title: Naushad

text: He was one of the first to introduce sound mixing and the separate recording of voice and music tracks in playback singing. He was the first to combine the flute and the clarinet, the sitar and mandolin. He also introduced the accordion to Hindi film music and was among the first to focus on background music to extend characters' moods and dialogue through music. But perhaps his greatest contribution was to bring Indian classical music into the film medium. Many of his compositions were inspired by ragas and he even used distinguished classical artistes like Amir Khan and D.V. Paluskar in "Baiju Bawra" (1952) and Bade Ghulam Ali Khan in "Mughal-e-Azam" (1960). "Baiju Bawra" (1952) demonstrated Naushad's grasp of classical music and his ability to bring it to the masses, for which he won the first Filmfare Best Music Director Award in 1954.


title: Naushad

text: “When people heard that the film would be full of classical music and ragas, they protested, ‘People will get a headache and they will run away.’ I was adamant. I wanted to change public taste. Why should people be fed what they like all the time? We presented them with music from our culture and it worked.”


title: Naushad

text: For Aan (1952), he was the first to use a 100-piece orchestra. He was the first composer to have developed the system of western notation in India. The notation for the music of the film 'Aan' was published in book form in London.


title: Naushad

text: In Uran Khatola (1955), he recorded an entire song without the use of orchestra, having replaced the sound of musical instruments with choral sound of humming.


title: Naushad

text: In 2004, a colorized version of the classic Mughal-e-Azam (1960) was released, for which Naushad had the orchestral music specially re-created (in Dolby Digital) by today’s industry musicians, while maintaining all the solo vocals from the original soundtrack. To elaborate, the playback vocals (though not the chorus) recorded four decades ago are mixed with orchestra tracks created in the present millennium.


title: Naushad

text: As Indian film music gradually assumed a Western bend starting in the late 1960s, Naushad came to be considered old-fashioned. Composers who could compose rock-and-roll and disco-inflected music started getting increasingly popular. Naushad was still esteemed as a maestro, but his talents were sought mostly for historical movies where traditional scores were appropriate. It can be said of Naushad that in the early days of popular cinema music in the thirties and forties he set the standards for classical and folk music that resonated with the idea of India. In short he brought out the beauty of Indian music in a short film song of a few minutes which was not an easy feat. The composers who followed him were inspired by this aspect of his compositions.


title: Gulf of Mannar

text: The Gulf of Mannar ( ) is a large shallow bay forming part of the Laccadive Sea in the Indian Ocean with an average depth of . It lies between the southeastern tip of India and the west coast of Sri Lanka, in the Coromandel Coast region. The chain of low islands and reefs known as Ram Sethu (aka Adam's Bridge), which includes Mannar Island, separates the Gulf of Mannar from Palk Bay, which lies to the north between India and Sri Lanka. The estuaries of Thamirabarani River and Vaippar River of South India and the Malvathu Oya (Malvathu River) of Sri Lanka drain into the Gulf. The dugong (sea cow) is found here.


title: Gulf of Mannar

text: Located on the southeastern tip of the subcontinent, the Gulf of Mannar is known to harbour over 3,600 species of flora and fauna, making it one of the richest coastal regions in Asia. Around 117 hard coral species have been recorded in the Gulf of Mannar. Sea turtles are frequent visitors to the gulf as are sharks, dugongs, and dolphins. However, the combined effects of 47 villages, with a total population of around 50,000 has meant that overharvesting of marine species has become a problem. The decline of fish populations has been accompanied with reducing numbers of pearl oyster, gorgonian coral, and acorn worm. Local fishermen rely on the reef to feed their families, but destructive fishing methods combined with the stress of pollution and coral mining have meant both nearshore and offshore catches have decreased. Endangered species include dolphins, dugongs, whales and sea cucumbers.


title: Gulf of Mannar

text: In 1986, a group of 21 islets lying off the Tamil Nadu coast between Thoothukudi and Dhanushkodi was declared the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park. The park and its 10 km buffer zone were declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1989.


title: Gulf of Mannar

text: The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve covers an area of 10,500 km of ocean, 21 islands and the adjoining coastline. The islets and coastal buffer zone include beaches, estuaries, and tropical dry broadleaf forests, while the marine environments include seaweed communities, sea grass communities, coral reefs, salt marshes and mangrove forests.


title: Gulf of Mannar

text: In May 2019, The National Centre for Coastal Research, an institute under the Ministry of Earth Sciences of India, which has a field research station in the Gulf of Mannar region, found an alarming pattern of bleaching in the reefs in Mandapam, Kilakarai and Palk Bay. Researchers observed a pattern of bleaching in corals when the temperatures rose to between 32 °C and 36 °C.


title: Gulf of Mannar

text: The Gulf of Mannar is known for its pearl banks of "Pinctada radiata" and "Pinctada fucata" for at least two thousand years. Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) praised the pearl fishery of the gulf as one of the most productive in the world. Although extraction of natural pearls is considered too expensive in most parts of the world, it is still carried out in the gulf.


title: Gulf of Mannar

text: The chief seaports on the Gulf of Mannar are Thoothukudi (Tuticorin) in Tamil Nadu, and Colombo in Sri Lanka. While these ports can accommodate deep-draft vessels, the shallow Palk Strait can only accommodate small shallow-draft vessels. In July 2005, the Indian Government took preliminary steps to go ahead with the Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project, which would create a deep channel linking the Gulf of Mannar to the Bay of Bengal. Project boosters emphasize the benefits of a direct shipping route that connects India's east and west coasts without the long trip around Sri Lanka; environmentalists have warned against the grave damage such a project could cause to the sea life and fisheries of the Palk Strait and the Gulf.


title: UEFA Women's Euro 2025

text: The 2025 UEFA Women's Championship will be the 14th edition of the UEFA Women's Championship, the quadrennial international football championship organised by UEFA for the women's national teams of Europe in summer 2025. It will be the third edition since it was expanded to 16 teams. The host nation or nations is expected to be selected in January 2023. It is expected to return to its usual four-year cycle after the previous tournament was delayed to 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: UEFA Women's Euro 2025

text: Applications must be submitted by August 2022, final submissions are in October, and a decision is to be made on 25 January 2023.


title: UEFA Women's Euro 2025

text: Four declarations of interest to host the tournament were received by UEFA before the deadline of 12 October 2022.


title: Brigadeführer

text: Brigadeführer (, ) was a paramilitary rank of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) that was used between the years of 1932 to 1945. It was mainly known for its use as an SS rank. As an SA rank, it was used after briefly being known as "Untergruppenführer" in late 1929 and 1930.


title: Brigadeführer

text: The rank was first created due to an expansion of the SS and assigned to those officers in command of "SS-Brigaden". In 1933, the "SS-Brigaden" were changed in name to "SS-Abschnitte"; however, the rank of "Brigadeführer" remained the same.


title: Brigadeführer

text: Originally, "Brigadeführer" was considered the second general officer rank of the SS and ranked between "Oberführer" and "Gruppenführer". This changed with the rise of the Waffen-SS and the "Ordnungspolizei". In both of those organizations, "Brigadeführer" was the equivalent to a "Generalmajor" and ranked above an "Oberst" in the German Army or police. The rank of "Generalmajor" was the equivalent of brigadier general, a one-star general in the US Army.


title: Brigadeführer

text: The insignia for "Brigadeführer" was at first two oak leaves and a silver pip, however was changed in April 1942 to a three oak leaf design after the creation of the rank "SS-Oberst-Gruppenführer".


title: Brigadeführer

text: "Brigadeführer" in the Waffen-SS or police also wore the shoulder insignia of a "Generalmajor" and were referred to as such after their SS rank (e.g. "SS-Brigadeführer und Generalmajor der Waffen-SS und Polizei").


title: 2019 Mr. Olympia

text: The 2019 Mr. Olympia contest was a weekend long IFBB professional bodybuilding competition that was held on September 12 to 14, 2019, in Las Vegas, Nevada. This was the 55th Mr. Olympia competition celebrated. The weekend competition is also known as the Joe Weider's Olympia Fitness and Performance Weekend. While the main event was the competition for the title of Mr. Olympia, several other events were held which includes the Amateur competition and sports expo.


title: 2019 Mr. Olympia

text: On September 13, 2019, prejudging and finals for Fitness Olympia, Figure Olympia and Classic Physique were held and livestream via Amazon Prime. Mr. Olympia pre-judging was also held on the same night.


title: 2019 Mr. Olympia

text: On September 14, 2019, the Men's Physique Olympia and Women's Physique Olympia judging and finals were held in the morning at Las Vegas Convention Center. At night, the Bikini Olympia, 212 Olympia and Mr. Olympia finals were held at Orleans Arena.


title: 2019 Mr. Olympia

text: Shawn Rhoden, the previous year Mr Olympia 2018, was not allowed to compete due to legal reasons, so there was no defending champion this year.


title: Harmattan

text: The Harmattan is a season in West Africa that occurs between the end of November and the middle of March. It is characterized by the dry and dusty northeasterly trade wind, of the same name, which blows from the Sahara over West Africa into the Gulf of Guinea. The name is related to the word in the Twi language. The temperature is cold in most places, but can also be hot in certain places, depending on local circumstances.


title: Harmattan

text: The Harmattan blows during the dry season, which occurs during the months with the lowest sun. In this season the subtropical ridge of high pressure stays over the central Sahara and the low-pressure Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) stays over the Gulf of Guinea. On its passage over the Sahara, the Harmattan picks up fine dust and sand particles (between 0.5 and 10 microns). It is also known as the "doctor wind", because of its invigorating dryness compared with humid tropical air.


title: Harmattan

text: This season differs from winter, because it is characterized by cold, dry, dust-laden wind, and also wide fluctuations in the ambient temperatures of the day and night. Temperatures can easily be as low as all day, but sometimes in the afternoon the temperature can also soar to as high as , while the relative humidity drops under 5%. It can also be hot in some regions, like in the Sahara.


title: Harmattan

text: The air is particularly dry and desiccating when the Harmattan blows over the region. The Harmattan brings desert-like weather conditions: it lowers the humidity, dissipates cloud cover, prevents rainfall formation and sometimes creates big clouds of dust which can result in dust storms or sandstorms. The wind can increase fire risk and cause severe crop damage. The interaction of the Harmattan with monsoon winds can cause tornadoes.


