title: Common frog

text: Of the many diseases affecting common frogs, one of the most deadly has been the Ranavirus, which has been responsible for causing declines in amphibian populations across the world. Two of the main, and most deadly, symptoms caused by Ranavirus towards common frogs are skin ulcerations and hemorrhaging. Mortality rates associated with the disease are very high, in some events it is observed to be over 90%. Deaths caused by Ranavirus occur in all stages of common frog development and are concentrated mostly during the summer months. Overall, common frog populations that have been affected by Ravavirus experience consistent and substantial declines in population size.


title: Common frog

text: Due to the widespread nature of "Rana temporaria", common frogs can make their homes in both urban and rural environments. However, many of the populations living in urban environments are subject to the detrimental effects of urbanization. The construction of roads and buildings – absolute barriers to migration – has stymied gene flow and drift between urban populations of common frogs, leading to lower levels of genetic diversity in urban common frog populations compared to their rural counterparts. Urban common frog populations also experience higher levels of mortality and developmental abnormality, indicative of forced inbreeding.


title: Common frog

text: However, the common frog is listed as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.


title: Common frog

text: At metamorphosis, once the tadpole’s fore legs have developed, the frog does not feed for a short time. Recently metamorphosed juvenile frog mostly feed on small insects like Collembola (hexapods), Acarina (mites and ticks), and small fly larvae. "Rana temporaria" tadpoles, however, mostly feed on algae and decomposed plants.


title: Common frog

text: The common frog takes its place as an unspecialized and opportunistic feeder wherever it is located. In other words, common frogs will consume whatever prey that is most available and easy to capture. This usually means that the common frog feeds by remaining idle and waiting until a suitable prey enters the frog’s domain of capture. As a corollary, this also means that the common frog’s diet changes depending on the season where the associated prey become the most abundant. In the summer, the common frog’s diet mostly consists of adult Tipulidae (i.e., crane flies) and Lapidoptera (i.e., butterflies and moths) larvae. To a slightly lesser extent, common frogs will feed on Arachnida (i.e., spiders), Coleoptera (i.e., beetles), and Gastropoda (i.e., slugs and snails). In addition, common frogs will typically feed on bigger prey as they become larger. Therefore, newly developed common frogs are limited to smaller insect prey, whereas larger frogs are able to consume a wide range of insects. Common frogs will hide in damp places, such as in the water, during the day, and at night, they will begin searching for food.


title: Common frog

text: During the spring the frog's pituitary gland is stimulated by changes in external factors, such as rainfall, day length and temperature, to produce hormones which, in turn, stimulate the production of sex cells - eggs in the females and sperm in the male. The male's nuptial pad also swells and becomes more heavily pigmented. Common frogs breed in shallow, still, fresh water such as ponds, with spawning commencing sometime between March and late June, but generally in April over the main part of their range.


title: Common frog

text: Like its close cousin, the moor frog ("R. arvalis"), "R. Temporaria" does not exhibit territoriality which leads to lack of physical fighting among males. During breeding season, male common frogs undergo a period of a few days (less than 10 days) where they display rapid and frenzied breeding behavior. During which, the purpose of the male to quickly find and mate with as many female frogs as possible. Higher rates of mating success in males typically have longer thumbs than single males, which allows them to have a better grip on females.


title: Common frog

text: Around three years after being born, the common frog will return to its original site of birth and release a mating call. Males will be the first to arrive at the pond and await females as they enter. During this period of pre-female competition, the pond is significantly male dominant, and there is a large amount of intrasexual competition taking place. The shallow portion of the pond, which is more suitable for egg laying, is more predominantly occupied by the larger males. However, once the females arrive, this territoriality quickly dissipates and male-female amplexed pairs are free to migrate wherever in the pond. Additionally, once engaged in an amplexus, it is rare for single males to attempt to displace or “take-ever” the paired male.


title: Common frog

text: It is also important to note the effect of size on a male common frog’s mating strategies. Smaller frogs, during the pre-spawning period get displaced from the shallow areas of the pond. Therefore, they circumvent this issue by searching for females on the land or in areas of the pond where they first arrive. Meanwhile, the larger frogs occupy the spawning site, where they encounter more amplexed pairs and therefore rely on their ability to displace amplexed males to secure a mate. However, the frequency of these take-overs is not consistent.


title: Common frog

text: Female common frog clutch sizes range from a few hundred up to 5,000 eggs. Many of these eggs form large aggregates that serve to thermoregulate as well as protect the developing embryo from potential predators. By bunching the eggs together, it raises the temperature of the embryo compared to the surrounding water, which is important because the rate of tadpole development is faster in higher temperatures. Additionally, the eggs are typically laid in the shallower regions of the pond to prevent hypoxia-induced fatality of the embryos.


title: Common frog

text: It normally takes 2-3 weeks for the eggs to hatch. Afterwards, common frog larvae group up into schools where they help each other feed off of algae and larger plants, as well as avoid predators. By June and July, most tadpoles will have metamorphosized, and the remaining time until winter is used to feed and grow larger. Only the largest frogs will survive the winter, which places a large emphasis on rapid development until then. In fact, a common frog’s rate of development correlates with temperature. In lower temperature regions, common frogs will hatch earlier and metamorphosize sooner than common frogs living in warmer climate regions. Sexual maturity occurs only after three years, and common frogs will typically live between six to eight years.


title: Common frog

text: The presence of a predator in a common frog’s early development has an effect on the metamorphosis traits of tadpole. For instance, when the predator is present in early development, it can lead to a longer larval period and were smaller in size and mass at metamorphosis. Once the predator is removed, growth rate of the tadpole returns to baseline and even exceeds what the typical growth. This influence of predator threat is only significant during early tadpole development.


title: Common frog

text: One of the common frog’s most pervasive predators is the red-eared sliders (""Trachemys scripta elegans""), which is the most invasive species of turtles in the world. In the presence of red-eared sliders, early development common frog tadpoles exhibit longer metamorphosis times, as well as smaller size (cm) and lower body mass (g) at metamorphosis.


title: Common frog

text: As an ectotherm, the common frog is very reliant on temperature as it directly influences their metabolism, development, reproduction, muscle ability, and respiration. As such, common frogs at mid and high elevations have developed a unique set of strategies to survive in cold climates. In fact, it is due to the common frog’s ability to thermoregulate so effectively that the species has been able to become so pervasive across a multitude of environments and climates, living as far north as the Arctic circle in Scandinavia, which is further north than any other amphibian in the region. Contrary to ""Lithobates sylvaticus"" (wood frogs), common frogs do not have the ability to freeze protect themselves by increasing their levels of blood glucose to serve as a cryoprotectant. As a result, common frogs must rely on behavioral thermoregulation by seeking out warm microhabitats (such as in the soil or between rocks) during wintertime. Additionally, common frogs will commonly hibernate throughout the winter season in groups to provide bodily heating.


title: Common frog

text: Similar to other anuran species ("Bufo americanus" and "Rana sylvatica"), "Rana temporaria" are able to naturally discriminate others of its kind. Post-embryonic interaction with conspecifics is not necessary to induce associative behavior for common frogs as an adult. Rather, once common frog tadpoles have reached a certain age, they gain a strong innate associative tendency. "Rana temporaria" tend to aggregate as the result of environmental pressures, such as temperature or predators.


title: Common frog

text: Tadpoles are eaten by fish, beetles, dragonfly larvae and birds. Adult frogs have many predators including storks, birds of prey, crows, gulls, ducks, terns, herons, pine martens, stoats, weasels, polecats, badgers, otters and snakes. Some frogs are killed, but rarely eaten, by domestic cats, and large numbers are killed on the roads by motor vehicles.


title: Common frog

text: Common frogs have an important place in human ecology by controlling the insect populations. In particular, their consumption of mosquitos and other crop-damaging insects has been especially valuable. In addition, "Rana temporaria", due to their ecological pervasiveness and relative abundance, have become a common laboratory specimen.


title: Common frog

text: "R. temporaria" are farmed. Miles "et al." 2004 provide improved ingredients for manufacturers of pellet food for farmed common frogs.


title: Common frog

text: Due to the spread of diseases such as ranavirus, the UK based amphibian charity Froglife advised the public to avoid transporting frogspawn, tadpoles or frogs from one pond to another, even if these are close by. It has also been recommended not to place goldfish or exotic frog species in outdoor ponds as this could have a negative effect on the frog population.


title: Rajesh (actor)

text: Rajesh is an Indian actor who has performed in Tamil and Malayalam films and serials. He has completed more than 47 years in films and appeared as lead roles and supporting roles in over 150 films. He has done roles ranging from a hero to character actor.


title: Rajesh (actor)

text: Rajesh was born in 1949 to Williams Nattar and lily Grace Mankondar at Mannargudi, Tiruvarur district, but his family hails from Anaikkadu, in Thanjavur district. He studied in Dindigul, Vadamadurai, Melanatham Aanaikadu and Chinnamanur Theni district. After finishing his PUC in Karaikudi Alagappa College, he joined Pachaiappas College, but unfortunately did not complete his college education. He worked as a teacher in St Paul's High School, Purasawalkam and later at Kellett Higher Secondary School, Triplicane from 1972 to 1979.


title: Rajesh (actor)

text: In 1974, he got a chance to act in the film "Aval Oru Thodar Kathai", but he only did a small role in it. His first film as a hero was "Kanni Paruvathile" (1979), produced by Rajkannu. Rajesh acted in "Achamillai Achamillai", by K. Balachander. Later, he moved into playing character roles, and acted in movies with Kamal Haasan like Sathya, Mahanadhi and Virumandi.


