text: The Imperial Japanese Army Unit controlling all army land and air units in South East Asia and the South West Pacific was the Southern Expeditionary Army headquartered in Saigon, Indochina. It was commanded by General Count Hisaichi Terauchi, who commanded it from 1941 to 1945. The Japanese also deployed the South Seas Force, a combined force of Army and Special Naval Landing Force personnel. The Southern Army's major field commands were the 14th Army, the 15th Army, the 16th Army and the 25th Army. These consisted of 11 infantry divisions, six independent infantry brigades, and six tank regiments, plus artillery and support troops. The Japanese extensively used bicycle infantry, which allowed them quick movement over vast distances.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: St. George's (Grenadian Creole French: "Sen Jòj") is the capital of Grenada. The town is surrounded by a hillside of an old volcano crater and is located on a horseshoe-shaped harbour.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: St. George's is a popular Caribbean tourist destination. The town has developed in recent years, while preserving its history, culture, and natural environment. The parish in which Sen Jòj (Saint George's) is located, is the home of St. George’s University School of Medicine and Maurice Bishop International Airport. The main exports are cocoa bean (cacao), nutmeg, and mace spice.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: It has a moderate tropical climate that ensures the success of spice production. Nutmeg is a key crop, followed by spices such as cocoa, mace, cloves, vanilla, cinnamon and ginger.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: St. George's was founded by the French in 1650 when "La Grenade" (Grenada) was colonised by Jacques Dyel du Parquet, the governor of Martinique. The French began their colonisation with a series of skirmishes that virtually exterminated the island's native Carib population.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: In 1666, a wooden fortification was constructed by French colonists on a promontory overlooking Grenada's natural harbour and named "Fort Royale". In 1705, work started on a new star fort on the same site, with four stone-built bastions, to the design of Jean de Giou de Caylus, the Chief Engineer of the "Islands of America" the French West Indies. It was completed in 1710.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: Meanwhile, the original colonial settlement at the eastern edge of the harbour called "Saint Louis" after King Louis IX of France, later known as Port Louis, was found to be subject to flooding and malaria, so a new town was constructed called "Ville de Fort Royal" ("Fort Royal Town"). When the island was ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the new administration renamed it Saint George's Town, after the patron saint of England and "Fort Royal" was renamed Fort George, after King George III. On 1 November 1775 there was a fire in the town of St. George's known as the great fire of St George's. After the great fire of 1771, most of the boarding houses on Granby Street were moved to Gouyave.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: Following the withdrawal of Bridgetown, Barbados, in the mid-1880s, St. George's went on to become the replacement capital of the former colony of the British Windward Islands.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: The Tikal was the first art cater shop in Grenada and it was opened in December 1959. Grenada achieved independence from Britain in 1974. Following a leftist coup in 1983, the island was invaded by U. S. troops and a pro USA government was reinstated. In 2004, St. George's and the rest of Grenada was severely battered by Hurricane Ivan. The hurricane left significant destruction across the island and crippled much of the island's infrastructure. It was estimated that some 90% of the island's homes had sustained damage and the nutmeg trees, which are key to Grenada's economy, were devastated. A year later with the help of international donors (Canada, the United States, China, Venezuela, Trinidad & Tobago, and the European Union) Grenada had experienced a significant turn around in rebuilding efforts. By 2007, Grenada had participated as planned in the hosting of the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Now St. George's is one of the top 10 Yacht destinations.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: Carnival takes place the second week in August. This festival celebrates the emancipation of slaves. The Sunday night celebrations continue into the early morning hours on Monday. On Monday a carnival pageant is held on stage at Queen's Park, where costumes, themes and calypso queens are judged. On Tuesday, St. George's vibrates to the sounds of the calypso steel bands as they parade through the streets.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: St. George's has a humid Tropical Rainforest Climate, with a wet season (June to November) and a noticeably drier season (December to May). However, since the city does not have a true dry season month, a month where there is less than 60 mm of precipitation, it falls under this climate category. St. George's see frequent thunderstorms and occasional hurricanes from easterlies, while winter is marginally cooler and somewhat drier. The feeling of heat is exacerbated from the strong equatorial UV rays and high humidity all year.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: Nutmeg and mace come from the fruit of the aromatic Myrristica fragrans tree. The alien tree was adopted on 3 March 1967 to the Spice Island. The tree is an evergreen with dark green leaves and small yellow flowers, and grows up to 12 meters tall. It starts bearing fruit after seven or eight years and continues to do so for up to 40 years. The fruit looks like an apricot and when ripe, slit to reveal a walnut-sized seed. Covering the shell of the seed are lacy, red-orange strips, which are mace, and inside the shell is the seed itself - nutmeg. It is used extensively for cooking to enhance the flavor of cakes, soups, desserts, drinks and sauces.