title: Harmattan

text: In some countries in West Africa, the heavy amount of dust in the air can severely limit visibility and block the sun for several days, comparable to a heavy fog. This effect is known as the Harmattan haze. It costs airlines millions of dollars in cancelled and diverted flights each year. When the haze is weak, the skies are clear. The extreme dryness of the air may cause branches of trees to die.


title: Harmattan

text: Humidity drops to as low as 15%, which can result in spontaneous nosebleeds for some people. Other health effects on humans may include conditions of the skin (dryness of the skin), dried or chapped lips, eyes, and respiratory system, including aggravation of asthma.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: Dandelion Wine is a 1957 novel by Ray Bradbury set in the summer of 1928 in the fictional town of Green Town, Illinois, based upon Bradbury's childhood home of Waukegan, Illinois. The novel developed from the short story "Dandelion Wine", which appeared in the June 1953 issue of "Gourmet" magazine.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: The title refers to a wine made with dandelion petals and other ingredients, commonly citrus fruit. In the story, dandelion wine, as made by the protagonist's grandfather, serves as a metaphor for packing all of the joys of summer into a single bottle.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: The main character of the story is Douglas Spaulding, a 12-year-old boy loosely patterned after Bradbury. Most of the book is focused upon the routines of small-town America, and the simple joys of yesterday.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: Bradbury noted in "Just This Side of Byzantium", a 1974 essay used as an introduction to the book, that "Dandelion Wine" is a recreation of a boy's childhood, based upon an intertwining of Bradbury's own experiences and imagination.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: "Farewell Summer", the official sequel to "Dandelion Wine", was published in October 2006. While "Farewell Summer" is a direct continuation of the plot of "Dandelion Wine", "Something Wicked This Way Comes", a novel with a completely different plot and characters, is often paired with the latter because of their stylistic and thematic similarities. Together, the three novels form a Green Town trilogy. A fourth volume, "Summer Morning, Summer Night", published in 2008, contains twenty-seven Green Town stories and vignettes, seventeen of which had never been published before.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: "Dandelion Wine" is a series of short stories loosely connected to summer occurrences, with Douglas and his family as recurring characters. Many of the chapters were first published as individual short stories, the earliest being "The Night" (1946), with the remainder appearing between 1950 and 1957.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: Douglas Spaulding: The protagonist of the novel, the entire summer is seen mostly through his eyes as a time of joys and sorrows. Douglas is imaginative, fanciful, and occasionally meditative on the state of the world. Most of the time, he aims to have fun as a 12-year-old kid, but sometimes he lapses into philosophical brooding on topics, including life and death, more mature topics than what would be expected of his age. Bradbury has stated that Douglas is based on the childhood version of him, and in fact, "Douglas" is Bradbury's actual middle name, while "Spaulding" is his father's middle name.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: Tom Spaulding: Douglas' younger brother, Tom is the more logical and skeptical one, often questioning his brother's seemingly inexplicable actions. Tom is also somewhat more childish and naïve than Douglas, often failing to understand the seriousness of Douglas' thoughts about his life; nonetheless, he often acts as the voice of reason when Douglas' imagination gets the better of him.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: Charlie: A friend of Douglas and Tom, Charlie often hangs around with them. Charlie sometimes comments on a situation or on the behavior of other characters. Other than that, he gets little character development and acts as more of a side character for Douglas and Tom's adventures.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: Some critics consider "Dandelion Wine" to be Bradbury's most personal work. According to Electric Literature, "The book is Bradbury’s masterpiece, his fullest, most deeply felt and lyrical expression, touching on his usual themes of youth, old age and small-town life but stripped of their usual layer of sci-fi remove." Georges D. Todds of the SF Site said that the novel's power lies in the "emotional attachment" it stirs in readers, because it is almost completely nostalgia in contrast to Bradbury's usual blend of horror/science fiction and nostalgia. He stated that this trait was what set it apart from his other works:


title: Dandelion Wine

text: Certainly I would tell anyone wanting to know what makes Ray Bradbury the human being he is to read "Dandelion Wine", and anyone wanting to know what makes Ray Bradbury the renowned writer he is to read "The October Country" or "The Martian Chronicles".


title: Dandelion Wine

text: The novel's heavy reliance on poetical imagery has produced mixed criticism. Many critics say that these are the novel's greatest strengths because the tone matches the spirit of Bradbury's memories and optimistic outlook. John Zuck classified it as "spiritual fiction," paying particular attention to the religious theme of holding on to ephemeral beauty, "i.e.", the short-lived summer. Floyd C. Gale wrote that "Admirers of Bradbury will welcome this tender volume and even his decriers will find passages of pure evocative magic to soften their flinty hearts".


title: Dandelion Wine

text: Other critics, however, label this style as overwrought and too "feel-good". Alan David Price stated that while "Bradbury is at his most effective when evoking a New World joy and optimism", there are times when his prose becomes overly sentimental and his "gently fantastic style becomes plain tiring". He nonetheless classifies "Dandelion Wine" as "an engrossing read".


title: Dandelion Wine

text: Childhood is Bradbury's one subject, but you will not find real childhood here, Bradbury's least of all. What he has had to say about it has always been expressed obliquely, in symbol and allusion, and always with the tension of the outsider—the ex-child, the lonely one. In giving up this tension, in diving with arms spread into the glutinous pool of sentimentality that has always been waiting for him, Bradbury has renounced the one thing that made him worth reading.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: Knight remarks further that "The period is as vague as the place; Bradbury calls it 1928, but it has no feeling of genuine recollection; most of the time it is like second-hand 1910."


title: Dandelion Wine

text: The first stage adaptation of "Dandelion Wine" was a 1975 production in New York City arranged and adapted by Peter John Bailey, directed by William Woodman, and starring Matthew Anton and Doug McKeon. It was produced by The New Phoenix Repertory Company, under the artistic direction of Stephen Porter and Harold Prince. The production was reviewed by Mel Gussow of the "New York Times" on February 8th, 1975.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: A stage production was done in 1992 in Manistee Michigan. Ray Bradbury was present at the Ramsdell theater for the opening night.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: The novel was also made into a 1997 Russian film adaptation, titled "Vino iz oduvanchikov". Currently, there is no English film adaptation available for the book.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: "Dandelion Wine" was produced as a full-cast radio play by the Colonial Radio Theatre on the Air, in 2006. Ray Bradbury wrote the script from his stage play, and the production was released by Blackstone Audio. The cast included Jerry Robbins as Bill Forrester, William Humphrey as Douglas Spaulding, Rik Pierce as Grandpa, and James McLean as Tom Spaulding. The production was directed by Nancy Curran Willis, with music by Jeffrey Gage, and was produced by Jerry Robbins.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: After hearing the production, Ray Bradbury sent a letter to producer Jerry Robbins: "I've just played for the second time your production of "Dandelion Wine" and it's fabulous. I'm so very proud of it. In fact, it made me weep. In your own way you've told me that I have a chance of part of me living beyond the day that I leave this earth. This production is simply incredible." Phil Nichols of www.Bradburymedia.co.uk said of this recording, "The audio production is extravagant, and benefits from some strong performances and an extensive musical score...one of the most lively and energetic Bradbury productions for many years." The production won the Ogle Award for best Fantasy Production of 2006.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: In August 2011, Hollywood producers Mike Medavoy and Doug McKay of Phoenix Pictures announced a new American feature adaptation of "Dandelion Wine", destined for release in 2012 or 2013. Bradbury, RGI Productions' husband and wife team Rodion Nahapetov and Natasha Shliapnikoff are working with Medavoy and McKay to produce the adaptation, with Nahapetov penning the script.


title: Dandelion Wine

text: In 2011, BBC Radio 4 Extra broadcast an adaptation of Bradbury's novel. This was repeated annually until at least 2014.


title: Madanapalle

text: Madanapalle is a city in Annamayya district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is the largest city in the District. It is a Selection Grade Municipal City Council and the headquarters of Madanapalle mandal, Madanapalle revenue division and PKM Urban Development Authority.


title: Madanapalle

text: Sir Thomas Munro was first collector of Cuddapah. He constructed a small thatched house at the present Collector's bungalow and visited Madanapalle every summer. Madanapalle (Telugu:మదనపల్లె) or Madanapalle mandal (Mandal code-35), is a mandal HQ, town and a Municipality in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh state, India.Legend has it that the name of the town was originally " Maryaada raamanna puram" which has over time, changed into " Madanapalle". In 1850, Madanapalle was developed as subdivision and F.B. Manoly was the first Sub Collector. The town experienced several natural calamities like floods, famines and epidemics.


title: Madanapalle

text: Rabindranath Tagore translated "Jana Gana Mana" from Bengali to English and also set it to western musical notations in Madanapalle. The notes were provided by Tagore himself. The National Anthem was written by Rabindranath Tagore as early as in 1911 and was sung at the annual session of the Indian National Congress at Calcutta on 27 December that year.


title: Madanapalle

text: Madanapalle has mild to warm summers with average high temperatures of . Temperatures do not exceed and winters are cold with temperatures between . Usually summer lasts from March to June, with the advent of rainy season in June, followed by winter which lasts till the end of February.


title: Madanapalle

text: The municipality was formed on 1 April 1961 and is spread over an area of . There are 35 election wards represented by a councilor. Madanapalle urban agglomeration is spread over an area of . Its constituents include the municipality of Madanapalle, the out growths of Ankisettipalle, Chippili, Pamaiahgaripalle, Papireddipalle, Venkappakota, partial out growths of Basinikonda, Kollabylu, Ponnetipalem and Madanapalle (rural).


title: Madanapalle

text: The economy is based on agriculture and main products include tomato, mango, groundnut, tamarind and silk saris.


title: Madanapalle

text: Madanapalle is famous for agricultural products such as tomato, mango, groundnut, tamarind etc., Madanapalle is the biggest tomato market in Asia. The tomatoes from here are supplied to the most of the southern states & some of the northern states of India.


title: Madanapalle

text: It is also famous for silk and silk products like saris and other casuals. The quality of silk product is recognizable. You can purchase silk sarees here at production cost. These are supplied to all major cities in South India including Bangalore, Chennai and all silk product towns for sales. Madanapalle surroundings have enormous reserves of granite.


title: Madanapalle

text: Madanapalle is very well connected by road and rail. There are three Bus terminals in Madanapalle. State owned APSRTC buses run to different parts of the district, state and interstate – Bangalore (KA), Kolar (KA), Chintamani (KA) and Chennai (TN), Vellore (TN).