title: Rajesh (actor)

text: Now he is into the hotel and real estate business and he is a leading builder in the city. He also wrote biographies of Hollywood actors in Tamil.


title: Rajesh (actor)

text: He is a Christian, later he was active in Periyaar's ideologies then he involved himself in Astrology. He had written many books and articles about Astrology.


title: Rajesh (actor)

text: In 1983, he married Joan Sylvia Vanathirayar, who is the grand daughter of the famous social reformist and Dravidian leader Pattukottai Davis Vanathirayar. They have one daughter Divya and one son Deepak, who made his acting debut in 2014. His wife died on 6 August 2012.


title: Rajesh (actor)

text: He was the first Tamil actor to build a bungalow for the purpose of movie shooting in 1985 near KK Nagar, Chennai, which was inaugurated by the then Chief Minister M.G. Ramachandran. Many Tamil, Malayalam and Hindi movie shootings were completed in that house. He later sold it in 1993, while starting his real estate business. In the early 90s, as advised by his friend Jeppiaar, he started a Real Estate business, then he started hotel and construction business. He was active in politics from 1987 to 1991, supporting Janaki. He is also a follower of Karl Marx; he visited UK and paid his tribute to the great leader.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar ( ; ) is the county town of County Westmeath in Ireland. It is the third most populous town in the Midland Region, with a population of 20,928 in the 2016 census.


title: Mullingar

text: The Counties of Meath and Westmeath Act 1543 proclaimed Westmeath a county, separating it from Meath. Mullingar became the administrative centre for County Westmeath. The town was originally named "Maelblatha", and takes its modern name from a mill noted in the legend of Colman of Mullingar.


title: Mullingar

text: Traditionally a market town serving the large agricultural hinterland, Mullingar remains a significant commercial location. It had a tradition of cattle trading until 2003 when its cattle market was closed for the development of a mixed commercial and residential scheme called Market Point. However, in 2014 the local County Council allowed an annual Christmas Market to take place on Mount Street.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar has a number of neighbouring lakes, including Lough Owel, Lough Ennell and Lough Derravaragh. Lough Derravaragh is also known for its connection with the Irish legend of the Children of Lir. The town of Mullingar is linked to Lough Ennell via Lacy's Canal and the River Brosna. Another nearby waterway is the Royal Canal, which loops around Mullingar.


title: Mullingar

text: Westmeath County Council is the local authority for Westmeath. The county council comprises two constituencies or "municipal districts". Mullingar town is in the Mullingar Municipal District which comprises thirteen members.


title: Mullingar

text: There is a Chamber of Commerce in Mullingar, and Mullingar is one of the three towns that forms the Midlands Gateway region, along with Athlone and Tullamore, set up as part of the Government's National Spatial Strategy 2002–2020.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar's main tourist attractions are its lakes – Lough Owel, Lough Derravaragh and Lough Ennell – which are visited by anglers and the Royal Canal which flows through the town. Also nearby is Belvedere House and Gardens. The town has several hotels.


title: Mullingar

text: The Greville Arms Hotel has latterly begun creating a mini-museum, and also holds the two Brit awards presented to Niall Horan. James Joyce's connection with the hotel is marked on the premises. In the rooftop garden, there stands a large granite monument which formerly stood at Dominick Street. It was presented to the town by Lord Greville.


title: Mullingar

text: One of Mullingar's notable buildings is the cathedral of Christ the King Mullingar, the cathedral of the Diocese of Meath. The cathedral was dedicated on the day World War II broke out.


title: Mullingar

text: Columb Barracks, which closed in March 2012, was a military base that housed the 4th Field Artillery Regiment, the 4th Field Supply & Transport Company and the HQ of the 54 Reserve Field Artillery Regiment (Army Reserve).


title: Mullingar

text: The 1916 Centenary Monument Green Bridge Mullingar was unveiled by Cllr Billy Collentine MCC on Easter Monday 2017. Mullingar Tidy Towns were the organisation that built this monument in memory of the 1916 Easter Rising.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar Town Park is a public park situated in the centre of the town, and it includes a wide variety of playgrounds, a swimming pool and a large pond near the centre. On 22 July 2016, the park became one of 22 public spaces in Ireland to be awarded a Green Flag.


title: Mullingar

text: Among Mullingar's exports are items of pewterware produced by Mullingar Pewter. Also associated with Mullingar is Genesis Fine Art, which produces gift items. The "Pilgrims" sculpture on Mullingar's Austin Friars Street, at which location there once stood an Augustinian Friary, was crafted by Genesis on foot of a commission by the Mullingar chapter of Soroptimists International.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar's commercial sector has expanded in recent years from just a few shops on the town's main thoroughfares – Oliver Plunkett Street, Austin Friars Street, and Mount Street – to several major shopping areas. There is an out-of-town retail park at Lakepoint (about 1.6  km from the town centre), the Harbour Place Shopping Centre near the town centre, and a development at the Green – on the site of the former Avonmore and Penneys units.


title: Mullingar

text: The town has a mix of local retailers and chain stores, and branches of the major banks. The town also has a credit union, Mullingar Credit Union (formerly known as St. Colman's House).


title: Mullingar

text: A proposed development, named "Mullingar Central", was to have been located between Mount Street, the Railway station and Blackhall Street. Planning permission was granted for retail, commercial and residential units. Phase 1, which included tax offices, library, civic offices and County Council buildings was officially opened on 11 June 2009. Phase 2, however, did not proceed.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar contains several industrial estates including Lough Sheever Corporate Park and Clonmore Industrial Estate and Mullingar Business Park. The Industrial Development Authority (IDA) also has a business park in Marlinstown. As of 2015, only one plot on the site has been acquired by an employer, Patterson Pumps, which is constructing a new plant to which it intends to move its entire Irish operation from its current location, at Mullingar Business Park. Two of the town's manufacturing plants – Penn tennis balls and Tarkett – both closed in the early 2000s causing many job losses. Other local employers include the Midland Regional Hospital at Mullingar, P.E.M. Engineering, Trend Technologies, Taconic International, and Mullingar Pewter.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar has a Chamber of Commerce which represents almost 200 businesses from varying commercial sectors.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar lies near the national primary route N4, the main Dublin – Sligo road, from the capital. The N52 also connects Mullingar to the Galway-Dublin M6 motorway at Athlone to the southwest, and Kells, Ardee and Dundalk to the northeast. The town is served by Bus Éireann services to Dublin, Athlone (where passengers can catch connecting buses), Sligo, Cavan, Tullamore and Ballina.


title: Mullingar

text: In the 19th century the town was served for a time by the Royal Canal – however displaced first by the railway and then the car, it is no longer commercially used for the transport of goods or people. The town of Mullingar is also linked to Lough Ennell via Lacy's Canal and the River Brosna.


title: Mullingar

text: The Midland Great Western Railway line to Mullingar from Dublin opened in stages from 1846 to 1848, arriving in Mullingar on 2 October 1848. This was to a temporary station, adjacent to the greyhound stadium. The original mainline ran from Dublin (Broadstone Station) to Galway via Mullingar, then via Moate to Athlone, the Mullingar to Galway section opening in August 1851. The present station opened with the branch line to Longford on 14 December 1855.


title: Mullingar

text: There were two secondary stations in Mullingar, the Canal Crossing cattle bank which was on the Sligo line and, on the Athlone line, Newbrook racecourse which had its own station. This was a two-platformed station with both platforms on the Down Line.


title: Mullingar

text: Currently, the Dublin-Sligo railway line northwest to Longford and Sligo is the mainline, Galway is accessed from Heuston Station via Portarlington and the line between Mullingar and Athlone is currently disused. Mullingar station is served by national rail company Iarnród Éireann's "Arrow" commuter services to Dublin and "InterCity" trains to/from Sligo.


title: Mullingar

text: The Railway Preservation Society of Ireland have a secondary base in the town. There is a photo survey of the disused Athlone Line via Moate.


title: Mullingar

text: The Midland Regional Hospital at Mullingar serves the Longford-Westmeath area. An extension was built in the early 1990s. A change in government, however, halted investment and the extension lay as an empty shell until late 2006 when funding was finally secured to ensure its completion. There are several other hospitals in the town: St Loman's, which provides psychiatric services to the Midlands; St Mary's, a care centre for older people; and the St Francis Private Hospital.


title: Mullingar

text: The town has several primary schools, including a number run under the Catholic ethos, a Church of Ireland school, a non-denominational Educate Together primary school, and two Irish language primary schools. Local second-level schools include Coláiste Mhuire, the town's oldest post-primary school, St Finian's College, Loreto College Mullingar and Mullingar Community College.


title: Mullingar

text: Coláiste Mhuire is primarily a boys school, however, the repeat Leaving Certificate class is co-educational. Just to the north of Mullingar on the old Longford Road is St Finian's College. Until 2003, St Finian's was an all-boys boarding school; however, in 2003 the decision was made to phase out the boarding school by 2007, and to admit girls as well as boys. Loreto College for girls is the largest secondary school in the town, while Mullingar Community College is a co-educational school for boys and girls. The Community College also runs evening courses for adults and awards the FETAC certificates.


title: Mullingar

text: Wilson's Hospital School, a co-educational boarding school, operates under the patronage of the Church of Ireland (Anglican Communion). It is located in the nearby village of Multyfarnham. It serves day students from the Mullingar area.


title: Mullingar

text: St. Joseph's Secondary School, a co-educational school located in the nearby village of Rochfortbridge, also serves the Mullingar area.


