title: The Heiress

text: In 1996, "The Heiress" was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".


title: The Heiress

text: In New York City, sometime in the 1840s, Catherine Sloper is a plain, painfully shy woman whose father, Dr. Austin Sloper, makes no secret of his disappointment in her. Catherine, as her father painfully reminds her, has limited talent and cannot "hold a candle" to her deceased mother. Catherine's gregarious Aunt Lavinia Penniman moves into the household after becoming widowed and attempts to prod Catherine into being more social and finding a husband.


title: The Heiress

text: When she meets the handsome Morris Townsend at a ball, Catherine is taken by the attention he lavishes upon her. Catherine falls madly in love with Morris and they plan to marry. Dr. Sloper believes Morris, being far more attractive and charming than Catherine, but poor and with few prospects after he wasted his own inheritance, is courting Catherine only to get her sizable income. Aunt Lavinia favors the match regardless, being both romantic and pragmatic enough to view this as Catherine's chance at a happy married life. Morris is genuinely fond of Catherine's honesty and kindness despite his largely monetary motivations, and treats her with respect, unlike her father.


title: The Heiress

text: A frank discussion with Morris's sister confirms Dr. Sloper's opinion of Morris as a gold digger. The doctor takes his daughter to Europe for an extended time to separate them. When they return to New York, Dr. Sloper threatens to disinherit his daughter if she marries Morris and they have a bitter argument in which Catherine realizes how poorly he views her.


title: The Heiress

text: Catherine and Morris make plans to elope with the help of Aunt Lavinia. She eagerly packs her bags and waits all night for Morris to come and take her away, but he never comes. She drags her luggage back upstairs and puts her belongings away. Catherine is heartbroken and grows cold. Soon afterward, Dr. Sloper reveals he is dying. He tells Catherine that he is proud she resisted Morris, but Catherine vengefully tells her father she still loves Morris and dares him to change his will if he is afraid they will waste his money after he dies. He does not alter the will and dies, fretful, leaving her his entire estate. Catherine refuses to see him on his deathbed.


title: The Heiress

text: A few years later, Morris returns from California having made nothing of himself and having even fewer prospects. Aunt Lavinia arranges for Morris to visit Catherine, thinking this is Catherine's last chance. Catherine gives Morris a gift of ruby buttons that she had bought for him in Paris. Morris eagerly promises to come back for her that night and she tells him she will start packing her bags. After Morris leaves, Catherine informs her aunt that she has no intention of offering her love to him. Her aunt asks her if she can be so cruel, and Catherine coldly responds "Yes, I can be very cruel. I have been taught by masters." When Morris arrives later that night with the promised carriage, he rings the bell, and Catherine orders the maid to bolt the door, leaving Morris locked outside, shouting her name and banging on the locked door. Catherine ascends the stairs with a faint smile of triumph.


title: The Heiress

text: After seeing "The Heiress" on Broadway, Olivia de Havilland approached William Wyler about directing her in a screen adaptation of the play. He agreed and encouraged executives at Paramount Pictures to purchase the rights from the playwrights (Ruth and Augustus Goetz) for $250,000 and offer them $10,000 per week to write the screenplay. The couple were asked to make Morris less of a villain than he was in their play and the original novel in deference to the studio's desire to capitalize on Montgomery Clift's reputation as a romantic leading man.


title: The Heiress

text: "The Heiress" received universal critical acclaim. Bosley Crowther for "The New York Times" wrote that the film "crackles with allusive life and fire in its tender and agonized telling of an extraordinarily characterful tale" and added Wyler "has given this somewhat austere drama an absorbing intimacy and a warming illusion of nearness that it did not have on the stage. He has brought the full-bodied people very closely and vividly to view, while maintaining the clarity and sharpness of their personalities, their emotions and their styles..."The Heiress" is one of the handsome, intense and adult dramas of the year."


title: The Heiress

text: The "Brooklyn Eagle" found the film "an intensely satisfying drama that holds a high level of interest throughout, building relentlessly to a moving climax." Praise for the principals lauded de Havilland especially: "the transformation of Catherine Sloper from a pathetically shy girl to a cold, handsome woman" being "handled with finished skill."


title: The Heiress

text: "The Philadelphia Inquirer" praised the Goetzes for a skillful transformation of their stage version, finding it "in almost every way...superior." Prospects of an Academy Award for de Havilland were judged "thoroughly reasonable" as well.


title: The Heiress

text: "TV Guide" rates the film five out of a possible five stars and adds, "This powerful and compelling drama...owes its triumph to the deft hand of director William Wyler and a remarkable lead performance by Olivia de Havilland.


title: The Heiress

text: "Time Out London" calls the film "typically plush, painstaking and cold...highly professional and heartless."


title: The Heiress

text: Channel 4 stated "de Havilland's portrayal...is spine-chilling...Clift brings a subtle ambiguity to one of his least interesting roles, and Richardson is also excellent."


title: The Heiress

text: In 1975, the twenty-first episode of the eighth season of "The Carol Burnett Show" featured a take-off of the film titled "The Lady Heir", with Carol Burnett as Catherine and Roddy McDowell as Morris.


title: The Heiress

text: The film's Philippine adaptation, titled "Ikaw Pa Lang ang Minahal", was made in 1992. The adaptation was written by Raquel Villavicencio, produced by Armida Siguion-Reyna, and directed by Carlos Siguion-Reyna. The film stars Maricel Soriano and Richard Gomez as Adela and David.


title: Travel Channel

text: Travel Channel (stylized as Trvl Channel since 2018) is an American pay television channel owned by Warner Bros. Discovery, which had previously owned the channel from 1997 to 2007. The channel is headquartered in New York, New York, United States with offices in Silver Spring, Maryland and Knoxville, Tennessee.


title: Travel Channel

text: It features documentaries, reality, and how-to shows related to travel and leisure around the United States and throughout the world. Programming has included shows on African animal safaris, tours of grand hotels and resorts, visits to significant cities and towns around the world, programming about various foods around the world, and programming about ghosts and the paranormal in notable buildings.


title: Travel Channel

text: As of February 2015, Travel Channel is available to approximately 91.5 million households (comprising 78.6% of households with television) in the United States.


title: Travel Channel

text: The Travel Channel was launched on February 1, 1987; it was founded by TWA Marketing Services (a subsidiary of Trans World Airlines), presumably to boost airline patronage. The channel's name was derived from the travel-related filler programming that aired between programs on the Home Theater Network. TWA purchased the name rights from Group W Satellite Communications in 1986, and took over HTN's transponder spot following the shutdown of the premium cable channel in January 1987. In 1997 the network was later sold to Landmark Communications, then-owner of The Weather Channel, and eventually to Paxson Communications.


title: Travel Channel

text: Discovery Communications acquired a 70% ownership stake in the channel in 1997, and subsequently acquired the remaining 30% interest from Paxson in 1999. In May 2007, Discovery Communications sold Travel Channel to Cox Enterprises subsidiary Cox Communications as part of a larger multibillion-dollar transaction.


title: Travel Channel

text: On November 5, 2009, Scripps Networks Interactive acquired a 65% ownership interest in the network for $1.1 billion; the deal closed in January 2010. Following the purchase, Travel Channel began to add programming from sister networks such as Food Network In 2015, Scripps relocated the channel's headquarters from Chevy Chase, Maryland to Knoxville, Tennessee.


title: Travel Channel

text: On February 25, 2016, SNI acquired the remaining 35% stake in Travel Channel from Cox Communications, giving it full control over the network. Discovery regained ownership of the network on March 6, 2018, after acquiring SNI and headquarters removed to New York City.


title: Travel Channel

text: Available data shows that viewership peaked in Spring 2008 at 27.78 million views per 7 days, and has been in decline ever since. As of Spring 2017, the channel got 17.25 million views.


title: Travel Channel

text: On October 1, 2018, Travel Channel revealed a new logo stylized as Trvl Channel, and shifted its programming to focus on "the paranormal, the unsolved, the creepy and terrifying", akin to its counterpart Destination America when they drifted to paranormal programming themselves full-time in mid-2017. Certain popular shows on Travel Channel that aired on there until 2018, such as "Bizarre Foods", its spinoff series "Bizarre Foods Delicious Destinations", "Man v. Food", "Food Paradise", "Hotel Impossible", and "Xtreme Waterparks" have shifted over to airing on either Destination America or Cooking Channel.


title: Travel Channel

text: On January 12, 2021, it was reported that there were plans for selected Travel Channel programs to premiere exclusively on Discovery+ as timed exclusives.