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: This comes from the inner bark of the cinnamon tree (Cinnamonum verum). Whole or ground, it is a popular household spice internationally. It is used to flavor beverages and cakes.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: This dried flavored flower bud, whole or ground (Syzygium aromaticum) is used at home to season hams, sausages, meats, mincemeat pies, fish, turtle preserves and pickles.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: From June to December, cuttings from the tops of cane are laid in holes about five inches deep by five feet square then covered with soil. As the cane grows taller, fertiliser is used. Between planting and harvesting, bananas, corn, peas, potatoes, and other crops are cultivated. January to May, the ripe cane are cut and delivered to the mill to be ground. Boiling and clarifying the cane juice is the next operation. The juice is strained after grinding and then taken to the clarifying copper to be boiled. (Wood coal is the main source fuel). Lime is added to speed up the operation. The liquid sugar is put into coolers for about 14 hours. The molasses is then drained off and taken to the still house to be made into rum.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: Private boats and yachts can complete customs and immigration processing in St. George's and Prickly Bay, Lance Aux Epines as well as in Carriacou. Travellers passing through Grenada are required to have a passport. Those whose travel involves stay over in other countries, should check on entry requirements for those countries. There is also a bus terminal for island wide transport.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: So named because it passes by seven of Grand Etang's mountain waterfalls, which are nestled in the emerald vegetation of the rain forest. The trail takes about three hours, even for experienced hikers.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: The tower of St. George's Cathedral was built in 1818. The interior of the church is painted in bright colours.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: St. George's Anglican Church was built in 1825, and a clock was later added in 1904 which plays the Westminster chimes on the hour. The church laid in ruin for a decade following heavy damage from Hurricane Ivan in 2004, when it continued to be used informally by locals for both prayer as well as school classes. Following several years of reconstruction work since the mid-2010s, the building returned to its function as a church.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: Located on the promontory to the west of the harbour is Fort George. Built in 1705 by the French, many of the buildings are now used by the police. One of the rooms has been converted to a gym and another to a sort of sewing room. Much of the fort is still intact and open to visitors.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: However, the buildings are very dilapidated, from a combination of hurricane damage and neglect, and there is little or no information within the fort itself. There's a good view from the battlements. There is a $2.00 per person fee to visit the Fort.


title: St. George's, Grenada

text: The Grenada National Museum is housed in French barracks, which date from 1704, and which later served as a prison. The building was also used as the island's first hotel. The museum displays a variety of historical items including Carib and Arawak artefacts, sugar processing machines and equipment, whaling industry items, and Josephine Bonaparte's marble bath.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: Pillow Talk is a 1959 American romantic comedy film in CinemaScope directed by Michael Gordon and starring Rock Hudson and Doris Day. The supporting cast features Tony Randall, Thelma Ritter, Nick Adams, Allen Jenkins, Marcel Dalio and Lee Patrick. The film was written by Russell Rouse, Maurice Richlin, Stanley Shapiro, and Clarence Greene.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: It tells the story of Jan Morrow (Day), an interior decorator and Brad Allen (Hudson), a womanizing composer/bachelor, who share a telephone party line. When she unsuccessfully files a complaint on him for constantly using the line to woo his conquests, Brad decides to take a chance on Jan by masquerading as a Texas rancher, resulting in the two falling in love. The scheme seems to work until Brad's mutual friend and Jan's client Jonathan Forbes (Randall) finds out about this, causing a love triangle in the process.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: According to a "Rambling Reporter" (August 28, 1959) item in "The Hollywood Reporter", RKO originally bought the script by Russell Rouse and Clarence Greene in 1942, but since it was not produced, the writers bought it back in 1945. In 1947, they sold it as a play, but bought it back once again four years later, finally selling it in 1958 to Arwin Productions, the company owned by Doris Day's husband, Martin Melcher. Although the film was originally titled "Pillow Talk", according to a February 2, 1959 "Rambling Reporter" item in "The Hollywood Reporter", the title "displeased" the PCA, and was changed to "Any Way the Wind Blows". In August 1959, however, the original title was reinstated.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: The film won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay, and was nominated for Best Actress in a Leading Role (Doris Day), Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Thelma Ritter), Best Art Direction-Set Decoration, Color (Richard H. Riedel, Russell A. Gausman, Ruby R. Levitt) and Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: This is the first of three romantic comedies in which Day, Hudson and Randall starred together, the other two being "Lover Come Back" (1961) and "Send Me No Flowers" (1964).