title: Mullingar

text: The Mullingar Town Band was founded in 1879 by Father Polland as a Holy Family Confraternity Band. The local military barracks supplied some of the early members, who themselves were serving members of the British Regimental bands stationed in Mullingar. The Mullingar Confraternity Band remained under the auspices of the Confraternity until the 1940s when it was handed over to a committee and continued under the title of Mullingar Brass and Reed Band. The band has a dual role as a concert band and a marching band (the latter known as the Celtic Crusaders). In 2017, the Celtic Crusaders won the Irish Marching Band Association League.


title: Mullingar

text: First opened in 1989, "The Stables" is a music venue in Mullingar, which critic and writer Ronan Casey described as an "essential" stop for national touring acts.


title: Mullingar

text: Niall Horan, born and raised in Mullingar, is a member of the boy band "One Direction". Horan has won four Brit Awards and four MTV Video Music Awards with One Direction. Niall Breslin, from the band "The Blizzards", is also from Mullingar. "The Academic" is another local band.


title: Mullingar

text: In "Doubt", a 2008 film adaptation of the John Patrick Shanley stage play, starring Meryl Streep and Philip Seymour Hoffman, the town is referenced in a dialogue between the main character, Sister Aloysius (Streep), and the school caretaker.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar featured on "Three Men in a Boat" on BBC 2 in December 2009, in an episode called "Three Men Go to Ireland". Dara Ó Briain, Rory McGrath and Griff Rhys Jones visited Mullingar Greyhound Stadium during the episode, where Dara O'Briain's dog Snip Nua raced.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar is mentioned in the song "The Rocky Road to Dublin" by "The Dubliners". It is one of the few songs in the 2009 film, "Sherlock Holmes" that was not composed for the film.


title: Mullingar

text: The town is also associated with Irish author James Joyce, who was an occasional visitor to Mullingar during his youth. Joyce's father, John, was a civil servant posted from Dublin to compile an electoral register of Mullingar and the surrounding townlands. He often stayed in the Greville Arms Hotel. James referred to Mullingar in three of his novels, mentioning it twelve times in Ulysses, in chapter 14 of Stephen Hero, and three times in Finnegans Wake.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar was mentioned at the end of the song "Horse Outside" by the Rubberbandits, in which the bridesmaid was promised a horseback ride out to Mullingar.


title: Mullingar

text: There are seven Gaelic Athletic Association football clubs in the Mullingar area: Mullingar Shamrocks, St. Loman's Mullingar, Ballymore GAA, Raharney GAA, St. Mary's GAA and The Downs and Shandonagh are the senior teams. St Oliver Plunkett's and Cullion play hurling at intermediate and senior levels. The Westmeath GAA team plays its home games at Cusack Park. Mullingar also supports women's teams including Shandonagh, Mullingar Shamrocks and St Lomans Mullingar.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar has three adult football teams; Mullingar Athletic (who play in Gainstown), Mullingar Town (who have their grounds in D'Alton Park), and Mullingar Celtic (who play their home games in the Raithin community pitch which is shared with Grange Utd, an under 18 side).


title: Mullingar

text: The facilities of the Mullingar Tennis and Badminton Club include eight outdoor tennis courts and a hall containing two badminton courts. The club was founded in 1892 by members of the Uisneach Badminton Club.


title: Mullingar

text: When programmed, greyhound track racing occurs upon the Lynn Greyhound track on Thursday and Saturday evenings. The track featured on the BBC 'Three Men Go to Ireland' show where Dara O'Briain's dog Snip Nua raced.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar Golf Club was created in 1953, and hosts an annual competition, the Mullingar Scratch Cup, every August. This competition has been won by Des Smyth, Pádraig Harrington, Darren Clarke, and Paul McGinley. The 2006 winner was Rory McIlroy.


title: Mullingar

text: Two-time Olympian boxer John Joe Nevin is from Mullingar. He won a silver medal in the bantamweight competition at the 2012 Summer Olympics.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar Hockey Club is based in Loreto College and was formed in 1979. The club has two men's teams, one lady's team and an underage section.


title: Mullingar

text: In athletics, the Mullingar Harriers club has produced several Olympians. Club member Bobby Begley was Irish team manager when Eamonn Coughlan won the 5,000 meters World Championship in 1983.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar rugby football club is located in Cullionbeg. The club also made it to the 1989 towns cup final.


title: Mullingar

text: In basketball, the Mullingar Monarchs club (formed in 2001) and Mullingar Dragons (formed in 2007) are local teams. The latter plays in the North-Eastern Basketball League.


title: Mullingar

text: Mullingar Equestrian Centre, outside the town, hosts competitions and offers lessons. Other schools in the area include Ladestown House Riding Stables and Catherinestown Riding School. Studs include Tally Ho Stud, Cleaboy Stud, and Charlestown Stud.


title: Mullingar

text: Other sports clubs in the area include an the Midland Tigers Australian Rules Football team, Lakeside Wheelers Mullingar Cycling club (which is affiliated to Cycling Ireland), the Mullingar Harbour Canoe Polo Club (based on the Royal Canal), and St Mary's Snooker Club (on Bishopsgate Street).


title: Mullingar

text: The climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate). With a yearly mean of 9.3 degrees Celsius, Mullingar is the coldest place in Ireland.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts mechanically, most often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently or to track relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys, and the shafts need not be parallel.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys normally in one direction (the same if on parallel shafts), or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the driven shaft is reversed (the opposite direction to the driver if on parallel shafts). The belt drive can also be used to change the speed of rotation, either up or down, by using different sized pulleys.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: As a source of motion, a conveyor belt is one application where the belt is adapted to carry a load continuously between two points.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: The mechanical belt drive, using a pulley machine, was first mentioned in the text the "Dictionary of Local Expressions" by the Han Dynasty philosopher, poet, and politician Yang Xiong (53–18 BC) in 15 BC, used for a quilling machine that wound silk fibers on to bobbins for weavers' shuttles. The belt drive is an essential component of the invention of the spinning wheel. The belt drive was not only used in textile technologies, it was also applied to hydraulic-powered bellows dated from the 1st century AD.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Belts are the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that may not be axially aligned. Power transmission is achieved by purposely designed belts and pulleys. The variety of power transmission needs that can be met by a belt-drive transmission system are numerous, and this has led to many variations on the theme. Belt drives run smoothly and with little noise, and provide shock absorption for motors, loads, and bearings when the force and power needed changes. A drawback to belt drives is that they transmit less power than gears or chain drives. However, improvements in belt engineering allow use of belts in systems that formerly only allowed chain drives or gears.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Power transmitted between a belt and a pulley is expressed as the product of difference of tension and belt velocity:


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: where, "T" and "T" are tensions in the tight side and slack side of the belt respectively. They are related as


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: where, μ is the coefficient of friction, and α is the angle (in radians) subtended by contact surface at the centre of the pulley.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Belt drives are simple, inexpensive, and do not require axially aligned shafts. They help protect machinery from overload and jam, and damp and isolate noise and vibration. Load fluctuations are shock-absorbed (cushioned). They need no lubrication and minimal maintenance. They have high efficiency (90–98%, usually 95%), high tolerance for misalignment, and are of relatively low cost if the shafts are far apart. Clutch action is activated by releasing belt tension. Different speeds can be obtained by stepped or tapered pulleys.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: The angular-velocity ratio may not be constant or equal to that of the pulley diameters, due to slip and stretch. However, this problem can be largely solved by the use of toothed belts. Working temperatures range from . Adjustment of center distance or addition of an idler pulley is crucial to compensate for wear and stretch.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Flat belts were widely used in the 19th and early 20th centuries in line shafting to transmit power in factories. They were also used in countless farming, mining, and logging applications, such as bucksaws, sawmills, threshers, silo blowers, conveyors for filling corn cribs or haylofts, balers, water pumps (for wells, mines, or swampy farm fields), and electrical generators. Flat belts are still used today, although not nearly as much as in the line-shaft era. The flat belt is a simple system of power transmission that was well suited for its day. It can deliver high power at high speeds (373 kW at 51 m/s; 115 mph), in cases of wide belts and large pulleys. But these wide-belt-large-pulley drives are bulky, consuming much space while requiring high tension, leading to high loads, and are poorly suited to close-centers applications, so V-belts have mainly replaced flat belts for short-distance power transmission; and longer-distance power transmission is typically no longer done with belts at all. For example, factory machines now tend to have individual electric motors.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Because flat belts tend to climb towards the higher side of the pulley, pulleys were made with a slightly convex or "crowned" surface (rather than flat) to allow the belt to self-center as it runs. Flat belts also tend to slip on the pulley face when heavy loads are applied, and many proprietary belt dressings were available that could be applied to the belts to increase friction, and so power transmission.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Flat belts were traditionally made of leather or fabric. Early flourmills in the Ukraine had leather belt drives. After World War I, there was such a shortage of shoe leather that people cut up the belt drives and made shoes. Selling shoes was more profitable than selling flour, for a time anyway. Flour milling soon came to a standstill and bread prices rose, contributing to famine conditions. Leather drive belts were put to another use during the African Rhodesian War (1965-1979) To protect riders of cars and busses from land mines, layers of leather belt drives were placed on the floors of vehicles in danger zones. Today most belt drives are made of rubber or synthetic polymers. Grip of leather belts is often better if they are assembled with the hair side (outer side) of the leather against the pulley, although some belts are instead given a half-twist before joining the ends (forming a Möbius strip), so that wear can be evenly distributed on both sides of the belt. Belts ends are joined by lacing the ends together with leather thonging (the oldest of the methods),


