title: Gleaming the Cube

text: The title of the film refers to the cryptic question "Have you ever gleemed [sic] inside a cube?" that Garry Scott Davis (GSD) asked Neil Blender in an interview in the December 1983 issue of "Thrasher" magazine. In the film, Christian Slater's character defines "gleaming the cube" as "pushing your limits to the edge". The DVD contains an easter egg; by highlighting the skateboard on the main menu, viewers can watch a short featurette entitled "What Does Gleaming the Cube Mean?".


title: Gleaming the Cube

text: Brian Kelly is an unmotivated high school student in Orange County, California. An avid skateboarder, Brian is frequently at odds with his parents for his increasingly reckless behavior, which has landed him in jail on more than one occasion. The only person in the family Brian can relate to is his adopted Vietnamese brother Vinh, who works as a shipping clerk for the Vietnamese Anti-Communist Relief Fund (VACRF), an organization which sends medical supplies to Vietnam.


title: Gleaming the Cube

text: When Vinh discovers a suspicious inaccuracy in VACRF's shipping records, he brings it to his boss Colonel Trac, who fires Vinh when he tries to investigate. Undeterred, Vinh sneaks into Westpac Medical Supplies, the warehouse handling VACRF's shipping, but is apprehended by owner Ed Lawndale. Vinh is interrogated by Lawndale and Bobby Nguyen, another of Colonel Trac's employees, at a motel. When Colonel Trac arrives, it is revealed that he and Lawndale are conspirators in a scheme to smuggle illegal weapons to Vietnam. Convinced that Vinh poses no threat to their operation, Trac intends to set him free, but Vinh is accidentally strangled to death by Nguyen. They hang Vinh's body from a noose, so the police deem it a suicide.


title: Gleaming the Cube

text: After the funeral, Brian finds the list of medical supplies Vinh was investigating, written in Vietnamese. Looking for someone to translate it, he encounters Bobby Nguyen who starts to follow him. Brian sneaks into the backseat of Nguyen’s car and witnesses a meeting with Trac and Lawndale, in which Nguyen demands $50,000 and a ticket to Bangkok at gunpoint, but a struggle ensues and Lawndale kills Nguyen. Brian flees to notify the police, but they find no trace of the crime and later learn that Nguyen supposedly arrived in Thailand. Brian tries to convince Detective Al Lucero that his brother did not commit suicide. While skeptical, Lucero offers to look into it.


title: Gleaming the Cube

text: Suspicious of Colonel Trac, Brian reaches out to Trac's daughter Tina, a fellow high school student and Vinh's ex-girlfriend. After an image makeover, Brian asks her out on a date and the two become closer. He attends one of VACRF's social functions, where he notices Lawndale and learns of his connection to Trac and Westpac. Following in his brother's footsteps, Brian sneaks into Lawndale's warehouse and uncovers a shipping crate full of weapons.


title: Gleaming the Cube

text: Brian causes an explosion at the warehouse and plants evidence to incriminate Trac, but Lucero immediately suspects Brian and admonishes him for the act. However, the incident causes Trac to panic and send his wife and daughter away to his brother's house. A distressed Tina spends the night with Brian instead and discovers a lighter belonging to her father in Brian's room, leading Brian to explain all his suspicions to her. Tina angrily confronts her father about the conspiracy, who is shamed by his involvement and contacts Lawndale to end the operation. In response, Lawndale sends a group of Vietnamese motorcyclists to run Brian down on the street. The police manage to apprehend the bikers and, with the aid of an interpreter, Lucero is able to confirm Lawndale's role in the attack.


title: Gleaming the Cube

text: Brian visits his friend Yabbo, who builds a newer, faster skateboard for Brian and rallies the rest of the skateboarding clique. Brian and the police both converge upon Colonel Trac's house, where Lawndale holds Tina at gunpoint. When Trac tries to wrestle the gun away, Brian crashes into the room through the window, but Lawndale shoots and kills Trac then escapes in a police car. Brian, Lucero, and the entire skateboarding crew eventually corner Lawndale. As Lawndale prepares to shoot Brian, he soars into the air on his skateboard and knocks Lawndale out; he is subsequently arrested by Lucero.


title: Gleaming the Cube

text: Brian comforts Tina about her father's death and suggests that they return to school together, implying that their relationship will continue. Afterwards, Brian and Lucero visit Vinh's grave before driving away.


title: Gleaming the Cube

text: "Gleaming the Cube" was released in the United States on January 13, 1989. In the Philippines, the film was released as "Challenge to Win Again" in mid-1990.


title: Gleaming the Cube

text: The film gained mostly negative reviews from critics; only 29% of critics cited on the site Rotten Tomatoes offer a positive review.


title: Gleaming the Cube

text: Professional skateboarder Stevie Williams has stated in an online interview that Slater's character in the film was his first skateboarding influence.


title: Gleaming the Cube

text: Skateboarding figure Tony Hawk, in a 2008 interview with Slater, revealed that he is continually asked if Slater actually skated in the film. Hawk has remained in contact with Slater well beyond the production of the film.


title: Wireless broadband

text: Wireless broadband is telecommunications technology that provides high-speed wireless Internet access or computer networking access over a wide area. The term comprises both fixed and mobile broadband.


title: Wireless broadband

text: Originally the word "broadband" had a technical meaning, but became a marketing term for any kind of relatively high-speed computer network or Internet access technology.


title: Wireless broadband

text: According to the 802.16-2004 standard, broadband means "having instantaneous bandwidths greater than 1 MHz and supporting data rates greater than about 1.5 Mbit/s."


title: Wireless broadband

text: The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) recently re-defined the definition to mean download speeds of at least 25 Mbit/s and upload speeds of at least 3 Mbit/s.


title: Wireless broadband

text: A wireless broadband network is an outdoor fixed and/or mobile wireless network providing point-to-multipoint or point-to-point terrestrial wireless links for broadband services.


title: Wireless broadband

text: Wireless networks can feature data rates exceeding 1 Gbit/s. Many fixed wireless networks are exclusively half-duplex (HDX), however, some licensed and unlicensed systems can also operate at full-duplex (FDX) allowing communication in both directions simultaneously.


title: Wireless broadband

text: Outdoor fixed wireless broadband networks commonly utilize a priority TDMA based protocol in order to divide communication into timeslots. This timeslot technique eliminates many of the issues common to 802.11 Wi-Fi protocol in outdoor networks such as the hidden node problem.


title: Wireless broadband

text: Few wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) provide download speeds of over 100 Mbit/s; most broadband wireless access (BWA) services are estimated to have a range of from a tower. Technologies used include Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) and Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service (MMDS), as well as heavy use of the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands and one particular access technology was standardized by IEEE 802.16, with products known as WiMAX.


title: Wireless broadband

text: WiMAX is highly popular in Europe but has not met full acceptance in the United States because cost of deployment does not meet return on investment figures. In 2005 the Federal Communications Commission adopted a Report and Order that revised the FCC's rules to open the 3650 MHz band for terrestrial wireless broadband operations.


title: Wireless broadband

text: Another system that is popular with cable internet service providers uses point-to-multipoint wireless links that extend the existing wired network using a transparent radio connection. This allows the same DOCSIS modems to be used for both wired and wireless customers.


title: Wireless broadband

text: On November 14, 2007 the Commission released Public Notice DA 07–4605 in which the Wireless Telecommunications Bureau announced the start date for licensing and registration process for the 3650–3700 MHz band.


title: Wireless broadband

text: In 2010 the FCC adopted the TV White Space Rules (TVWS) and allowed some of the better no line of sight frequency (700 MHz) into the FCC Part-15 Rules. The Wireless Internet Service Providers Association, a national association of WISPs, petitioned the FCC and won.


title: Wireless broadband

text: Initially, WISPs were only found in rural areas not covered by cable or DSL. These early WISPs would employ a high-capacity T-carrier, such as a T1 or DS3 connection, and then broadcast the signal from a high elevation, such as at the top of a water tower. To receive this type of Internet connection, consumers mount a small dish to the roof of their home or office and point it to the transmitter. Line of sight is usually necessary for WISPs operating in the 2.4 and 5 GHz bands with 900 MHz offering better NLOS (non-line-of-sight) performance.


title: Wireless broadband

text: Providers of fixed wireless broadband services typically provide equipment to customers and install a small antenna or dish somewhere on the roof. This equipment is usually deployed as a service and maintained by the company providing that service. Fixed wireless services have become particularly popular in many rural areas where cable, DSL or other typical home internet services are not available.


title: Wireless broadband

text: Many companies in the US and worldwide have started using wireless alternatives to incumbent and local providers for internet and voice service. These providers tend to offer competitive services and options in areas where there is a difficulty getting affordable Ethernet connections from terrestrial providers such as ATT, Comcast, Verizon and others. Also, companies looking for full diversity between carriers for critical uptime requirements may seek wireless alternatives to local options.


title: Wireless broadband

text: To cope with increased demand for wireless broadband, increased spectrum would be needed. Studies began in 2009, and while some unused spectrum was available, it appeared broadcasters would have to give up at least some spectrum. This led to strong objections from the broadcasting community. In 2013, auctions were planned, and for now any action by broadcasters is voluntary.


title: Wireless broadband

text: Called mobile broadband, wireless broadband technologies include services from mobile phone service providers such as Verizon Wireless, Sprint Corporation, and AT&T Mobility, and T-Mobile which allow a more mobile version of Internet access. Consumers can purchase a PC card, laptop card, USB equipment, or mobile broadband modem, to connect their PC or laptop to the Internet via cell phone towers. This type of connection would be stable in almost any area that could also receive a strong cell phone connection. These connections can cost more for portable convenience as well as having speed limitations in all but urban environments.


