Eric (Jordan Woods-Robinson). Together they enter the community, which lies in Alexandria, Virginia. In the episode, "Remember", Aaron leads the group in Alexandria while carrying Eric inside. After letting Eric go off to the infirmary, he stays at the gate with Nicholas (Michael Traynor) as the group enters. Aaron asks that group comply with Nicholas' orders to turn over their weapons, and that they will need to speak to the leader, Deanna Monroe (Tovah Feldshuh). After she spoke with Rick, Aaron guided Rick and Carl to the two vacant houses in the Safe-Zone, and that he and Eric will be four houses down if Rick or anyone else needs anything.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: In the episode "Forget", Aaron follows Daryl Dixon (Norman Reedus) out of the safe-zone, under the guise of hunting rabbits. Aaron then joins Daryl on the hunt, during which they find Buttons, a wild horse they have been trying to wrangle for months. When Daryl attempts to get Buttons, they are attacked by walkers and flee the area. The two bond over being seen as outsiders - Daryl because of his survivalist background, Aaron because he is gay. Soon after, Aaron is attacked and Daryl rescues him. They come to find Buttons being devoured by walkers, so both Aaron and Daryl kill the walkers, with Aaron shooting Buttons to put him out of his misery. Aaron goes back to the safe-zone but did not attend the party so that he could help mend Eric's broken ankle. When Daryl arrives to the Monroe house but declines to go inside, Aaron invites Daryl over for spaghetti. Aaron and Eric then surprise Daryl with a motorcycle they built themselves, and reveal that Eric is retiring as a recruiter and Daryl is to take his place. Daryl is grateful and forms a friendship with Aaron and Eric.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: In the episode "Spend", Daryl and Aaron head out to find other recruits for Alexandria. In the episode "Try", Daryl spots a light some miles away, but when he and Aaron investigate, they find a group of mutilated walkers and their human victim; the latter has a "w" carved into her forehead.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: In the season finale "Conquer", Daryl and Aaron find evidence of other people moving around the forest and begin to track them. Aaron tells Daryl about a group of survivors he recruited led by a man named Davidson who were ultimately exiled from Alexandria, and he personally had to escort them out without their weapons. They then see a lone survivor wearing a red poncho in the middle of a field and follow him. They lose track of the survivor and decide to scavenge supplies from some abandoned food trucks. However, they set off a trap that unleashes a horde of walkers on them and they are forced to take shelter inside a car. Daryl offers to risk his own life to help Aaron escape, but Aaron is adamant that they both escape together. At that moment, Morgan Jones (Lennie James) arrives and, with his help, Daryl and Aaron are able to escape. Aaron offers to bring Morgan to Alexandria, but Morgan politely refuses, saying that he needs to get to Washington, D.C., and shows them the map he picked up in the church, which Daryl recognizes. Daryl, Aaron, and Morgan arrive back at Alexandria in time to witness Rick executing Pete Anderson (Cory Brill), a traitorous community member who had murdered Deanna's husband Reg (Steve Coulter). Meanwhile, the Wolves find Aaron's backpack, containing evidence of Alexandria's existence.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: During the finale of season 6, "Last Day on Earth", Aaron and several others volunteer to help Rick get medical attention for Maggie, who is labor. En route to Hilltop, the group discover all the roads are being blocked by a hostile group calling themselves the Saviors. The group realize they are being lured into a trap, and Aaron points out that one of the many walkers left by the Saviors as a diversion on a road had strands of Michonne's hair stuck to it. At one point, while the Saviors are taunting the group, a man they caught is being hung over a bridge with a chain tightly wrapped around his neck. Aaron wants to help him, but Rick tells him they need to save their bullets, and leave the man to die. Eventually, Eugene Porter (Josh McDermitt) devises a plan to take the RV alone at night to lure the Saviors away from the others. However, while taking Maggie through the woods on a stretcher, the group are captured and disarmed by dozens of Saviors. They are then reunited with Daryl, Glenn, Michonne and Rosita Espinosa (Christian Serratos), who are already held captive. After the group is lined-up on their knees, the Saviors' leader, Negan (Jeffrey Dean Morgan), introduces himself, and after telling them his plans for the group, he selects one of them to be beaten to death with a baseball bat wrapped in barbwire he calls "Lucille" as a punishment for killing his people. Negan chooses who is to die by playing "Eeny, meeny, miny, moe", and the beating is shown from the point-of-view of whoever Negan says is "it".