title: Madanapalle

text: Madanapalle Road Railway Station (MPL) is situated on Dharmavarm - Pakala Branch line and all trains stop here.


title: Madanapalle

text: Trains are available here to travel to Secunderabad, Guntakal, Tirupati, Vijayawada. Daily trains are available from and to Guntakal & Tirupati. Other nearest Railway Station is Kurabalakota Railway Station where only Passenger trains stop.New Kadapa to Kolar via Madanapalle Railway line is under construction it Kadapa–Bangalore section.In this project planned to Upgrade Madanapalle Road Railway station as Junction and one New Railway station to Madanapalle Town.


title: Madanapalle

text: The primary and secondary school education is imparted by government, aided and private schools, under the "School Education Department" of the state. The medium of instruction followed by different schools are English and Telugu.


title: Madanapalle

text: Madanapalle has long standing educational institutions like Besant Theosophical College,founded by Dr.Annie Besant in 1915.First Degree college in Rayalaseema Region and Rabindranath Tagore translated Jana Gana Mana from Bengali to English,Outside of Calcutta, the song was first sung by the bard himself at a session in Besant Theosophical College in Madanapalle, Andhra Pradesh on 28 February 1919 when Tagore visited the college and sung the song. The song enthralled the college students while Margaret Cousins, then vice-principal of the college (also an expert in European music and wife of Irish poet James Cousins), both requested Tagore to create an English translation of the song and set down the musical notation to the national anthem which were provided by Tagore himself.


title: Madanapalle

text: Zilla Parishad High School, which was founded in 1924, Vasishta School (ICSE, AP State Syllabus) which was founded in 1981.


title: Madanapalle

text: The government of Andhra Pradesh is planning to establish Government Medical College near Madanapalle and land acquisition has started.


title: Madanapalle

text: There were many cinema theatres. At this moment, theatres Sai Chitra, Ravi, Sunil, A.S.R, Sree Krishna, Sidhartha, Mini Sidhartha only operating.


title: Madanapalle

text: Madhusudhana, Pancharatna, Avanthi, Usha, Jyothi, Mallikarjuna, Mini Mallikarjuna, Sesh Mahal, Bhavani, M.S.R.(Tarakarama) theatres closed or converted for other business purpose now.


title: Madanapalle

text: Madanapalle is an assembly constituency in Andhra Pradesh. M.L.A's of MADANAPALLE from 1952 to till now


title: Pippa Scott

text: Scott was born in Los Angeles, California. She is the daughter of actress Laura Straub and screenwriter Allan Scott; an uncle was the blacklisted screenwriter Adrian Scott. Scott married Lee Rich, a founding partner of Lorimar Productions, in 1964. They had two children together before they divorced in 1983, though they maintained a friendship until his death in 2012.


title: Pippa Scott

text: In the 1970s, along with steady work acting in television productions, Scott was a student at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, where she pursued a degree in landscape architecture.


title: Pippa Scott

text: By the 1990s, Scott had become active in human-rights work, such as supporting the Commission of Experts formed under United Nations Security Council Resolution 780 in its research of the "widespread violations of international humanitarian law" committed during the Bosnian genocide.


title: Pippa Scott

text: Scott attended Radcliffe and UCLA before studying at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in England. Shortly after her return to the United States, she won a Theatre World Award for her 1956 Broadway debut in "Child of Fortune". Scott then quickly signed a contract with Warner Bros. and made her movie debut that same year as Lucy, a niece of John Wayne's character in John Ford's epic "The Searchers".


title: Pippa Scott

text: Scott was cast in the 1958 film "As Young as We Are" in the role of a new high-school teacher who falls in love with the character Hank Moore, played by Robert Harland, who turns out to be a student. She appeared as Pegeen in the 1958 Warner Bros. film, "Auntie Mame".


title: Pippa Scott

text: She appeared as Abigail in the 1959 episode of "Maverick" titled "Easy Mark" starring Jack Kelly as Bart Maverick. In the 1959–1960 CBS Television series "Mr. Lucky", starring John Vivyan and Ross Martin, she had a recurring role as Maggie Shank-Rutherford. Around this time, she also appeared on the ABC-TV Western series, "The Alaskans", starring Roger Moore.


title: Pippa Scott

text: Scott guest-starred on such series as "The DuPont Show with June Allyson", "The Twilight Zone" in "The Trouble with Templeton" starring Brian Aherne and Sydney Pollack (in which she performed a bravura 1920s dance sequence), "Thriller", "F Troop", "Have Gun - Will Travel" with Richard Boone, "Redigo", "The Tall Man" with Clu Gulager, "The Dick Van Dyke Show", "The Rat Patrol", "Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.", and "Gunsmoke" (as a white woman, taken by Indians during a raid, who during a year of captivity falls in love with an Indian suitor in the S7E10 “Indian Ford” in 1961).


title: Pippa Scott

text: In 1962–1963, she appeared in the first season of NBC's "The Virginian" in the recurring role of Molly Wood, publisher, editor, and reporter of "The Medicine Bow Banner". She made two guest appearances on "Perry Mason", starring Raymond Burr. In 1963, she played defendant Gwynn Elston in "The Case of the Bigamous Spouse"; in 1966, she played defendant Ethel Andrews in "The Case of the Fanciful Frail".


title: Pippa Scott

text: In 1964, she guest-starred with Eddie Albert and Claude Rains in the episode "A Time to Be Silent" of "The Reporter". She guest-starred in "The Garden House", an episode of ABC's "The Fugitive", starring David Janssen. Her last notable film roles were the wife of Dick Van Dyke's character in the comedy "Cold Turkey" (1971), and as Dabney Coleman's wife in the TV movie "Bad Ronald" (1974), although she sporadically played minor characters throughout the 1970s and '80s, including a 1971 guest spot in the episode "Didn't You Used to Be ... Wait ... Don't Tell Me" of "The Mary Tyler Moore Show".


title: Pippa Scott

text: In 1972, Scott appeared in the educational short film "Magical Disappearing Money", where she starred as a grocery consultant advising people about saving money by buying cheaper items, and how they can substitute for expensive items. The short was later featured on the RiffTrax website and YouTube channel.


title: Pippa Scott

text: She played an actress stranded in Virginia due to money problems in a 1973 episode of "The Waltons". In 1973, she played a murder victim in "Columbo: Requiem for a Falling Star". Her last regular TV role was as nursery-school teacher Maggie Hearn in the 15-episode 1976 NBC police drama "Jigsaw John" starring Jack Warden.


title: Pippa Scott

text: She returned to the big screen in 2011's "Footprints", for which she was nominated for the Stockholm Krystal Award for Best Supporting Actress at the Method Fest Independent Film Festival.


title: Pippa Scott

text: Scott produced, wrote the screenplay for, and directed "King Leopold's Ghost" (2006), a film based on the book of the same name by Adam Hochschild.


title: David Lodge (voice actor)

text: David William Lodge is an American voice actor who works for anime as well as animation and the video game community and is known for his voice work in the "Power Rangers" franchise. Two of his best-known voice roles there were as Villamax in "Power Rangers Lost Galaxy" and Loki in "Power Rangers Lightspeed Rescue". In anime, he voiced Kenpachi Zaraki in "Bleach" and Jiraiya in "Naruto". In animation, he provides the voice of Luxor in "Tutenstein" and Tenderheart Bear in the 2010s "Care Bears" cartoons. In video games, he voices a variety of roles, especially in "World of Warcraft".


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: Diana Nicole DeGarmo (born June 16, 1987) is an American singer-songwriter and actress. She rose to fame in 2004 as the runner-up of the third season of "American Idol", releasing her debut studio album, "Blue Skies", later that year. The following year, DeGarmo ventured into a career in musical theatre. She has starred in two Broadway, one off-Broadway and three national tours. She made her television acting debut in a six-month arc as Angelina Veneziano on "The Young and the Restless." DeGarmo has since released two extended plays, "Unplugged in Nashville" (2009) and "Live to Love" (2012). She is married to fifth season "American Idol" finalist Ace Young.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: Diana DeGarmo was born in Birmingham, Alabama, but was raised primarily in Snellville, Georgia. DeGarmo began singing at a young age, including the 1997 Georgia Music Hall of Fame Awards, and in Atlanta-based stage productions of "Annie" and "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: At age ten she was part of the Cartoon Gang on The Cartoon Network, appearing in various bumper segments. As a third grader she was a Coca-Cola Kid during the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia. The next year she sang at Opryland USA during the Christmas season. In 2002, she was named Miss Georgia Teen and was also a finalist on the NBC talent search program "America's Most Talented Kid".