title: Travel Channel

text: On March 22, 2012, Scripps Networks Interactive announced that it had agreed to pay £65 million (equivalent to US$102.7 million) to acquire Travel Channel International Limited, the UK-based broadcaster which operates across the Europe, Middle East, Africa and Asia Pacific markets, but had no direct relation to the American television channel until then. The deal was completed on May 1, 2012, following regulatory approval.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: The Chinchorro mummies are mummified remains of individuals from the South American Chinchorro culture, found in what is now northern Chile. They are the oldest examples of artificially mummified human remains, having been buried up to two thousand years before the Egyptian mummies. The earliest mummy that has been found in Egypt dated around 3000 BCE, while the oldest anthropogenically modified Chinchorro mummy dates from around 5050 BCE.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: Shell midden and bone chemistry suggest that 90% of the people's diet was seafood. Many ancient cultures of fisherfolk existed, tucked away in the arid river valleys of the Andes, but the Chinchorro made themselves unique by their dedicated preservation of the dead.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: The Chinchorro culture settlements and artificial mummification process in Arica and Parinacota were declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2021.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: While many cultures throughout the world have sought to focus on preserving the dead elite, the Chinchorro tradition performed mummification on all members of their society, making them archaeologically significant. The decision of egalitarian preservation is proven in the mummification of the relatively less productive members of society (meaning those who could not contribute to the welfare of others; the elderly, children, infants and miscarried fetuses). It is often the case that children and babies received the most elaborate mummification treatments.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: 29% of known Chinchorro mummies were mummified naturally. The earliest one, the Acha man, dates to 7020 BCE.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: The artificial mummies of Chinchorro are believed to have first appeared around 5000 BCE and reached a peak around 3000 BCE. Often Chinchorro mummies were elaborately prepared by removing the internal organs and replacing them with vegetable fibers or animal hair. In some cases, an embalmer would remove the skin and flesh from the dead body and replace them with clay. Radiocarbon dating reveals that the oldest discovered anthropogenically modified Chinchorro mummy was that of a child from a site in the Camarones Valley, about south of Arica in Chile and dates from around 5050 BCE. The mummies continued to be made until about 1800 BCE, making them contemporary with Las Vegas culture and Valdivia culture in Ecuador and the Norte Chico civilization in Peru.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: Since 1914, when Max Uhle began his work in Arica, an estimated 282 mummies have been found by archaeologists. Morro-I, at the base of the Morro de Arica, revealed 96 bodies at the unstratified (i.e., there are no discernible layers of stratigraphy, hindering relative dating techniques), mostly loose sand at the slope of the hill. Fifty-four adults were found: 27 female, 20 male and 7 of indeterminate sex; 42 children were also found: 7 female, 12 male, 23 indeterminate. This sample size suggests that the Chinchorro did not favor mummifying one sex over others.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: The mummies may have served as a means of assisting the soul in surviving, and to prevent the bodies from frightening the living. A more commonly accepted theory is that there was an ancestor cult of sorts, since there is evidence of both the bodies traveling with the groups and placed in positions of honor during major rituals and a delay in the final burial itself. Also, the bodies (which were always found in the extended position) were elaborately decorated and colored (even later repainted), and are thought to be reinforced and stiffened in order to be carried on reed litters and consequently displayed. However, since the society is a preceramic one, as well as slightly nomadic, it is somewhat difficult to determine through archaeological records the reasons why the Chinchorro felt the need to mummify the dead.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: Dr. Bernardo Arriaza is a Chilean physical anthropologist who contributed a lot of the knowledge about Chinchorro mummification. Starting in 1984, he published numerous studies on the subject. In 1994, Arriaza created a classification of the Chinchorro mummies that is widely used. His book ""Beyond Death: The Chinchorro Mummies of Ancient Chile"" was published by the Smithsonian and also translated into Spanish.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: While the overall manner in which the Chinchorro mummified their dead changed over the years, several traits remained constant throughout their history. In excavated mummies, archaeologists found skin and all soft tissues and organs, including the brain, removed from the corpse. After the soft tissues had been removed, sticks reinforced bones while the skin was stuffed with vegetable matter before reassembling the corpse. The mummy received a clay mask even if the mummy was already completely covered in dried clay; a process which the body was wrapped in reeds left to dry out for 30 to 40 days.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: Uhle categorized the types of mummification he saw into three categories: simple treatment, complex treatment, and mud-coated mummies. He believed that these occurred chronologically, the mummification process becoming more complex as time went on. Since then, archaeologists have expanded upon this explanation and have (for the most part) agreed upon the following types of mummification: natural, black, red, mud-coated and bandage mummies. Mummification can also be described as "externally prepared" mummies, "internally prepared" mummies (Egyptian Pharos), and "reconstructed" mummies (the Chinchorro), according to Andean Archaeologists. Further, it turns out that the types of mummification used overlap with each other, and mummies of different types have been found all in the same tomb. The two most common techniques used in Chinchorro mummification were the Black mummies and the Red mummies.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: Of the 282 Chinchorro mummies found thus far, 29% of them were results of the natural mummification process (7020 BC-1300 BCE). In northern Chile, environmental conditions greatly favor natural mummification. The soil is very rich in nitrates which, when combined with other factors such as the aridity of the Atacama Desert, ensure organic preservation. Salts halt bacterial growth; the hot, dry conditions facilitate rapid desiccation, evaporating all bodily fluids of the corpses. Soft tissues, as a result, dry before they decay and a naturally preserved mummy is left. Even though the Chinchorro people did not mummify the bodies artificially, the bodies were still buried wrapped in reeds with grave goods.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: The black mummy technique (5000 to 3000 BCE) involved taking the dead person's body apart, treating it, and reassembling it. The head, arms, and legs were removed from the trunk; the skin was often removed, too. The body was heat-dried, and the flesh and tissue were completely stripped from the bone by using stone tools. Evidence exists that the bones were dried by hot ashes or coal. After reassembly, the body was then covered with a white ash paste, filling the gaps with grass, ashes, soil, animal hair and more. The paste was also used to fill out the person's normal facial features. The person's skin (including facial skin with a wig attachment of short black human hair) was refitted on the body, sometimes in smaller pieces, sometimes in one almost-whole piece. Sea lion skin was sometimes used as well. Then the skin (or, in the case of children, who were often missing their skin layer, the white ash layer) was painted with black manganese giving their color.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: The red mummy technique (2500 BCE to 2000 BCE) was a technique in which rather than disassemble the body, many incisions were made in the trunk and shoulders to remove internal organs and dry the body cavity. The head was cut from the body so that the brain could be removed, after which the skin would be pasted back on, which would often just be covered with a clay mask. The body was packed with various materials to return it to somewhat more-normal dimensions, sticks used to strengthen it, and the incisions sewn up using reed cord. The head was placed back on the body, this time with a wig made from tassels of human hair up to 60 cm long. A "hat" made out of black clay held the wig in place. Except for the wig and often the (black) face, everything was then painted with red ochre.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: The final style of Chinchorro mummification was the mud-coat (3000-1300 BCE). Ecologically speaking, at the time of the Chinchorro culture the region was relatively stable. It has been suggested by environmentalists that the incredible preservation of these mummies is also influenced by the pedogenic (the evolution of soil) creation of clays and gypsum, which act as cementing agents, and the latter as a natural desiccant. The malleable clay allowed for the morticians to mold and create the colorful appearances of mummies, with the added bonus of the fact that the foul smell of the desiccating mummy would be covered. Artisans no longer removed the organs of the dead; instead a thick coat of mud, sand and a binder like egg or fish glue was used to cover the bodies. Once completed the mummies were cemented into their graves. The change in style may have come from exposure to outsiders and their different cultures, or from the association of disease with the rotting corpses.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: The bandage technique (guessed to be 2620-2000 BCE, but there is a lack of radiocarbon dating) has only been found to be present in three infants. The technique is a mixture of black and red mummies, in that the body was taken apart and reinforced in the style of black mummies but the head was treated in the same way as red mummies are. Animal and human skin were used to wrap the body in the place of clay. Further, the bodies were found to be painted with red ocher while the heads were painted with black manganese.


title: Chinchorro mummies

text: At least one Chinchorro mummy bears remarkable witness to the antiquity of tattooing in the region. The remains of a male with a mustache-like dotted line tattooed above his upper lip and dating to 1880 +/- 100 BCE (2563–1972 cal BCE) is believed to represent the oldest direct evidence of tattooing in the Americas and the fourth-oldest such evidence in the world.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: Ace is a fictional character played by Sophie Aldred in the long-running British science fiction television series "Doctor Who". A 20th-century Earth teenager from the London suburb of Perivale, she is a companion of the Seventh Doctor and was a regular in the series from 1987 to 1989. She is considered one of the Doctor's most popular companions.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: Ace appeared in nine stories (31 episodes), and was the final companion in the original run of the classic series.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: "Doctor Who" script editor Andrew Cartmel said that the character was written to be a "fighter and not a screamer". In the television series Ace reveals that her real given name is Dorothy. Her family name is never explicitly stated in the series but spin-off media refer to her as both Dorothy Gale and Dorothy McShane.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: Ace is a 16-year-old human who first appears in the 1987 serial "Dragonfire", where she is working as a waitress in the frozen food retail complex of Iceworld on the planet Svartos. She had been a troubled teen on Earth, having been expelled from school for blowing up the art room as a "creative statement". Gifted in chemistry (despite failing the subject at O-level), she was in her room experimenting with the extraction of nitroglycerin from gelignite when an explosion (later revealed to be a time-storm created by Fenric) swept her up and transported her to Iceworld, many years in the future. There, she meets the Doctor and his companion Mel. When Mel leaves the Doctor at the conclusion of the serial, he offers to take Ace with him in the TARDIS, and she happily accepts.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: Ace suffered traumatic events in her childhood, including a bad relationship with her mother Audrey (the daughter of merchant seaman Frank William Dudman and his wife Kathleen, who served in the Women's Royal Naval Service during World War II) and the racially motivated Molotov cocktail firebombing of her friend Manisha's flat when she was 13. Following the latter event, needing to lash out, she burned down a local abandoned Victorian house named Gabriel Chase after sensing the presence of the villain Light there and was put on probation. Consequently, Ace covered up her own fears and insecurities with a streetwise, tough exterior. Her weapons of choice included a baseball bat and a powerful explosive, disapproved of by the Doctor (who nonetheless found it useful on occasion), she called "Nitro-9", which she invented and mixed up in canisters she carried in her backpack.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: Affectionately giving the Doctor the nickname of "Professor", Ace is convinced that he needs her to watch his back, and protects him with a fierce loyalty. In turn, the Doctor seems to take a special interest in Ace's education, taking her across the universe and often prompting her to figure out explanations for herself rather than giving her all the answers. However, the Seventh Doctor's increasing tendency to manipulate events and people (including her), even with what appears to be the best of intentions, results in several difficult moments in their relationship.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: Under the Doctor's tutelage, Ace fights the Daleks in "Remembrance of the Daleks", the Cybermen in "Silver Nemesis", encounters the all-powerful Gods of Ragnarok in "The Greatest Show in the Galaxy", the sadistic torturer Kandy Man in "The Happiness Patrol", and many other dangers. She also faces the ghosts of her own past in "Ghost Light" and "The Curse of Fenric", coming to terms with them and, ironically, creating them in the latter case thanks to the paradoxes of time travel. Over time, she starts to mature into a confident young woman, and her brash exterior ceases to be a front.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: What the Doctor is aware of, but Ace is not, is that her arrival on Iceworld was no accident but part of a larger scheme stretching across the centuries and conceived by Fenric, an evil that had existed since the beginning of the universe. Ace is a "Wolf of Fenric", one of many descendants of a Norseman tainted with Fenric's genetic instructions to help free it from its ancient prison so it can evolve humans into the Vampiric Haemovores, and a pawn in the complex game between it and the Doctor. After Fenric is defeated in 1943, Ace continues to journey with the Doctor. At one point in the story, Ace offers to distract a guard so that the Doctor can free a prisoner. When the Doctor asks how she plans to divert the guard's attention she replies that she is "not a little girl". She proceeds to lead the guard away from his post by intriguing him with a combination of slightly suggestive innuendo towards the guard and cryptic musings about the Doctor's machinations. The scene suggests that she is aware of both her developed sexuality and the Doctor's manipulative tendencies.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: The circumstances of Ace's parting of ways with the Doctor are not known, as the series went on hiatus in 1989 with the end of the very next serial, "Survival", in which Ace is returned by the Doctor to Perivale but ultimately chooses to leave again with him. A painting seen in the extended version of "Silver Nemesis" suggests that at some point in her personal future Ace will end up in 18th or 19th century France. This idea is further explored in the novelisation of "The Curse of Fenric" and the Virgin New Adventures. The novelisation contains an epilogue not included in the televised serial, in which the Doctor visits an older Ace in 1887 Paris.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: If the series had continued, the production team's intent was to have Ace eventually enter the Prydonian Academy on the Doctor's home planet of Gallifrey and train to be a Time Lord. The story "Ice Time" by Marc Platt, in which this would happen, was never made. When the Seventh Doctor is next seen in the 1996 "Doctor Who" television movie, he is travelling alone, with no reference made as to what had happened to Ace.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: However, in "The Sarah Jane Adventures" story "Death of the Doctor", Sarah Jane reveals to her companions that she has done research on some of the Doctor's companions. She mentions "that Dorothy something — she runs that charity, 'A Charitable Earth' ("ACE"). She's raised billions." In the same episode, the Eleventh Doctor reveals that his Tenth incarnation looked in on each of his former companions as he prepared for regeneration at the end of "The End of Time".