title: Wireless broadband

text: On June 2, 2010, after months of discussion, AT&T became the first wireless Internet provider in the US to announce plans to charge according to usage. As the only iPhone service in the United States, AT&T experienced the problem of heavy Internet use more than other providers. About 3 percent of AT&T smart phone customers account for 40 percent of the technology's use. 98 percent of the company's customers use less than 2 gigabytes (4000 page views, 10,000 emails or 200 minutes of streaming video), the limit under the $25 monthly plan, and 65 percent use less than 200 megabytes, the limit for the $15 plan. For each gigabyte in excess of the limit, customers would be charged $10 a month starting June 7, 2010, though existing customers would not be required to change from the $30 a month unlimited service plan. The new plan would become a requirement for those upgrading to the new iPhone technology later in the summer.


title: Wireless broadband

text: A wireless connection can be either licensed or unlicensed. In the US, licensed connections use a private spectrum the user has secured rights to from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). In other countries, spectrum is licensed from the country's national radio communications authority (such as the ACMA in Australia or Nigerian Communications Commission in Nigeria (NCC)). Licensing is usually expensive and often reserved for large companies who wish to guarantee private access to spectrum for use in point to point communication. Because of this, most wireless ISP's use unlicensed spectrum which is publicly shared.


title: Science education

text: Science education is the teaching and learning of science to school children, college students, or adults within the general public. The field of science education includes work in science content, science process (the scientific method), some social science, and some teaching pedagogy. The standards for science education provide expectations for the development of understanding for students through the entire course of their K-12 education and beyond. The traditional subjects included in the standards are physical, life, earth, space, and human sciences.


title: Science education

text: The first person credited with being employed as a science teacher in a British public school was William Sharp, who left the job at Rugby School in 1850 after establishing science to the curriculum. Sharp is said to have established a model for science to be taught throughout the British public school system.


title: Science education

text: The British Academy for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) published a report in 1867 calling for the teaching of "pure science" and training of the "scientific habit of mind." The progressive education movement supported the ideology of mental training through the sciences. BAAS emphasized separately pre-professional training in secondary science education. In this way, future BAAS members could be prepared.


title: Science education

text: The initial development of science teaching was slowed by the lack of qualified teachers. One key development was the founding of the first London School Board in 1870, which discussed the school curriculum; another was the initiation of courses to supply the country with trained science teachers. In both cases the influence of Thomas Henry Huxley. John Tyndall was also influential in the teaching of physical science.


title: Science education

text: In the United States, science education was a scatter of subjects prior to its standardization in the 1890s. The development of a science curriculum emerged gradually after extended debate between two ideologies, citizen science and pre-professional training. As a result of a conference of thirty leading secondary and college educators in Florida, the National Education Association appointed a Committee of Ten in 1892, which had authority to organize future meetings and appoint subject matter committees of the major subjects taught in secondary schools. The committee was composed of ten educators and chaired by Charles Eliot of Harvard University. The Committee of Ten appointed nine conferences committees: Latin; Greek; English; Other Modern Languages; Mathematics; History; Civil Government and Political Economy; physics, astronomy, and chemistry; natural history; and geography. Each committee was composed of ten leading specialists from colleges, normal schools, and secondary schools. Committee reports were submitted to the Committee of Ten, which met for four days in New York City, to create a comprehensive report. In 1894, the NEA published the results of work of these conference committees.


title: Science education

text: According to the Committee of Ten, the goal of high school was to prepare all students to do well in life, contributing to their well-being and the good of society. Another goal was to prepare some students to succeed in college.


title: Science education

text: This committee supported the citizen science approach focused on mental training and withheld performance in science studies from consideration for college entrance. The BAAS encouraged their longer standing model in the UK. The US adopted a curriculum was characterized as follows:


title: Science education

text: The format of shared mental training and pre-professional training consistently dominated the curriculum from its inception to now. However, the movement to incorporate a humanistic approach, such as inclusion of the arts (S.T.E.A.M.), science, technology, society and environment education is growing and being implemented more broadly in the late 20th century. Reports by the American Academy for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), including Project 2061, and by the National Committee on Science Education Standards and Assessment detail goals for science education that link classroom science to practical applications and societal implications.


title: Science education

text: Science is a universal subject that spans the branch of knowledge that examines the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment. Science education is most commonly broken down into the following three fields: Biology, chemistry, and physics.


title: Science education

text: Physics education is characterized by the study of science that deals with matter and energy, and their interactions.


title: Science education

text: Physics First, a program endorsed by the American Association of Physics Teachers, is a curriculum in which 9th grade students take an introductory physics course. The purpose is to enrich students' understanding of physics, and allow for more detail to be taught in subsequent high school biology and chemistry classes. It also aims to increase the number of students who go on to take 12th grade physics or AP Physics, which are generally elective courses in American high schools.


title: Science education

text: Physics education in high schools in the United States has suffered the last twenty years because many states now only require three sciences, which can be satisfied by earth/physical science, chemistry, and biology. The fact that many students do not take physics in high school makes it more difficult for those students to take scientific courses in college.


title: Science education

text: At the university/college level, using appropriate technology-related projects to spark non-physics majors' interest in learning physics has been shown to be successful. This is a potential opportunity to forge the connection between physics and social benefit.


title: Science education

text: Chemistry education is characterized by the study of science that deals with the composition, structure, and properties of substances and the transformations that they undergo.


title: Science education

text: Chemistry is the study of chemicals and the elements and their effects and attributes. Students in chemistry learn the periodic table. The branch of science education known as "chemistry must be taught in a relevant context in order to promote full understanding of current sustainability issues." As this source states chemistry is a very important subject in school as it teaches students to understand issues in the world. As children are interested by the world around them chemistry teachers can attract interest in turn educating the students further. The subject of chemistry is a very practical based subject meaning most of class time is spent working or completing experiments.


title: Science education

text: Biology education is characterized by the study of structure, function, heredity, and evolution of all living organisms. Biology itself is the study of living organisms, through different fields including morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin, and distribution.


title: Science education

text: Depending on the country and education level, there are many approaches to teaching biology. In the United States, there is a growing emphasis on the ability to investigate and analyze biology related questions over an extended period of time. Current biological education standards have basis in decisions made by the Committee of Ten, who aimed to standardize pre-college learning in 1892. The Committee emphasized the importance of learning natural history (biology) first, focusing on observation through laboratory work.


title: Science education

text: While the public image of science education may be one of simply learning facts by rote, science education in recent history also generally concentrates on the teaching of science concepts and addressing misconceptions that learners may hold regarding science concepts or other content. Thomas Kuhn, whose 1962 book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" greatly influenced the post-positivist philosophy of science, argued that the traditional method of teaching in the natural sciences tends to produce a rigid mindset.


title: Science education

text: Since the 1980s, science education has been strongly influenced by constructivist thinking. Constructivism in science education has been informed by an extensive research programme into student thinking and learning in science, and in particular exploring how teachers can facilitate conceptual change towards canonical scientific thinking. Constructivism emphasises the active role of the learner, and the significance of current knowledge and understanding in mediating learning, and the importance of teaching that provides an optimal level of guidance to learners.


title: Science education

text: According to a 2004 Policy Forum in "Science" magazine, "scientific teaching involves active learning strategies to engage students in the process of science and teaching methods that have been systematically tested and shown to reach diverse students."


title: Science education

text: These elements should underlie educational and pedagogical decisions in the classroom. The "SCALE-UP" learning environment is an example of applying the scientific teaching approach. In practice, scientific teaching employs a "backward design" approach. The instructor first decides what the students should know and be able to do (learning goals), then determines what would be evidence of student achievement of the learning goals, then designs assessments to measure this achievement. Finally, the instructor plans the learning activities, which should facilitate student learning through scientific discovery.


title: Science education

text: Along with John Dewey, Jerome Bruner, and many others, Arthur Koestler offers a critique of contemporary science education and proposes its replacement with the guided-discovery approach: To derive pleasure from the art of discovery, as from the other arts, the consumer—in this case the student—must be made to re-live, to some extent, the creative process. In other words, he must be induced, with proper aid and guidance, to make some of the fundamental discoveries of science by himself, to experience in his own mind some of those flashes of insight which have lightened its path. . . . The traditional method of confronting the student not with the problem but with the finished solution, means depriving him of all excitement, [shutting] off the creative impulse, [reducing] the adventure of mankind to a dusty heap of theorems.Specific hands-on illustrations of this approach are available.


title: Science education

text: The practice of science education has been increasingly informed by research into science teaching and learning. Research in science education relies on a wide variety of methodologies, borrowed from many branches of science and engineering such as computer science, cognitive science, cognitive psychology and anthropology. Science education research aims to define or characterize what constitutes learning in science and how it is brought about.


title: Science education

text: John D. Bransford, et al., summarized massive research into student thinking as having three key findings:


title: Science education

text: Educational technologies are being refined to meet the specific needs of science teachers. One research study examining how cellphones are being used in post-secondary science teaching settings showed that mobile technologies can increase student engagement and motivation in the science classroom.


title: Science education

text: According to a bibliography on constructivist-oriented research on teaching and learning science in 2005, about 64 percent of studies documented are carried out in the domain of physics, 21 percent in the domain of biology, and 15 percent in chemistry. The major reason for this dominance of physics in the research on teaching and learning appears to be that understanding physics includes difficulties due to the particular nature of physics.