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: or by gluing or welding (in the case of polyurethane or polyester). Flat belts were traditionally jointed, and still usually are, but they can also be made with endless construction.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: In the mid 19th century, British millwrights discovered that multi-grooved pulleys connected by ropes outperformed flat pulleys connected by leather belts. Wire ropes were occasionally used, but cotton, hemp, manila hemp and flax rope saw the widest use. Typically, the rope connecting two pulleys with multiple V-grooves was spliced into a single loop that traveled along a helical path before being returned to its starting position by an idler pulley that also served to maintain the tension on the rope. Sometimes, a single rope was used to transfer power from one multiple-groove drive pulley to several single- or multiple-groove driven pulleys in this way.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: In general, as with flat belts, rope drives were used for connections from stationary engines to the jack shafts and line shafts of mills, and sometimes from line shafts to driven machinery. Unlike leather belts, however, rope drives were sometimes used to transmit power over relatively long distances. Over long distances, intermediate sheaves were used to support the "flying rope", and in the late 19th century, this was considered quite efficient.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Round belts are a circular cross section belt designed to run in a pulley with a 60 degree V-groove. Round grooves are only suitable for idler pulleys that guide the belt, or when (soft) O-ring type belts are used. The V-groove transmits torque through a wedging action, thus increasing friction. Nevertheless, round belts are for use in relatively low torque situations only and may be purchased in various lengths or cut to length and joined, either by a staple, a metallic connector (in the case of hollow plastic), gluing welding (in the case of polyurethane). Early sewing machines utilized a leather belt, joined either by a metal staple or glued, to great effect.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Spring belts are similar to rope or round belts but consist of a long steel helical spring. They are commonly found on toy or small model engines, typically steam engines driving other toys or models or providing a transmission between the crankshaft and other parts of a vehicle. The main advantage over rubber or other elastic belts is that they last much longer under poorly controlled operating conditions. The distance between the pulleys is also less critical. Their main disadvantage is that slippage is more likely due to the lower coefficient of friction. The ends of a spring belt can be joined either by bending the last turn of the helix at each end by 90 degrees to form hooks, or by reducing the diameter of the last few turns at one end so that it "screws" into the other end.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: V belts (also style V-belts, vee belts, or, less commonly, wedge rope) solved the slippage and alignment problem. It is now the basic belt for power transmission. They provide the best combination of traction, speed of movement, load of the bearings, and long service life. They are generally endless, and their general cross-section shape is roughly trapezoidal (hence the name "V"). The "V" shape of the belt tracks in a mating groove in the pulley (or sheave), with the result that the belt cannot slip off. The belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the load increases—the greater the load, the greater the wedging action—improving torque transmission and making the V-belt an effective solution, needing less width and tension than flat belts. V-belts trump flat belts with their small center distances and high reduction ratios. The preferred center distance is larger than the largest pulley diameter, but less than three times the sum of both pulleys. Optimal speed range is . V-belts need larger pulleys for their thicker cross-section than flat belts.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: For high-power requirements, two or more V-belts can be joined side-by-side in an arrangement called a multi-V, running on matching multi-groove sheaves. This is known as a multiple-V-belt drive (or sometimes a "classical V-belt drive").


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: V-belts may be homogeneously rubber or polymer throughout, or there may be fibers embedded in the rubber or polymer for strength and reinforcement. The fibers may be of textile materials such as cotton, polyamide (such as Nylon) or polyester or, for greatest strength, of steel or aramid (such as Technora, Twaron or Kevlar).


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: When an endless belt does not fit the need, jointed and link V-belts may be employed. Most models offer the same power and speed ratings as equivalently-sized endless belts and do not require special pulleys to operate. A link v-belt is a number of polyurethane/polyester composite links held together, either by themselves, such as Fenner Drives' PowerTwist, or Nu-T-Link (with metal studs). These provide easy installation and superior environmental resistance compared to rubber belts and are length-adjustable by disassembling and removing links when needed.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Trade journal coverage of V-belts in automobiles from 1916 mentioned leather as the belt material, and mentioned that the V angle was not yet well standardized. The endless rubber V-belt was developed in 1917 by Charles C. Gates of the Gates Rubber Company. Multiple-V-belt drive was first arranged a few years later by Walter Geist of the Allis-Chalmers corporation, who was inspired to replace the single rope of multi-groove-sheave rope drives with multiple V-belts running parallel. Geist filed for a patent in 1925, and Allis-Chalmers began marketing the drive under the "Texrope" brand; the patent was granted in 1928 (). The "Texrope" brand still exists, although it has changed ownership and no longer refers to multiple-V-belt drive alone.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: A multi-groove, V-Ribbed, or polygroove belt is made up of usually between 3 and 24 "V" shaped sections alongside each other. This gives a thinner belt for the same drive surface, thus it is more flexible, although often wider. The added flexibility offers an improved efficiency, as less energy is wasted in the internal friction of continually bending the belt. In practice this gain of efficiency causes a reduced heating effect on the belt, and a cooler-running belt lasts longer in service. Belts are commercially available in several sizes, with usually a 'P' (sometimes omitted) and a single letter identifying the pitch between grooves. The 'PK' section with a pitch of 3.56 mm is commonly used for automotive applications.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: A further advantage of the polygroove belt that makes them popular is that they can run over pulleys on the ungrooved back of the belt. Though this is sometimes done with V-belts with a single idler pulley for tensioning, a polygroove belt may be wrapped around a pulley on its back tightly enough to change its direction, or even to provide a light driving force.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Any V-belt's ability to drive pulleys depends on wrapping the belt around a sufficient angle of the pulley to provide grip. Where a single-V-belt is limited to a simple convex shape, it can adequately wrap at most three or possibly four pulleys, so can drive at most three accessories. Where more must be driven, such as for modern cars with power steering and air conditioning, multiple belts are required. As the polygroove belt can be bent into concave paths by external idlers, it can wrap any number of driven pulleys, limited only by the power capacity of the belt.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: This ability to bend the belt at the designer's whim allows it to take a complex or "serpentine" path. This can assist the design of a compact engine layout, where the accessories are mounted more closely to the engine block and without the need to provide movable tensioning adjustments. The entire belt may be tensioned by a single idler pulley.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: The nomenclature used for belt sizes varies by region and trade. An automotive belt with the number "740K6" or "6K740" indicates a belt 74 inches in length (187.96cm), 6 ribs wide, with a rib pitch of 9/64th of an inch (3.57mm) (a standard thickness for a K series automotive belt would be 4.5mm). A metric equivalent would be usually indicated by "6PK1880" whereby 6 refers to the number of ribs, PK refers to the metric PK thickness and pitch standard, and 1880 is the length of the belt in millimeters.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: A ribbed belt is a power transmission belt featuring lengthwise grooves. It operates from contact between the ribs of the belt and the grooves in the pulley. Its single-piece structure is reported to offer an even distribution of tension across the width of the pulley where the belt is in contact, a power range up to 600 kW, a high speed ratio, serpentine drives (possibility to drive off the back of the belt), long life, stability and homogeneity of the drive tension, and reduced vibration. The ribbed belt may be fitted on various applications: compressors, fitness bikes, agricultural machinery, food mixers, washing machines, lawn mowers, etc.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Though often grouped with flat belts, they are actually a different kind. They consist of a very thin belt (0.5–15 millimeters or 100–4000 micrometres) strip of plastic and occasionally rubber. They are generally intended for low-power (less than 10 watts), high-speed uses, allowing high efficiency (up to 98%) and long life. These are seen in business machines, printers, tape recorders, and other light-duty operations.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Timing belts (also known as toothed, notch, cog, or synchronous belts) are a "positive" transfer belt and can track relative movement. These belts have teeth that fit into a matching toothed pulley. When correctly tensioned, they have no slippage, run at constant speed, and are often used to transfer direct motion for indexing or timing purposes (hence their name). They are often used instead of chains or gears, so there is less noise and a lubrication bath is not necessary. Camshafts of automobiles, miniature timing systems, and stepper motors often utilize these belts. Timing belts need the least tension of all belts and are among the most efficient. They can bear up to at speeds of .


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Timing belts with a helical offset tooth design are available. The helical offset tooth design forms a chevron pattern and causes the teeth to engage progressively. The chevron pattern design is self-aligning and does not make the noise that some timing belts make at certain speeds, and is more efficient at transferring power (up to 98%).


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: The advantages of timing belts include clean operation, energy efficiency, low maintenance, low noise, non slip performance, versatile load and speed capabilities.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Disadvantages include a relatively high purchase cost, the need for specially fabricated toothed pulleys, less protection from overloading, jamming, and vibration due to their continuous tension cords, the lack of clutch action (only possible with friction-drive belts), and the fixed lengths, which do not allow length adjustment (unlike link V-belts or chains).