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: In the season premiere "The Day Will Come When You Won't Be", the murdered person is revealed to be Abraham Ford (Michael Cudlitz). Negan kills Glenn as well after an enraged Daryl attacks him. Aaron is forced to witness all of this. In the episode "Service", while the Saviors sack Alexandria, Aaron and Eric watch the commotion from their front porch while the Saviors steal a mattress out of their house. Eric tries to confront Rick concerning what he plans to do about Negan, but Aaron tries unsuccessfully to stop him, telling him that it is not the right time to start that discussion. In "Go Getters," Aaron is at Rick's house preparing for a race to collect supplies for his weekly offering to the Saviors, and goes to the stairs to let Rick have a private moment with Michonne before leaving to race. In the episode "Sing Me a Song," Aaron and Rick leave a box truck and stop there to rest for the night. Aaron and Rick approach a door with a sign that reads, "Go on, the only thing here is that you have problems." Under pressure to find supplies for the Saviors, they jump the door, and find another warning sign; this time, the writer threatens to shoot anyone who comes for their food, supplies or ammunition. Undaunted, they move beyond the signal and find a pond full of walkers. They see a dilapidated houseboat floating in the center of the pond. In the final mid-season episode, "Hearts Still Beating," Aaron and Rick risk their lives to get the supplies. However, the Saviors beat Aaron up anyway when they return to the Alexandria Safe-Zone after Negan takes offense to a note he left him.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: In season 8, Aaron joins the Militia to fight the Saviors alongside Eric. During a battle in "The Damned", Eric is shot and mortally wounded. In "Monsters", Eric urges Aaron to leave him and rejoin the fight. When Aaron returns, he is devastated to discover that Eric has died and reanimated as a walker. He watches in agony in Eric staggers mindlessly away with a nearby herd of walkers.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: In "Something They Need," Aaron joins the others in going to the Oceanside community to take their weapons, but Oceanside gets the better of them and takes several of the hostage, including Aaron. For the rest of the season, Aaron stays in the Oceanside area alone, attempting to convince the women to help. As a result, he becomes emaciated and weak. After killing a group of walkers and passing out, Aaron makes a speech to the women that rallies them to the Militia's aid. In the season finale, Aaron returns to the Hilltop with the women of Oceanside in time to ambush a group of attacking Saviors, killing them all with firebombs. After the war, Aaron adopts the baby Gracie, whose Savior father died in the same battle in which Eric was killed.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Eighteen months after the end of the war, the communities live in peace, albeit a fragile one due to tensions between the Saviors and the other communities. Aaron is part of the crew working on a bridge. When a herd of walkers approaches the workers' camp, Aaron's left arm is crushed under a pile of logs. Daryl frees him, but community doctor Enid (Katelyn Nacon) is forced to amputate his arm. Rick apologizes to Aaron as he recuperates, but Aaron reassures him, saying that thanks to him, "It's not the end of the world anymore... It's the start of a whole new one."


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Six years after Rick's disappearance, Aaron, his missing arm replaced by a metal prosthetic, has become a member of the council of the Alexandria Safe-Zone. When Rick's daughter Judith (Cailey Fleming) saves a group of people led by a woman named Magna (Nadia Hilker), Aaron leads her group back to Alexandria.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Aaron is a key participant in Alexandria's war with the Whisperers. He is present when the hostile group kills Jesus, and joins the Hilltop, Kingdom, and Alexandria communities in mourning him. After the Whisperers' leader, Alpha (Samantha Morton), murders several members of all three communities as punishment for her daughter Lydia's (Cassady McClincy) defection, Aaron accompanies Michonne and the remaining Alexandrians to help the Kingdom residents travel safely and move to the Hilltop.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Months later, Aaron forms a militia to battle the Whisperers and destroy walkers. Aaron radios Gabriel at Alexandria to warn him about the recently discovered Whisperer mask at the beach, suggesting they go on lockdown. He and Michonne go the hunt for walkers, and he spots a few on a bridge and rushes in to kill them. Michonne saves him and angrily reminds him not to cross into Alpha's border. However, Aaron reminds her about the people they have lost and declares that he is "goddamn sick of being nice".


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Aaron and the others decide to cross Alpha's border to put out a fire caused by a crashed satellite in order to keep it from spreading to Oceanside. They discover the remains of the satellite and start combating the fire. The group runs out of water as a herd of walkers approaches the group. Aaron and the other start fighting off the herd. Later, the fire is put out and everyone recovers. Over the next two days, they fight wave after wave of walkers pouting in through the community's gates. After they destroy all of the walkers, Aaron helps clean up the mess.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: During a community meeting, Michonne tasks Aaron with leading a team to destroy another wave of walkers coming from the south. Under protest, Aaron takes Negan, whom he blames for Eric's death, as a member of the team. The two are immediately at odds, with Aaron demanding to know why Eric had to die, and Negan justifying his past actions as necessary to protect his people. When Negan says that Eric died because of Aaron's failure to protect him, an enraged Aaron replies that, by that logic, Negan is responsible for the death of his beloved wife Lucille, and that she must have died hating him. At that moment, a walker surprises them and attacks Aaron; he kills it, but gets blood in his eyes, leaving him blind and helpless as a herd closes in. Negan saves his life, however, and washes the blood from his eyes, restoring his vision.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Despite owing Negan his life and eyesight, however, Aaron tells the council that he is too dangerous to be kept alive. When Negan escapes their captivity, Aaron leads the search party for him, during which he encounters a mysterious woman named Gamma (Thora Birch), whose skill with killing walkers leads him to believe she would be a useful addition to the Alexandria community. He persuades her to come back with him. She turns out to be Alpha's sister and right hand, however, and tries to kill him. He is saved by Lydia and Carol Peletier (Melissa McBride).