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo took part in the third season of "American Idol" in 2004, finishing second to winner Fantasia Barrino.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: During her "American Idol" run she was in the bottom three, three times, but she was the first contestant sent to safety each time and thus she was never in the bottom two. She became one of the front runners by week 6. She was 16 years old at the time she competed. She performed around the country with the rest of the third season top ten contestants during the summer of 2004.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo was signed to RCA Records shortly after the "Idol" finale and released her single, "Dreams," on June 29, 2004. The single reached number 2 in Canada and number 14 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. The single also included her version of "I Believe" and a remake of Melissa Manchester's "Don't Cry Out Loud". She recorded her debut album in between "Idol" summer tour stops.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo's debut album, "Blue Skies", was released on December 7, 2004, to opening week sales of 47,000. The album debuted at number 52 on the "Billboard" 200 and included songs written by future American Idol judge Kara DioGuardi, as well as Desmond Child, Adam Shankman, and Andreas Carlsson, among others. As of fall 2008, the album had sold 168,000 copies with little to no advertising. The lone single from the CD, "Emotional", was released to radio in November 2004, peaking at number 54 on the Mediabase Pop Chart. She toured independently in the spring and summer of 2005 in support of "Blue Skies." During the same time she recorded a song for the soundtrack of the Disney movie "Ice Princess". "Reaching for Heaven", written by Desmond Child, can be heard during the climactic ice skating scene in the movie. In June 2005, RCA and DeGarmo parted ways. On September 17, 2005, DeGarmo received the Horizon Award at the Georgia Music Hall Of Fame Awards ceremony; the award recognizes Georgia artists on the path to successful and lengthy careers.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo began recording a pop/R&B album in 2007; however, she backed out of the project to return to her country music roots. After filming CMT's "Gone Country" in late 2007, she relocated to Nashville. She signed to John Rich's production company and recorded material with him in 2008. The songs were never released and DeGarmo moved on to other collaborators. In February 2009 she self-released a four-song acoustic country EP, "Unplugged in Nashville", to digital retailers.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: In March 2012, DeGarmo wrote "Good Goodbye" for use with her character on "The Young and the Restless". It was released to iTunes and was included on her May 2012 EP "Live to Love". After producing a music video for "Good Goodbye," fans were asked to vote on two versions of the video on the "American Idol" website. The winning video became available on iTunes.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo's second album, "Gemini", was released August 2, 2019 with a release concert at Sony Hall. DeGarmo presented and streamed a live concert of "Gemini" in the summer of 2020, ultimately winning the 2020 BroadwayWorld Award for Best Streamed Concert.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo made her major stage debut as Maria in an American Musical Theatre of San Jose production of "West Side Story" in November 2005. She followed with her Broadway debut in a four-month run of "Hairspray" as nerdy Penny Pingleton taking over for Tracy Miller in February 2006. She also performed the lead role of Brooklyn in the 2006 national tour of "Brooklyn: The Musical" alongside one of her idols, Melba Moore. DeGarmo returned to "Hairspray" for a second engagement from September 2006 to February 2007. She made her Carnegie Hall debut in April 2007 at a tribute to Neil Sedaka.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: In 2008, DeGarmo was set to star alongside Tony Award winner Gavin Creel in the Broadway revival of "Godspell" at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre, but on August 19, it was announced that the show was postponed indefinitely due to the loss of an investor.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: In May 2009, DeGarmo starred in the musical revue "Back to Bacharach and David," which featured the songs of Burt Bacharach and Hal David. The Kathy Najimy created and produced show played a limited two-week engagement in Los Angeles at the Music Box Theater on Hollywood Boulevard. In July 2009, she starred as the narrator in the Oklahoma Lyric's Theatre production of "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat" alongside "Idol" alum Anthony Federov. Her next role saw her return to New York City when she debuted in August 2009 as Sarah, the "sexy, blind librarian" and love interest of Toxie, in the off-Broadway musical "The Toxic Avenger." The show was housed at New World Stages. DeGarmo remained with "Avenger" until it closed on January 3, 2010.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo made her return to Broadway, starring as Sheila in the Broadway company of "Hair" where she met her future husband, Ace Young. She succeeded original cast member Caissie Levy beginning March 9, 2010. She played Sheila until the show's closure on June 27, 2010.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo played the role of Doralee Rhodes in the national tour of "9 to 5", which was launched in Nashville on September 21, 2010. She ended her run as Doralee after the July 2011 Minneapolis tour stop.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo appeared on musical theatre composer Scott Alan's third album, "What I Wanna Be When I Grow Up" with the song "I Wish", released November 1, 2010.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: She reprised the role of Penny Pingleton in the Hollywood Bowl production of "Hairspray", which ran from August 5–7, 2011.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo has done several readings for new musicals over the years, starting with "In Your Dreams" in early October 2006. In 2009, she played the title role in a concert for "Liberty: A New Musical" at the New York Musical Theatre Festival (NYMF) and in 2009 played the role of "Chris" in the much anticipated reading of an updated "Carrie: The Musical". In 2011 and again in 2013 she played Fern/Vylette in Manhattan industry readings of "Jawbreaker," a musical based on the 1990s movie of the same name.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: In January 2013, DeGarmo played "Sally" in the pre-Broadway run of the new musical "NERDS," in Raleigh, NC, for the North Carolina Theatre.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo played The Narrator in the national tour of Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat" from March 4, 2014, to April 2015.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: In June 2015, DeGarmo starred as Dorothy in Studio Tenn's production of "The Wizard of Oz" at The Schermerhorn Symphony Theater in Nashville, Tennessee. She and Young are set to lead the first national tour of "First Date", which is set to launch in the fall of 2020.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo joined the cast of "The Young and the Restless" in October 2011. She portrayed Angelina Veneziano, the daughter of resident mobster, Angelo. Her character was a terrible singer who was obsessed with gaining the affections of Kevin Fisher. Her character went through a redemption arc, and by the time her last episode aired in March 2012, Angelina not only could sing, she had matured into a kinder and gentler character.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: In film, DeGarmo played Dora Hand, a dance hall singer in the 2012 western film "Wyatt Earp's Revenge."


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo made a cameo appearance as herself in the Lifetime Network holiday movie "All About Christmas Eve" starring Haylie Duff. She also appeared on the second season of TLC's wedding dress show "Brides of Beverly Hills", which documented her search for a wedding dress.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: During 2013, DeGarmo and Ace Young hosted a weekly one-hour entertainment show, "Planet 360". It started on the Hallmark Movie Channel in March, moved to TVGN in May and was canceled in December.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: In 2013, DeGarmo starred in an independent film comedy, "Alto". DeGarmo's character, Frankie, is a struggling musician who falls in love with the daughter of a mafia don, and the two women become involved in a murder while also trying to come out to "Family." As of June 2015 the film has been shown at four festivals: The Miami Gay and Lesbian Film Festival, The VisionFest Film Festival in New York City, the Hoboken International Film Festival in Middletown, New York and the Frameline LGBTQ film festival in San Francisco. DeGarmo was nominated for the Jack Nance Breakthrough Performance Award at VisionFest, where Alto won the Audience Award.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: In 2016, DeGarmo's third film, "The Morning Sun", based on the play "The Morning the Sun Fell Down", was released.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo was the first "American Idol" finalist to participate in a USO tour. She has been on four USO tours. She first went overseas in December 2005 – January 2006. On that tour she entertained troops in Southwest Asia on a tour hosted by General Peter Pace. Her song "Thank You" is inspired by this trip. In April 2012, she and Ace Young went on a USO tour, accompanied by fellow performers and athletes Anthony Anderson, Weeman, Dennis Haysbert, Randy Johnson, and The Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders. In February 2013 she began her third USO tour, this time joining Ace Young, Peyton Manning, Austin Collie, Curt Schilling and the Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders. Her fourth tour took place in March 2015, joining Andrew Luck, Weeman, Miss America, and several other celebrities on a tour of the middle east and military installations in Korea, Japan, and Hawaii.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: In late 2007/early 2008, DeGarmo participated as a Southern celebrity in television ads for the Zaxby's restaurant chain. She also appeared as a guest voice on "The Fairly OddParents" "Fairy Idol" episode as Cosmo after Cosmo watches "How to Sing Like Diana DeGarmo".


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo is also a celebrity ambassador of the Muscular Dystrophy Association where she supports the cause at numerous events including the 2012 MDA "Show of Strength" Telethon to raise money for children and adults with neuromuscular disease. She also supports and performs in fundraisers for a number of charitable organizations both nationally and locally, including Broadway Cares/Equity Fights Aids.


title: Diana DeGarmo

text: DeGarmo married Ace Young on June 1, 2013, at the Luxe Sunset Boulevard hotel in Los Angeles. She lives in Nashville, Tennessee with Young.


title: Vineet Jain

text: Vineet Kumar Jain is the Managing Director of Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd. (B.C.C.L.), commonly known as The Times Group, India's largest media group. He runs B.C.C.L along with his brother Samir Jain who is vice-chairman.


title: Vineet Jain

text: Vineet Jain graduated from the American College of Switzerland and joined B.C.C.L. as the deputy managing director in 1993.


title: Vineet Jain

text: Vineet Jain handles BCCL's day to day operations and was also instrumental in The Times Group's highly successful diversifications beyond print- into Internet,radio, TV, outdoor advertising, films, higher education, and other new businesses where it has a leadership position in many areas.


title: Vineet Jain

text: Vineet Jain is the great grandson of Ramkrishna Dalmia, the first Indian owner of B.C.C.L. His grandfather, Shanti Prasad Jain, took over the company from Ramkrishna Dalmia. Shanti Prasad's son, Ashok Jain, took control of the company in the nineteen-sixties and was chairman of B.C.C.L. until his death in 1998 from heart failure.


title: Vineet Jain

text: Jain's mother, Indu Jain, used to hold the title of chairman of B.C.C.L. His sister Nandita Judge, who also worked at the company, died in a helicopter crash in 2001.


title: Vineet Jain

text: Jain is divorced. He splits his time between homes he shares with his brother in New Delhi and Mumbai.


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: Northwest Semitic is a division of the Semitic languages comprising the indigenous languages of the Levant. It emerged from Proto-Semitic in the Early Bronze Age. It is first attested in proper names identified as Amorite in the Middle Bronze Age. The oldest coherent texts are in Ugaritic, dating to the Late Bronze Age, which by the time of the Bronze Age collapse are joined by Old Aramaic, and by the Iron Age by Sutean and the Canaanite languages (Phoenician/Punic, Edomite, Moabite and Hebrew).


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: The term was coined by Carl Brockelmann in 1908, who separated Fritz Hommel's 1883 classification of Semitic languages into Northwest (Canaanite and Aramaic), East Semitic (Akkadian, its Assyrian and Babylonian dialects, Eblaite) and Southwest (Arabic, Old South Arabian languages and Abyssinian).


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: Brockelmann's Canaanite sub-group includes Ugaritic, Phoenician and Hebrew. Some scholars would now separate Ugaritic as a separate branch of Northwest Semitic alongside Canaanite.


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: Central Semitic is either a subgroup of West Semitic or a top-level division of Semitic alongside East Semitic and South Semitic. SIL Ethnologue in its system of classification (of living languages only) eliminates Northwest Semitic entirely by joining Canaanite and Arabic in a "South-Central" group which together with Aramaic forms Central Semitic. The Deir Alla Inscription and Samalian have been identified as language varieties falling outside Aramaic proper but with some similarities to it, possibly in an "Aramoid" or "Syrian" subgroup.


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: It is clear that the Taymanitic script expressed a distinct linguistic variety that is not Arabic and not closely related to Hismaic or Safaitic, while it can tentatively be suggested that it was more closely related to Northwest Semitic.


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: The time period for the split of Northwest Semitic from Proto-Semitic or from other Semitic groups is uncertain, it has been recently suggested by Richard C. Steiner that the earliest attestation of Northwest Semitic is to be found in snake spells from the Egyptian Pyramid Texts, dating to the mid-third millennium BCE. Amorite personal names and words in Akkadian and Egyptian texts from the late third millennium to the mid-second millennium BCE and the language of the Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions dated to the first half of the second millennium otherwise constitute the earliest traces of Northwest Semitic, the first Northwest Semitic language attested in full being Ugaritic in the 14th century BCE.