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: Upon its release, "Pillow Talk" brought in a then staggering domestic box-office gross of $18,750,000 and gave Rock Hudson's career a comeback after the failure of "A Farewell to Arms" two years earlier.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: In 2009, it was entered into the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress for being "culturally, historically or aesthetically" significant and preserved.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: Jan Morrow is a successful, self-reliant interior decorator in New York City in the late 1950's. She lives alone and claims to be quite happy, when questioned on that subject by her drunken housekeeper, Alma. The only irritant in her life is the party line that she shares with Brad Allen, a talented, creative Broadway composer and playboy who lives in a nearby apartment building. She is unable to obtain a private phone line because the telephone company has been overwhelmed by the recent demand for new phone lines in the area.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: Jan and Brad, who have only ever "met" on the telephone, develop a feud over the use of the party line. Brad is constantly using the phone to chat with one young woman after another, singing to each of them an "original" love song supposedly written just for her, though he only changes the name or language he sings in. Jan and Brad bicker over the party line, with Brad suggesting that the single Jan is jealous of his popularity.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: One of Jan's clients is millionaire Jonathan Forbes, who repeatedly throws himself at her to no avail. Unknown to Jan, Jonathan is also Brad's old college buddy and his current Broadway benefactor.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: One evening in a nightclub, Brad finally sees Jan dancing and learns who she is. Attracted to her, he fakes a Texan accent and invents a new persona: Rex Stetson, a wealthy Texas rancher. He succeeds in wooing Jan, and the pair begin seeing each other regularly. Jan cannot resist bragging about her new beau on the phone to Brad, while Brad teases Jan by having "Rex" show an interest in effeminate things, thereby implying "Rex's" homosexuality.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: When Jonathan discovers about Brad's masquerade, he forces Brad to leave New York City and go to Jonathan's cabin in Connecticut to complete his new songs. Brad invites Jan to join him. Once there, romance blossoms until Jan stumbles upon a copy of "Rex's" sheet music. She plunks the melody on the nearby piano and recognizes Brad's song. She confronts Brad and ignores his attempts at explanation, returning to New York with Jonathan, who has just arrived at the cabin.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: Back in New York, Jonathan is pleased to learn that the playboy has finally fallen in love, while conversely Jan will have nothing to do with Brad. Brad turns to Jan's housekeeper, Alma, for advice. Alma, pleased to finally meet Brad after listening in on the party line for so long, suggests he hire Jan to decorate his apartment so they will be forced to collaborate. Jan only concedes so that her employer will not lose the commission. Brad leaves all the design decisions up to Jan, telling her only to design a place that she would want to live in herself.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: Still resentful at his deception, Jan decorates Brad's apartment in the most gaudy and hideous decor she can muster. Horrified by what he finds, Brad angrily storms into Jan's apartment and carries her in her pajamas through the street back to his apartment to explain herself. He tells her of all the changes he has made to end his bachelor lifestyle because he thought they were getting married. Her face lights up and, as he leaves in anger, she uses one of his "playboy" remote control switches to lock the door. She flips the second switch and the player piano pounds out a honky-tonk version of Brad's standard love song. He turns around, their eyes meet, and they lovingly embrace.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: At the end of the film, Brad goes to tell Jonathan that he is going to be a father, only to be pulled by Dr. Maxwell (an obstetrician) and Nurse Resnick into their office for an examination, when he says that he is going to have a baby (a reference to when he ducks into Dr. Maxwell's office in an earlier scene to hide from Jan, but escapes before they can examine him).