title: Science education

text: Research on students' conceptions has shown that most pre-instructional (everyday) ideas that students bring to physics instruction are in stark contrast to the physics concepts and principles to be achieved – from kindergarten to the tertiary level. Quite often students' ideas are incompatible with physics views. This also holds true for students' more general patterns of thinking and reasoning.


title: Science education

text: As in England and Wales, science education in Australia is compulsory up until year 11, where students can choose to study one or more of the branches mentioned above. If they wish to no longer study science, they can choose none of the branches. The science stream is one course up until year 11, meaning students learn in all of the branches giving them a broad idea of what science is all about. The National Curriculum Board of Australia (2009) stated that "The science curriculum will be organised around three interrelated strands: science understanding; science inquiry skills; and science as a human endeavour." These strands give teachers and educators the framework of how they should be instructing their students.


title: Science education

text: In 2011, it was reported that a major problem that has befallen science education in Australia over the last decade is a falling interest in science. Fewer year 10 students are choosing to study science for year 11, which is problematic as these are the years where students form attitudes to pursue science careers. This issue is not unique in Australia, but is happening in countries all over the world.


title: Science education

text: Educational quality in China suffers because a typical classroom contains 50 to 70 students. With over 200 million students, China has the largest educational system in the world. However, only 20% percent of students complete the rigorous ten-year program of formal schooling.


title: Science education

text: As in many other countries, the science curriculum includes sequenced courses in physics, chemistry, and biology. Science education is given high priority and is driven by textbooks composed by committees of scientists and teachers. Science education in China places great emphasis on memorization, and gives far less attention to problem solving, application of principles to novel situations, interpretations, and predictions.


title: Science education

text: In English and Welsh schools, science is a compulsory subject in the National Curriculum. All pupils from 5 to 16 years of age must study science. It is generally taught as a single subject science until sixth form, then splits into subject-specific A levels (physics, chemistry and biology). However, the government has since expressed its desire that those pupils who achieve well at the age of 14 should be offered the opportunity to study the three separate sciences from September 2008. In Scotland the subjects split into chemistry, physics and biology at the age of 13–15 for National 4/5s in these subjects, and there is also a combined science standard grade qualification which students can sit, provided their school offers it.


title: Science education

text: In September 2006 a new science program of study known as 21st Century Science was introduced as a GCSE option in UK schools, designed to "give all 14 to 16-year-old's a worthwhile and inspiring experience of science". In November 2013, Ofsted's survey of science in schools revealed that practical science teaching was not considered important enough. At the majority of English schools, students have the opportunity to study a separate science program as part of their GCSEs, which results in them taking 6 papers at the end of Year 11; this usually fills one of their option 'blocks' and requires more science lessons than those who choose not to partake in separate science or are not invited. Other students who choose not to follow the compulsory additional science course, which results in them taking 4 papers resulting in 2 GCSEs, opposed to the 3 GCSEs given by taking separate science.


title: Science education

text: In many U.S. states, K-12 educators must adhere to rigid standards or frameworks of what content is to be taught to which age groups. This often leads teachers to rush to "cover" the material, without truly "teaching" it. In addition, the "process" of science, including such elements as the scientific method and critical thinking, is often overlooked. This emphasis can produce students who pass standardized tests without having developed complex problem solving skills. Although at the college level American science education tends to be less regulated, it is actually more rigorous, with teachers and professors fitting more content into the same time period.


title: Science education

text: In 1996, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences of the U.S. National Academies produced the National Science Education Standards, which is available online for free in multiple forms. Its focus on inquiry-based science, based on the theory of constructivism rather than on direct instruction of facts and methods, remains controversial. Some research suggests that it is more effective as a model for teaching science. "The Standards call for more than 'science as process,' in which students learn such skills as observing, inferring, and experimenting. Inquiry is central to science learning. When engaging in inquiry, students describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others. They identify their assumptions, use critical and logical thinking, and consider alternative explanations. In this way, students actively develop their understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge with reasoning and thinking skills."


title: Science education

text: Concern about science education and science standards has often been driven by worries that American students, and even teachers, lag behind their peers in international rankings. One notable example was the wave of education reforms implemented after the Soviet Union launched its Sputnik satellite in 1957. The first and most prominent of these reforms was led by the Physical Science Study Committee at MIT. In recent years, business leaders such as Microsoft Chairman Bill Gates have called for more emphasis on science education, saying the United States risks losing its economic edge. To this end, Tapping America's Potential is an organization aimed at getting more students to graduate with science, technology, engineering and mathematics degrees. Public opinion surveys, however, indicate most U.S. parents are complacent about science education and that their level of concern has actually declined in recent years.


title: Science education

text: Furthermore, in the recent National Curriculum Survey conducted by ACT, researchers uncovered a possible disconnect among science educators. "Both middle school/junior high school teachers and post secondary science instructors rate(d) process/inquiry skills as more important than advanced science content topics; high school teachers rate them in exactly the opposite order." Perhaps more communication among educators at the different grade levels in necessary to ensure common goals for students.


title: Science education

text: According to a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the fields of science, technology, and education hold a paramount place in the modern world, but there are not enough workers in the United States entering the science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) professions. In 2012 the National Academy of Sciences Committee on a Conceptual Framework for New K-12 Science Education Standards developed a guiding framework to standardize K-12 science education with the goal of organizing science education systematically across the K-12 years. Titled "A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas", the publication promotes standardizing K-12 science education in the United States. It emphasizes science educators to focus on a "limited number of disciplinary core ideas and crosscutting concepts, be designed so that students continually build on and revise their knowledge and abilities over multiple years, and support the integration of such knowledge and abilities with the practices needed to engage in scientific inquiry and engineering design."


title: Science education

text: The report says that in the 21st century Americans need science education in order to engage in and "systematically investigate issues related to their personal and community priorities," as well as to reason scientifically and know how to apply science knowledge. The committee that designed this new framework sees this imperative as a matter of educational equity to the diverse set of schoolchildren. Getting more diverse students into STEM education is a matter of social justice as seen by the committee.


title: Science education

text: In 2013 a new standards for science education were released that update the national standards released in 1996. Developed by 26 state governments and national organizations of scientists and science teachers, the guidelines, called the Next Generation Science Standards, are intended to "combat widespread scientific ignorance, to standardize teaching among states, and to raise the number of high school graduates who choose scientific and technical majors in college..." Included are guidelines for teaching students about topics such as climate change and evolution. An emphasis is teaching the scientific process so that students have a better understanding of the methods of science and can critically evaluate scientific evidence. Organizations that contributed to developing the standards include the National Science Teachers Association, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the National Research Council, and Achieve, a nonprofit organization that was also involved in developing math and English standards.


title: Science education

text: Informal science education is the science teaching and learning that occurs outside of the formal school curriculum in places such as museums, the media, and community-based programs. The National Science Teachers Association has created a position statement on Informal Science Education to define and encourage science learning in many contexts and throughout the lifespan. Research in informal science education is funded in the United States by the National Science Foundation. The Center for Advancement of Informal Science Education (CAISE) provides resources for the informal science education community.


title: Science education

text: Examples of informal science education include science centers, science museums, and new digital learning environments ("e.g." Global Challenge Award), many of which are members of the Association of Science and Technology Centers (ASTC). The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia and the Museum of Science (Boston) are the oldest of this type of museum in the United States. Media include TV programs such as "NOVA", "Newton's Apple", "Bill Nye the Science Guy","Beakman's World", "The Magic School Bus", and "Dragonfly TV". Early examples of science education on American television included programs by Daniel Q. Posin, such as "Dr. Posin's Universe", "The Universe Around Us", "On the Shoulders of Giants", and "Out of This World". Examples of community-based programs are 4-H Youth Development programs, Hands On Science Outreach, NASA and After school Programs and Girls at the Center. Home education is encouraged through educational products such as the former (1940-1989) Things of Science subscription service.


title: Science education

text: In 2010, the National Academies released "Surrounded by Science: Learning Science in Informal Environments", based on the National Research Council study, "Learning Science in Informal Environments: People, Places, and Pursuits". "Surrounded by Science" is a resource book that shows how current research on learning science across informal science settings can guide the thinking, the work, and the discussions among informal science practitioners. This book makes valuable research accessible to those working in informal science: educators, museum professionals, university faculty, youth leaders, media specialists, publishers, broadcast journalists, and many others.


title: Trackmasters

text: The Trackmasters are an American hip hop production duo composed of music producers Poke (Jean-Claude Olivier) and Tone (Samuel Barnes), best known for their commercial hit records in the mid-late 1990s and early 2000s. Frank "Nitty" Pimentel joined forces with the duo to complete the success of "Trackmasters". Throughout their career, they have worked with various hip-hop and R&B artists including Destiny's Child, Nas, R. Kelly, LL Cool J, Mary J. Blige, Will Smith, Jay-Z, Cam'ron, Jennifer Lopez, Mariah Carey, The Notorious B.I.G. and 50 Cent.


title: Trackmasters

text: Known for their commercially successful singles and many remixes, they have collectively earned over seven gold and twenty platinum plaques throughout their career. They were ranked 6th in "Vibe" magazine's "Greatest Hip-Hop Producers of All Time" in the 'Mass Appeal' category.