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: During the early 1st millennium, the Phoenician language was spread throughout the Mediterranean by Phoenician colonists, most notably to Carthage in today's Tunisia. The Phoenician alphabet is of fundamental importance in human history as the source and ancestor of the Greek alphabet, the later Latin alphabet, the Aramaic (Square Hebrew), Syriac, and Arabic writing systems, Germanic runes, and ultimately Cyrillic.


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: From the 8th century BCE, the use of Imperial Aramaic by the Neo-Assyrian Empire (935-608 BC) and the succeeding Neo-Babylonian Empire (612-539 BC) and Achaemenid Empire (539-332 BC), a form of the Aramaic language, spread throughout the Northwest Semitic region of the Levant, northern regions of the Arabian peninsula and southern regions of Anatolia, and gradually drove most of the other Northwest Semitic languages to extinction. The ancient Judaeans adopted Aramaic for daily use, and parts of the Tanakh are written in it. Hebrew was preserved, however, as a Jewish liturgical language and language of scholarship, and resurrected in the 19th century, with modern adaptations, to become the Modern Hebrew language of the State of Israel.


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: After the Muslim conquests of the 7th century, Arabic began to gradually replace Aramaic throughout the region. Aramaic survives today as the liturgical language of the Assyrian Church of the East, Syriac Orthodox Church, Chaldean Catholic Church, and other churches of Assyrian Christians. It is spoken in modern dialects with an estimated 1 million fluent speakers (some such as Assyrian Neo-Aramaic containing archaic Akkadian influence) by endangered indigenous and non-Muslim populations scattered throughout the Middle East, most commonly by Assyrians as well as Gnostic Mandeans and some Levantine Syriac Christians and Jews. There is also an Aramaic substratum in Levantine Arabic.


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: Phonologically, Ugaritic lost the sound *ṣ́, replacing it with (ṣ) (the same shift occurred in Canaanite and Akkadian). That this same sound became in Aramaic (although in Ancient Aramaic, it was written with qoph), suggests that Ugaritic is not the parent language of the group. An example of this sound shift can be seen in the word for "earth": Ugaritic ("’arṣ"), Punic ("’"a"rṣ)", Tiberian Hebrew ("’ereṣ"), Biblical Hebrew ("’arṣ") and Aramaic ("’ar‘ā’").


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: The vowel shift from to distinguishes Canaanite from Ugaritic. Also, in the Canaanite group, the series of Semitic interdental fricatives become sibilants: (ḏ), (ṯ) and (ṱ) became , (š) and (ṣ) respectively. The effect of this sound shift can be seen by comparing the following words:


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: Proto-Northwest Semitic had three contrastive vowel qualities and a length distinction, resulting in six vocalic phonemes: *a, *ā, *i, *ī, *u, and *ū. While *aw, *ay, *iw, *iy, *uw, and *uy are often referred to as diphthongs, they do not seem to have had a different status as such, rather being a normal sequence of a short vowel and a glide.


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: Suchard proposes that: "*s, both from original *s and original *ṯ, then shifted further back to a postalveolar *š, while deaffrication of *ts and *dz to *s and *z gave these phonemes their Hebrew values, as well as merging original *dz with original *ḏ. In fact, original *s may have been realized as anything between and ; both values are attested in foreign transcriptions of early Northwest Semitic languages".


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: In Proto-Northwest Semitic the emphatics were articulated with pharyngealization. Its shift to backing (as opposed to Proto-Semitic glottalization of emphatics) has been considered a Central Semitic innovation.


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: According to Faber, the assimilation *-ṣt->-ṣṭ- in the Dt stem in Hebrew (hiṣṭaddēḳ ‘he declared himself righteous’) suggests backing rather than glottalization. The same assimilation is attested in Aramaic (yiṣṭabba ‘he will be moistened’).


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: Three cases can be reconstructed for Proto-Northwest Semitic nouns (nominative, accusative, genitive), two genders (masculine, feminine) and three numbers (single, dual, plural).


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: The G fientive or G-stem (Hebrew "qal") is the basic, most common, unmarked stem. The G-stem expresses events. The vowel of the prefix of the prefix conjugations in Proto-Northwest Semitic was *-a- and the stem was *-qṭul- or *-qṭil-, as in *ya-qṭul-u 'he will kill', while the stem of the suffix conjugation had two *a vowels, as in *qaṭal-a 'he has killed'.


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: The G stative is like the fientive but expressing states instead of events. The prefix conjugation of stative roots, the vowel of the prefixes was *-i- and it contained and *a vowel, e.g. *yi-kbad-u 'he will become heavy', while the second vowel of the suffix conjugation was either *-i-, as in *kabid-a 'he is/was/will be heavy', or *-u-, as in *ʕamuq-a 'it is/was/will be deep'. Whether the G-stem stative suffix conjugation has *i or *u in the stem is lexically determined.


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: The N-stem (Hebrew "nip̄ʕal") is marked by a prefixed *n(a)-. It is mediopassive which is a grammatical voice that subsumes the meanings of both the middle voice and the passive voice. In other words, it expresses a range of meanings where the subject is the patient of the verb, e.g. passive, medial, and reciprocal. The stem of the suffix conjugation is *naqṭaland the stem of the prefix conjugations is *-nqaṭil-; as is the case with stative Gstem verbs, the prefix vowel is *-i-, resulting in forms like *yi-nqaṭil-u 'he will be killed'.


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: The D-stem (Hebrew "piʕel") is marked by gemination of the second radical in all forms. It has a range of different meanings, mostly transitive. The stem of the suffix conjugation is *qaṭṭil-, and the same stem is used for the prefix conjugations. It is not clear whether the Proto-Northwest-Semitic prefix vowel should be reconstructed as *-u-, the form inherited from Proto-Semitic (i.e. *yuqaṭṭil-u), or as *-a-, which is somewhat supported by evidence from Ugaritic and Hebrew (*yaqaṭṭil-u).


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: The C-stem (Hebrew "hip̄ʕil") more often than not expresses a causative meaning. The most likely reconstructions are *haqṭil- (from older *saqṭil-) for the stem of the suffix conjugation and *-saqṭil- for the stem of the prefix conjugations. The reconstructed prefix vowel is the same as that of the D-stem, and similarly, the participle is to be reconstructed as *musaqṭilum.


title: Northwest Semitic languages

text: All of the stems listed here, except the N-stem, could bring forth further derivation. The "internal passive stems" (Gp, Dp, and Cp; Hebrew passive "qal", "puʕal", and "hɔp̄ʕal") aren't marked by affixes, but express their passivity through a different vowel pattern. The Gp prefix conjugation can be reconstructed as *yu-qṭal-u 'he will be killed'. Reflexive or reciprocal meanings can be expressed by the t-stems, formed with a *t which was either infixed after the first radical (Gt, Ct) or prefixed before it (tD).


title: History of terrorism

text: The history of terrorism is a history of well-known and historically significant individuals, entities, and incidents associated, whether rightly or wrongly, with terrorism. Scholars agree that terrorism is a disputed term, and very few of those labeled terrorists describe themselves as such. It is common for opponents in a violent conflict to describe the other side as terrorists or as practicing terrorism.


title: History of terrorism

text: Depending on how broadly the term is defined, the roots and practice of terrorism can be traced at least to the 1st-century AD Sicarii Zealots, though some dispute whether the group, which assassinated collaborators with Roman rule in the province of Judea, was in fact terrorist. The first use in English of the term 'terrorism' occurred during the French Revolution's Reign of Terror, when the Jacobins, who ruled the revolutionary state, employed violence, including mass executions by guillotine, to compel obedience to the state and intimidate regime enemies. The association of the term only with state violence and intimidation lasted until the mid-19th century, when it began to be associated with non-governmental groups. Anarchism, often in league with rising nationalism and anti-monarchism, was the most prominent ideology linked with terrorism. Near the end of the 19th century, anarchist groups or individuals committed assassinations of a Russian Tsar and a U.S. president.


title: History of terrorism

text: In the 20th century, terrorism continued to be associated with a vast array of anarchist, socialist, fascist and nationalist groups, many of them engaged in 'third world' independence struggles. Some scholars also labeled as terrorist the systematic internal violence and intimidation practiced by states such as the Stalinist Soviet Union and Nazi Germany.


title: History of terrorism

text: Though many have been proposed, there is no consensus definition of the term "terrorism." This in part derives from the fact that the term is politically and emotionally charged, "a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents."


title: History of terrorism

text: The term terrorist is believed to have originated during the Reign of Terror (September 5, 1793July 28, 1794) in France. It was a period of eleven months during the French Revolution when the ruling Jacobins employed violence, including mass executions by guillotine, in order to intimidate the regime's enemies and compel obedience to the state. The Jacobins, most famously Robespierre, sometimes referred to themselves as "terrorists". Some modern scholars, however, do not consider the Reign of Terror a form of terrorism, in part because it was carried out by the French state. French historian distinguishes between the revolutionary terror of the French Revolution and the terrorists of the September 11 attacks:


title: History of terrorism

text: Revolutionary terror is not terrorism. To make a moral equivalence between the Revolution's year II and September 2001 is historical and philosophical nonsense ... The violence exercised on 11 September 2001 aimed neither at equality nor liberty. Nor did the preventive war announced by the president of the United States. The French Revolution also influenced conceptions of non-state terrorism in the 19th century. Although the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars ended with the victory of autocracies opposed to France and with the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty, European conservative rulers feared revolutionaries who would overthrow their governments or carry out similar forms of psychological violence. The late 18th and early 19th centuries did see the growth of secret societies dedicated to beginning similar liberal revolutions to the French Revolution, causing conservative autocratic governments to become paranoid of radical terrorist conspiracies.


title: History of terrorism

text: Scholars dispute whether the roots of terrorism date back to the 1st century and the Sicarii Zealots, to the 11th century and the Hashshashin, to the 19th century and the Fenian Brotherhood and Narodnaya Volya, or to other eras. The Sicarii and the Hashshashin are described below, while the Fenian Brotherhood and Narodnaya Volya are discussed in the 19th Century sub-section. John Calvin's rule over Geneva has been described as a reign of terror. Other historical events sometimes associated with terrorism include the Gunpowder Plot, an attempt to destroy the English Parliament in 1605.