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: A promotional video made to advertise the Blu-ray release of "Doctor Who's" twenty-sixth season shows Ace as the head of A Charitable Earth.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: She appeared in the series' 2022 special celebrating the BBC Centenary, alongside the returning former companion Tegan Jovanka.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: Ace and the Seventh Doctor appeared twice more on television after "Doctor Who" was cancelled. The first occasion was in 1990, in a special episode of the BBC2 educational programme "Search Out Science". In this episode, the Doctor acts as a quiz show host, asking questions about astronomy; Ace, K-9 and "Cedric, from the planet Glurk" are the contestants. The last appearance of Ace on British television was in the 1993 charity special "Dimensions in Time".


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: Ace was also featured in the "Doctor Who Magazine" comic strip sporadically, one of the few television companions to appear in it.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: The character is extensively developed in the New Adventures, a BBC-licensed series of novels from Virgin Books continuing on from "Survival". Ace becomes more and more frustrated with the Doctor's manipulations; he forcibly separates her from a potential relationship with Robin Yeadon in "Nightshade" and sacrifices her lover Jan to defeat the alien Hoothi in "Love and War" by Paul Cornell, which proves to be the last straw. She leaves the TARDIS, joins Spacefleet and fights the Daleks for three years, later rejoining the Doctor and his new companion Bernice Summerfield in "Deceit" by Peter Darvill-Evans, older and more hardened. This development in the character was the result of a deliberate decision by Darvill-Evans as the editor of the line at Virgin to change Ace and her role in the ongoing narrative. It is first revealed in "Blood Heat" by Jim Mortimore that Manisha had died in the firebombing of her flat.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: Ace's relationship with the Doctor remains strained for some time, boiling over in "Blood Heat" when the Doctor destroys an unstable parallel Earth (where Manisha is still alive) and under the influence of an alien creature she stabs him through one of his hearts in "The Left-Handed Hummingbird". In "No Future" (also by Cornell) the Meddling Monk tries to manipulate her into betraying the Doctor, which she seemingly does, again stabbing him and leaving him alone on an ice planet. In reality she stabbed him with a pantomime knife from the TARDIS wardrobe and she is playing her own game (partly to teach him what it feels like to be manipulated). When the Monk and his chained Chronovore offer her a chance to return Jan to life, she refuses and rejoins the TARDIS crew, her issues with the Doctor resolved. In "Set Piece" by Kate Orman, Ace becomes stranded in Ancient Egypt and comes to realise that she can survive without the Doctor, but that she also increasingly sees the world as he does. At the book's end she leaves the Doctor again to become Time's Vigilante, using a short-range time hopper mounted on a motorcycle to patrol a particular segment of time; in effect doing what the Doctor does, but on a smaller scale. She appears in later books, notably "Head Games", "Happy Endings", and "Lungbarrow".


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: Other spin-off media give contradictory versions of Ace's eventual fate. The comic strip in "Doctor Who Magazine" has Ace killed off just prior to the events of the 1996 television movie ("Ground Zero", DWM #238-#242). In the webcast audio play "Death Comes to Time", Ace inherits the mantle of the Time Lords when they become extinct.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: Ace's first name is Dorothy, and production notes suggest that it was intended that her last name would be Gale, an allusion to "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz", given the fact that she was transported to Iceworld via a time storm. In another contradiction, the novels (and, following their lead, Big Finish audio plays) have given Ace the last name of McShane. A sequence of BBC Books' Past Doctor Adventures set after "Survival" and written by Mike Tucker and Robert Perry used the "Dorothy Gale" name, as the authors were unaware of the name used in the New Adventures. This was eventually resolved to some extent when the novel Loving the Alien (novel) by Tucker and Perry saw the original Ace (Dorothy Gale) shot and killed, but replaced by an Ace from another universe whose real name is "Dorothy McShane". Loving the Alien also makes it clear that all the television episodes and Tucker/Perry novels occur "before" the New Adventures, thus reconciling the different ranges.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: Sophie Aldred has voiced Ace for several audio plays produced by Big Finish Productions, alongside Sylvester McCoy as the Seventh Doctor and, in some stories, Lisa Bowerman as Bernice Summerfield or Philip Olivier as Hex Schofield. In one of these stories, "The Rapture", Ace discovers that she has a brother named Liam, of whom she had no previous knowledge. As the more experienced traveller, Ace has developed a slightly flirtatious mentor-teacher relationship with Hex. How the audio plays tie in with the other media is not clear, and the continuity of the various lines may not match up with each other.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: In 1996, Virgin's Doctor Who Books imprint published a hardback by Sophie Aldred and Mike Tucker entitled "Ace!: The Inside Story of the End of an Era" (). This book gives details of each serial featuring the character Ace, complete with many photographs and concept art. It also contains a list of other spin-offs in which the character of Ace appears and some of the conventions which Sophie Aldred attended, along with information about the planned Season 27, including Ace's departure. In 1998, BBV produced a number of audio adventures starring McCoy and Aldred as "The Professor" and "Ace". The plays were not licensed by the BBC, but the duo were clearly intended to be the same characters, to the extent that the BBC intervened, causing BBV to change the character names to "The Dominie" and "Alice".


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: The Reeltime Pictures video "Mindgame" features Sophie Aldred as "the Human", imprisoned with a Sontaran and a Draconian, the implication being that she is playing Ace, though for copyright reasons this could not be made explicit.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: In 2018, Ace was confirmed to appear in Big Finish Production's audio drama based on Doctor Who spin-off "Class", with Aldred reprising her role alongside the show's main cast. The story released that August.


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: In 2020, BBC Books published "At Childhood's End" (), a novel by Aldred featuring Ace, decades after her travels with the Doctor and now running the "A Charitable Earth" charity. The novel also features the Thirteenth Doctor and her companions. Like the charity, the title of the novel forms the acronym "ACE".


title: Ace (Doctor Who)