title: Trackmasters

text: In 1989, Poke connected with childhood friend Frank "Nitty" Pimentel at his recording studio in Bay Ridge, Brooklyn, New York City. With Tone (known then as Red Hot Lover Tone), Pimentel helped Tone and Poke in learning the equipment as well as programming and sequencing on drum machines. Alex Richbourg became part of the team that same year as a musician. A few years later Alex Richbourg decided to move on and join forces with Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. Soon after, Alex "Spanador" Mosely from the group Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam added the acoustic guitar and many other live instruments. The name Trackmasters originated from their first manager Andre S. Brownne. The original name was stylized as TrakMasterz, however in the mid 1990s it was changed and restructured by the new manager Steve Stoute to what is today.


title: Trackmasters

text: Puff Daddy had become an A&R at Uptown Records, and when he met up with the Trackmasters, it was rumored that he bought every beat they had made. After producing for artists such as Kool G Rap, LL Cool J, Roxanne Shante and Big Daddy Kane, Trackmasters were signed to Columbia Records and were given their own imprint/vanity label Trackmasters Entertainment. At the time they were working with MC Serch of rap group 3rd Bass and Tone also had a side project on Select Records as a rapper under the name Red Hot Lover Tone.


title: Trackmasters

text: Around this time, Poke had also worked with Puff Daddy to produce the hit singles "Juicy" and "Respect" for The Notorious B.I.G.'s debut album, and "Be Happy" for Mary J. Blige, as well as producing for other artists including Heavy D, Soul for Real, Method Man and Faith Evans.


title: Trackmasters

text: In 1995, Trackmasters produced two major hits for LL Cool J from his "Mr. Smith" album: "Hey Lover" and "Loungin". The album is also notable for Foxy Brown's musical debut on the single "I Shot Ya (remix)". "Hey Lover" featuring Boyz II Men reached #3 on both the Billboard Hot 100 and Hot R&B Singles charts and was certified platinum. The remix of "Loungin" became known by many as the quintessential version. The remix which features R&B group Total peaked at #3 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Trackmasters

text: In 1996, Nas released his second album "It Was Written" featuring Poke & Tone as main producers. Although it was criticized for having a more mainstream or commercialized sound, it was highly successful, topping the "Billboard" 200 chart for a month straight and is Nas' best selling album to date. The two singles "Street Dreams" and "If I Ruled the World (Imagine That)" also helped the Trackmasters establish their position as prominent hip hop producers of that era. They also were heavily involved with Foxy Brown's debut album "Ill Na Na", producing the majority of the album including the hit singles "Get me Home" featuring Blackstreet and "I'll Be" which also featured Jay-Z.


title: Trackmasters

text: Capitalizing on recent success and taking advice from manager Steve Stoute, Trackmasters and Nas created hip-hop supergroup The Firm which also included Foxy Brown, AZ and Nature. Teaming up with Dr. Dre, the group released their debut album on Aftermath Recordings with production shared between Trackmasters and Dre. However, the group disbanded after just one album and continued solo careers.


title: Trackmasters

text: Towards the late 1990s, a new commercial sound had emerged in the hip-hop scene. Sometimes referred to as the "Jiggy Era" or "Shiny Suit Era", it was characterized by upbeat instrumentals which featured samples of many recognizable 1980s hits. The Trackmasters were in high demand from many record labels for their ability to create radio-friendly records which were not deemed to be "selling out", and around this time they produced singles such as Will Smith's "Miami" and "Men in Black", Jay-Z's "Wishing on a Star", R. Kelly's "Did You Ever Think", and the Trackmasters Remix to Ricky Martin's "Livin' la Vida Loca" which featured Big Pun and Fat Joe.


title: Trackmasters

text: In 2000, Trackmasters signed upcoming rapper 50 Cent to their Trackmasters imprint at Sony/Columbia Records and had produced the majority of what would have been his debut album "Power of the Dollar", which included the controversial singles "Ghetto Qu'ran (Forgive Me)" and "How to Rob". However, three days before the filming of the video for "Thug Love", which also featured Destiny's Child, 50 Cent was infamously shot nine times near his home in New York. Columbia Records forced Trackmasters to drop the artist from their label due to bad publicity surrounding the shooting, and as a result the album was shelved leading to a falling out between 50 and Poke & Tone.


title: Trackmasters

text: In 2001, the Trackmasters Remix to Jennifer Lopez's "I'm Gonna Be Alright", which featured a then relatively unknown 50 Cent, was to be released as a single. However, Lopez and Epic Records decided they would rather have Nas feature on the song due to his popularity on the music charts at the time, so a new version was recorded and the 50 Cent verses were scrapped. This caused further tension between 50 and Trackmasters, and also lead to a rift between then-friends, 50 Cent and Nas. The version of the Remix which features 50 Cent can be heard online as it was leaked to radio before the official release.


title: Trackmasters

text: Despite being unable to break new artist 50 Cent to the mainstream, Poke & Tone continued to produce hits for established artists including LL Cool J's "Paradise", Michael Jackson's "You Rock My World [Trackmasters Remix]", "Fiesta" by R. Kelly and Jay-Z, and Jennifer Lopez's R&B number 1 single "Jenny from the Block".


title: Trackmasters

text: Also in 2001, Tone produced two hit singles for slain rapper 2Pac. Tone's remixed versions of "Until The End Of Time" & "Letter 2 My Unborn" were big contributors to making 2Pac's album sell more than three million copies.


title: Trackmasters

text: In 2002, Trackmasters worked on "The Best of Both Worlds", a collaboration album between Jay-Z and R. Kelly where they produced 10 of 13 songs and where Tone was credited as executive producer. This was followed up in 2004 by another collaboration album between the two called "Unfinished Business", where again the duo handled the majority of the production. However, both albums were met with poor commercial and critical success, and as mainstream production was being handled by producers who relied less on samples and had a more synth-based keyboard sound such as The Neptunes, the Trackmasters sound became less popular. In 2005, they produced the track "Dunn Natt" ("Done That") with Vanilla Ice.


title: Trackmasters

text: Although they did produce some new music around the time, for example Rihanna's "If It's Lovin' That You Want" (the second single of her debut album), Trackmasters were not highly regarded as the sought after producers they once were.


title: Trackmasters

text: After 2005, beats by the Trackmasters were heard less in mainstream hip-hop and R&B, and Poke and Tone had disbanded and taken on new jobs; Poke as a television producer and Tone as the Executive Vice President of A&R at Universal Music Group.


title: Trackmasters

text: However, in 2007 the two joined together again and recruited more musicians and producers including Russell "The ARE" Gonzales, Spanador, Frequency, Ace 21 and Just Nyce to reform Trackmasters from a duo to a full production team with songwriters and musicians, with Poke and Tone overseeing each project. The reformed group reportedly spent three months working at Battery Studios, leaving with over 230 completed songs ready to be sold.


title: Trackmasters

text: They have recorded songs with Lil' Kim for her upcoming 2010 album including the songs "Shook Hands", and "Download" featuring T-Pain and Charlie Wilson.


title: Trackmasters

text: Since the group reformed, they have produced on Ray J's 2008 album All I Feel on the song "Boyfriend", and on Ludacris' 2008 album Theater of the Mind with the single "One More Drink" featuring T-Pain. They also worked on rapper The Game's 2008 album LAX however, the song "Ain't Fuckin' With You" which they produced was only featured on the Deluxe Edition as a bonus track. The team also worked on various tracks from Wiz Khalifa's 2009 album Deal or No Deal, including the single "This Plane" and the 2011 track "Motivated (Tired of Playing Games)" by Harlem rapper Vado.


title: Trackmasters

text: The style of production which gained the Trackmasters the most recognition was a mix of the traditional heavy hitting "boom-bap" style drums generally found in older hip-hop music, with a more modern influence involving the use of recognizable samples (often from 1980s pop hits), giving the overall track a commercial, polished feel yet still retaining the traditional hip-hop sound. This style can be found in songs such as "I'll Be" by Foxy Brown and Jay-Z, "Street Dreams" by Nas, "Just Crusin'" by Will Smith and "The Roof (Remix)" by Mariah Carey and Mobb Deep.


title: Trackmasters

text: Also, layering different sounds has been a key technique used by the duo. It has been noted that Poke's version of "Juicy" has a layered bassline over the sample, giving more rhythm and making it easier to dance to, as opposed to Pete Rock's version which relies more on the heavy drums, giving a "boom-bap" sound.


title: Trackmasters

text: As the mainstream trending sound started to change in the early 2000s, the Trackmasters adopted new techniques into their production style. They characterised their newer beats with the use of a Spanish guitar sound used in beats such as R. Kelly and Jay-Z's "Fiesta", "Pretty Girls" and "Get This Money", and also Nas' "Money Is My Bitch". Additionally, they experimented with different percussion sounds as shown on Fabolous' "Damn", and frequently incorporated turntable scratches at the end of every 8 bars on beats including Jennifer Lopez's "Im Gonna Be Alright (Trackmasters Remix)", and "Jenny From the Block".


title: Trackmasters

text: Since Trackmasters expanded to a full production team, Tone emphasises the importance of layering instruments over samples to create a more full beat. "The key to big-sounding records is layering. If you can layer a sample with live instruments, you're taking your track to a level that, sonically, is going to surpass what most hip-hop producers are doing." This technique has been used on the song "Boyfriend" by Ray J with the piano sounds.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychology is the study of psychological and behavioral processes in health, illness, and healthcare. The discipline is concerned with understanding how psychological, behavioral, and cultural factors contribute to physical health and illness. Psychological factors can affect health directly. For example, chronically occurring environmental stressors affecting the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, cumulatively, can harm health. Behavioral factors can also affect a person's health. For example, certain behaviors can, over time, harm (smoking or consuming excessive amounts of alcohol) or enhance (engaging in exercise) health. Health psychologists take a biopsychosocial approach. In other words, health psychologists understand health to be the product not only of biological processes (e.g., a virus, tumor, etc.) but also of psychological (e.g., thoughts and beliefs), behavioral (e.g., habits), and social processes (e.g., socioeconomic status and ethnicity).