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: The film's script was turned down and bought back by RKO a few times in the late 1940s and early 1950s until Martin Melcher (the husband of Doris Day at the time) and his Arwin Productions label bought the script and took it to Universal. According to Day in A.E. Hotchner's biography "Doris Day: Her Own Story", the film was titled "Pillow Talk", but the title displeased the Production Code Administration (PCA). Melcher tried to get co-producer Ross Hunter to change the name to "Any Way the Wind Blows", the name of a song he was about to publish, but Hunter stuck with the original name. The original ending planned for the film was to have Jan, after using the trick switch to lock the door and then smiling at Brad, shut off the light and say "All apartments look alike in the dark." This open-ending was changed in the final film to show that Jan and Brad got married and are now expecting a baby.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: The film is noted for reinventing the screen images of Rock Hudson and, particularly, Doris Day. Hunter identified Day's potential to be sexy, and recruited legendary costume designer Jean Louis, who designed 18 or 24 costumes for Day to wear. Hunter said to Day, "You are sexy, Doris, and it's about time you dealt with it...if you allow me to get Jean Louis to do your clothes, I mean a really sensational wardrobe that will show off that wild fanny of yours, and get some wonderful makeup on you, and chic you up and get a great hairdo that lifts you, why, every secretary and every housewife will say, 'Look at that—look what Doris has done to herself. Maybe I can do the same thing'". Day acknowledged that the film transformed her image from "the girl next door" to classy sex symbol, describing that the plot, for the time, was very sexy, involving a climactic scene in which the leading man carries her out of bed in her pajamas and out into the streets. In addition, Laykin et Cie lent $500,000 worth of jewels for Day to wear.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: This is Hudson's first comedy film, after a slew of dramas that he made throughout the 1950s including "All That Heaven Allows" (1956) and "A Farewell to Arms" (1957). It was Hunter who saw Hudson's potential to do comedy. The advice he received from director Michael Gordon was "Comedy is the most serious tragedy in the world. Play it that way and you can't go wrong. If you ever think of yourself as funny, you haven't got a chance." On February 2, 1959, Thelma Ritter was cast as Alma, Jan's housekeeper, while Lee Patrick was cast as Mrs. Walters the following month. Hope Emerson was recruited by Hunter to play an Indian princess called "Dessert Flower" in the film. She does not appear in the final cut. A cameo appearance by Day's friend and actress Miriam Nelson occurs in the scene where Brad ducks into Dr. Maxwell's (the obstetrician) office to avoid running into Jan. Nelson was given the walk-on part as a patient in the waiting room so she could have lunch with Day in the commissary.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: According to Hudson, the final scene, in which Brad storms into Jan's apartment and yanks her out of bed, and carries her through the streets of Manhattan, back to his re-decorated apartment, was actually shot first. Due to back problems, Hudson carried Day on a shelf with her sheets and blankets over her to get through the many takes. According to Hudson, "I could have managed if only one take had been involved, but we went on endlessly, primarily because there was a bit actor who played a cop on the street, and as we passed him Doris' line was 'Officer, arrest this man,' and the cop was supposed to say to me, 'How you doing, Brad?' but that stupid actor kept calling me Rock (01:39:36). So back to our marks we went for another take and another and another. I'll bet we did that scene twenty times. That's why the shelf for Doris to sit on." Also, Hudson related that when he pulled Doris Day out of bed, he forgot to let go of her ankles "…with the result that my leading lady crashed to the floor."