text: The character of Ace has been cited as the first "modern" companion for the Doctor. One of the reasons is that her character was written to be more realistic, three-dimensional and to grow as a person throughout her run on the show.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Alfred Irénée du Pont (May 12, 1864 – April 28, 1935) was an American industrialist, financier, philanthropist and a member of the influential Du Pont family.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Alfred du Pont first rose to prominence through his work in his family's Delaware-based gunpowder manufacturing plant, E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company (now known as DuPont), in which for many years he served as a director of the board and Vice President of operations.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Following an acrimonious departure and a brief dip in personal fortunes, he embarked on business of his own, investing in land and banking in Florida. He died a multimillionaire, with the bulk of his fortune sustaining the Alfred I. duPont Testamentary Trust.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Du Pont was born in the Brandywine Valley region of Delaware to which his great-great-grandfather Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours had immigrated with his sons after the French Revolution. The son of Éleuthère Irénée du Pont II, a partner in the DuPont family gunpowder business, and Charlotte Shepard Henderson, he had two older sisters and two younger brothers. When du Pont was 13, his mother, who had a history of mental illness, was committed to an asylum following an episode of hysteria. Within a week, she died. The du Pont children were orphaned a month later when Éleuthère followed, a victim of tuberculosis.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Du Pont's family intended to separate the children and sell their family home, Swamp Hall, but were persuaded otherwise by the fierce resistance of the children. The girls remained in the home, but du Pont was sent to boarding school: first, to the religious Shinn Academy in New Jersey and then, two years later, Phillips Academy at Andover, Massachusetts. After graduation, he enrolled in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, sharing a room with his cousin T. Coleman du Pont.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: In 1884, after only two years at MIT, he left to work at the family's gunpowder manufacturing plant in the Brandywine mills. Though he started in a low position, he eventually became known, according to the Alfred I. du Pont Foundation, as "one of the nation's top powder men." Most of the over 200 patents he registered were related to this work.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Du Pont married his cousin Bessie Gardner (1864–1949) in 1887, and she was the mother of his first four children. In 1889, the manufacturing plant passed to the management of Eugène du Pont, at which time it was reorganized and renamed E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, and du Pont was made a limited partner. Beyond that, Eugène du Pont and other family members largely ignored du Pont, excluding him from the company board.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: In 1902, upon the death of Eugène du Pont, the three senior partners considered selling the company to competitor Laflin & Rand Powder Company. Du Pont proposed keeping the company in the family, and the senior partners agreed on condition that du Pont be joined in the venture by T. Coleman du Pont, who would be president, and Pierre S. du Pont. They had no money, but the cousins were able to convince other family members to exchange their company shares for a promissory note instead of cash, plus shares in the reorganized company. According to the Trust organization, the company was purchased "for $15.4 million—$12 million in notes and 33,000 shares of the reorganized DuPont", with the partners retaining $8.6 million worth of shares (86,400). The actual amount of money which the partners were required to pay was $2,100, at $700 each for lawyers' fees.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Pierre du Pont was named Treasurer and Executive Vice President of the company, while Alfred du Pont served as vice president for operations and took over the black powder manufacture and sat on the Executive Committee. Alfred was directly engaged with the company and instituted major changes to its operation that resulted in greater efficiency and safety, leading to a boom in business.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: During this period, du Pont was involved in a hunting accident that would eventually cost him an eye. The same year, 1906, he divorced his first wife, Bessie. The couple's marriage had never been a happy one, and although du Pont supported his family financially, with $24,000 a year in support, he cut off contact with all but his eldest child, Madeleine du Pont. With a week's eviction notice, he removed them from the family home at Swamp Hall and had it destroyed. This, coupled with du Pont's remarriage to a divorced second cousin in 1907, seriously strained relations between du Pont and other members of his family.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Du Pont's relationship with his second wife, Mary (Alicia) Heyward Bradford (1875–1920), had already been the subject of family scandal, as family members had remarked on the close relationship of the two even before Alicia Bradford's marriage to du Pont's secretary, George Amory Maddox. Maddox and his wife lived close to du Pont and were frequently visited by him; du Pont and Bradford, who had borne a daughter in the meantime, left their spouses at around the same time and were married two weeks after Bradford's divorce was final. Du Pont's adoption of Bradford's daughter, Alicia Maddox, brought fresh gossip to the family, who largely rallied in support of his first wife, which in turn inspired du Pont to file several lawsuits against family members and friends for slander, all of which were dropped in due time.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Du Pont gave Bradford a new home built on in Wilmington, Delaware. Construction of the Nemours Mansion and Gardens occurred between 1909 and 1910. The mansion is a five-story, 77-room, structure that was designed by renowned architects Carrère and Hastings, who also designed the New York Public Library, New York City's Frick Mansion, and Whitehall, the Henry Flagler Museum in Palm Beach, Florida. The building looks like a French château and the architectural style is Louis XVI. The estate was named after the French town affiliated with his ancestor, Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Within the short time of the marriage, Bradford bore two children for du Pont, neither of whom survived long.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Through the early 1910s, Alfred du Pont was engaged in fierce debate over the future of the family's business with Coleman and Pierre du Pont, whose support for du Pont's first wife had extended to building her and her children a home after their eviction from Swamp Hall. The struggle became bitter after Coleman du Pont decided to leave the company for health concerns in 1914.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: As he was departing, ill and in need of money for another business transaction, Coleman du Pont decided to sell 20,000 shares in the company to key company employees, but when Alfred du Pont and Pierre du Pont disagreed on the proper pricing and handling of the transaction, wound up selling considerably more shares (over 77,000 shares combined of common and preferred stock) to Pierre du Pont and five associates, who had formed the DuPont Securities Company. This secret and swift transaction gave Pierre du Pont, 60 percent ownership of DuPont Securities and, thereby, considerable control over the family business. While the value of the shares greatly increased due to the success of the company during World War I, Alfred du Pont and other minority shareholders launched a lawsuit against Pierre du Pont, alleging that he had acted as an agent of the E.I. du Pont de Nemours company, who should be rightful holders of the shares.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: The suit was extremely well publicized and acrimonious. In 1916, shortly after company shareholders voted to remove Alfred du Pont from its board of directors, the United States District Court found that Pierre du Pont had operated in bad faith, ordering a stockholder vote to determine if the stockholders (aside from those who owned the disputed shares) wished to purchase the disputed shares. By a share ratio of 33:13, shareholders did not, and, accordingly, in 1918, the court dismissed the action. Alfred du Pont brought an appeal which ended unsuccessfully in March 1919.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: No longer involved in running E.I. du Pont de Nemours, du Pont instead began to invest in newspapers, as a publisher of which he successfully opposed T. Coleman du Pont's bid for the presidency and Henry A. du Pont's third run for the Senate. According to the du Pont Trust, he also "established an investment firm, Nemours Trading Corporation, and an import-export business in New York" and acquired a majority interest in the Delaware Trust Company.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: A bad business transaction had left him nearly bankrupt when, in January 1920, his second wife died. Missing an eye since his earlier accident, he was now also nearly deaf. But his life was about to change with his third marriage.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Du Pont had been corresponding with Jessie Ball, 20 years his junior, since the time of their meeting in 1898 when she was 14. By 1920, Ball was an assistant principal at an elementary school in San Diego, California, and du Pont began courting her, at the same time divesting himself of assets and cutting back on spending. He wed Ball on January 22, 1921, and the couple returned to the East Coast to settle into Nemours. The couple had no children of their own, but Ball du Pont accepted young Denise, a child du Pont had fostered with his second wife, as her own. She also helped mend rifts between du Pont and the estranged children of his first marriage.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Ball du Pont proved to be a great assistance to him as well in his work, as did her younger brother. Edward Ball and du Pont hit it off and Edward Ball began working for his brother-in-law in 1923, moving to Delaware where he was publicly named manager of the Clean Food Products Company. There, he became a caretaker of the du Pont de Nemours estate fortune.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Du Pont and his third wife had already made several trips to Florida on their motor yacht, "Nenemoosha", when Pierre du Pont was named Tax Commissioner of Delaware in 1925. Harboring hard feelings against his cousin, Alfred du Pont and Jessie Ball du Pont moved to Jacksonville, Florida in 1926, where they established permanent residency. There, du Pont purchased of land on the St. Johns River and built a 25-room mansion and landscaped grounds, as well as a berth for the couple's motor yacht. Ball du Pont named the estate Epping Forest, after the Virginia plantation of Mary Ball Washington, George Washington's mother and Ball du Pont's relative. Edward Ball, too, relocated to Florida, to continue working with du Pont.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: In Florida, du Pont made primarily small real estate investments at first, correctly fearing a drop in real estate values, before turning his attention to acquiring interest in banks. He acquired an interest in Florida National Bank (FNB) of Jacksonville, keeping it solvent during a bank run of 1929 by putting $15 million of his own money into an account. During the early 1930s, six other Florida National Banks were opened throughout Florida, including Lakeland and Bartow.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: During this time, du Pont was expanding his philanthropic activities. He personally funded a pension plan program for seniors in Delaware in 1929 and turned his attention to revitalizing Florida after the devastation of a 1926 hurricane and the Great Depression.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Besides his interest in business, du Pont was an accomplished and passionate violinist and composer. Using friends and his factory workers from E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, he formed an orchestra that was named the "Tankopanicum Musical Club". According to the du Pont Trust, du Pont "published nine pieces of music [during his lifetime], eight marches and one "gavotte", a French peasant dance, which was performed at the Grand Opera House in Wilmington in 1907." John Philip Sousa, who was a friend, performed one of his marches.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: When du Pont died in 1935 in Jacksonville, Florida at age 70, his estate was valued at over $56 million, which, after estate taxes of $30 million, left $26 million.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: The vast majority of his fortune was left in testamentary trust with Jessie named as the principal trustee with complete discretion regarding use of any money, but in reality, she deferred business decisions to her brother, who took control of the assets, which included the large Florida landholdings of the St. Joe Company and industrial interests, including the Florida East Coast Railway. Jessie preferred to handle the philanthropic activities of the trust while Edward concentrated on making money. The fortune did not become a charitable trust until Jessie's death in 1970, which explains why $30 million in estate taxes were paid in 1935. The Alfred I. duPont Testamentary Trust's sole charitable beneficiary is the Nemours Foundation, which runs children's medical facilities in Delaware and Florida. Beginning in the 1970s, Delaware's Attorney General sued du Pont's brother-in-law Edward Ball and other trustees of the Nemours Foundation for failing to implement du Pont's mission for his Trust and for diverting its assets away from charitable needs in Delaware to fund Trust operations in Florida. The case has continued into the 21st century.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Unlike most of his family members, du Pont was not buried at the family's Du Pont de Nemours Cemetery. He is interred, along with his wife and brother-in-law, in a large mausoleum on the grounds of the Alfred I. duPont Hospital for Children, one of the first projects created with his trust.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Both Nemours and Epping Forest have been restored to their original splendor. A public school in Jacksonville, the Alfred I. duPont Middle School, is located not far from his Epping Forest estate.


title: Alfred I. du Pont

text: Alfred du Pont was designated a Great Floridian by the Florida Department of State in the "Great Floridians 2000 Program". A plaque attesting to the honor is located at the entry gate to the Epping Forest estate in Jacksonville.


title: Survival skills

text: Survival skills are techniques that a person may use in order to sustain life in any type of natural environment or built environment. These techniques are meant to provide basic necessities for human life which include water, food, and shelter. These skills also support proper knowledge and interactions with animals and plants to promote the sustaining of life over a period of time. Survival skills are often associated with the need to survive in a disaster situation. Survival skills are often basic ideas and abilities that ancient people invented and used themselves for thousands of years. Outdoor activities such as hiking, backpacking, horseback riding, fishing, and hunting all require basic wilderness survival skills, especially in handling emergency situations. Bushcraft and primitive living are most often self-implemented but require many of the same skills.