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Belts normally transmit power on the tension side of the loop. However, designs for continuously variable transmissions exist that use belts that are a series of solid metal blocks, linked together as in a chain, transmitting power on the compression side of the loop.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: The open belt drive has parallel shafts rotating in the same direction, whereas the cross-belt drive also bears parallel shafts but rotate in opposite direction. The former is far more common, and the latter not appropriate for timing and standard V-belts unless there is a twist between each pulley so that the pulleys only contact the same belt surface. Nonparallel shafts can be connected if the belt's center line is aligned with the center plane of the pulley. Industrial belts are usually reinforced rubber but sometimes leather types. Non-leather, non-reinforced belts can only be used in light applications.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: The pitch line is the line between the inner and outer surfaces that is neither subject to tension (like the outer surface) nor compression (like the inner). It is midway through the surfaces in film and flat belts and dependent on cross-sectional shape and size in timing and V-belts. Standard reference pitch diameter can be estimated by taking average of gear teeth tips diameter and gear teeth base diameter. The angular speed is inversely proportional to size, so the larger the one wheel, the less angular velocity, and vice versa. Actual pulley speeds tend to be 0.5–1% less than generally calculated because of belt slip and stretch. In timing belts, the inverse ratio teeth of the belt contributes to the exact measurement.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Belt drives are built under the following required conditions: speeds of and power transmitted between drive and driven unit; suitable distance between shafts; and appropriate operating conditions. The equation for power is


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Factors of power adjustment include speed ratio; shaft distance (long or short); type of drive unit (electric motor, internal combustion engine); service environment (oily, wet, dusty); driven unit loads (jerky, shock, reversed); and pulley-belt arrangement (open, crossed, turned). These are found in engineering handbooks and manufacturer's literature. When corrected, the power is compared to rated powers of the standard belt cross-sections at particular belt speeds to find a number of arrays that perform best. Now the pulley diameters are chosen. It is generally either large diameters or large cross-section that are chosen, since, as stated earlier, larger belts transmit this same power at low belt speeds as smaller belts do at high speeds. To keep the driving part at its smallest, minimal-diameter pulleys are desired. Minimum pulley diameters are limited by the elongation of the belt's outer fibers as the belt wraps around the pulleys. Small pulleys increase this elongation, greatly reducing belt life. Minimal pulley diameters are often listed with each cross-section and speed, or listed separately by belt cross-section. After the cheapest diameters and belt section are chosen, the belt length is computed. If endless belts are used, the desired shaft spacing may need adjusting to accommodate standard-length belts. It is often more economical to use two or more juxtaposed V-belts, rather than one larger belt.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: In large speed ratios or small central distances, the angle of contact between the belt and pulley may be less than 180°. If this is the case, the drive power must be further increased, according to manufacturer's tables, and the selection process repeated. This is because power capacities are based on the standard of a 180° contact angle. Smaller contact angles mean less area for the belt to obtain traction, and thus the belt carries less power.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Belt drives depend on friction to operate, but excessive friction wastes energy and rapidly wears the belt. Factors that affect belt friction include belt tension, contact angle, and the materials used to make the belt and pulleys.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Power transmission is a function of belt tension. However, also increasing with tension is stress (load) on the belt and bearings. The ideal belt is that of the lowest tension that does not slip in high loads. Belt tensions should also be adjusted to belt type, size, speed, and pulley diameters. Belt tension is determined by measuring the force to deflect the belt a given distance per inch (or mm) of pulley. Timing belts need only adequate tension to keep the belt in contact with the pulley.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Fatigue, more so than abrasion, is the culprit for most belt problems. This wear is caused by stress from rolling around the pulleys. High belt tension; excessive slippage; adverse environmental conditions; and belt overloads caused by shock, vibration, or belt slapping all contribute to belt fatigue.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Vibration signatures are widely used for studying belt drive malfunctions. Some of the common malfunctions or faults include the effects of belt tension, speed, sheave eccentricity and misalignment conditions. The effect of sheave Eccentricity on vibration signatures of the belt drive is quite significant. Although, vibration magnitude is not necessarily increased by this it will create strong amplitude modulation. When the top section of a belt is in resonance, the vibrations of the machine is increased. However, an increase in the machine vibration is not significant when only the bottom section of the belt is in resonance. The vibration spectrum has the tendency to move to higher frequencies as the tension force of the belt is increased.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: Belt slippage can be addressed in several ways. Belt replacement is an obvious solution, and eventually the mandatory one (because no belt lasts forever). Often, though, before the replacement option is executed, retensioning (via pulley centerline adjustment) or dressing (with any of various coatings) may be successful to extend the belt's lifespan and postpone replacement. Belt dressings are typically liquids that are poured, brushed, dripped, or sprayed onto the belt surface and allowed to spread around; they are meant to recondition the belt's driving surfaces and increase friction between the belt and the pulleys. Some belt dressings are dark and sticky, resembling tar or syrup; some are thin and clear, resembling mineral spirits. Some are sold to the public in aerosol cans at auto parts stores; others are sold in drums only to industrial users.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: To fully specify a belt, the material, length, and cross-section size and shape are required. Timing belts, in addition, require that the size of the teeth be given.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: The length of the belt is the sum of the central length of the system on both sides, half the circumference of both pulleys, and the square of the sum (if crossed) or the difference (if open) of the radii. Thus, when dividing by the central distance, it can be visualized as the central distance times the height that gives the same squared value of the radius difference on, of course, both sides. When adding to the length of either side, the length of the belt increases, in a similar manner to the Pythagorean theorem. One important concept to remember is that as D gets closer to D there is less of a distance (and therefore less addition of length) until its approaches zero.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: On the other hand, in a crossed belt drive the "sum" rather than the difference of radii is the basis for computation for length. So the wider the small drive increases, the belt length is higher.


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> Common pulley design is to have a higher angle of the first part of the opening, above the so-called "pitch line".


title: Belt (mechanical)

text: E.g. the pitch line for SPZ could be 8.5mm from the bottom of the "V". In other words, 0-8.5mm is 34° and 38° from 8.5 and above