title: Health psychology

text: By understanding psychological factors that influence health, and constructively applying that knowledge, health psychologists can improve health by working directly with individual patients or indirectly in large-scale public health programs. In addition, health psychologists can help train other healthcare professionals (e.g., physicians and nurses) to apply the knowledge the discipline has generated, when treating patients. Health psychologists work in a variety of settings: alongside other medical professionals in hospitals and clinics, in public health departments working on large-scale behavior change and health promotion programs, and in universities and medical schools where they teach and conduct research.


title: Health psychology

text: Although its early beginnings can be traced to the field of clinical psychology, four different divisions within health psychology and one related field, occupational health psychology (OHP), have developed over time. The four divisions include clinical health psychology, public health psychology, community health psychology, and critical health psychology. Professional organizations for the field of health psychology include Division 38 of the American Psychological Association (APA), the Division of Health Psychology of the British Psychological Society (BPS), the European Health Psychology Society, and the College of Health Psychologists of the Australian Psychological Society (APS). Advanced credentialing in the US as a clinical health psychologist is provided through the American Board of Professional Psychology.


title: Health psychology

text: Recent advances in psychological, medical, and physiological research have led to a new way of thinking about health and illness. This conceptualization, which has been labeled the biopsychosocial model, views health and illness as the product of a combination of factors including biological characteristics (e.g., genetic predisposition), behavioral factors (e.g., lifestyle, stress, health beliefs), and social conditions (e.g., cultural influences, family relationships, social support).


title: Health psychology

text: Psychologists who strive to understand how biological, behavioral, and social factors influence health and illness are called health psychologists. Health psychologists use their knowledge of psychology and health to promote general well-being and understand physical illness. They are specially trained to help people deal with the psychological and emotional aspects of health and illness. Health psychologists work with many different health care professionals (e.g., physicians, dentists, nurses, physician's assistants, dietitians, social workers, pharmacists, physical and occupational therapists, and chaplains) to conduct research and provide clinical assessments and treatment services. Many health psychologists focus on prevention research and interventions designed to promote healthier lifestyles and try to find ways to encourage people to improve their health. For example, they may help people to lose weight or stop smoking. Health psychologists also use their skills to try to improve the healthcare system. For example, they may advise doctors about better ways to communicate with their patients.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychologists work in many different settings including the UK's National Health Service (NHS), private practice, universities, communities, schools and organizations. While many health psychologists provide clinical services as part of their duties, others function in non-clinical roles, primarily involving teaching and research. Leading journals include "Health Psychology", the "Journal of Health Psychology", the "British Journal of Health Psychology", and "Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being". Health psychologists can work with people on a one-to-one basis, in groups, as a family, or at a larger population level.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychology, like other areas of applied psychology, is both a theoretical and applied field. Health psychologists employ diverse research methods. These methods include controlled randomized experiments, quasi-experiments, longitudinal studies, time-series designs, cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, qualitative research as well as action research. Health psychologists study a broad range of health phenomena including cardiovascular disease (cardiac psychology), smoking habits, the relation of religious beliefs to health, alcohol use, social support, living conditions, emotional state, social class, and more. Some health psychologists treat individuals with sleep problems, headaches, alcohol problems, etc. Other health psychologists work to empower community members by helping community members gain control over their health and improve quality of life of entire communities.


title: Health psychology

text: ClHP is the application of scientific knowledge, derived from the field of health psychology, to clinical questions that may arise across the spectrum of health care. ClHP is one of the specialty practice areas for clinical and health psychologists. It is also a major contributor to the prevention-focused field of behavioral health and the treatment-oriented field of behavioral medicine. Clinical practice includes education, the techniques of behavior change, and psychotherapy. In some countries, a clinical health psychologist, with additional training, can become a medical psychologist and, thereby, obtain prescription privileges.


title: Health psychology

text: PHP is population oriented. A major aim of PHP is to investigate potential causal links between psychosocial factors and health at the population level. Public health psychologists present research results to educators, policy makers, and health care providers in order to promote better public health. PHP is allied to other public health disciplines including epidemiology, nutrition, genetics and biostatistics. Some PHP interventions are targeted toward at-risk population groups (e.g., undereducated, single pregnant women who smoke) and not the population as a whole (e.g., all pregnant women).


title: Health psychology

text: CoHP investigates community factors that contribute to the health and well-being of individuals who live in communities. CoHP also develops community-level interventions that are designed to combat disease and promote physical and mental health. The community often serves as the level of analysis, and is frequently sought as a partner in health-related interventions.


title: Health psychology

text: CrHP is concerned with the distribution of power and the impact of power differentials on health experience and behavior, health care systems, and health policy. CrHP prioritizes social justice and the universal right to health for people of all races, genders, ages, and socioeconomic positions. A major concern is health inequalities. The critical health psychologist is an agent of change, not simply an analyst or cataloger. A leading organization in this area is the International Society of Critical Health Psychology.


title: Health psychology

text: Pickren and Degni and Sanderson observed that in Europe and North America occupational health psychology (OHP) emerged as a specialty with its own organizations. The authors noted that OHP owes some of that emergence to health psychology as well as other disciplines (e.g., i/o psychology, occupational medicine). Sanderson underlined examples in which OHP aligns with health psychology, including Adkins's research. Adkins documented the application of behavioral principles to improve working conditions, mitigate job stress, and improve worker health in a complex organization.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychology developed in different forms in different societies. Psychological factors in health had been studied since the early 20th century by disciplines such as psychosomatic medicine and later behavioral medicine, but these were primarily branches of medicine, not psychology.


title: Health psychology

text: In 1969, William Schofield prepared a report for the APA entitled "The Role of Psychology in the Delivery of Health Services". While there were exceptions, he found that the psychological research of the time frequently regarded mental health and physical health as separate, and devoted very little attention to psychology's impact upon physical health. One of the few psychologists working in this area at the time, Schofield proposed new forms of education and training for future psychologists. The APA, responding to his proposal, in 1973 established a task force to consider how psychologists could (a) help people to manage their health-related behaviors, (b) help patients manage their physical health problems, and (c) train healthcare staff to work more effectively with patients.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychology began to emerge as a distinct discipline of psychology in the United States in the 1970s. In the mid-20th century there was a growing understanding in medicine of the effect of behavior on health. For example, the Alameda County Study, which began in the 1960s, showed that people who ate regular meals (e.g., breakfast), maintained a healthy weight, received adequate sleep, did not smoke, drank little alcohol, and exercised regularly were in better health and lived longer. In addition, psychologists and other scientists were discovering relationships between psychological processes and physiological ones. These discoveries include a better understanding of the impact of psychosocial stress on the cardiovascular and immune systems, and the early finding that the functioning of the immune system could be altered by learning.


title: Health psychology

text: Led by Joseph Matarazzo, in 1977, APA added a division devoted to health psychology. At the first divisional conference, Matarazzo delivered a speech that played an important role in defining health psychology. He defined the new field in this way, "Health psychology is the aggregate of the specific educational, scientific and professional contributions of the discipline of psychology to the promotion and maintenance of health, the prevention and treatment of illness, the identification of diagnostic and etiologic correlates of health, illness and related dysfunction, and the analysis and improvement of the healthcare system and health policy formation." In the 1980s, similar organizations were established elsewhere. In 1986, the BPS established a Division of Health Psychology. The European Health Psychology Society was also established in 1986. Similar organizations were established in other countries, including Australia and Japan. Universities began to develop doctoral level training programs in health psychology. In the US, post-doctoral level health psychology training programs were established for individuals who completed a doctoral degree in clinical psychology.


title: Health psychology

text: Psychologists have been working in medical settings for many years (in the UK sometimes the field was termed medical psychology). Medical psychology, however, was a relatively small field, primarily aimed at helping patients adjust to illness. The BPS's reconsideration of the role of the Medical Section prompted the emergence of health psychology as a distinct field. Marie Johnston and John Weinman argued in a letter to the "BPS Bulletin" that there was a great need for a Health Psychology Section. In December 1986 the section was established at the BPS London Conference, with Marie Johnston as chair. At the Annual BPS Conference in 1993 a review of "Current Trends in Health Psychology" was organized, and a definition of health psychology as "the study of psychological and behavioural processes in health, illness and healthcare" was proposed.


title: Health psychology

text: The Health Psychology Section became a Special Group in 1993 and was awarded divisional status within the UK in 1997. The awarding of divisional status meant that the individual training needs and professional practice of health psychologists were recognized, and members were able to obtain chartered status with the BPS. The BPS went on to regulate training and practice in health psychology until the regulation of professional standards and qualifications was taken over by statutory registration with the Health Professions Council in 2010.