title: Survival skills

text: First aid (wilderness first aid in particular) can help a person survive and function with injuries and illnesses that would otherwise kill or compromise them. Common and dangerous injuries include:


title: Survival skills

text: The person may need to apply the contents of a first aid kit or, if possessing the required knowledge, naturally occurring medicinal plants, immobilize injured limbs, or even transport incapacitated comrades.


title: Survival skills

text: Many people who are forced into survival situations often have a risk of danger because of direct exposure to the elements. Most people in survival situations die of Hypothermia/Hyperthermia, or animal attacks. A shelter can range from a natural shelter, such as a cave, overhanging rock outcrop, or a fallen-down tree, to an intermediate form of man-made shelter such as a debris hut, tree pit shelter, or a snow cave, to completely man-made structures such as a tarp, tent, or a longhouse. It is noted that some common properties between these structures are:


title: Survival skills

text: Fire is a chemical reaction that typically produces carbon dioxide, water, heat, light, and smoke. The resulting heat from the reaction can postpone or prevent the risk of hypothermia. Lighting a fire without a lighter or matches, e.g. by using natural flint and rock or metal with tinder, is a frequent subject of both books on survival and in survival courses, often due to the lack of water and materials if an individual was stranded. There is an emphasis placed on practicing fire-making skills before venturing into the wilderness. Producing fire under adverse conditions has been made much easier by the introduction of tools such as the magnesium striker, solar spark lighter, and the fire piston.


title: Survival skills

text: Fires are either started with a concentration of heat, as in the case of the solar spark lighter, or through a spark, as in the case of flint striking a rock or metal. Fires will often be put out if either there is excessive wind (such as either over fanning a fire, or strong winds), or if the fuel or environment is too wet to ignite.


title: Survival skills

text: Fire is presented as a tool meeting many survival needs. Along with the needs mentioned above, it also disinfects water (through boiling and condensing), and can be used to cook and eliminate the presence of disease-causing microorganisms in foods like animal meat. Another advantage that is presented through fire is an underlooked psychological boost through the sense of safety and protection it gives. In the wild, fire can provide a sensation of home, a focal point, in addition to being an essential energy source. Fire may deter wild animals from interfering with an individual, though wild animals may also be attracted to the light and heat of a fire.


title: Survival skills

text: A human being can survive an average of three to five days without water. The issues presented by the need for water dictate that unnecessary water loss by perspiration be avoided in survival situations. The need for water increases with exercise. Since the human body is composed of up to 78% water at birth, with an average of 60%, it should be no surprise that water is higher on the list than fire or food. Although the human water intake varies greatly depending on factors like age, gender, etc. the average should be about 13 cups or 3 liters per day. Many lost people perish due to dehydration, and/or the debilitating effects of water-born pathogens from untreated water.


title: Survival skills

text: A typical person will lose minimally two to maximally four liters of water per day under ordinary conditions, and more in hot, dry, or cold weather. Four to six liters of water or other liquids are generally required each day in the wilderness to avoid dehydration and to keep the body functioning properly. The U.S. Army survival manual does not recommend drinking water only when thirsty, as this leads to inadequate hydration. Instead, water should be drunk at regular intervals. Other groups recommend rationing water through "water discipline".


title: Survival skills

text: A lack of water causes dehydration, which may result in lethargy, headaches, dizziness, confusion, and eventually death. Even mild dehydration reduces endurance and impairs concentration, which is dangerous in a survival situation where clear thinking is essential. Dark yellow or brown urine is a diagnostic indicator of dehydration. To avoid dehydration, a high priority is typically assigned to locating a supply of drinking water and making provisions to render that water as safe as possible.


title: Survival skills

text: Recent thinking is that boiling or commercial filters are significantly safer than use of chemicals, with the exception of chlorine dioxide.


title: Survival skills

text: Culinary root tubers, fruit, edible mushrooms, edible nuts, edible beans, edible cereals or edible leaves, edible cacti, ants and algae can be gathered and, if needed, prepared (mostly by boiling). With the exception of leaves, these foods are relatively high in calories, providing some energy to the body. Plants are some of the easiest food sources to find in the jungle, forest or desert because they are stationary and can thus be obtained without exerting much effort.


title: Survival skills

text: Skills and equipment (such as bows, snares, and nets) are necessary to gather animal food in the wild include animal trapping, hunting, and fishing.


title: Survival skills

text: Focusing on survival until rescued by presumed searchers, the Boy Scouts of America, or BSA, especially discourages foraging for wild foods on the grounds that the knowledge and skills needed are unlikely to be possessed by those finding themselves in a wilderness survival situation, making the risks (including use of energy) outweigh the benefits.


title: Survival skills

text: Those going for trips and hikes are advised by search and rescue services to notify a trusted contact of their planned return time, then notify them when returning. They can tell them to contact the police for search and rescue if you have not returned by a specific time frame (e.g. 12 hours of the scheduled return time).


title: Survival skills

text: Survival situations can often be resolved by finding a way to safety, or a more suitable location to wait for rescue. Types of navigation include:


title: Survival skills

text: The mind and its processes are critical to survival. The will to live in a life-and-death situation often separates those that live and those that do not. Situations can be stressful to the level that even trained experts may be mentally affected. One should be mentally and physically tough during a disaster.


title: Survival skills

text: To the extent that stress results from testing human limits, the benefits of learning to function under stress and determining those limits may outweigh the downside of stress. There are certain strategies and mental tools that can help people cope better in a survival situation, including focusing on manageable tasks, having a Plan B available and recognizing denial.


title: Survival skills

text: Governments such as the United States and New Zealand advise that in an earthquake one should "Drop, Cover, and Hold".


title: Survival skills

text: The United States Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) adds that in the event of a building collapse, it is advised that you:


title: Survival skills

text: Often survival practitioners will carry with them a "survival kit". This consists of various items that seem necessary or useful for potential survival situations, depending on anticipated challenges and location. Supplies in a survival kit vary greatly by anticipated needs. For wilderness survival, they often contain items like a knife, water container, fire-starting apparatus, first aid equipment, food obtaining devices (snare wire, fish hooks, firearms, or other,) a light, navigational aids, and signaling or communications devices. Often these items will have multiple possible uses as space and weight are often at a premium.


title: Survival skills

text: Survival kits may be purchased from various retailers or individual components may be bought and assembled into a kit.


title: Survival skills

text: Some survival books promote the "Universal Edibility Test". Allegedly, it is possible to distinguish edible foods from toxic ones by a series of progressive exposures to skin and mouth prior to ingestion, with waiting periods and checks for symptoms. However, many experts reject this method, stating that even a small amount of some "potential foods" can cause physical discomfort, illness, or death.


title: Survival skills

text: Many mainstream survival experts have recommended the act of drinking urine in times of dehydration and malnutrition. However, the U.S. Army Survival Field Manual (FM 21-76) instructs that this technique is a myth and should never be applied. Several reasons for not drinking urine include the high salt content of urine, potential contaminants, and sometimes bacteria growth, despite urine being generally "sterile".


title: Survival skills

text: Many classic western movies, classic survival books, and even some school textbooks suggest that sucking the venom out of a snake bite by mouth is an appropriate treatment and/or also for the bitten person to drink their urine after the poisonous animal bite or poisonous insect bite as a mean for the body to provide natural anti-venom. However, the venom can not be sucked out and it may be dangerous for a rescuer to attempt to do so. Modern snakebite treatment involves pressure bandages and prompt medical treatment.


title: Rajapalayam dog

text: The Rajapalayam, also known as the Polygar Hound, Shikkar Hound, or Indian Ghost Hound, is a southern Indian dog breed. The breed is named after Rajapalayam, a town in the Virudhunagar, Tamil Nadu.


title: Rajapalayam dog

text: Four commemorative postage stamps were issued on 9 January 2005 by India Post for four breeds: Himalayan Sheepdog, Rampur Hound, Mudhol Hound (Face value 5 each) and Rajapalayam (Face value 15). The Rajapalayam dog is known to live up to 12 years of age.


title: Rajapalayam dog

text: It is a large dog, usually measuring about 65–75 cm (25–30 inches) at the withers and weighs 30 – 45 kg. Mostly found in the centre of Tamil nadu, the Rajapalayam was bred to be the complete hunter and estate guardian with features that allow it to excel. Primarily used to hunt wild boar independent of the handler, the Rajapalayam is unique in two ways. First, it fulfills the functions of a bay dog as well as a catch dog; secondly the Rajapalayam can hunt by sight as well as track by scent. While hunting they can be relentless pursuers that are not intimidated by complex terrain or bodies of water. After finding their prey, the dogs take it down and bring it back to the handler. If the dog is unable to bring down its prey, it injures and corners the target till the handler can get to it. This dog can hunt alone, in pairs, in a pack, or with its owner.


title: Rajapalayam dog

text: Rajapalayams tend to be more muscular and heavier boned than most sighthounds, but they share the deep chest and basic body structure that exudes speed and physical ability. Its facial structure is considerably different from that of a Caravan Hound, with a slightly larger head and more powerful jaws. It has a slightly curled tail.


title: Rajapalayam dog

text: An extremely handsome and graceful dog, the Rajapalayam has a double suspension gait, similar to the trotting of a thoroughbred horse. The staple colour is milk white, although faint brown markings are quite common, and the pink nose is standard.


title: Rajapalayam dog

text: Eye color can range from golden to brown and green. Puppies born with whitish or blue eyes are usually deaf and should not be bred. The coat is single, short, and fine; these dogs don't do well in very cold climates, but excel in the heat of South India or tropics.


title: Rajapalayam dog

text: While many Rajapalayam dogs suffer from mange, it rarely is serious, as mange is actually caused by mites, so it is basically a matter of preventing mites rather than a breed issue. Otherwise, the breed is robust and low-maintenance.


title: Rajapalayam dog

text: Rajapalayam dogs have a pink nose, button ears, whiptail and golden eyes. They have a gait similar to that of a horse and were also used during the Carnatic Wars and Polygar war against the British cavalry. They aren’t fast runners, but are tireless and steady over long distances. There were reports that the Indian Army in Kashmir had them as guard dogs.