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: Abdul-Nasir Oluwatosin Oluwadoyinsolami Adarabioyo (born 24 September 1997) is an English professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for club Fulham.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: Adarabioyo started his professional career with Manchester City where, after progressing through the club's youth ranks, he made his senior debut in 2016. He later became the then-youngest-ever player to start a UEFA Champions League match for the club and ultimately made eight appearances across all competitions before enjoying loan spells at West Bromwich Albion and Blackburn Rovers. He joined Fulham on a permanent deal in July 2020.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: Adarabioyo is a former England youth international and represented the country on 14 occasions between the under-16 and under-19 levels, although he is yet to make his senior debut for England. He also remains eligible to represent Nigeria through descent.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: Born in Manchester, England, Adarabioyo grew up in Whalley Range and attended Chorlton High School and St Bede's College. His football career started at the age of five when he joined the youth system at Manchester City after he was spotted by the club's head of recruitment, Terry John, at a local five-a-side tournament. He briefly trained with cross-town rivals Manchester United and Blackburn Rovers but elected to remain with City, where he rapidly progressed through the youth ranks during his formative years. When he was 14 years old, he broke into the U18 team and was captaining the side less than two years later, when he also began training with the first team, and wore the armband in City's 5–2 aggregate defeat to Chelsea in the 2014–15 FA Youth Cup final.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: His form at youth level saw him called-up to the first team during the 2015–16 campaign and he appeared as an unused substitute for the first time for two UEFA Champions League matches against Juventus and Borussia Mönchengladbach. Adarabioyo's senior debut followed on 21 February 2016 when was named in a young starting XI by Manuel Pellegrini for City's FA Cup match against Chelsea, and he was lauded for a strong performance in marking opposition striker Diego Costa despite his side suffering a 5–1 defeat.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: Ahead of the 2016–17 season, and following the appointment of Pep Guardiola as Pellegrini's replacement, Adarabioyo was linked a move away from City amid reports of interest from Celtic and Tottenham Hotspur. He ultimately remained with the club and was praised by Guardiola for his performances during the pre-season, which resulted in him being definitively promoted to the first team. He made his Champions League debut as a substitute for John Stones in a 1–0 play-off round win over Steaua București on 24 August 2016, before becoming the then-youngest player to start a match in the competition for the club later that year, at the age of 19 years and 73 days. He also made his League Cup debut during the campaign in which he featured three times in total, earning a contract extension at the end of the season.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: The 2017–18 season saw Adarabioyo continue to feature in both the first team and the reserve team but his game time with the senior side was largely limited by City's depth in defence, which included the presence of captain Vincent Kompany, Stones, Nicolás Otamendi, Eliaquim Mangala and new recruit, Aymeric Laporte. It wasn't until 24 October 2017 when he made his first appearance of the season against Wolverhampton Wanderers in the fourth round of the League Cup, where Manchester City won 4–1 in the penalty shoot-out following a 0–0 draw. Adarabioyo later made three more appearances, bringing up his overall tally for the campaign to four across all competitions, before joining Championship side West Bromwich Albion on loan ahead of the 2018–19 season.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: On 3 August 2018, Adarabioyo joined Championship side West Brom on a season-long loan and made his debut for the club four days later when he started in the right-back position in a 1–1 draw against Nottingham Forest. Although ordinarily a centre-back by trade, he was largely deployed on the right flank after a formation change by club manager Darren Moore and initially struggled in the unfamiliar role in the following weeks. However, after losing and reclaiming his spot in the starting lineup, he developed into one of West Brom's more consistent performers by the turn of the year and was praised by Moore for showing "versatility, adaptability and an understanding of the game". In the new year, Mason Holgate arrived on a short-term deal from Everton which allowed Adarabioyo to return to his preferred position, where he predominantly featured for the remainder of the season as West Brom narrowly missed out on promotion to the Premier League.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: Adarabioyo ultimately made 36 appearances across all competitions for the campaign, which included a substitutes' showing in the second leg of the Championship play-offs against Aston Villa. In that match, he entered the field of play in place of Jacob Murphy as a late, defensive reinforcement after Chris Brunt was dismissed just minutes before. He played the remainder of the encounter and successfully converted his club's third penalty in an eventual 4–3 penalty shoot-out defeat after the tie had ended in a 2–2 aggregate scoreline. Following the conclusion of the campaign, he returned to his parent club before embarking on a subsequent loan spell at fellow Championship side Blackburn Rovers.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: Ahead of the 2019–20 season, Adarabioyo joined Blackburn on loan for the remainder of the campaign and made his debut for the club in a 2–0 loss against Fulham the following month. After an injury-enforced absence from the squad, he soon established himself in the first team where he formed a defensive partnership alongside Derrick Williams, Ryan Nyambe and Darragh Lenihan, and he scored his first senior career goal in Blackburn's 2–1 win over Sheffield Wednesday in November. His impressive performances during the first half of the season led to suggestions that he would return to Manchester City in January, with his parent club enduring an injury-crisis at the time, but Guardiola ultimately elected to employ midfielder Fernandinho as defensive cover rather than recall Adaraioyo.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: Instead, he remained at Ewood Park and continued to feature as a first-team regular, and by the time the season was suspended because of the COVID-19 pandemic in March he had made 27 league appearances for the campaign. With the competition later resuming behind closed doors, he extended his loan spell with the club until the revised end of the season and made his 50th career appearance against Barnsley in June. Immediately prior to that milestone, he had scored his third goal of the season with a curling effort in a 3–1 win over Bristol City, with his effort later being nominated for the club's Goal of the Season award. He ultimately made 34 appearances in the league, scoring three times and registering one assist, as Blackburn ended the campaign in 11th position in the Championship standings.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: Following the conclusion of his loan, the club ultimately decided against signing Adarabioyo on a permanent basis, which manager Tony Mowbray explained was due to Blackburn being unable to afford his services: "Ultimately, we couldn't afford him, that's the first part of the question," Mowbray said. "This is why this loan system is really good because not in a million years could we afford Tosin Adarabioyo. We'll wait and see, but I'm not thinking sat here that Tosin will be starting next season with us, unless Man City do us a huge favour, of course, I'm not sure that will be the case." Prior to returning to his parent club, Adarabioyo made two separate statements, thanking the club for the experience and giving him an opportunity.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: On 5 October 2020, with a year remaining on his contract, Adarabioyo ended his 18-year association with Manchester City when he joined Premier League rivals Fulham on a permanent deal. Tosin agreed a three-year deal at Fulham, with the club holding the option to extend by an additional 12 months. While the fee was officially undisclosed, local media reported that City would receive up to £2million for the transfer, as well as the benefit of a 20 per cent sell on fee on any future sale. At the time of Adarabioyo's arrival, newly-promoted Fulham had lost their opening four league matches of the season and he was immediately introduced into the starting XI by manager Scott Parker, where he formed a strong partnership alongside Joachim Andersen, who had joined the club on the same day in a short-term deal from Olympique Lyonnais. Over the course of the season, he made what "Sky Sports" described as a "seamless transition" to the Premier League and delivered a number of impressive performances, including a clean sheet in a 1–0 win over reigning champions Liverpool in March, which saw him come into contention for an England call-up.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: However, he was unable to help prevent the club from suffering relegation to the Championship, which was confirmed with three matches remaining for the campaign. He scored his first goal for Fulham in a 1–1 draw with Bournemouth on 3 December 2021.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: Adarabioyo is a former England youth international and represented his country of birth on 14 occasions across the various age-group levels. He made his first appearance in national team colours in November 2012 at the age of 15 when he was called-up to the England under-16 squad for the first time, making his debut as a 41st-minute substitute against Scotland as England went on to claim a 12th consecutive Victory Shield triumph. In August of the following year, Adarabioyo was called up to the England under-17 for the first time and made his debut in a 3–1 defeat to Portugal later that month. He then established himself as a squad player within the England under-18 team and made his first appearance on the day of his 17th birthday when he featured as a substitute in a 2–0 loss against Italy. In November 2015, Adarabioyo was called up to the England under-19 squad for the first time. After appearing as an unused substitute against the Netherlands, he made his England under-19 debut against Japan on 15 November 2015, starting the whole game, as the under-19 side won 5–1.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: Despite featuring frequently at youth level for England, Adarabioyo is yet to make his senior debut for the national team and remains eligible to represent Nigeria through descent. He was previously reported to have turned down an approach by the Nigeria Football Federation to represent the Super Eagles but opened the door to a potential call-up in 2020 when he expressed his desires of playing at the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar with either England or Nigeria.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: Adarabioyo is an athletic ball-playing centre-back who was previously described as being "fast, strong in the air and [possessing] the quality to look forward behind the line for the next pass" by his former Manchester City manager Pep Guardiola. Standing at 6 ft 5 in, his height and physical presence have seen him emerge as a dominant defender who is adept at winning aerial duals and effecting headed clearances, while simultaneously posing as a goal threat from set-pieces in the opposition box. During the 2020–21 Premier League season, which was his first full campaign in England's top flight, Adarabioyo recorded more clearances than any other player in the division. He has also earned recognition as a player who is strong in the tackle and capable with the ball at his feet, suitable to a possession-based style of play, and boasts good positional awareness and reading of the game in defensive situations.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: Adarabioyo was born in Manchester, England, to Nigerian parents and is the youngest of three brothers. His oldest brother, Gbolahan, serves as his representative while middle brother Fisayo Adarabioyo is also a footballer. All three brothers were part of Manchester City's youth ranks. After his family moved to Whalley Range when he was still an infant, Adarabioyo was schooled in Manchester and attended Chorlton High School before enrolling with St Bede's College, a college associated with Manchester City.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: In December 2018, during the early years of his playing career, Adarabioyo's name was mentioned by teammate Raheem Sterling after he alleged that sections of the media served to "fuel racism" with their portrayal of young black footballers. The comments emerged after Sterling was subjected to alleged racist abuse during City's 2–0 defeat at Chelsea.


title: Tosin Adarabioyo

text: Sterling wrote: "you have two young players starting out their careers, both play for the same team, both have done the right thing. Which is buy a new house for their mothers who have put in a lot of time and love into helping them get where they are, but look how the newspapers get their message across for the young black player and then for the young white player." The Daily Mail headlines had been "Young Manchester City footballer, 20, on £25,000 a week splashes out on mansion on market for £2.25 million despite having never started a Premier League match" and "Manchester City starlet Phil Foden buys new £2m home for his mum." In response to his name being mentioned, Adarabioyo said on his Instagram account: "When they try to abuse and bring us down but God has protected you from all angles. Another year of prosperity."


title: Diploma mill

text: A diploma mill (also known as a degree mill) is a company or organization that claims to be a higher education institution but provides illegitimate academic degrees and diplomas for a fee. The degrees can be fabricated (made-up), falsified (fake), or misrepresented (practically useless). These degrees may claim to give credit for relevant life experience, but should not be confused with legitimate prior learning assessment programs. They may also claim to evaluate work history or require submission of a thesis or dissertation for evaluation to give an appearance of authenticity. Diploma mills are frequently supported by accreditation mills, set up for the purpose of providing an appearance of authenticity. The term may also be used pejoratively to describe an accredited institution with low academic admission standards and a low job placement rate. An individual may or may not be aware that the degree they have obtained is not wholly legitimate. In either case, legal issues can arise if the qualification is used in resumes.


title: Diploma mill

text: The term "diploma mill" originally denotes an institution providing diplomas on an intensive and profit-making basis, like a factory. More broadly, it describes any institution that offers qualifications which are not accredited nor based on proper academic assessment.


title: Diploma mill

text: While the terms "degree mill" and "diploma mill" are commonly used interchangeably, within the academic community a distinction is sometimes drawn. A "degree mill" issues diplomas from unaccredited institutions which may be legal in some states but are generally illegitimate, while a "diploma mill" issues counterfeit diplomas bearing the names of real universities.


title: Diploma mill

text: Academic diplomas may be legitimately awarded without any study as a recognition of authority or experience. When given extraordinarily, such degrees are called honorary degrees or "honoris causa" degrees. Also, in some universities, holders of a lower degree (such as a bachelor's degree) may be routinely awarded honorary higher degrees (such as a master's degree) without study.


title: Diploma mill

text: The term "diploma mill" may also be used pejoratively to describe a legitimate institution with low academic admission standards and a low job placement rate, such as for-profit schools.


title: Diploma mill

text: Related practices are direct document forgery of certificates and corrupt buying of degrees from otherwise legitimate universities, although neither require a separate "mill".


title: Diploma mill

text: Diploma mills share a number of features that differentiate them from respected institutions, although some legitimate institutions may exhibit some of the same characteristics.


title: Diploma mill

text: The most notable feature of diploma mills is that they lack accreditation by a nationally recognized accrediting agency. (Note, however, that not all unaccredited institutions of higher learning are diploma mills.) Diploma mills therefore employ various tactics in an attempt to appear more legitimate to potential students.


title: Diploma mill

text: Some diploma mills claim accreditation by an accreditation mill while referring to themselves as being "fully accredited". Accreditation mills based in the United States may model their websites after real accrediting agencies overseen by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA). Another typical ploy is for mills to claim to be internationally recognized by organizations such as UNESCO. UNESCO has no authority to recognize or accredit higher education institutions or agencies, and has published warnings against education organizations that claim UNESCO recognition or affiliation.


title: Diploma mill

text: Some diploma and degree mills have played a role in creating unrecognized accrediting bodies as well. These diploma and degree mills may further confuse matters by claiming to consider work history, professional education, and previous learning, and may even require the submission of a dissertation or thesis in order to give an added appearance of legitimacy.


title: Diploma mill

text: As diploma mills are typically licensed to do business, it is common practice within the industry to misrepresent their business license as indicating government approval of the institution. Promotional materials may use words denoting a legal status such as "licensed", "state authorized", or "state-approved" to suggest an equivalence to accreditation.


title: Diploma mill

text: Some advertise other indicators of authenticity that are not relevant to academic credentials. For example, the University of Northern Washington advertises that its degrees are "attested and sealed for authenticity by a government appointed notary". In reality notarization only certifies that the document was signed by the person named.