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: Day and Hudson developed chemistry during filming and the cast and crew acted as if they were family. Hudson recalled that, as per a "Modern Screen" article, "they had to add a week on to the shooting schedule because we could not stop laughing". Day clarified this during interviews she had with Merv Griffin on "The Merv Griffin Show" and Johnny Carson on "The Tonight Show" (1976), during her 1976 press tour to promote her biography "Doris Day: Her Own Story" by A.E. Hotchner. "Every day on the set was a picnic—sometimes too much of a picnic, in that we took turns at breaking each other up." According to an article in the October 1959 issue of "Saturday Review", Jean Louis designed 24 costumes for Doris Day and Laykin et Cie loaned the production $500,000 worth of jewels. The film is notable for its usage of split-screens during which Jan and Brad/Rex have telephone conversations. Triple split-screens are featured at the beginning of the film when Brad is using the party line to flirt with Eileen and Yvette.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: Day sings three songs in the film: "Pillow Talk" during the opening credits, "Roly Poly" in the piano bar with Blackwell and Hudson, and "Possess Me" on the drive up to Jonathan's cabin. Singer Perry Blackwell performs three songs in the piano bar: "I Need No Atmosphere", "Roly Poly" (in part), and "You Lied"—a song directed at Hudson's character, Brad. Hudson sings "Inspiration" in the film to three of his conquests: Eileen, Yvette and Marie. It then becomes an instrumental motif to represent Brad and his playboy ways: when the telephone inspector comes to interview Brad (00:13:24), when Brad calls Jan to apologize for his behavior and ask her on a date (00:26:26) and when Jan realizes that "Rex" was Brad the whole time after discovering the sheet music of the song and playing its notes on the piano in Jonathan's home during their stay in Connecticut (01:17:54). For their commercial releases, Doris Day recorded the title song for Columbia Records and Rock Hudson recorded "Roly Poly" and the title song for Decca Records.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: Universal's efforts to promote the film were significant. The studio sponsored press tours by the cast, director and producers in cities across the United States throughout the late summer and early fall of 1959. Promotional materials included original production photos and press material (a copy of which is available at the New York Public Library for Performing Arts at Lincoln Center), print advertisements and recordings sent to radio stations with Day and Hudson narrating introductions to audio clips from the film. Also, Hudson recorded a voice message that would play when people called a number given by K-B's Ontario Theatre in local newspaper and magazine ads for the film. Even though the number was only expected to receive about 60,000 calls daily, it was so successful it wound up receiving twice that many, or 120,000 calls a day. The posters for the film differed in content in the United States and international markets. In the United States, the posters were clean and non-explicit, with no trace of the film's verbal and visual innuendo. Consistent with the European Foreign-Language films being introduced in the states, the ads running in Europe were more explicit. For example, the Danish release poster features an illustration of Doris Day in the bathtub from a high-angle, showing the water inside and giving a sexy appearance.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: Producer Ross Hunter convinced Sol Schwartz, owner of the Palace Theatre on Broadway, to book "Pillow Talk" for a two-week run following its premiere on October 6, 1959. Cast members Hudson and Day attended the event with celebrities, including Gloria Swanson and Tallulah Bankhead. A second premiere also took place at the same time at the re-opened Murray Hill Theatre on 34th Street as a way to benefit the United Nations International School, where Tony Randall was present. An international premiere at the Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood also took place on October 13, with Hudson, Day, Esther Williams and Jeff Chandler in attendance.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: The film was a box office hit, grossing $18,750,000 domestically. It was number one at the U.S. box office for seven consecutive weeks. This made Hunter's vision of pairing Day and Hudson together so successful, that they earned Allied's "male and female star of the year" awards for 1959.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: The film received mostly positive reviews from critics upon its release. Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" wrote "A nice, old-fashioned device of the theatre, the telephone party line, serves as a quaint convenience to bring together Rock Hudson and Doris Day in what must be cheerfully acknowledged one of the most lively and up-to-date comedy-romances of the year." "Variety" described the film as "dripping with the trappings of glamor. The premise is dubious, but an attractive cast, headed by Rock Hudson and Doris Day, give the good lines the strength to overcome this deficiency. It plays." "Harrison's Reports" agreed, writing: "Although the basic premise of the plot is slightly incredulous, and the plot itself wafer thin, the entire production is endowed with superb production values that more than compensate for the script deficiencies." Paul V. Beckley of the "New York Herald Tribune" wrote, ""Pillow Talk" is a melange of legs, pillows, slips, gowns and decor and is about as light as it could get without floating away, but it has a smart, glossy texture and that part of the population likely to be entranced at the sight of a well groomed Rock Hudson being irresistible to a silver-haired Doris Day will probably enjoy it." John McCarten of "The New Yorker" was dismissive, calling the film "an attempt at farce that is hardly what I would call farcical." "The Monthly Film Bulletin" wrote that director Michael Gordon "maintains a lively pace and handles his players with an expert feeling for timing and emphasis. Doris Day gives possibly her best comedy performance to date; Tony Randall works several more variations on his tired dilettante act; and Rock Hudson's beefcake charmer has all the necessary physical ingredients for success."