title: Rajapalayam dog

text: The pure Rajapalayam used to only be found in isolated pockets around southern Tamil Nadu. A dog breeding unit was established at Saidapet, Chennai, during 1980–81. This unit primarily rears native breeds such as the Rajapalayam dog, Combai dog, kanni, and Chippiparai. To create awareness and encourage dog lovers to rear native breeds, the Animal Husbandry Department of the Government of Tamil Nadu participates in dog shows. Localities have established a cooperative, and interested families receive female dogs and the expertise that is required for large-scale breeding. The Indian Postal Department has brought out postage stamps on the Rajapalayam dog breed, as well as the Mudhol Hound, Rampur Hound, and the Himalayan Sheepdog. The Kennel Club of India has taken up the cause of the Rajapalayam. With the club's cooperation, the "Save the Rajapalayam Project" has been launched. These initiatives have successfully brought the breed back from the brink of extinction.


title: Rajapalayam dog

text: It is important to research properly before purchasing or adopting a puppy, because many unethical breeders are giving customers inbred and genetically compromised puppies.


title: Disney Magic

text: Disney Magic is the first cruise ship owned and operated by Disney Cruise Line, a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Company. She has 11 public decks, can accommodate 2,700 passengers in 875 staterooms, and has a crew of approximately 950. The interior of "Disney Magic" is decorated in the Art Deco style. The four other ships are the "Disney Wonder", "Disney Dream", "Disney Fantasy", and "Disney Wish".


title: Disney Magic

text: The ship has 20 bright yellow lifeboats which, along with the black, red, and white colors of the ship itself, match the colors of Mickey Mouse. This change from the standard safety orange took a waiver of international maritime rules. As with other Disney cruise ships, the ship's horn blast plays a snippet of '"When You Wish upon a Star". "Disney Magic"s Godmother is Patricia Disney, former wife of Walt Disney's nephew, Roy E. Disney.


title: Disney Magic

text: Disney had cruise ship designs drawn up by February 1994. Disney Cruise Line in 1995 ordered "Disney Magic" and "Disney Wonder" from Fincantieri in Italy. The ship was built in two halves with the bow built at Fincatieri's Ancona shipyard and the stern at their Marghera shipyard.


title: Disney Magic

text: The planned maiden voyage was for March 12, 1998. In January 1997, the first ticket for "Magic"'s first trip was raffled off on Lifetime channel, while ticket sales would begin in September 1997. Delays on the construction of MS "Rotterdam" kept additional workers from the "Magic". Thus, by November 1997, the cruise line initially rescheduled the ship's initial voyage to April 30, 1998. However, further delays from suppliers and poor weather conditions at Fincantieri pushed back the maiden voyage even further by a few months. The bow was towed to the Marghera shipyard where the halves were joined.


title: Disney Magic

text: With livery and design evocative of the RMS "Queen Mary", "Disney Magic" set sail on her maiden voyage on July 30, 1998, out of Port Canaveral. The ship's initial cruises were to Nassau, Bahamas with a stop at Castaway Cay over three to four nights.


title: Disney Magic

text: Originally, from 2000, "Disney Magic" had been undertaking weekly cruises to Castaway Cay and Caribbean islands out of its home port in Port Canaveral, Florida.


title: Disney Magic

text: In June 2005, "Disney Magic" was dispatched to the West Coast as part of Disneyland's 50th Anniversary celebrations and as a test for California expansion. The transfer cruise sold out quicker than expected. Bookings from first time Disney cruisers were up for these cruises by at least 60%.


title: Disney Magic

text: In May 2007, "Disney Magic" started her inaugural Mediterranean cruises out of Barcelona, Spain. At the end of the summer, she returned to her home port of Port Canaveral. In the summer of 2008, "Disney Magic" was moved to Los Angeles once again. The ship returned to Barcelona in 2010 for another summer of Mediterranean cruises, as well as several northern European cruises before again returning to Port Canaveral in September.


title: Disney Magic

text: In May 2012, "Disney Magic" was relocated to New York City, where she sailed 8-night cruises to the Bahamas, New England, and Canada. In September, she was relocated to Galveston, Texas for the remainder of the year and offered 4-night Caribbean cruises, 6, 7, and 8-night Western Caribbean cruises, and 8-night Bahamian cruises. In June 2013, "Disney Magic" was re-positioned to Barcelona, Spain for the summer.


title: Disney Magic

text: "Disney Magic" was put in for an overhaul at Navantia shipyard, Cadiz, Spain. In October 2013, Disney Cruise Line completed renovations to "Disney Magic" including updates to the ship's cabins, lounges, restaurants and spa and introduced new features including; "Marvel's Avengers Academy", a play area based on Marvel's Avengers characters, the AquaDunk and the AquaLab, consisting of a pool and waterslide. The short lived Carioca's restaurant replaced Parrot Cay, which would later be replaced with Rapunzel's Royal Table in 2018. Club Disney Junior replaced the Mickey Mouse Club and other changes were made.


title: Disney Magic

text: In 2016, the "Disney Magic" sailed Disney Cruise Lines' inaugural Northern Europe itineraries, homeported in the port of Dover, 70 miles from London, England. She sailed to Norway, the British Isles, and the Baltic Sea during her brief three month season. With the October 6, 2017 cruise of "Disney Magic" from New York to the Bahamas, the cruise line held its first Marvel Day at Sea.


title: Disney Magic

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, "Disney Magic" was anchored in Dover on and off from May 2020 and was due to stay until at least August 2021. At that time, she sailed a series of "staycation cruises" (no port visits or excursions, subject to restrictions) exclusively in the United Kingdom. UK cruises concluded on October 4, 2021, when "Disney Magic" repositioned to Miami, Florida and commenced cruises to The Bahamas. Then, in the summer of 2022, she returned to Europe for European cruises before returning to the US for the fall.


title: Disney Magic

text: Entertainment on "Disney Magic" includes live Broadway-style shows with many Disney characters at the Walt Disney Theater, the Buena Vista movie theater, which features both Disney films and first-run movies, several night clubs and lounges, several pools, and many Disney-themed parties and celebrations, including a Sail-Away Celebration, Pirate Night, and sometimes a Marvel or Star Wars Day at Sea.


title: Disney Magic

text: On the ship's forward funnel, there is a 24-by-14 foot LED screen known as the "Funnel Vision", due to its location on the rear of one of the ship's funnels, where guests can watch various movies and shows either from the deck or from inside Goofy's Pool.


title: Disney Magic

text: Shows from the Walt Disney Theatre may include: "All Aboard", "Let The Magic Begin", "A Final Farewell Show", "Twice Charmed: A Twist on the Cinderella Story", "Tangled the Musical" and "Disney Dreams: An Enchanted Classic". Former shows included 'Villains Tonight!' which was replaced by Tangled.


title: Disney Magic

text: Disney Cruise line is known for pioneering the rotational dining setup, in which guests and their wait staff rotate through three differently themed restaurants throughout their cruise. The Disney Magic's restaurants include Lumiere's (serving primarily French Cuisine), Rapunzel's Royal Table (serving German-inspired food), and Animator's Palate (which is present on four of the other Disney cruise ships). Additionally, the up-scale, adults-only restaurant Palo, situated at the rear of the ship, requires a separate reservation and serves high-end Italian cuisine.


title: Political realignment

text: A political realignment, often called a critical election, critical realignment, or realigning election, in the academic fields of political science and political history, is a set of sharp changes in party ideology, issues, party leaders, regional and demographic bases of power of political parties, and the structure or rules of the political system, such as voter eligibility or financing. The changes result in a new political power structure that lasts for decades, replacing an older dominant coalition. Scholars frequently invoke the concept in American elections and occasionally those of other countries. American examples include the 1896 United States presidential election, when the issues of the American Civil War political system were replaced with those of the Populist and Progressive Era, and the 1932 United States presidential election, when the Populist and Progressive Eras were replaced by the New Deal-era issues of New Deal liberalism and modern conservatism.


title: Political realignment

text: Realigning elections typically separate (what are known in the field of comparative politics as) party systems—with 1828, for example, separating the First Party System and the Second Party System in the US. It is generally accepted that the United States has had five distinct party systems, each featuring two major parties attracting a consistent political coalition and following a consistent party ideology, separated by four realignments.


title: Political realignment

text: Political realignments can be sudden (1–4 years) or can take place more gradually (5–20 years). Most often, however, particularly in V. O. Key Jr.'s (1955) original hypothesis, it is a single "critical election" that marks a realignment. By contrast, a gradual process is called a "secular realignment". Political scientists and historians often disagree about which elections are realignments and what defines a realignment, and even whether realignments occur. The terms themselves are somewhat arbitrary, however, and usage among political scientists and historians does vary. In the US, Walter Dean Burnham argued for a 30–38 year "cycle" of realignments. Many of the elections often included in the Burnham 38-year cycle are considered "realigning" for different reasons.


title: Political realignment

text: Other political scientists and quantitative elections analysts reject realignment theory altogether, arguing that there are no long-term patterns. Political scientist David R. Mayhew states, "Electoral politics is to an important degree just one thing after another ... Elections and their underlying causes are not usefully sortable into generation-long spans ... It is a Rip Van Winkle view of democracy that voters come awake only once in a generation ... It is too slippery, too binary, too apocalyptic, and it has come to be too much of a dead end."


title: Political realignment

text: Sean Trende, senior elections analyst at "RealClearPolitics", who argues against realignment theory and the "emerging Democratic majority" thesis proposed by journalist John Judis and political scientist Ruy Teixeira in his 2012 book "The Lost Majority" states, "Almost none of the theories propounded by realignment theorists has endured the test of time... It turns out that finding a 'realigning' election is a lot like finding an image of Jesus in a grilled-cheese sandwich – if you stare long enough and hard enough, you will eventually find what you are looking for." In August 2013, Trende observed that U.S. presidential election results from 1880 through 2012 form a 0.96 correlation with the expected sets of outcomes (i.e. events) in the binomial distribution of a fair coin flip experiment. In May 2015, statistician and "FiveThirtyEight" editor-in-chief Nate Silver argued against a blue wall Electoral College advantage for the Democratic Party in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, and in post-election analysis, Silver cited Trende in noting that "there are few if any permanent majorities" and both Silver and Trende argued that the "emerging Democratic majority" thesis led most news coverage and commentary preceding the election to overstate Hillary Clinton's chances of being elected.