title: Health psychology

text: The emergence of academic /professional bodies to promote research and practice in health psychology was followed by the publication of a series of textbooks which began to lay out the interests of the discipline.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychologists conduct research to identify behaviors and experiences that promote health, give rise to illness, and influence the effectiveness of health care. They also recommend ways to improve health care policy. Health psychologists have worked on developing ways to reduce smoking and improve daily nutrition in order to promote health and prevent illness. They have also studied the association between illness and individual characteristics. For example, health psychology has found a relation between the personality characteristics of thrill seeking, impulsiveness, hostility/anger, emotional instability, and depression, on one hand, and high-risk driving, on the other.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychology is also concerned with contextual factors, including economic, cultural, community, social, and lifestyle factors that influence health. Physical addiction impedes smoking cessation. Some research suggests that seductive advertising also contributes to psychological dependency on tobacco, although other research has found no relationship between media exposure and smoking in youth. OHP research indicates that people in jobs that combine little decision latitude with a high psychological workload are at increased risk for cardiovascular disease. Other research reveals a relation between unemployment and elevations in blood pressure. Epidemiologic research documents a relation between social class and cardiovascular disease.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychologists also aim to change health behaviors for the dual purpose of helping people stay healthy and helping patients adhere to disease treatment regimens (also see health action process approach). Health psychologists employ cognitive behavioral therapy and applied behavior analysis (also see behavior modification) for that purpose.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychologists promote health through behavioral change, as mentioned above; however, they attempt to prevent illness in other ways as well. Health psychologists try to help people to lead a healthy life by developing and running programmes which can help people to make changes in their lives such as stopping smoking, reducing the amount of alcohol they consume, eating more healthily, and exercising regularly. Campaigns informed by health psychology have targeted tobacco use. Those least able to afford tobacco products consume them most. Tobacco provides individuals with a way of controlling aversive emotional states accompanying daily experiences of stress that characterize the lives of deprived and vulnerable individuals. Practitioners emphasize education and effective communication as a part of illness prevention because many people do not recognize, or minimize, the risk of illness present in their lives. Moreover, many individuals are often unable to apply their knowledge of health practices owing to everyday pressures and stresses. A common example of population-based attempts to motivate the smoking public to reduce its dependence on cigarettes is anti-smoking campaigns.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychologists help to promote health and well-being by preventing illness. Some illnesses can be more effectively treated if caught early. Health psychologists have worked to understand why some people do not seek early screenings or immunizations, and have used that knowledge to develop ways to encourage people to have early health checks for illnesses such as cancer and heart disease. Health psychologists are also finding ways to help people to avoid risky behaviors (e.g., engaging in unprotected sex) and encourage health-enhancing behaviors (e.g., regular tooth brushing or hand washing).


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychologists also aim at educating health professionals, including physicians and nurses, in communicating effectively with patients in ways that overcome barriers to understanding, remembering, and implementing effective strategies for reducing exposures to risk factors and making health-enhancing behavior changes.


title: Health psychology

text: There is also evidence from OHP that stress-reduction interventions at the workplace can be effective. For example, Kompier and his colleagues have shown that a number of interventions aimed at reducing stress in bus drivers has had beneficial effects for employees and bus companies.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychologists investigate how disease affects individuals' psychological well-being. An individual who becomes seriously ill or injured faces many different practical stressors. These stressors include problems meeting medical and other bills, problems obtaining proper care when home from the hospital, obstacles to caring for dependents, the experience of having one's sense of self-reliance compromised, gaining a new, unwanted identity as that of a sick person, and so on. These stressors can lead to depression, reduced self-esteem, etc.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychologists can support people living with long-term conditions to improve or maintain quality of life, self-manage their conditions, and adjust to life with an illness, disability or long-term condition.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychology also concerns itself with bettering the lives of individuals with terminal illness. When there is little hope of recovery, health psychologist therapists can work within a multi-disciplinary palliative care team to improve the quality of life of the patient by helping the patient recover at least some of his or her psychological well-being. Health psychologists are also concerned with providing therapeutic services for the bereaved.


title: Health psychology

text: Critical health psychologists explore how health policy can influence inequities, inequalities and social injustice. These avenues of research expand the scope of health psychology beyond the level of individual health to an examination of the social and economic determinants of health both within and between regions and nations. The individualism of mainstream health psychology has been critiqued and deconstructed by critical health psychologists using qualitative methods that zero in on the health experience.


title: Health psychology

text: Like psychologists in the other main psychology disciplines, health psychologists have advanced knowledge of research methods. Health psychologists apply this knowledge to conduct research on a variety of questions. For example, health psychologists carry out research to answer questions such as:


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychologists can also be responsible for training other health professionals on how to deliver interventions to help promote healthy eating, stopping smoking, weight loss, etc. Health psychologists also train other health professionals in communication skills such as how to break bad news or support behavior change for the purpose of improving adherence to treatment.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychologists aid the process of communication between physicians and patients during medical consultations. There are many problems in this process, with patients showing a considerable lack of understanding of many medical terms, particularly anatomical terms (e.g., intestines). One area of research on this topic involves "doctor-centered" or "patient-centered" consultations. Doctor-centered consultations are generally directive, with the patient answering questions and playing less of a role in decision-making. Although this style is preferred by elderly people and others, many people dislike the sense of hierarchy or ignorance that it inspires. They prefer patient-centered consultations, which focus on the patient's needs, involve the doctor listening to the patient completely before making a decision, and involving the patient in the process of choosing treatment and finding a diagnosis.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychologists engage in research and practice aimed at getting people to follow medical advice and adhere to their treatment regimens. Patients often forget to take their pills or consciously opt not to take their prescribed medications because of side effects. Failing to take prescribed medication is costly and wastes millions of usable medicines that could otherwise help other people. Estimated adherence rates are difficult to measure (see below); there is, however, evidence that adherence could be improved by tailoring treatment programs to individuals' daily lives. Additionally, traditional cognitive-behavioural therapies have been adapted for people with chronic illnesses and comorbid psychological distress to include modules that encourage, support and reinforce adherence to medical advice as part of the larger treatment approach.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychologists have identified a number of ways of measuring patients' adherence to medical regimens:


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychology attempts to find treatments to reduce or eliminate pain, as well as understand pain anomalies such as episodic analgesia, causalgia, neuralgia, and phantom limb pain. Although the task of measuring and describing pain has been problematic, the development of the McGill Pain Questionnaire has helped make progress in this area. Treatments for pain involve patient-administered analgesia, acupuncture (found to be effective in reducing pain for osteoarthritis of the knee), biofeedback, and cognitive behavior therapy.


title: Health psychology

text: Below are some examples of the types of positions held by health psychologists within applied settings such as the UK's NHS and private practice.


title: Health psychology

text: The term "health psychologist" is a protected title, with health psychologists required to register with the Health Professions Council (HPC) and have trained to a level to be eligible for full membership of the Division of Health Psychology within the BPS. Registered health psychologists who are chartered with the BPS will have undertaken a minimum of six years of training, with three of those years dedicated to health psychology training. Following the completion of a BPS-accredited undergraduate degree in Psychology, aspiring health psychologists must first complete a BPS-accredited masters in health psychology (Stage 1 Training). Once the trainee has completed Stage 1 training, they can either choose to complete the BPS' independent Stage 2 training route or sign up to an accredited health psychology doctorate program at a UK university (DHealthPsy). Both training routes require trainees to demonstrate they meet the core competencies of:


title: Health psychology

text: At present, there are limited opportunities for trainees to receive fully funded training. The NHS Education Scotland (NES) Stage 2 program funds several trainee health psychologists each year, providing trainees with fixed-term posts within NHS Boards across Scotland. In 2022, a pilot scheme was launched by Health Education England (HEE) to provide similar opportunities to aspiring health psychologists across England.


title: Health psychology

text: Once qualified, health psychologists can work in a range of settings, for example the NHS, universities, schools, private healthcare, and research and charitable organizations. A health psychologist in training might be working within applied settings while working towards registration and chartered status. All qualified health psychologists must also engage in and record their continuing professional development (CPD) for psychology each year throughout their career.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychologists are registered by the Psychology Board of Australia. The standard pathway to becoming an endorsed health psychologists involves a minimum of six years training and a two-year registrar program. Health psychologists must also undertake continuing professional development (CPD) each year.


title: Health psychology

text: Health psychologists are registered by the New Zealand Psychologists Board within the psychologist scope of practice. The training pathway to becoming a registered health psychologist requires a Masters in Health Psychology and a two-year registration Postgraduate Diploma in Health Psychology at the University of Auckland. Outside of clinical work in primary, secondary and tertiary healthcare settings, graduates may choose careers in research and health promotion in universities and private settings. Health psychologists are able to join the Institute of Health Psychology (IHP), an institute of the New Zealand Psychological Society, as a practitioner, academic or student affiliate.


title: Matthew Henry

text: Matthew Henry (18 October 166222 June 1714) was a Nonconformist minister and author, who was born in Wales but spent much of his life in England. He is best known for the six-volume biblical commentary "Exposition of the Old and New Testaments".


title: Matthew Henry

text: Matthew Henry was the second son born to Philip and Kathrine Henry. He was born prematurely at his mother's family estate, Broad Oak, a farmhouse on the borders of Flintshire and Shropshire. He was baptized the next day by the local parish rector. His father, Philip Henry, a Church of England cleric, had just been ejected under the Act of Uniformity 1662. As a young child, he was frequently afflicted with fevers. Unlike most of those who had been ejected, Philip Henry possessed some private means, and was able to provide his son a good education. Henry's sister was diarist Sarah Savage.