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: The film holds a 93% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 7.09/10.


title: Pillow Talk (film)

text: In 1960, "Baby Talk", a sequel starring Hudson and Day, was announced. In 1980, a sequel was planned for the film, set 20 years after the original film ended. The story involved Jan and Brad having their first daughter (who would have been played by Kristy McNichol), and getting a divorce, which allows Jonathan (who would have been played again by Tony Randall) to have another chance of proposing to Jan. She schemes to get Brad back while Brad does a scam of his own. According to David Kaufman's biography "Doris Day: The Untold Story of the Girl Next Door", Day was enthusiastic about the project and wanted to be involved. Hudson also expressed interest in returning. Ross Hunter was set to produce again, with Delbert Mann (who directed Day and Hudson in "Lover Come Back") directing the script written by Bruce Kane. Despite making changes according to Day's wishes and getting approval from Universal to make the sequel, the project did not materialize; Day's retirement was one of the reasons.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: Early Christian art and architecture or Paleochristian art is the art produced by Christians or under Christian patronage from the earliest period of Christianity to, depending on the definition used, sometime between 260 and 525. In practice, identifiably Christian art only survives from the 2nd century onwards. After 550 at the latest, Christian art is classified as Byzantine, or of some other regional type.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: It is hard to know when distinctly Christian art began. Prior to 100, Christians may have been constrained by their position as a persecuted group from producing durable works of art. Since Christianity was largely a religion not well represented in the public sphere, the lack of surviving art may reflect a lack of funds for patronage, and simply small numbers of followers. The Old Testament restrictions against the production of graven (an idol or fetish carved in wood or stone) images (see also Idolatry and Christianity) may also have constrained Christians from producing art. Christians may have made or purchased art with pagan iconography, but given it Christian meanings, as they later did. If this happened, "Christian" art would not be immediately recognizable as such.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: Early Christianity used the same artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture. These media included fresco, mosaics, sculpture, and manuscript illumination. Early Christian art used not only Roman forms but also Roman styles. Late classical style included a proportional portrayal of the human body and impressionistic presentation of space. Late classical style is seen in early Christian frescos, such as those in the Catacombs of Rome, which include most examples of the earliest Christian art.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: Early Christian art and architecture adapted Roman artistic motifs and gave new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Among the motifs adopted were the peacock, Vitis viniferavines, and the "Good Shepherd". Early Christians also developed their own iconography; for example, such symbols as the fish ("ikhthus") were not borrowed from pagan iconography.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: Early Christian art is generally divided into two periods by scholars: before and after either the Edict of Milan of 313, bringing the so-called Triumph of the Church under Constantine, or the First Council of Nicea in 325. The earlier period being called the Pre-Constantinian or Ante-Nicene Period and after being the period of the First seven Ecumenical Councils. The end of the period of early Christian art, which is typically defined by art historians as being in the 5th–7th centuries, is thus a good deal later than the end of the period of early Christianity as typically defined by theologians and church historians, which is more often considered to end under Constantine, around 313–325.