title: History of terrorism

text: During the 1st century CE, the Jewish Zealots in Judaea Province rebelled, killing prominent collaborators with the Roman Empire such as the Sadducees running the Second Temple and the Hasmonean dynasty. In 6 CE, according to contemporary historian Josephus, Judas of Galilee formed a small and more extreme offshoot of the Zealots, the Sicarii ("dagger men"). Their efforts were also directed against Jewish "collaborators," including temple priests, Sadducees, Herodians, and other wealthy elites. According to Josephus, the Sicarii would hide short daggers under their cloaks, mingle with crowds at large festivals, murder their victims, and then disappear into the panicked crowds. Their most successful assassination was of the High Priest of Israel Jonathan.


title: History of terrorism

text: The first group called terrorism in the Islamic world were the Kharijites, who declared all Muslims guilty of serious sin as apostates worthy of punishment. The sect bares similarity with later "takfiri" doctrines of Islamism. In the late 11th century, the Hashshashin (a.k.a. the Assassins) arose, an offshoot of the Isma'ili sect of Shia Muslims. Led by Hassan-i Sabbah and opposed to Fatimid and Seljuq rule, the Hashshashin militia seized Alamut and other fortress strongholds across Persia. They briefly seized power in Isfahan before the populace revolted against their brutal rule. Hashshashin forces were too small to challenge enemies militarily, so they assassinated city governors and military commanders in order to create alliances with militarily powerful neighbors. For example, they killed Janah al-Dawla, ruler of Homs, to please Ridwan of Aleppo, and assassinated Mawdud, Seljuk emir of Mosul, as a favor to the regent of Damascus. The Hashshashin also carried out assassinations as retribution. Under some definitions of terrorism, such assassinations do not qualify as terrorism, since killing a political leader does not intimidate political enemies or inspire revolt. "(see also List of assassinations by the Assassins)"


title: History of terrorism

text: The Sons of Liberty was a clandestine group that formed in Boston and New York City in the 1770s. It had a political agenda of independence of Britain's American colonies. The groups engaged in several acts that could be considered terroristic and used the deeds for propaganda purposes.


title: History of terrorism

text: After Queen Elizabeth I restored the Church of England as the state church after years of persecution of Protestants under her sister Mary I, Pope Pius V excommunicated her and called on English Catholics to depose her. His successor Sixtus V and King Philip II of Spain sponsored numerous plots against her which continued after she was succeeded by her cousin James VI and I.


title: History of terrorism

text: On November 5, 1605, a group of conspirators led by Robert Catesby attempted to destroy the English Parliament on its State Opening by King James I. They planned in secret to detonate a large quantity of gunpowder placed beneath the Palace of Westminster. The gunpowder was procured and placed by Guy Fawkes. The group intended to enact a coup by killing King James I and the members of both houses of Parliament. The conspirators planned to start a rebellion in the English Midlands, make one of the king's children a puppet monarch, and then restore the Catholic faith to England.


title: History of terrorism

text: The conspirator leased a coal cellar beneath the House of Lords and began stockpiling gunpowder in 1604. As well as its primary targets, it would have killed hundreds, if not thousands, of Londoners – the most devastating act of terrorism in Britain's history, plunging the nation into a religious war. English spymasters uncovered the plot and caught Guy Fawkes with the gunpowder beneath Parliament. The other conspirators fled to Holbeach in Staffordshire. A shoot out on November 8 with authorities led to the deaths of Robert Catesby, Thomas Percy and the brothers Christopher and John Wright. The rest were captured. Fawkes and seven others were tried and executed in January 1606. The planned attack has become known as the Gunpowder Plot and is commemorated in Britain every November 5 with fireworks displays and large bonfires with effigies of Guy Fawkes and the Pope are often burned. Comparisons are often drawn between gunpowder plot and modern religious terrorism, such as the attacks in the US by Islamic terrorists on 9/11 2001.


title: History of terrorism

text: Terrorism was associated with state terror and the Reign of Terror in France, until the mid-19th century when the term also began to be associated with non-governmental groups. Early non-governmental terrorist groups include the nationalist Carbonari who sought to unite the Italian Peninsula under a liberal democratic government and the Luddites in Great Britain who sought to resist the Industrial Revolution by attacking mechanized textile plants. The term terrorism became increasingly used for acts of political violence from the 1840s onwards. Anarchism, often in league with rising nationalism, was the most prominent ideology linked with terrorism. Attacks by various anarchist groups led to the assassination of a Russian Tsar and a U.S. President.


title: History of terrorism

text: In the 19th century, powerful, stable, and affordable explosives were developed, global integration reached unprecedented levels and often radical political movements became widely influential. The use of dynamite, in particular, inspired anarchists and was central to their strategic thinking.


title: History of terrorism

text: One of the earliest groups to utilize modern terrorist techniques was arguably the Fenian Brotherhood and its offshoot the Irish Republican Brotherhood. They were both founded in 1858 as revolutionary, militant nationalist and Catholic groups, both in Ireland and amongst the émigré community in the United States.


title: History of terrorism

text: After centuries of continued British rule in Ireland, and being influenced most recently from the devastating effects of the 1840s Great Famine, these revolutionary fraternal organisations were founded with the aim of establishing an independent republic in Ireland, and began carrying out frequent acts of violence in metropolitan Britain to achieve their aims through intimidation.


title: History of terrorism

text: In 1867, members of the movement's leadership were arrested and convicted for organizing an armed uprising. While being transferred to prison, the police van in which they were being transported was intercepted and a police sergeant was shot in the rescue. A bolder rescue attempt of another Irish radical incarcerated in Clerkenwell Prison, was made in the same year: an explosion to demolish the prison wall killed 12 people and caused many injuries. The bombing enraged the British public, causing a panic over the Fenian threat.


title: History of terrorism

text: Although the Irish Republican Brotherhood condemned the Clerkenwell Outrage as a "dreadful and deplorable event", the organisation returned to bombings in Britain in 1881 to 1885, with the Fenian dynamite campaign, beginning one of the first modern terror campaigns. Instead of earlier forms of terrorism based on political assassination, this campaign used modern, timed explosives with the express aim of sowing fear in the very heart of metropolitan Britain, in order to achieve political gains. (Prime minister William Ewart Gladstone was partly influenced to disestablish the Anglican Church in Ireland as a gesture by the Clerkenwell bombing.) The campaign also took advantage of the greater global integration of the times, and the bombing was largely funded and organised by the Fenian Brotherhood in the United States.


title: History of terrorism

text: The first police unit to combat terrorism was established in 1883 by the Metropolitan Police, initially as a small section of the Criminal Investigation Department. It was known as the Special Irish Branch, and was trained in counter terrorism techniques to combat the Irish Republican Brotherhood. The unit's name was changed to Special Branch as the unit's remit steadily widened over the years.


title: History of terrorism

text: From the 1860s onwards dissident elements of the Russian Empire's intelligentsia became increasingly open to the idea of using political violence and terrorism to overthrow the Tsarist autocracy of the Romanov dynasty. The Narodniks called for a violent revolution to redistribute land to the peasant communes. Nikolay Chernyshevsky's novel "What Is to Be Done?" proved influential among the Narodniks, and his character Rakhmetov became a role model for Russian dissidents who resorted to terrorism.


title: History of terrorism

text: The Narodniks drifted to anarchism or Marxism after the peasants failed to support the ideology. The anarchists developed the concept of "propaganda of the deed" (or "propaganda by the deed", from the French "propagande par le fait") advocated physical violence or other provocative public acts against political enemies in order to inspire mass rebellion or revolution. One of the first individuals associated with this concept, the Italian revolutionary Carlo Pisacane (18181857), wrote in his "Political Testament" (1857) that "ideas spring from deeds and not the other way around". Anarchist Mikhail Bakunin (18141876), in his "Letters to a Frenchman on the Present Crisis" (1870) stated that "we must spread our principles, not with words but with deeds, for this is the most popular, the most potent, and the most irresistible form of propaganda". The French anarchist Paul Brousse (18441912) popularized the phrase "propaganda of the deed"; in 1877 he cited as examples the 1871 Paris Commune and a workers' demonstration in Berne provocatively using the socialist red flag. By the 1880s, the slogan had begun to be used to refer to bombings, regicides and tyrannicides. Reflecting this new understanding of the term, in 1895 Italian anarchist Errico Malatesta described "propaganda by the deed" (which he opposed the use of) as violent communal insurrections meant to ignite an imminent revolution.


title: History of terrorism

text: Founded in Russia in 1878, Narodnaya Volya ("Народная Воля" in Russian; "People's Will" in English) was a revolutionary anarchist group inspired by Sergei Nechayev and by "propaganda by the deed" theorist Pisacane. The group developed ideas—such as targeted killing of the "leaders of oppression"—that would become the hallmark of subsequent violence by small non-state groups, and they were convinced that the developing technologies of the age—such as the invention of dynamite, which they were the first anarchist group to make widespread use of—enabled them to strike directly and with discrimination. Attempting to spark a popular revolt against Russian Tsardom, the group killed prominent political figures by gun and bomb in Saint Petersburg. They used the trials of captured members such as Vera Zasulich and Sergey Stepnyak-Kravchinsky as propaganda. On March 13, 1881, the group succeeded in assassinating Russia's Tsar Alexander II. The assassination, by a bomb that also killed the Tsar's attacker, Ignacy Hryniewiecki, failed to spark the expected revolution, and an ensuing crackdown by the new Tsar Alexander III brought the group to an end.


title: History of terrorism

text: Individual Europeans also engaged in politically motivated violence. For example, in 1878 the Italian anarchist Giovanni Passannante wounded Umberto I of Italy and Prime Minister Benedetto Cairoli in a knife attack while other anarchists threw bombs at monarchist political rallies. That same year German anarchists Max Hödel and Karl Nobiling attempted to assassinate Kaiser Wilhelm I, giving Chancellor Otto von Bismarck a pretext to pass the Anti-Socialist Laws banning the Social Democratic Party. Anarchism spread to the United States with working-class European immigrants. Although it ceased to be a truly influential movement after the Haymarket affair in 1886, public fears of it continued to play a role in U.S. politics and weakened the U.S. organized labor movement. In 1893, Auguste Vaillant, a French anarchist, threw a bomb in the French Chamber of Deputies in which one person was injured. In reaction to Vaillant's bombing and other bombings and assassination attempts, the French government restricted freedom of the press by passing a set of laws that became pejoratively known as the "lois scélérates" ("villainous laws"). In the years 1894 to 1896 anarchists killed President of France Marie Francois Carnot, Prime Minister of Spain Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, and the Empress of Austria-Hungary, Elisabeth of Bavaria.