title: Matthew Henry

text: By the age of nine, Henry was able to write Latin and read part of the Greek new testament. He was tutored in grammar by William Turner in 1668 who was temporarily staying at Broad Oak. His father provided much of Henry's early education at home. Henry practiced writing by copying his father's sermons and as a child he exhibited a natural public speaking ability. In 1680, at eighteen, his father sent him to a school in Islington, London to be tutored by the Nonconformist minister Thomas Doolittle. Henry later transferred to Gray's Inn, in the heart of the capital, to study law. While at Gray's Inn, he also studied French and literature. He soon gave up his legal studies for theology. Henry was invited by his friend George Illidge, to give his first sermon to a congregation at Nantwich. Having been well received he returned to speak two more times that summer.


title: Matthew Henry

text: In 1686, he was offered an invitation by a local Nonconformist minister to move to Chester, Cheshire and establish a congregation. He was initially hesitant to accept, not wanting to take away members from an already established minister but upon Harvey's insistence he accepted. Henry was ordained on 9 May 1687 by a group of six Nonconformist ministers. He presented a paper written in Latin as part of his ordination. He then became minister of a new Presbyterian congregation at Chester. The congregation grew under his leadership and in 1699 he oversaw the construction of a new building. While in Chester, Henry founded the Presbyterian Chapel in Trinity Street. After becoming established in Chester, he began to travel around to nearby cities speaking. He became a member of the local Chester union of ministers. Henry said of living in Chester "I cannot think of leaving Chester, until Chester leaves me."


title: Matthew Henry

text: After moving to Chester, he married Kathrine Hardware on 19 July 1687, after her mother initially objected to the marriage. Kathrine Hardware's parents then moved to Chester and Henry and his wife lived with them. Shortly after the birth of their first child, Kathrine died of smallpox on 14 February 1689, at age 25. He named the infant Kathrine after the mother, but the child died 15 months later. He continued to live with the Hardwares after the death of his wife and continued his ministerial duties.


title: Matthew Henry

text: He was introduced to Mary Warburton, a relative of Mrs. Hardware. On 8 July 1690 he married Mary Warburton in Chester. His second child, Elizabeth was born on 2 April 1691, and died in infancy in July 1692. A third child, born in 1693, died three weeks after birth.


title: Matthew Henry

text: At age 26 in 1688, the amount of speaking engagements started to impact his health. He was frequently subject to fevers. A letter from his father instructed him "...in your earnestness [when speaking], keep the reins upon it." His impassioned speaking style was well received by his listeners and contributed to his growing popularity. On occasion, he could move his audience to tears. He became a popular speaker and received constant invitations to speak and give lectures. He traveled almost weekly to different cities to speak.


title: Matthew Henry

text: He spent significant amounts of time studying and writing his sermons and lectures in advance. Henry preferred to use an expository speaking style. For each speaking engagement, he would employ different base texts to expand upon his general topic. His approach to teaching was "Choose for your pulpit subjects the plainest, and most needful truths; and endeavor to make them plainer." When writing, he would remain close to the literal interpretation of biblical passages. These writings would later form the basis on which he developed his commentary.


title: Matthew Henry

text: Between the years of 1687–1712, Matthew Henry continued to live in Chester. In 1694, Esther Henry was born to Matthew Henry and his wife. Esther lived to adulthood. On 24 June 1697 his daughter Ann was born. This child also died in infancy in 1698 in a local measles outbreak. Henry was very saddened at her death. Ann was his fourth child to have died in infancy. Matthew Henry and his wife Mary had their first son in 1700 and named him Philip, who later in life took his mother's name, Warburton. Another child, Elizabeth, was born in 1701. In August 1703, he had another daughter; this one he named Sarah after his older sister. Two more children were born who survived to adulthood: Theodosia in 1708 and Mary in 1711.


title: Matthew Henry

text: In 1698, Henry traveled to London to speak for the first time since moving to Chester. On the trip to London, he made speaking stops in Nantwich, Newcastle, Lichfield and other towns on the way. Towards the end of this time period, he was frequently invited to speak in London where he eventually moved. He traveled to London again to speak in 1704 and this time Mary accompanied him. Up until this time, his health had been quite good despite the pace at which he worked. In August 1704 he fainted while he was speaking but quickly resumed speaking. The next two days he traveled to Nantwich and then to Haslington. Upon his return to Chester, he was bedridden with a fever for three weeks.


title: Matthew Henry

text: He moved again in 1712 to Mare Street, Hackney after accepting an invitation to take over the ministry of the Hackney congregation. He began work there on 18 May 1712 with a congregation of less than one hundred members. He would also travel to Wapping, Rotherhithe and other surrounding areas and give evening lectures before returning to the duties of the Hackney congregation. Henry also began giving catechetical lectures in London. His "Exposition of the Old and New Testaments" was nearing the publication stage and was a contributing motive to the move to Hackney, close to the publisher. In 1713, his health began declining after a return visit to Chester.


title: Matthew Henry

text: In 1713, he began suffering from frequent attacks of nephritis. He continued to maintain his frequent speaking engagements and work on his commentary. On 21 June 1714 Henry was on a speaking tour around Chester and was returning to Hackney. While en route, he was thrown off his horse but denied injury and insisted on making it to Nantwich where he was scheduled to speak. His traveling companions noted a lack of energy. That evening he could no longer travel and stopped at the Queen's Aid House in Nantwich. On 22 June 1714, he died of apoplexy.


title: Matthew Henry

text: Henry's well-known six-volume "Exposition of the Old and New Testaments" (170810) or "Complete Commentary" provides an exhaustive paragraph-by-paragraph (or section-by-section) study of the Bible, covering the whole of the Old Testament, and the Gospels and Acts in the New Testament. Thirteen other non-conformist ministers finished the sixth volume of Romans through Revelation after Henry's death, partly based on notes taken by Henry's hearers. The entire Commentary was re-edited by George Burder and John Hughes in 1811.


title: Matthew Henry

text: Henry's commentaries are primarily theological, dealing with the scripture text as presented, with his prime intention being explanation for practical and devotional purposes, giving a theological commentary on each chapter of Scripture. Henry recommended Matthew Poole's "Synopsis Criticorum" for a more technical analysis.


title: Matthew Henry

text: Henry's Commentary identifies the "man of sin", the focus of latter day apostasy, and the Antichrist as the papacy in his interpretation of 2 Thessalonians 2:3. The commentary lists three "blasphemous titles" which it states have been attached to the "bishops of Rome." This anti-papist passage in the Commentary was not directly authored by Henry, but occurs in the sixth volume on Romans to Revelation, completed posthumously by his 13 friends.


title: Matthew Henry

text: Famous evangelical Protestant preachers used and heartily commended the work, such as George Whitefield and Charles Spurgeon, with Whitefield reading it through four timesthe last time on his knees. Spurgeon stated, "Every minister ought to read it entirely and carefully through once at least." John Wesley published an abbreviated edition of the Commentary and wrote of Henry:


title: Matthew Henry

text: He is allowed by all competent judges, to have been a person of strong understanding, of various learning, of solid piety, and much experience in the ways of God. And his exposition is generally clear and intelligible, the thoughts being expressed in plain words: It is also found, agreeable to the tenor of scripture, and to the analogy of faith. It is frequently full, giving a sufficient explication of the passages which require explaining. It is in many parts deep, penetrating farther into the inspired writings than most other comments do. It does not entertain us with vain speculations, but is practical throughout: and usually spiritual too teaching us how to worship God, not in form only, but in spirit and in truth.


title: Matthew Henry

text: Several abbreviated editions of the Commentary were published in the twentieth century; more recently, Martin H. Manser edited "The New Matthew Henry Commentary: The Classic Work with Updated Language".


title: Matthew Henry

text: Perhaps his best-known quotation is about the relationship between men and women, from the story of the creation of Eve, in the Book of Genesis:The woman was made of a rib out of the side of Adam; not made out of his head to rule over him, nor out of his feet to be trampled upon by him, but out of his side to be equal with him, under his arm to be protected, and near his heart to be beloved.


title: Matthew Henry

text: The quote is inspired by the words of Peter Lombard in his book "Sentences":She {Eve} was formed not from just any part of his body {Adam’s body}, but from his side, so that it should be shown that she was created for the partnership of love, lest, if perhaps she had been made from his head, she should be perceived as set over man in domination; or if from his feet, as if subject to him in servitude. Therefore, since she was made neither to dominate, nor to serve the man, but as his partner, she had to be produced neither from his head, nor from his feet, but from his side, so that he would know that she was to be placed beside himself.


title: Matthew Henry

text: In 1860, a memorial was erected in Chester to commemorate Henry. This consists of an obelisk designed by Thomas Harrison that incorporates a bronze medallion by Matthew Noble. The obelisk originally stood in the churchyard of StBridget's Church, and was moved in the 1960s to stand on a roundabout opposite the entrance to Chester Castle.


title: Kalthoff repeater

text: The Kalthoff repeater was a type of repeating firearm that was designed by members of the Kalthoff family around 1630, and became the first repeating firearm to be brought into military service. At least nineteen gunsmiths are known to have made weapons following the Kalthoff design. Some early Kalthoff guns were wheellocks, but the rest were flintlocks. The capacity varied between 5 and 30 rounds, depending on the style of the magazines. A single forward and back movement of the trigger guard, which could be done in 1–2 seconds, readied the weapon for firing. The caliber of Kalthoff guns generally varied between 0.4 and 0.8 inches, though .3 caliber examples also exist.