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: During the persecution of Christians under the Roman Empire, Christian art was necessarily and deliberately furtive and ambiguous, using imagery that was shared with pagan culture but had a special meaning for Christians. The earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late 2nd to early 4th centuries on the walls of Christian tombs in the catacombs of Rome. From literary evidence, there may well have been panel icons which, like almost all classical painting, have disappeared. Initially Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the "Ichthys" (fish), peacock, Lamb of God, or an anchor (the "Labarum" or "Chi-Rho" was a later development). Later personified symbols were used, including Jonah, whose three days in the belly of the whale pre-figured the interval between the death and resurrection of Jesus, Daniel in the lion's den, or Orpheus' charming the animals. The image of "The Good Shepherd", a beardless youth in pastoral scenes collecting sheep, was the most common of these images, and was probably not understood as a portrait of the historical Jesus. These images bear some resemblance to depictions of "kouros" figures in Greco-Roman art. The "almost total absence from Christian monuments of the period of persecutions of the plain, unadorned cross" except in the disguised form of the anchor, is notable. The Cross, symbolizing Jesus' crucifixion on a cross, was not represented explicitly for several centuries, possibly because crucifixion was a punishment meted out to common criminals, but also because literary sources noted that it was a symbol recognised as specifically Christian, as the sign of the cross was made by Christians from very early on.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: The popular conception that the Christian catacombs were "secret" or had to hide their affiliation is probably wrong; catacombs were large-scale commercial enterprises, usually sited just off major roads to the city, whose existence was well known. The inexplicit symbolic nature of many early Christian visual motifs may have had a function of discretion in other contexts, but on tombs, they probably reflect a lack of any other repertoire of Christian iconography.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: The dove is a symbol of peace and purity. It can be found with a halo or celestial light. In one of the earliest known Trinitarian images, "the Throne of God as a Trinitarian image" (a marble relief carved c. 400 CE in the collection of the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation), the dove represents the Spirit. It is flying above an empty throne representing God, in the throne are a "chlamys" (cloak) and diadem representing the Son. The Chi-Rho monogram, XP, apparently first used by Constantine I, consists of the first two characters of the name 'Christos' in Greek.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: A general assumption that early Christianity was generally aniconic, opposed to religious imagery in both theory and practice until about 200, has been challenged by Paul Corby Finney's analysis of early Christian writing and material remains (1994). This distinguishes three different sources of attitudes affecting early Christians on the issue: "first that humans could have a direct vision of God; second that they could not; and, third, that although humans could see God they were best advised not to look, and were strictly forbidden to represent what they had seen". These derived respectively from Greek and Near Eastern pagan religions, from Ancient Greek philosophy, and from the Jewish tradition and the Old Testament. Of the three, Finney concludes that "overall, Israel's aversion to sacred images influenced early Christianity considerably less than the Greek philosophical tradition of invisible deity apophatically defined", so placing less emphasis on the Jewish background of most of the first Christians than most traditional accounts. Finney suggests that "the reasons for the non-appearance of Christian art before 200 have nothing to do with principled aversion to art, with other-worldliness, or with anti-materialism. The truth is simple and mundane: Christians lacked land and capital. Art requires both. As soon as they began to acquire land and capital, Christians began to experiment with their own distinctive forms of art".