title: Diploma mill

text: Diploma mills are frequently named to sound confusingly similar to those of prestigious accredited academic institutions. Despite the fact that trademark law is intended to prevent this situation, diploma mills continue to employ various methods to avoid legal recourse. Several diploma mills have adopted British-sounding names, similar but not identical to the names of legitimate universities, apparently to take advantage of the United Kingdom's reputation for educational quality in other parts of the world. Some examples of British-sounding names used by diploma mills are "Shaftesbury University", "University of Dunham", "Redding University", and "Suffield University".


title: Diploma mill

text: The school's website may well not have an .edu domain, or other country-specific equivalent, since registration of such names is typically restricted. However, enforcement has sometimes been less restrictive, and an .edu domain cannot be taken as verification of school quality or reputation. Some diploma mills use an .ac top-level domain name, which resembles genuine second-level academic domain names like ac.uk but is in fact the ccTLD for Ascension Island. To prevent misuse of their names in this way, some legitimate academic institutions have registered .ac domains.


title: Diploma mill

text: Compared to legitimate institutions, diploma mills tend to have drastically lowered academic requirements, if any at all. Depending on the institution, students may be required to purchase textbooks, take tests, and submit homework, but degrees are commonly conferred after little or no study.


title: Diploma mill

text: Instead of "hard sciences", where competence is easier to verify, the subjects offered by a diploma mill are often esoteric and may be based on a pseudoscience like astrology or naturopathy. Such subjects are only vaguely defined, making external verification of educational standards difficult.


title: Diploma mill

text: Degree mills typically offer little or no interaction with professors. Even if comments and corrections to coursework are given, they may have no bearing on the degree which is awarded. In other cases professors may serve only to write compliments to the student that can be given as references.


title: Diploma mill

text: Since diploma mills provide little in the way of teaching, there is usually no need for teaching facilities. The school tends to have no library, personnel, publications or research. In short, very little that is tangible can be found about the institution. If teaching is offered, the professors may themselves hold advanced degrees from the diploma mill itself or from other unaccredited institutions. They may also sport legitimate qualifications that are unrelated to the subject they teach.


title: Diploma mill

text: Doctoral theses and dissertations from the institution will not be available from University Microfilms International, a national repository, or even the institution's own library, if it has one. The address given by a diploma mill is often a postal box, mail forwarding service or suite number. There are legitimate distance learning institutions with limited facilities, however, but legitimate universities make their authority clear. For academics, publications in peer-reviewed scientific journals are important for establishing scientific credentials. However, in diploma mills, the research is either absent, fake or purely self-published without any external review. This may be unfortunately hard to spot, since fake journals also exist. Faculty pages with bios and research may even be stolen from legitimate universities.


title: Diploma mill

text: Buyers often use the diplomas to claim academic credentials for use in securing employment. For example, a schoolteacher might buy a degree from a diploma mill in order to advance to superintendent. Degrees from a diploma mill can be obtained within a few days, weeks or months from the time of enrollment, and back-dating is possible. Academic credit may be offered for "life experience," a point often featured heavily in the selling points of the institution. This should not be confused with legitimate programs offering recognition of prior learning, which allow students to gain academic credit based on past training, experience or independent study. This will usually require a test that the student can fail; in most cases, a diploma mill will grant the degree regardless of results.


title: Diploma mill

text: Tuition and fees are charged on a per-degree basis rather than by term or by course. Diploma mills are often advertised using e-mail spam or other questionable methods. Legitimate institutions use traditional advertising and high school recruitment. Prospective students are encouraged to "enroll now" before tuition or fees are increased. They may be told that they qualify for a fellowship, scholarship or grant, or offered deals to sign up for multiple degrees at the same time. Promotional literature might contain grammatical and spelling errors, words in Latin, extravagant or pretentious language, and sample diplomas. Some schools' websites may look amateurish or unprofessional, although other diploma mills use appealing websites.


title: Diploma mill

text: Degrees and diplomas issued by diploma mills have been used to obtain employment, raises, or clients. Even if issuing or receiving a diploma mill qualification is legal, passing it off as an accredited one for personal gain is a crime in many jurisdictions. In some cases the diploma mill may itself be guilty of an offense, if it knew or ought to have known that the qualifications it issues are used for fraudulent purposes. Diploma mills could also be guilty of fraud if they mislead customers into believing that the qualifications they issue are accredited or recognized, or make false claims that they will lead to career advancement, and accept money on the basis of these claims.


title: Diploma mill

text: Similar to tax havens, diploma mills frequently employ jurisdiction shopping, operating in another country or legal jurisdiction where running diploma mills is legal, standards are lax or prosecution is unlikely. Splitting the business across jurisdictions can be a way to avoid authorities. A school might operate in one jurisdiction but use a mailing address in a different jurisdiction, for example.


title: Diploma mill

text: Author John Bear, a distance learning and diploma mills expert, has written that fake degrees are risky for buyers and consumers:


title: Diploma mill

text: In Australia, it is a criminal offence to call an institution a university, or issue university degrees, without authorisation through an act of federal or state parliaments.


title: Diploma mill

text: Under the Higher Education Support Act 2003, corporations wishing to use the term "university" require approval from the relevant government minister, the Minister for Education ().


title: Diploma mill

text: The corporate regulator Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) places strict controls on corporations wishing to use the term "university" and if the applicant does not intend to provide education services the name must not imply a connection with an existing university.


title: Diploma mill

text: The Corporations Regulations 2001 lists the 39 academic organisations permitted to use the title "university".


title: Diploma mill

text: The use of higher education terms (such as "degree") is protected in state legislation, e.g. Higher Education (Qld) Act 2003.


title: Diploma mill

text: According to the laws on higher education in Bosnia and Herzegovina the terms "university", "faculty", "academy" and "university of applied sciences" can be used only by accredited educational institutions. Accreditation is independently assessed by the Agency for Development of Higher Education and Quality Assurance and formally conferred by the Ministry of Education and Science for each canton, entity or district. Only these institutions are allowed to award academic degrees and diplomas.


title: Diploma mill

text: Illegal use of academic titles or academic degrees and "non-accredited diplomas" may lead to prosecution, conviction, fines or even imprisonment.


title: Diploma mill

text: In Canada all universities and colleges are under the direct supervision of the provincial and territorial governments, and there are no accreditation authorities, so the problem of degree mills is relatively rare. Many of the public universities are established by provincial legislation which also confers degree granting authority upon the institution. However, private postsecondary institutions are also required to comply with applicable legislation in order to confer degrees and diplomas. For example, in Ontario the "Post-secondary Education Choice and Excellence Act, 2000" regulates degree-granting authority. Any institution that wishes to offer a degree or use the term "university" must be authorized to do so under an Act of the Legislature or by the Minister of Training, Colleges and Universities.


title: Diploma mill

text: A list of recognized Canadian higher education institutions is available on the Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials website.


title: Diploma mill

text: Most, but not all, universities and colleges in the People's Republic of China are public institutions. The Ministry of Education, which has legal authority to regulate college enrollment and degree awarding, publishes a yearly list of qualified higher-education institutions. Institutions not on the list cannot admit students or award degrees.


title: Diploma mill

text: Also, no institution may call itself a "university" or "college" without approval by a provincial-level education department. Any institution, public or private, which wishes to name itself after a geographic region larger than a province (e.g. "South China ... University") must go through the Ministry of Education. A new regulation forbids any new university or college from being named "national", "of China" or similar names.


title: Diploma mill

text: Most universities and colleges are public institutions; universities are self-governing, but financed by the state. However, some schools, like Tvind's teacher college, provide education which is only accredited outside Denmark.


title: Diploma mill

text: All universities and colleges are public institutions; universities are public institutions or foundations, and vocational universities are municipal organs. There are no private higher educational institutions and no legal mechanism to found or accredit any. Universities are explicitly defined in the Universities Act. Other than universities proper, technical universities (known in Finland as AMK, ammattikorkeakoulu), officially called "Universities of Applied Sciences" in English, can be established with permission from the cabinet. The degrees are protected by law. The list of AMKs can be viewed from the Ministry of Education website.


title: Diploma mill

text: For purposes of professional qualification, the use of foreign degree qualifications is regulated: if the name of a degree can be confused with a Finnish degree that requires more academic credit, the confusion must be eliminated. Several diploma mills have operated in Finland, and countermeasures in university admissions have become necessary. There are no laws against conferring unaccredited degrees or degrees accredited abroad, as long as a Finnish degree or equivalent is not claimed. Also, English terms like "Bachelor" or "Doctor" are not protected.


title: Diploma mill

text: In Germany, it is a criminal offense to call an institution a "Universität" (university) or "Fachhochschule", or to issue academic degrees, without authorization through an act of the respective state's Ministry of Education. It is also a misdemeanor to falsely claim a degree in Germany if it is not accredited, see "".


title: Diploma mill

text: Some corporate training programs in Germany use the English term "corporate university". Such use of the term is tolerated since it is widely understood that such programs are not actual universities. Similarly, "Fachhochschulen" frequently use the English term "university of applied science". Neither are permitted to use the German word "Universität".


title: Diploma mill

text: Institutions of higher Tertiary education "Ανώτατα Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα (ΑΕΙ)" (universities and technical universities) and "Ανώτατα Τεχνολογικά Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα (ΑΤΕΙ)" (technological educational institutes / universities of applied sciences) in Greece are fully self-managed public entities and are the only institutions that can issue university diplomas. Diplomas issued by foreign educational institutions are validated and assessed by the Hellenic National Academic Recognition and Information Center (Hellenic NARIC).