title: History of terrorism

text: Prior to the American Civil War, abolitionist John Brown (18001859) advocated and practiced armed opposition to slavery, launching several attacks between 1856 and 1859, his most famous attack was launched against the armory at Harpers Ferry in 1859. Local forces soon recaptured the fort and Brown was tried and executed for treason. A biographer of Brown has written that Brown's purpose was "to force the nation into a new political pattern by creating terror." In 2009, the 150th anniversary of Brown's death, prominent news publications debated over whether or not Brown should be considered a terrorist.


title: History of terrorism

text: After the Civil War, on December 24, 1865, six Confederate veterans founded the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). The KKK used violence, lynching, murder and acts of intimidation to oppress African Americans in particular, and it created a sensation with its masked forays' dramatic nature. Under President Ulysses Grant the federal government suppressed the Klan in the early 1870s, and it disappeared by the mid-1870s.


title: History of terrorism

text: The Second KKK of the 1920s was an entirely new organization that used the old costumes and keywords. It added cross burning as a ritual. The group's politics were white supremacist, anti-Semitic, racist, anti-Catholic, and nativist. A KKK founder boasted that it was a nationwide organization of 550,000 men and that it could muster 40,000 Klansmen within five days' notice, but as a secret or "invisible" group with no membership rosters, it was difficult to judge the Klan's actual size. It was politically powerful at times, especially in Tennessee, Oklahoma, Indiana, Alabama and South Carolina.


title: History of terrorism

text: Several nationalist groups used violence against an Ottoman Empire in apparent decline. One was the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (in Armenian "Dashnaktsuthium", or "The Federation"), an Armenian nationalist revolutionary movement founded in Tiflis (Russian Transcaucasia) in 1890 by Christapor Mikaelian. Many members had been part of Narodnaya Volya or the Hunchakian Revolutionary Party. The group published newsletters, smuggled arms, and hijacked buildings as it sought to bring in European intervention that would force the Ottoman Empire to surrender control of its Armenian territories. On August 24, 1896, 17-year-old Babken Suni led twenty-six members in capturing the Imperial Ottoman Bank in Constantinople. The group demanded European intervention in order to stop the Hamidian massacres and the creation of an Armenian state, but backed down on a threat to blow up the bank. An ensuing security crackdown destroyed the group.


title: History of terrorism

text: Also inspired by Narodnaya Volya, the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) was a Macedonian nationalist revolutionary movement founded in 1893 by Hristo Tatarchev in the Ottoman-controlled Macedonian territories. Through assassinations and by provoking uprisings, the group sought to coerce the Ottoman government into creating a Macedonian nation. On July 20, 1903, the group incited the Ilinden uprising in the Ottoman Manastir vilayet. The IMRO declared the town's independence and sent demands to the European Powers that all of Macedonia be freed. The demands were ignored and Ottoman Army troops crushed the 27,000 rebels in the town two months later.


title: History of terrorism

text: Revolutionary nationalism continued to motivate political violence in the 20th century, much of it directed against Western powers. The Irish Republican Army campaigned against the British in the 1910s and their tactics inspired Zionist groups such as the Hagannah, Irgun and Lehi to in their guerilla war against the Palestine Mandate throughout the 1930s. Like the IRA and the Zionist groups, the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt used bombings and assassinations as part of their tactics.


title: History of terrorism

text: Militant suffragettes of the Women's Social and Political Union carried out a series of politically motivated bombing and arson attacks nationwide as part of their campaign for women's suffrage. There were three phases of WSPU militancy in 1905, 1908, and, most significantly, between 1912 and 1914. These action ranged from civil disobedience and destruction of public property to arson and bombings. Most notably, The WSPU bombed Government Minister and future Prime Minister David Lloyd George's house


title: History of terrorism

text: Political assassinations continued, resulting in the assassination of King Umberto I of Italy in July 1900. The Polish-American anarchist Leon Czolgosz was inspired to by the killing to carry out the assassination of US President William McKinley in Buffalo, New York, September 1901. Despite the fact that Czolgosz had been a native-born citizen, the United States Congress responded by passing a law banning anarchists from immigrating to the United States. Despite the ban the Galleanist anarchists mostly consisting of Italian Americans continued to be active in the United States. In 1914 three Galleanists were found to be collaborating with Alexander Berkman in plotting an assassination of John D. Rockefeller Jr. in retaliation for the Ludlow Massacre. Berkman had previously tried to assassinate Henry Clay Frick in retaliation for the Homestead strike. After the American entry into World War I Congress additionally passed the Immigration Act of 1917 allowing for the deportation of resident aliens who promoted assassinations. Despite this Galleanists successfully sent letter bombs to industrialists and politicians while paranoia over left-wing political radicalism escalated when the Bolsheviks seized power in the Russian Revolution. After a letter bomb detonated at the home of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, it caused the First Red Scare. The United States Department of Justice destroyed left-wing and radical political movements, including Marxism, anarchism, and the Industrial Workers of the World, through the Palmer Raids led by J. Edgar Hoover.


title: History of terrorism

text: After several decades of stability, political violence in the Russian Empire resumed in the 1890s due to the repressive policies of Alexander III and Nicholas II, anti-Semitic pogroms, and the government's poor response to the Russian famine of 1891–1892. Political violence became especially widespread in Imperial Russia, and several ministers were killed in the opening years of the 20th century. The Socialist Revolutionary Party, founded in 1901 with the intent of starting an agrarian socialist revolution, founded the Combat Organization specifically to carry out acts of terrorism. The highest-ranking assassinated official was prime minister Pyotr Stolypin, killed in 1911 by Dmitry Bogrov, a spy for the secret police in several anarchist, socialist and other revolutionary groups. Violent attacks by anarchists, Marxists, and SRs escalated during the 1905 Russian Revolution and its aftermath before declining in the ten years after 1907.


title: History of terrorism

text: On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, one of a group of six assassins, shot and killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, in Sarajevo, the capital of the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The assassinations produced widespread shock across Europe, setting in motion the July Crisis which led to World War I.


title: History of terrorism

text: In the 1930s and 1940s, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union practiced state terror systematically and on a massive and unprecedented scale. Meanwhile, the Stalin regime branded its opponents with the label "terrorist".


title: History of terrorism

text: Suffragettes in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland orchestrated a bombing and arson campaign between the years 1912 and 1914. The campaign was instigated by the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU), and was a part of their wider campaign for women's suffrage. The campaign, led by key WSPU figures such as Emmeline Pankhurst, targeted infrastructure, government, churches and the general public, and saw the use of improvised explosive devices, arson, letter bombs, assassination attempts and other forms of direct action and violence. At least 5 people were killed in such attacks (including one suffragette), and at least 24 were injured (including two suffragettes). The campaign was halted at the British entry into World War I in August 1914 without having brought about votes for women, as suffragettes pledged to pause their campaigning to aid the nation's war effort.


title: History of terrorism

text: The campaign has seen classification as a terrorist campaign, with both suffragettes themselves and the authorities referring to arson and bomb attacks as terrorism. Contemporary press reports also referred to attacks as "terrorist" incidents in both the United Kingdom and in the United States,


title: History of terrorism

text: In one of the more serious suffragette attacks, During the suffragette bombing and arson campaign of 1912–1914 a major terrorist incident occurred in the Portsmouth in 1913, which led to the deaths of two men. a fire was purposely started at Portsmouth dockyard on 20 December 1913, in which 2 sailors were killed after it spread through the industrial area. The fire spread rapidly as there were many old wooden buildings in the area, including the historic semaphore tower which dated back to the eighteenth century which was completely destroyed. The damage to the dockyard area cost the city £200,000 in damages, equivalent to £23,600,000 today. In the midst of the firestorm, a battleship, "HMS Queen Mary", had to be towed to safety to avoid the flames.


title: History of terrorism

text: The attack was notable enough to be reported on in the press in the United States, with the "New York Times" reporting on the disaster two days after with the headline "Big Portsmouth Fire Loss". The report also disclosed that at a previous police raid on a suffragette headquarters, "papers were discovered disclosing a plan to fire the yard".


title: History of terrorism

text: The campaign in part provided the inspiration for later bombing and terrorist campaigns in Britain, such as those conducted by the Irish Republican Army (IRA). The S-Plan of 1939 to 1940 utilised the tactic of undertaking incendiary attacks on pillar boxes, and also saw the planting of explosive devices. The tactic of packing nuts and bolts into bombs to act as shrapnel, often regarded as a later twentieth-century IRA invention, was also first employed by the suffragettes. Several suffragette bombings, such as the attempted bombing of Liverpool Street station in 1913, saw the use of this method. The combination of high explosive bombs, incendiary devices and letter bombs used by suffragettes also provided the pattern for the IRA campaigns of the 1970s and 1980s. Unknown to many, the first terrorist bomb to explode in Northern Ireland in the twentieth century was not detonated by the IRA but by the suffragettes at Lisburn Cathedral in August 1914. Suffragette tactics also provided a template for more contemporary attacks in Britain.


title: History of terrorism

text: In an action called the Easter Rising or Easter Rebellion, on April 24, 1916, members of the Irish Volunteers and the Irish Citizen Army seized the Dublin General Post Office and several other buildings, proclaiming an independent Irish Republic. The rebellion failed militarily but was a success for physical force Irish republicanism, leaders of the uprising becoming heroes in Ireland after their eventual sentence of capital punishment by the British government.


title: History of terrorism

text: Shortly after the rebellion, Michael Collins and others founded the Irish Republican Army (IRA), which from 1916 to 1923 carried out numerous attacks against the British authorities. For example, it attacked over 300 police stations simultaneously just before Easter 1920, and, in November 1920, publicly killed a dozen police officers and burned down the Liverpool docks and warehouses, an action that became known as Bloody Sunday.


title: History of terrorism

text: After years of warfare, London agreed to the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty creating a Irish Free State encompassing 26 of the island's 32 counties. IRA tactics were an inspiration to other groups, including the Palestine Mandate's Zionists, and to British special operations during World War II.