title: Political realignment

text: The central holding of realignment theory, first developed in the political scientist V. O. Key Jr.'s 1955 article, "A Theory of Critical Elections", is that American elections, parties and policymaking routinely shift in swift, dramatic sweeps.


title: Political realignment

text: Key, E. E. Schattschneider, James L. Sundquist, Walter Dean Burnham are generally credited with developing and refining the theory of realignment. Though they differed on some of the details, earlier realignments scholars generally concluded that systematic patterns are identifiable in American national elections such that cycles occur on a regular schedule: once every 36-years or so. This period of roughly 30 years fits with the notion that these cycles are closely linked to generational change. Some, such as Schafer and Reichley, argue that the patterns are longer, closer to 50 to 60 years in duration, noting the Democratic dominance from 1800 to 1860, and Republican rule from 1860 to 1932. Reichley argues that the only true realigning elections occurred in 1800, 1860, and 1932. Given the much longer length of time since the last generally accepted realignment in 1932, more recent scholars have theorized that realignments don't in fact operate on any consistent time scale, but rather occur whenever the necessary political, social, and economic changes occur.


title: Political realignment

text: The alignment of 1860, with Republicans winning a series of close presidential elections, yielded abruptly in 1896 to an era of more decisive GOP control, in which most presidential elections were blowouts, and Democratic Congresses were infrequent and brief. Thirty-six years later, that system was displaced by a cycle of Democratic dominance, lasting throughout the Great Depression until Ronald Reagan's election as president in 1980 and the House election of 1994 when Republicans regained the majority for the first time in 40 years.


title: Political realignment

text: A central component of realignment is the change in behavior of voting groups. Realignment means the switching of voter preference from one party to another, in contrast to "dealignment" (where a voter group abandons a party to become independent or nonvoting). In the US and Australia, as the ideologies of the parties define many of the aspects of voters' lives and the decisions that they make, a realignment by a voter tends to have a longer-lasting effect.


title: Political realignment

text: In Britain and Canada, on the other hand, voters have a tendency to switch parties on a whim, perhaps only for one election, as there is far less loyalty towards a particular party.


title: Political realignment

text: Some debate exists today as to what elections could be considered realigning elections after 1932. Although several candidates have been proposed, there is no widespread agreement:


title: Political realignment

text: The history of the critical realigning elections in Canada, both nationally and in the provinces, is covered by Argyle (2011).


title: Political realignment

text: According to recent scholarship, there have been four party systems in Canada at the federal level since Confederation, each with its own distinctive pattern of social support, patronage relationships, leadership styles, and electoral strategies. Steve Patten identifies four party systems in Canada's political history


title: Political realignment

text: Clarkson (2005) shows how the Liberal Party has dominated all the party systems, using different approaches. It began with a "clientelistic approach" under Laurier, which evolved into a "brokerage" system of the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s under Mackenzie King. The 1950s saw the emergence of a "pan-Canadian system", which lasted until the 1990s. The 1993 election — categorized by Clarkson as an electoral "earthquake" which "fragmented" the party system, saw the emergence of regional politics within a four party-system, whereby various groups championed regional issues and concerns. Clarkson concludes that the inherent bias built into the first-past-the-post system, has chiefly benefited the Liberals.


title: Political realignment

text: Alberta has had a tradition of one-party dominance, where a party forms government for an extended period before losing power. From 1905 to 2015, Alberta only changed governments (often called "dynasties") four times, with no party ever returning to government. The elections of 1921, 1935, 1971 and 2015 each marked the end of a particular dynasty and a realignment of the province's party system.


title: Political realignment

text: The 2019 election has also been suggested as a realignment: although the New Democratic Party was defeated after only one term, they retained a strong base of seats and remained competitive in opinion polling and fundraising, pointing to a possible development of a competitive two-party system against the United Conservative Party.


title: Political realignment

text: A considerable number of Quebec general elections have been known characterized by high seat turnovers, with certain ones being considered realigning elections, notably:


title: Political realignment

text: Since the 1990s, provincial elections in Quebec show increasing voter realignment and volatility in party support. The Quebec Liberal Party (unaffiliated with the federal Liberals since 1955) been a major party since Confederation, but they have faced different opposition parties.


title: Military history of Japan

text: The military history of Japan covers a vast time-period of over three millennia - from the Jōmon ( 1000 BC) to the present day. After a long period of clan warfare until the 12th century, there followed feudal wars that culminated in military governments known as the Shogunate. Japanese history records that a military class and the Shōgun ruled Japan for 676 years - from 1192 until 1868. The Shōgun and the samurai warriors stood near the apex of the Japanese social structure - only the aristocratic nobility nominally outranked them. The sakoku policy effectively closed Japan from foreign influences for 212 years - from 1641 to 1853. Feudal militarism transitioned to imperialism in the 19th century after the arrival of Admiral Perry in 1853 and the elevation of Emperor Meiji in 1868. Western colonial powers and their imperialist policies impacted on Japan's outlook and led to Japanese colonialism and rampant imperialism ( 1895 - 1945) until Japan's defeat in World War II. The 1947 Japanese Constitution prohibits Japan from offensively using war against other nations. This led to the establishment of the Japan Self-Defense Forces in 1954. The U.S.–Japan Alliance (1951 onwards) requires the United States of America to protect Japan and to conduct offensive duties. In 2015 the Constitution was reinterpreted to allow collective self-defense of Japan's allies.


title: Military history of Japan

text: As of 1954 the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) consist of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) and Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). The Prime Minister is the commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces. Military authority runs from the Prime Minister to the cabinet-level Minister of Defense of the Japanese Ministry of Defense. The Prime Minister and Minister of Defense are advised by the Chief of Staff, Joint Staff, who heads the . The Chief of Staff, Joint Staff, is the highest-ranking military officer in the Japan Self-Defense Forces, and is the head of the Operational Authority over the JSDF, executing orders of the Minister of Defense with directions from the Prime Minister.


title: Military history of Japan

text: The Jōmon period is the time in Japanese prehistory between  14,000 and 1000 BC during which the Japanese archipelago was inhabited by the Jōmon, a hunter-gatherer culture that reached a considerable degree of sedentism and cultural complexity. The name "cord-marked" was first applied by the American scholar Edward S. Morse, who discovered sherds of pottery in 1877 and subsequently translated it into Japanese as "jōmon". The pottery style characteristic of the first phases of Jōmon culture was decorated by impressing cords into the surface of wet clay and is generally accepted to be among the oldest in East Asia and the world.


title: Military history of Japan

text: Near the end of the Jōmon period (), villages and towns became surrounded by moats and wooden fences due to increasing violence within or between communities. Battles were fought with weapons like the sword, sling, spear, bow and arrow. Some human remains were found with arrow wounds.


title: Military history of Japan

text: The Yayoi period is the Iron Age era of Japan from 1000 BC to 300 AD. Japan transitioned to a settled agricultural society. There was a big influx of farmers from the Asian continent to Japan. The Yayoi culture flourished from southern Kyūshū to northern Honshū. The rapid increase of roughly four million people in Japan between the Jōmon and Yayoi periods are partially due to migration and due to a shift from a hunter-gatherer to an agricultural diet with the introduction of rice cultivation.


title: Military history of Japan

text: Bronze goods and bronze-making techniques from the Asian mainland reached the Japanese archipelago as early as the 3rd century BC. It is believed that bronze and, later, iron implements and weapons were introduced to Japan near the end of this time (and well into the early Yamato period). Archaeological findings suggest that bronze and iron weapons were not used for war until later, starting at the beginning of the Yamato period, as the metal weapons found with human remains do not show wear consistent with use as weapons. The transition from the Jōmon to Yayoi, and later to the Yamato period, is likely to have been characterized by violent struggle as the natives were displaced and assimilated by the invaders with their vastly superior military technology. The most well-regarded theory is that present-day Yamato Japanese are descendants of both the Indigenous Jōmon people and the immigrant Yayoi people.


title: Military history of Japan

text: Around this time, San Guo Zhi first referred to the nation of "Wa (Japan)". According to this work, Wa was "divided into more than 100 tribes", and for some 70 or 80 years there were many disturbances and wars. About 30 communities had been united by a sorceress-queen named Himiko. She sent an emissary named Nashime (, Nashonmi in Chinese) with a tribute of slaves and cloth to Daifang in China, establishing diplomatic relations with Cao Wei (the Chinese kingdom of Wei).


title: Military history of Japan

text: By the end of the 4th century, the Yamato clan was well established on the Nara plain with considerable control over the surrounding areas. The Five kings of Wa sent envoys to China to recognize their dominion of the Japanese Islands. The Nihon Shoki states that the Yamato were strong enough to have sent an army against the powerful northern Korean state of Goguryeo (of the Three Kingdoms of Korea). Yamato Japan had close relations with the southwestern Korean kingdom of Baekje. In 663, Japan, supporting Baekje, was defeated by the allied forces of Tang China and the southeastern Korean kingdom of Silla, at the Battle of Hakusonko in the Korean peninsula. As a result, the Japanese were banished from the peninsula. To defend the Japanese archipelago, a military base was constructed in Dazaifu, Fukuoka, on Kyushu.


title: Military history of Japan

text: This period is divided into the Kofun and Asuka period. Ancient Japan had close ties with the Gaya confederacy and Baekje on the Korean Peninsula. Gaya, where there was an abundance of naturally occurring iron, exported abundant quantities of iron armor and weapons to Wa, and there may have even been a Japanese military post there with Gaya and Baekje cooperation.. According to the Gwanggaeto Stele, Silla and Baekje were client states of Japan. The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences investigated the stele and reported that it reads, "Silla and Baekje were client states of Japan".