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Aaron meets Gamma at the border on the bridge again and she asks if her infant nephew, who was left to die outside Hilltop, is still alive. Aaron says he was rescued by a family and is named Adam. She offers him information in exchange for seeing the boy. Before accepting any type of deal, Aaron makes her take off her mask and to tell the truth. Gamma says her real name is Mary, and reveals to him the location of Alpha's horde.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Upon arriving back at Alexandria, Aaron is informed about Siddiq's (Avi Nash) death at the hands of the spy Dante (Juan Javier Cardenas), whom Aaron had recruited. When Carol tells him not to blame himself, he reveals that he has been talking with a Whisperer and she has told him the location of Alpha's horde, explaining she just wants to see her nephew Adam. Daryl tells Aaron to summon a group from Hilltop to help them with the mission. He attends Siddiq's funeral, and then goes home to watch Gracie, telling her the story of how he and Eric first met. The following day, Aaron and the others go after Alpha and her horde, but she leads them into a cave and traps them with the horde. They navigate the cave and find a cord of dynamite, with which they try to destroy the herd. The explosion causes the cave to begin collapsing, trapping Magna and her friend Connie (Lauren Ridloff) inside.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Aaron returns to Alexandria to find that the Whisperers have attacked and killed several residents. They regroup at Hilltop, but are followed by the Whisperers' new leader, Beta (Ryan Hurst), and the horde of walkers. During resulting battle, Hilltop is nearly destroyed, but Aaron manages to escape with a wounded Luke (Dan Fogler). In the nearby woods, Aaron encounters Negan, who tries to convince him that he is not a threat, but Aaron is too angry to hear Negan out. The confrontation is interrupted by the approach of a small herd, forcing Aaron to fight them off to protect the still-unconscious Luke while Negan escapes.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: At Oceanside, Aaron and Alden act as lookouts, and radio what they see to Gabriel. They manage to fight off the Whisperers, who are then further assisted Maggie, who had returned to help. Aaron, along with Alden, Maggie, and her escort, arrive at the Tower just in time to kill the invading Whisperers and save Gabriel's life. At the end of the war, after helping to defeat Beta and the horde, Aaron takes Gracie to reintroduce Maggie to her.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Robert Kirkman briefly alluded during the "Talking Dead" episode for "The Walking Dead" episode "Coda" in November 2014 that the second half of the season would introduce a prominent gay character. Before Ross Marquand received the role of Aaron, he auditioned for the role of Gareth. Due to his comedic roots, the casting director thought Marquand was better suited to play Aaron, who has a more humorous personality, and so he returned to audition for the role. The casting call for Aaron used the codename Logan.


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Aaron first appeared in the season five episode "Them", and some critics compared his introduction to that of an Other from the ABC television series, "Lost". Laura Prudom for "Variety" commented on his appearance at the end of the episode, as "a stranger called Aaron (Ross Marquand), the 'friend' who delivered their suspicious water supply, who may hold the key to their continued survival. But will the group be able to trust him — and is he worthy of their trust?" Ron Hogan for Den of Geek commented that Aaron "pops up at the end of the episode looking entirely too clean and well-fed". Matt Fowler of IGN noted that Aaron appears "in the final scene - a character comic fans will know well - off to lead our survivors into their next major arc." Ted Berg for "USA Today" commented that "At the end of the episode, we meet a new dude, Aaron. Aaron's super preppy and way too clean for this world, so we can guess he's doing something evil even if the internet says that's not how it played out in the original graphic novel series."


title: Aaron (The Walking Dead)

text: Although Aaron and Eric are boyfriends in the comic series, many viewers were still surprised due to the same-sex kiss the two shared in the episode "The Distance". In reviewing the episode "Remember", Troy L. Smith commented that "Both Aaron and Eric play significant roles in the comic book. But their biggest contribution is their connection. The bond between the two should provide a sentimental element the show has been lacking a bit."