title: History of terrorism

text: The IRA are considered by some the innovators of modern insurgency tactics as the British would replicate and build upon the tactics used against them in World War II against the Germans and Italians. Tony Geraghty in "The Irish War: The Hidden Conflict Between the IRA and British Intelligence" wrote:


title: History of terrorism

text: From January 1939 to March 1940, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) carried out a campaign of bombing and sabotage against the civil, economic, and military infrastructure of Britain. It was known as the S-Plan or Sabotage Campaign. During the campaign, the IRA carried out almost 300 attacks and acts of sabotage in the United Kingdom, killing seven people and injuring 96. Most of the casualties occurred in the Coventry bombing on 25 August 1939.


title: History of terrorism

text: Following the 1929 Hebron massacre of 67 Jews in the Mandate of Palestine, the Zionist militia Haganah transformed itself into a paramilitary force. In 1931, however, the more militant Irgun broke away from Haganah, objecting to Haganah's policy of restraint. Founded by Avraham Tehomi, Irgun sought to aggressively defend Jews from Arab attacks. Its tactic of attacking Arab communities, including the bombing of a crowded Arab market, is among the first examples of terrorism directed against civilians. After the British published the White Paper of 1939, which placed strict restrictions on Jewish immigration into Palestine (which was seen as unacceptable to Zionist groups), the Irgun began a campaign against the British authorities by assassinating police, capturing British government buildings and arms, and sabotaging railways. Irgun's best-known attack targeted the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, parts of which housed the headquarters of the British civil and military administrations. The bombing, in 1946, killed ninety-one people and injured forty-six, making it the most deadly attack during the Mandate era. This attack was sharply condemned by the organized leadership of the Yishuv, and further widened the gulf between David Ben-Gurion's Hagana and Begin's Irgun. Following the bombing, Ben-Gurion called Irgun an "enemy of the Jewish people". After the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948, Menachem Begin (Irgun leader from 1943 to 1948) transformed the group into the political party Herut, which later became part of Likud in an alliance with the center-right Gahal, Liberal Party, Free Centre, National List, and Movement for Greater Israel. On the 60th anniversary of the bombing, a plaque was unveiled at the hotel.


title: History of terrorism

text: Operating in the Palestine Mandate in the 1930s, Izz ad-Din al-Qassam (1882–1935) organized and established the Black Hand, a Palestinian nationalist militia. He recruited and arranged military training for peasants, and by 1935 had enlisted between 200 and 800 men. Al-Qassam obtained a fatwa from Shaykh Badr al-Din al-Taji al-Hasani, the Mufti of Damascus, authorizing an armed insurgency against the British and against the Jews of Palestine. Black Hand cells were equipped with bombs and firearms, which they used to kill Jews. Although al-Qassam's revolt was unsuccessful in his lifetime, many organizations gained inspiration from his example. He became a popular hero and an inspiration to subsequent Arab militants, who in the 193639 Arab revolt, called themselves Qassamiyun, followers of al-Qassam. The Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, the military wing of Hamas, as well as the rockets they developed, take their names after Qassam.


title: History of terrorism

text: Lehi ("Lohamei Herut Yisrael", a.k.a. "Freedom Fighters for Israel", a.k.a. the Stern Gang) was a revisionist Zionist group that splintered off from Irgun in 1940. Abraham Stern formed Lehi from disaffected Irgun members after Irgun agreed to a truce with Britain in 1940. Lehi assassinated prominent politicians as a strategy. For example, on November 6, 1944, Lord Moyne, the British Minister of State for the Middle East, was assassinated. The act was controversial among Zionist militant groups, Hagannah sympathizing with the British in this instance and launching a massive man-hunt against members of Lehi and Irgun. After Israel's 1948 founding, Lehi formally dissolved and its members became integrated into the Israeli Defense Forces.


title: History of terrorism

text: Some of the tactics of the guerrilla, partisan, and resistance movements organised and supplied by the Allies during World War II, according to historian M. R. D. Foot, can be considered terrorist. Colin Gubbins, a key leader within the Special Operations Executive (SOE), made sure the organization drew much of its inspiration from the IRA.


title: History of terrorism

text: On the eve of D-Day, the SOE organised with the French Resistance the complete destruction of the rail and communication infrastructure of western France the largest coordinated attack of its kind in history Allied supreme commander Dwight D. Eisenhower later wrote that "the disruption of enemy rail communications, the harassing of German road moves and the continual and increasing strain placed on German security services throughout occupied Europe by the organised forces of Resistance, played a very considerable part in our complete and final victory". The SOE also conducted operations in Africa, the Middle East and the Far East.


title: History of terrorism

text: The work of the SOE received recognition in 2009 with a memorial in London, however there are differing views on the morality of the SOE's actions; the British military historian John Keegan writing:


title: History of terrorism

text: In the aftermath of World War II, largely successful campaigns for independence were launched against the collapsing European empires, as many World War II resistance groups became militantly nationalistic. The Viet Minh, for example, which had fought against the Japanese Empire, now fought against the returning French colonists. In the Middle East, the Muslim Brotherhood used bombings and assassinations against the British in Egypt. Also during the 1950s, the National Liberation Front (FLN) in French-controlled Algeria and the Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston (EOKA) in British-controlled Cyprus waged guerrilla and open war against the authorities.


title: History of terrorism

text: In the 1960s, inspired by Mao Zedong's Chinese revolution of 1949 and Fidel Castro's Cuban revolution of 1959, national independence movements often fused nationalist and socialist impulses. This was the case with Spain's ETA, the Front de libération du Québec, and the Palestine Liberation Organization. In the late 1960s and 1970s, violent left-wing militant and revolutionary groups were on the rise, sympathizing with Third World guerrilla movements and seeking to spark anti-capitalist revolts. Such groups included the Kurdistan Workers' Party in Turkey, Armenia's Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia, the Japanese Red Army, the West German Red Army Faction (RAF), the Montoneros, the Italian Red Brigades (BR), and, in the United States, the Weather Underground. Nationalist groups such as the Provisional IRA and the Tamil tigers also began operations at this time.


title: History of terrorism

text: Throughout the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union made extensive use of violent nationalist organizations to carry on a war by proxy. For example, Soviet Armed Forces and Chinese People's Liberation Army advisers provided training and support to the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War. The Soviet Union also provided military support to the PLO during the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and Fidel Castro during the Cuban Revolution. The United States funded groups such as the Contras in Nicaragua. The Mujahadeen of the late 20th and early 21st century had been funded in the 1980s by the United States and other Western powers because they were fighting the USSR in Afghanistan.


title: History of terrorism

text: Founded in 1928 as a nationalist social-welfare and political movement in the Kingdom of Egypt, the Muslim Brotherhood began to attack British Armed Forces soldiers and police stations in the late 1940s. Founded and led by Hassan al-Banna, it also assassinated politicians seen as collaborating with British rule, most prominently Egyptian Prime Minister Mahmoud El Nokrashy Pasha in 1948. In 1952 a military coup overthrew British rule, and shortly thereafter the Muslim Brotherhood went underground in the face of a massive crackdown. Though sometimes banned or otherwise oppressed by the Egyptian government, the group continues to exist in present-day Egypt.


title: History of terrorism

text: The National Liberation Front (FLN) was an Algerian nationalist group founded in French-controlled Algeria in 1954. The group became a large-scale resistance movement against French rule, with terrorism only part of its operations. The FLN leadership took inspiration from the Viet Minh rebels who had made French Far East Expeditionary Corps troops withdraw from Vietnam in the First Indochina War. The FLN was one of the first anti-colonial groups to use large-scale compliance violence. The FLN would establish control over a rural village and coerce its peasants to execute any French loyalists among them. On the night of October 31, 1954, in a coordinated wave of seventy bombings and shootings known as the Toussaint attacks, the FLN attacked French Armed Forces installations and the homes of Algerian loyalists. In the following year, the group gained significant support for an uprising against loyalists in Philippeville. This uprising, and the heavy-handed response by the French, convinced many Algerians to support the FLN and the independence movement. The FLN eventually secured Algerian independence from France in 1962, and transformed itself into Algeria's ruling party.


title: History of terrorism

text: Fatah was organized as a Palestinian nationalist group in 1954, and exists today as a political party in Palestine. In 1967 it joined the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), an umbrella organization for secular Palestinian nationalist groups formed in 1964. The PLO began its own armed operations in 1965. The PLO's membership comprises separate and possibly contending paramilitary and political factions, the largest of which include Fatah, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), and the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP). Factions of the PLO have advocated or carried out acts of terrorism. Abu Iyad organized the Fatah splinter group Black September in 1970; the group is arguably best known for seizing eleven Israeli athletes as hostages at the September 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich. All the athletes and five Black September operatives died during a gun battle with the West German police in what later became known as the Munich massacre. The PFLP, founded in 1967 by George Habash, on September 6, 1970 hijacked three international passenger planes, landing two of them in Jordan and blowing up the third. Fatah leader and PLO chairman Yasser Arafat publicly renounced terrorism in December 1988 on behalf of the PLO, but Israel has stated that it has proof that Arafat continued to sponsor terrorism until his death in 2004.


title: History of terrorism

text: In the 1974 Ma'alot massacre 22 Israeli high-school students, aged 14 to 16 from Safed were killed by three members of the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine. Before reaching the school, the trio shot and killed two Arab women, a Jewish man, his pregnant wife, and their 4-year-old son, and wounded several others.


title: History of terrorism

text: The People's Mujahedin of Iran (PMOI) or Mujahedin-e Khalq (founded in 1965), is a socialist Islamic group that has fought Iran's government since the Khomeini revolution. The group originated to oppose capitalism and what it perceived as western exploitation of Iran under the Shah. The group would go on to play an important role in the Shah's overthrow but was unable to capitalize on this in the following power-vacuum. The group is suspected of having a membership of between 10,000 and 30,000. The group renounced violence in 2001 but remains a proscribed terror-organization in Iran and in the United States. The EU, however, has removed the group from its terror list. The PMOI is accused of supporting other groups such as the Jundallah.


title: History of terrorism

text: In 1975 Hagop Tarakchian and Hagop Hagopian, with the help of sympathetic Palestinians, founded the Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA) in Beirut during the Lebanese Civil War. At the time Turkey was in political turmoil, and Hagopian believed that the time was right to avenge the Armenians who died during the Armenian genocide and to force the Turkish government to cede the territory of Wilsonian Armenia to establish a nation state also incorporating the Armenian SSR. In its Esenboga airport attack, on 7 August 1982, two ASALA rebels opened fire on civilians in a waiting room at the Esenboga International Airport in Ankara. Nine people died and 82 were injured. By 1986, the ASALA had virtually ceased all attacks.