title: Military history of Japan

text: In 552, the ruler of Baekje appealed to Yamato for help against its enemies, the neighboring Silla. Along with his emissaries to the Yamato court, the Baekje king sent bronze images of Buddha, some Buddhist scriptures, and a letter praising Buddhism. These gifts triggered a powerful burst of interest in Buddhism.


title: Military history of Japan

text: In 663, near the end of the Korean Three Kingdoms period, the Battle of Baekgang (白村江) took place. The "Nihon Shoki" records that Yamato sent 32,000 troops and 1,000 ships to support Baekje against the Silla-Tang force. However, these ships were intercepted and defeated by a Silla-Tang fleet. Baekje, without aid and surrounded by Silla and Tang forces on land, collapsed. Silla, now viewing Wa Japan as a hostile rival, prevented Japan from having any further meaningful contact with the Korean Peninsula until a far later time. The Japanese then turned directly to China.


title: Military history of Japan

text: In many ways, the Nara period was the beginning of Japanese culture as we know it today. It was in this period that Buddhism, the Chinese writing system, and a codified system of laws made their appearance. The country was unified and centralized, with basic features of the later feudal system. Succession disputes were widespread during this period, just as in most of the later periods.


title: Military history of Japan

text: Much of the discipline, weapons, and armor of the samurai came to be during this period, as techniques of mounted archery, swordsmanship, and spear fighting were adopted and developed.


title: Military history of Japan

text: The Nara period saw the appointment of the first "Sei-i Tai-shōgun", Ōtomo no Otomaro by the Emperor in 794 CE. The shōgun was the military dictator of Japan with near absolute power over territories via the military. Otomaro was declared "Sei-i Taishōgun" which means "Barbarian-subduing Great General". Emperor Kanmu granted the second title of Sei-i Tai-shōgun to Sakanoue no Tamuramaro for subduing the Emishi in northern Honshu.


title: Military history of Japan

text: The Heian Period marks a crucial shift, away from a state that was united in relative peace against outside threats to one that did not fear invasion and, instead, focused on internal division and clashes between ruling factions of samurai clans, over political power and control of the line of succession to the Chrysanthemum Throne.


title: Military history of Japan

text: With the exception of the Mongol invasions of the 13th century, Japan did not face a considerable outside threat until the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century. Thus, pre-modern Japanese military history is largely defined not by wars with other states, but by internal conflicts. The tactics of the samurai of this period involved archery and swordsmanship. Nearly all duels and battles began with an exchange of arrow fire and then hand-to-hand combat with swords and daggers.


title: Military history of Japan

text: The Imperial family struggled against the control of the Fujiwara clan, which almost exclusively monopolized the post of regent (Sesshō and Kampaku). Feudal conflicts over land, political power, and influence eventually reached its apex in the Genpei War (1180–1185). This was a national civil war between the two most powerful clans: the Taira and Minamoto clans. They fought for control over the declining Imperial Court in Kyoto. Each side had a large number of smaller allied clans. The Battle of Dan-no-Ura was a major naval battle between these clans on April 25, 1185. Minamoto had a fleet of 300 ships and Taira had 400 to 500 ships. It resulted in a decisive victory for the Minamoto clan and the destruction of the Taira clan. The end of the Genpei War brought the end of the Heian period and the beginning of the Kamakura period.


title: Military history of Japan

text: This period is marked by the departure from relatively small or medium-sized clan-like battles, to massive clashes of clans over the control of Japan. The establishment of the Kamakura shogunate coincided with the ascendancy of the samurai class over the aristocratic nobility of the Imperial Court. The Shogunates were military governments and de facto rulers of Japan. They dominated Japanese politics for nearly seven hundred years (1185–1868), subverting the power of the Emperor as a figurehead and the Imperial Court in Kyoto.


title: Military history of Japan

text: In the Kamakura period, Japan successfully repulsed the Mongol invasions, and this saw a large growth in the size of military forces, with samurai as an elite force and as commanders. Following roughly fifty years of bitter fighting over control of the Imperial succession, the Muromachi period, under the Ashikaga shogunate, saw a brief period of peace as the power of the traditional systems of administration by the Imperial Court gradually declined. Later, the position of the provincial governors and other officials under the shogunate slowly gave way into a new class of "daimyōs" (feudal lords) in the early 11th century. The Daimyō were protected by samurai and they dominated Japan's internal politics. This brought the Japanese archipelago into a period of 150 years of fractious disunity and war.


title: Military history of Japan

text: Before the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate, civil power in Japan was primarily held by the ruling emperors and their regents. The regents were typically appointed from the ranks of the imperial court and the aristocratic clans that vied there. Military affairs were handled under the auspices of the civil government. After defeating their main rival the Taira clan, and the Northern Fujiwara, the Minamoto clan established the Kamakura shogunate. Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power from the central government and the aristocracy and established a feudal system based in Kamakura. The samurai gained political power over the aristocratic nobility ("kuge") of the Imperial Court in Kyoto. Emperor Go-Toba and the aristocracy remained the "de jure" rulers. In 1192, Yoritomo was awarded the title of "Sei-i Taishōgun" by Emperor Go-Toba. The political system that Yoritomo developed with a succession of "shōguns" as the head became known as a shogunate. This brought a period of peace. The battles fought during this period mainly consisted of agents of the Minamoto suppressing rebellions. Yoritomo's wife's family, the Hōjō, seized power from the Kamakura "shōguns". When Yoritomo's sons and heirs were assassinated, the "shōgun" himself became a hereditary figurehead. Real power rested with the Hōjō regents. The Kamakura shogunate lasted for almost 150 years, from 1192 to 1333. The Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1281) were the most important wars of the Kamakura period and defining events in Japanese history.


title: Military history of Japan

text: Japan's remote location makes it secure against invaders from the Asian continent. The Japanese archipelago is surrounded by vast seas and has rugged, mountainous terrain with steep rivers. Kyushu is closest to the southernmost point of the Korean peninsula with a distance of . That's almost 6 times farther away than from England to France . Throughout history, Japan was never fully invaded nor colonized by foreigners. Japan only surrendered once after World War II.


title: Military history of Japan

text: , is recognized as Japan's greatest swordsmith. He created the finest swords and daggers (called tachi and tantō), in the "Soshu" tradition.


title: Military history of Japan

text: In the 13th century, the Mongols conquered and controlled China under the Yuan dynasty. Subsequently, they attempted to invade Japan twice. In early October 1274, the Battle of Bun'ei began with a combined force of Mongols and Koreans. They arrived on ships and seized the Japanese islands Tsushima, Iki island, Hirato island, Taka and Nokono. The Mongols slaughtered the inhabitants of Tsushima and about 1000 Japanese soldiers were killed on Iki island. When the Mongols arrived on Japan's mainland of Kyushu they encountered the first real Japanese army. During the Battle of Akasaka the Japanese won with a surprise attack by the forces of Kikuchi Takefusa. The second victory was at the Battle of Torikai-Gata where the samurai of Takezaki Suenaga and Shiraishi Michiyasu killed 3,500 Mongols. The Mongol army and Hong Dagu withdrew to their ships towards the Yuan Dynasty. The Japanese army conducted night attacks and killed as many soldiers as they could. On the night of October 19, a typhoon caused one-third of their returning ships to sink and many Mongol soldiers drowned. This typhoon was called the Kamikaze which means "divinely conjured wind".


title: Military history of Japan

text: The Kamakura shogunate anticipated a second invasion so they constructed walls and fortresses along the shore and gathered forces to defend it. The second Mongol invasion was the largest naval invasion in history until D-Day. In the spring of 1281, Kublai Khan sent two separate forces. An impressive 900 ships containing 40,000 Yuan troops set out from Masan, Korea, while an even larger force of 100,000 sailed from southern China in 3,500 ships. The Mongols planned an overwhelming coordinated attack by the combined imperial Yuan fleets. The Chinese fleet of the Yuan was delayed by difficulties in provisioning and manning their large number of ships.


title: Military history of Japan

text: This culminated in the Battle of Kōan. The Eastern Route Army arrived at Hakata Bay in Kyushu on June 21, 1281. They proceeded without the larger southern force. Waves of samurai responded and prevented the Mongols from forming a beachhead. The samurai used a harassment tactic by boarding the Yuan ships with small boats at night. They killed many of the Yuan forces in the bay and the samurai left before dawn. This caused the Yuan to retreat to Tsushima. During the next few weeks up to 3000 Yuan were killed in close quarters. On July 16, the first of the Southern force ships arrived. By August 12, the two fleets were ready to attack Japan. However, on August 15 a major typhoon (kamikaze) struck the Tsushima Strait. It lasted two full days and destroyed most of the Yuan fleet. Over 4,000 ships were destroyed in the storm; 80 percent of the Yuan soldiers drowned or were killed by samurai on the beaches. The loss of ships was so great that "a person could walk across from one point of land to another on a mass of wreckage".


title: Military history of Japan

text: The equipment, tactics, and military attitudes of the samurai and their Mongol opponents differed greatly, and while both invasions failed miserably, their impact on developments and changes in samurai battle were quite significant. The samurai remained attached to ideas of single combat, that of honorable battle between individual warriors, and to certain ritual elements of battle, such as a series of archery exchanges conducted before entering into hand-to-hand fighting. The Mongols, of course, knew nothing of Japanese conventions, and were arguably much more organized in their strike tactics. They did not select individual opponents with whom to conduct honorable duels, but rode forth on horseback, with various forms of gunpowder weapons and the famous Mongol bow, charging into enemy lines and killing as many as they could without regard to Japanese conceptions of protocol. Though archery and mounted combat were central to Japanese warfare at this time as well, the Mongols remain famous even today for their prowess in these matters. The ways that samurai tactics and attitudes were affected by these experiences are difficult to ascertain, but they were certainly significant.