title: Kalthoff repeater

text: The Kalthoff system originates with a gun which was crafted in Solingen by an unknown member of the Kalthoff family around 1630. Members of the family later moved to other areas of Europe, including Denmark, France, The Netherlands, England and Russia. The first patent for the Kalthoff system was issued in France by Louis XIII to Guillaume Kalthoff in 1640. This patent specified muskets and pistols that were capable of firing 8-10 shots with a single loading, while retaining the weight, length and handing of a standard firearm. A year later in 1641, Peter Kalthoff obtained a Dutch patent for a rifle which could fire 29 rounds before reloading. This patent did not specify the mechanism by which the gun worked, but mentioned that he would be able to perfect the design within a year. Later that year, another Dutch patent was granted to an individual named Hendrick Bartmans. This patent specified a gun with separate magazines for powder and ball, a 30 shot capacity, and a trigger guard that could be rotated to reload the weapon. Bartmans made a magazine rifle following his patent around 1642, which likely used a snaplock, though it is now missing from the gun. In 1645 Peter Kalthoff made a wheellock magazine rifle. This weapon is engraved with the text "Das Erste" (the first). He made another repeating firearm in 1646, a wheellock which functioned in much the same way his previous weapon did. This weapon carries an inscription on the barrel just in front of the breech, which asserts a 30 round capacity. That year he also made a repeating flintlock, which was given to the Danish Prince Frederik. The weapon was constructed in Flensburg, and was the first flintlock weapon to be made in Germany. Most repeaters made by Peter use a smooth, rounded trigger guard held in place by a rear trigger. Repeaters made by Matthias Kalthoff, who also worked in Denmark, have an initially straight trigger guard with a right angle formed by the carrier. They do not have a release trigger, and use a straight rod for retention of the lever. Guns by Mathias carry dates ranging from 1650 to 1679.


title: Kalthoff repeater

text: In 1649, a pair of repeating pistols made by a gunsmith with the surname Kalthoff were reported to have been sent to King Frederik III. Two pistols using the Kalthoff system are held at the National Museum of Denmark, but it can not be confirmed that these are the pistols mentioned.


title: Kalthoff repeater

text: In Germany, wheellock repeaters were made by an individual referred to as the 'Master of Gottorp' (who was likely a gunsmith named Heinrich Habrecht). Two wheellock magazine guns, made circa 1645 and 1650 respectively, are attributed to Habrecht. These guns use a different breech system; the breech is quarter-cylindrical, and rotates at an axis parallel to the bore. This breech had one or two chambers. A later gun by Dutch gunmaker Alexander Hartingk, uses a similar breech. This gun was made circa 1670 for Karl XI. Hartingk's weapon uses a second powder magazine that sits to the right of the barrel, and primes the pan.


title: Kalthoff repeater

text: A Kalthoff gun engraved with the year 1652 carries the name Cornelius Coster Utrecht. This weapon has two ball magazines, one in the fore-stock and one in the butt (in addition to a powder magazine). A cylindrical tube behind the breech block holds a strong coil spring, which pushes against the breech block.


title: Kalthoff repeater

text: Caspar Kalthoff made a flintlock repeating gun in London between the years 1654 and 1665. This gun used a rotating breech, and was later repaired by Ezekiel Baker in 1818. An identical gun by Caspar also resides in the Tøjhusmuseet. In 1658, Caspar made a repeating rifle that featured a sliding box-breech and had a capacity of 7 rounds. Harman Barnes also made magazine guns in London, one of his guns used a rectangular sliding breech block with two chambers (and had a capacity of 5), another used a cylinder breech system (and had a capacity of 6). The latter gun was likely made around 1650, though it is unlikely it was completed before 1651. This gun shares many features found on one of one of Hendrick Bartmans' guns. It is possible the gun was simply imported from Holland and signed by Barnes, and was not crafted by him. Kalthoff guns using cylindrical breeches were also made by Jan Flock of Utrecht, some of which he advertised for sale in 1668. The price per weapon was at least 260 fl.


title: Kalthoff repeater

text: Caspar Kalthoff the younger, the son of Caspar Kalthoff, made repeating weapons in Russia. He arrived in Russia between 1664 and 1665, and made a repeating firearm there in 1665.


title: Kalthoff repeater

text: Hans Boringholm, a pupil of Mathias Kalthoff, made repeating guns for hunting use. Two repeating rifles attributed to Boringholm, dated 1670 and 1671, currently reside in the National Museum of Denmark. Anders Mortensen, a pupil of Boringholm, also made repeating firearms. On a Kalthoff gun signed By Mortensen, the powder passage is a separate component rather than being part of the lock.


title: Kalthoff repeater

text: Around 1710, Charles Cousin made a gun using the Kalthoff system. This weapon had a capacity of 15, and was made in France.


title: Kalthoff repeater

text: There were two major variations of the Kalthoff repeater. The first used a rectangular breech block with two or three chambers, a powder magazine in the stock, and had a capacity of up to 30 rounds. At least one gun of this type also featured a coil spring behind the breech block which served to close the gap between it and the barrel. The second variation used a vertical cylindrical breech block, stored powder beneath the lock, and had a capacity of up to 10 shots. These guns had a removable cap over the breech, allowing the breech to be easily cleaned. An additional variation of the Kalthoff used a cylindrical breech that rotated on an axis parallel to the bore. The ball magazine was situated in a cylindrical cavity in the stock under the barrel. Many Kalthoff guns used a magazine located in the ramrod cavity, and featured a cap designed to look like the end of the ramrod. This style of magazine was around a meter in length and could hold over 60 14mm balls. However, when fully loaded the balls amounted to about a kilogram of weight, which changed the weapon's center of gravity. Guns of the rectangular breech type had a flat spring that would bend to the right as the breech was moved, which held the balls in the magazine as the breech moved to the right. Powder in the magazine could be reloaded through a hatch on the underside of the powder carrier if the powder magazine was located under the lock. On Kalthoff guns with the magazine in the stock, the magazine was refilled through a hole covered by a sliding lid in the butt-plate, or through a hole uncovered by removing a screw on the left side-plate. Some guns with a powder magazine in the butt also had a bolt inside the small of the stock, which could be turned to block the flow of powder. The carrier on most guns contained enough powder (5ccs on one example) for both the main charge and priming the pan. Spring-loaded covers on the carrier and powder magazine ensured that powder could only flow when the carrier aligned with the magazine or powder passage. The mechanism of many Kalthoff guns occupied the space normally reserved for a mainspring. This had to be worked around by placing it in the stock and connecting it to the cock using a rod, or by mounting it externally.


title: Kalthoff repeater

text: With the muzzle facing upwards, laterally rotating the trigger guard approximately 155° to the right and back deposited a ball and load of powder in the breech and cocked the gun (or wound the wheel if the gun was a wheellock). On some guns a small trigger had to be depressed before rotating the trigger guard. A carrier attached to the trigger guard took the powder from the magazine to the breech, so there was no risk of an accidental ignition in the reserve. The trigger guard was either coupled to the cylindrical breech by a cross-pin, or moved the breech using a cogwheel. When the lever was rotated forwards fully, the carrier aligned with a hole at the front of the lock plate. The powder could then flow through a tunnel in the lock plate, and into the breech. The powder flowed directly through the breech into a cavity behind it in the case of cylinder breech guns, or into the middle chamber (or the rightmost one on two-hole variants) on rectangular breech guns. In the case of cylindrical breech guns, as the lever was rotated back, a loading arm on the left side of the gun seated a ball in the breech in front of the powder. On sliding breech block Kalthoff guns, a bullet would drop into the leftmost chamber as the gun was pointed upwards, and a plunger would seat the ball in the barrel as the left chamber aligned with the barrel. Cylinder breech guns still held some powder in the breech tap as the lever was rotated back; this powder would flow into the priming pan just as the ball was inserted. On rectangular breech guns, there would be remaining powder in the powder passage that would fall into the rightmost chamber as it shifted back towards the left, which then could flow into the pan. Alternatively, if the breech had only two chambers the powder would flow directly from the passage into the pan. Cocking the mechanism and closing the frizzen was achieved by a toothed bar that interfaced with a cogwheel attached to the lever.


title: Kalthoff repeater

text: In 1648, after Frederik III succeeded his father, he ordered that the Scanian Guard be equipped with Kalthoff repeaters. This order was fulfilled by Peter and Mathias Kalthoff (and possibly a few other gunsmiths), and the guns were issued in 1657. The Guards received about a hundred guns (some of the surviving guns are numbered via an engraving on the stock, 108 and 110 being the highest), and they are thought to have been used in the Siege of Copenhagen (1658–59) and the Scanian War. By 1696 the guns had been removed from service. The Royal Armoury's inventory of 1775 still listed 133 repeating guns, by this time they were already regarded as antiques.


title: Kalthoff repeater

text: In 1659, during the Siege of Copenhagen, a royal bodyguard of Charles X was equipped with Kalthoff repeaters. These guns could contain about 50 shots.


title: Kalthoff repeater

text: Despite having a remarkably fast fire rate for the time, the Kalthoff could never have become a standard military firearm because of its cost. The mechanism had to be assembled with skill and care, and took far more time to assemble than an ordinary muzzle-loader. Also, all the parts were interdependent; if a gear broke or jammed, the whole gun was unusable and only a specialist gunsmith could repair it. It needed special care; powder fouling, or even powder that was slightly wet, could clog it. Repeatedly firing the weapon created a buildup of powder fouling, making the lever increasingly hard to operate. Since it was so expensive to buy and maintain, only wealthy individuals and elite soldiers could afford it.