title: Diploma mill

text: It is illegal under Hong Kong laws chapter 320 "Post Secondary Colleges Ordinance" section 8 to call an organisation a "university" without approval from the Chief Executive in Council.


title: Diploma mill

text: Under Hong Kong laws chapter 200 "Crimes Ordinance" section 73, anyone who knowingly uses false documents with the intention of inducing somebody to accept them as genuine is liable to 14 years' imprisonment. Section 76 assigns the same penalty for anyone who makes or possesses machines that create such false documents.


title: Diploma mill

text: The University Grants Commission (UGC) states, in section 22 of the University Grants Commission Act of 1956:


title: Diploma mill

text: UGC has published a warning dated July 2012 against Indian Institute of Planning and Management (IIPM) about the unrecognized status of IIPM.


title: Diploma mill

text: Legitimate higher education qualifications in Ireland are placed on, or formally aligned, with the National Framework of Qualifications. This framework was established by the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland in accordance with the Qualifications (Education and Training) Act (1999). It is illegal under the Universities Act (1997) for any body offering higher education services to use the term "university" without the permission of the Minister for Education and Science. It is likewise illegal under the Institutes of Technologies Acts (1992–2006) to use the term "institute of technology" or "regional technology college" without permission.


title: Diploma mill

text: All public and private universities and higher education institutions must be established, or specifically recognized, by decree of the Italian Minister of Education, University and Research; any other institution or organization is therefore not recognized and unaccredited.


title: Diploma mill

text: Under Article 135 of the School Education Act, all universities and post-secondary education institutes in Japan require a government-issued licence from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). Operating such an institute without a licence from MEXT can result in a fine of ¥100,000 for each offence committed. In addition, the National Institution for Academic Degrees and Quality Enhancement of Higher Education (NIAD-QE) has the sole authority to accredit all university and post-secondary qualifications in Japan, as per Article 104 of the School Education Act.


title: Diploma mill

text: The "Patent University" was an example of a Japanese diploma mill which operated from 1964 until it was shut down in 1980, and which sold fraudulent doctorates for sums ranging between ¥300,000 and ¥5 million. In 2007, MEXT revealed that it had discovered 48 people with suspected falsified qualifications who were successfully hired to teach in 43 universities and post-secondary education institutes throughout Japan between 2004 and 2006.


title: Diploma mill

text: In Malaysia, the Education Act 1996 protects the status of the terms "university", "university college" and "branch campus". Only institutions with this status may award academic degrees.


title: Diploma mill

text: The Private Higher Education Institutions act also places restrictions on the creation and operation of any private higher education institution that conducts any course of study or training programme for which a certificate, diploma or degree is awarded.


title: Diploma mill

text: Furthermore, all legitimate higher education qualifications are placed on or formally affiliated with the Malaysian Qualifications Framework under the provisions of the Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007. Limited exemptions are however granted to organizations and institutions "where the teaching is confined exclusively to the teaching of any religion" or "any place declared by the Minister by notification in the Gazette not to be an educational institution" under the Education Act 1996.


title: Diploma mill

text: In Mexico, Under the Education Act the official recognition of studies (RVOE) educational programs offered by private institutions may be granted by the federal education authority, by state education authorities or by both. There are also public institutions of higher education, which are mandated to incorporate programs of these institutions according to its own rules. As of July 10, 2000, the Ministry applied for the granting of RVOE the guidelines established in the "Secretarial Agreement No. 279 establishing the processes and procedures related to the recognition of official validity of studies The Secretariat of Public Education (SEP) lists several institutions that are unaccredited in Mexico.


title: Diploma mill

text: In August 2010, the Secretariat said 22 federal health officials were arrested after their medical and psychology licenses turned out to be fakes from a diploma mill according to the newspaper "El Universal". They included the technical director of the National Center for Blood Transfusions and the chief medical officer of the National Commission for Medical Arbitration, which rules on cases of malpractice.


title: Diploma mill

text: In the Netherlands it is illegal for non-accredited, non-recognized institutes to bestow any legally protected academic title. The NVAO is the only agency allowed to accredit courses. Since the implementation of the Bologna process, Dutch universities have started to bestow the English titles MSc and PhD instead of their Dutch equivalents. These English versions of the title are not protected under Dutch law. A diploma mill may thus bestow someone with a PhD title without violating Dutch law, but the recipient will not be allowed to use the protected titles "doctor" or "dr."


title: Diploma mill

text: Partnerships with foreign educational institutions are possible. This is called the "U-bocht construction". In this case, the curricula are neither accredited by NVAO nor recognized by the Dutch Department of Education. Graduates receive a foreign diploma issued by the educational institution which has a partnership with a Dutch educational institution. The status of such a diploma depends upon the laws and accreditation system of the country where the diploma is granted.


title: Diploma mill

text: Diplomas from accredited universities are accepted in the Netherlands since the Bologna protocol. Diploma's from non EU institutions must be screened and validated first before they are accepted for appointments requiring a validated starting level (e.g. entering a health profession).


title: Diploma mill

text: The New Zealand Education Act prohibits use of the terms "degree" and "university" by institutions other than the country's eight accredited universities. In 2004 authorities announced their intention to take action against unaccredited schools using the words "degree" and "university," including the University of Newlands, an unaccredited distance-learning provider based in the Wellington suburb of Newlands. Other unaccredited New Zealand institutions reported to be using the word "university" included the New Zealand University of Golf in Auckland, the online Tawa-Linden and Tauranga Universities of the Third Age, and the Southern University of New Zealand. Newlands owner Rochelle M. Forrester said she would consider removing the word "university" from the name of her institution in order to comply with the law.


title: Diploma mill

text: The National University Commission (NUC) was formed in 1999 to clamp down on diploma mill activity in the country. A concentrated effort by the NUC has resulted in a significant drop in diploma mill activity in Nigeria. An International Higher Education article states, "Attainment of the Nigerian vision of being one of the top 20 economies by 2020 will be compromised by the injection of such poor-quality graduates into the economy. Herein lies the distaste for and the "raison d'être" for the government's clampdown on degree mills."


title: Diploma mill

text: In Nigeria, online degrees from unaccredited institutions are banned and should not be accepted by employers.


title: Diploma mill

text: Accreditation of universities and other institutions of higher education ("Universitet", "Høyskole(Høgskole)"), is governed by the state institution NOKUT, Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education. There have been cases where people submitting diplomas from a "Diploma Mill" to this agency for convalidation, have been prosecuted for fraud.


title: Diploma mill

text: The government-established Higher Education Commission (HEC) is responsible for all matters related to the accreditation of universities in Pakistan. All recognized universities in Pakistan are listed on the HEC website. However, the


title: Diploma mill

text: Axact company, based in Karachi, was the subject of a 2015 investigation by the "New York Times", which found it was committing fraud in other countries, by granting fake degrees and diplomas.


title: Diploma mill

text: Title IV (Crimes Against Public Interest), section V articles 174 and 175 of the Revised Penal Code of the Philippines criminalize the falsification of medical certificates, certificates of merit or service and the like. Article 174 imposes a penalty on anyone who produces such certificates and article 175 on anyone who knowingly procures and uses such a certificate. Despite this, news and magazine articles appear from time to time reporting businesses operating along Claro M. Recto Avenue in Manila which offer fake documents for sale.


title: Diploma mill

text: In Portugal according to Base Law of Educative System from 1973 Lei n.º 5/73 () the diploma mill is impossible. To award higher studies degrees, all higher studies institutions require a governmental issued licence provided by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education and published in the Government Journal (Diário da República) and communicate to the High Studies General Board (Direção Geral do Ensino Superior - DGES) all record of grades and degree awarded by students. Acting otherwise is punishable by law. Previously to 2007, in the process of opening a new institution or new curriculum to be lectured, it was required to provide the degree content by science branch and the list of PhD, MSc and BSc professors that lecture that specific course, thus getting a licence without expiration date, mandatory professors or contents revision date. This created a series of controversial scandals and severe lack quality in some private and public institutions as evidentiated by the 2007 state run inspection at the hands of , resulting in their compulsory closure and transfer of students to other institutions. Created by governmental rule to ensure the quality in higher studies along the Bologna Process implementation, this entity has a specific and rigorous agenda to control all public and private institutions of higher studies and its content. Its job is to perform inspections every 1, 2, 3 or 5 years about the academic crew scientific quality, current and new curriculum in all degrees, assure that these are up to date, and control the BSc, MSc and PhD available degrees in Portugal, by closure or approval of new courses as the Bologna Process demands.


title: Diploma mill

text: The Romanian newspaper "Gândul" has reported that the Dimitrie Cantemir Christian University from Bucharest started 34 Master's degree curricula which have no legal ground. According to the rector of the university, Corina Dumitrescu, the law has a loophole, since it uses a continuous present for institutional evaluation, which is uncharacteristic of the Romanian language. She says that in her opinion institutional evaluation (required by law) may also happen after the curricula have been taught. The actual wording in Romanian is "universitate acreditată supusă periodic evaluării instituționale", and Dumitrescu argues that "care se supun" means that an accredited institution can be evaluated "today, tomorrow or the day after tomorrow" (and presumably, any time), not that it needs to have been evaluated in the past. For the study year 2010-2011, 16 Master's curricula from nine of its faculties are listed as accredited in Order no. 4630/2010 of the Department of Education.


title: Diploma mill

text: Apart from the graduate level diploma mills, in Russia a significant number of leading institutions have "degree mills" within their departments (typically humanities and economics). According to the civic initiative Dissernet such institutions are providing the Russian elite (heads of universities, members of parliament and government officials) with degrees based on plagiarised and falsified Kandidat nauk (Ph.D Candidate) and Doktor nauk (full Ph.D) theses.