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: In the Dura-Europos church, of about 230–256, which is in the best condition of the surviving very early churches, there are frescos of biblical scenes including a figure of Jesus, as well as Christ as the Good Shepherd. The building was a normal house apparently converted to use as a church. The earliest Christian paintings in the Catacombs of Rome are from a few decades before, and these represent the largest body of examples of Christian art from the pre-Constantinian period, with hundreds of examples decorating tombs or family tomb-chambers. Many are simple symbols, but there are numerous figure paintings either showing orants or female praying figures, usually representing the deceased person, or figures or shorthand scenes from the bible or Christian history.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: The style of the catacomb paintings, and the entirety of many decorative elements, are effectively identical to those of the catacombs of other religious groups, whether conventional pagans following Ancient Roman religion, or Jews or followers of the Roman mystery religions. The quality of the painting is low compared to the large houses of the rich, which provide the other main "corpus" of painting surviving from the period, but the shorthand depiction of figures can have an expressive charm. A similar situation applies at Dura-Europos, where the decoration of the church is comparable in style and quality to that of the (larger and more lavishly painted) Dura-Europos synagogue and the Temple of Bel. At least in such smaller places, it seems that the available artists were used by all religious groups. It may also have been the case that the painted chambers in the catacombs were decorated in similar style to the best rooms of the homes of the better-off families buried in them, with Christian scenes and symbols replacing those from mythology, literature, paganism and eroticism, although we lack the evidence to confirm this. We do have the same scenes on small pieces in media such as pottery or glass, though less often from this pre-Constantinian period.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: There was a preference for what are sometimes called "abbreviated" representations, small groups of say one to four figures forming a single motif which could be easily recognised as representing a particular incident. These vignettes fitted the Roman style of room decoration, set in compartments in a scheme with a geometrical structure (see gallery below). Biblical scenes of figures rescued from mortal danger were very popular; these represented both the Resurrection of Jesus, through typology, and the salvation of the soul of the deceased. Jonah and the whale, the Sacrifice of Isaac, Noah praying in the Ark (represented as an orant in a large box, perhaps with a dove carrying a branch), Moses striking the rock, Daniel in the lion's den and the Three Youths in the Fiery Furnace () were all favourites, that could be easily depicted.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: Early Christian sarcophagi were a much more expensive option, made of marble and often heavily decorated with scenes in very high relief, worked with drills. Free-standing statues that are unmistakably Christian are very rare, and never very large, as more common subjects such as the Good Shepherd were symbols appealing to several religious and philosophical groups, including Christians, and without context no affiliation can be given to them. Typically sculptures, where they appear, are of rather high quality. One exceptional group that seems clearly Christian is known as the Cleveland Statuettes of Jonah and the Whale, and consists of a group of small statuettes of about 270, including two busts of a young and fashionably dressed couple, from an unknown find-spot, possibly in modern Turkey. The other figures tell the story of Jonah in four pieces, with a Good Shepherd; how they were displayed remains mysterious.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: The depiction of Jesus was well-developed by the end of the pre-Constantinian period. He was typically shown in narrative scenes, with a preference for New Testament miracles, and few of scenes from his Passion. A variety of different types of appearance were used, including the thin long-faced figure with long centrally-parted hair that was later to become the norm. But in the earliest images as many show a stocky and short-haired beardless figure in a short tunic, who can only be identified by his context. In many images of miracles Jesus carries a stick or wand, which he points at the subject of the miracle rather like a modern stage magician (though the wand is a good deal larger).


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: Saints are fairly often seen, with Peter and Paul, both martyred in Rome, by some way the most common in the catacombs there. Both already have their distinctive appearances, retained throughout the history of Christian art. Other saints may not be identifiable unless labelled with an inscription. In the same way some images may represent either the Last Supper or a contemporary agape feast.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: In the 4th century, the rapidly growing Christian population, now supported by the state, needed to build larger and grander public buildings for worship than the mostly discreet meeting places they had been using, which were typically in or among domestic buildings. Pagan temples remained in use for their original purposes for some time and, at least in Rome, even when deserted were shunned by Christians until the 6th or 7th centuries, when some were converted to churches. Elsewhere this happened sooner. Architectural formulas for temples were unsuitable, not simply for their pagan associations, but because pagan cult and sacrifices occurred outdoors under the open sky in the sight of the gods, with the temple, housing the cult figures and the treasury, as a windowless backdrop.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: The usable model at hand, when Emperor Constantine I wanted to memorialize his imperial piety, was the familiar conventional architecture of the basilica. There were several variations of the basic plan of the secular basilica, always some kind of rectangular hall, but the one usually followed for churches had a center nave with one aisle at each side, and an apse at one end opposite to the main door at the other. In, and often also in front of, the apse was a raised platform, where the altar was placed and the clergy officiated. In secular buildings this plan was more typically used for the smaller audience halls of the emperors, governors, and the very rich than for the great public basilicas functioning as law courts and other public purposes. This was the normal pattern used for Roman churches, and generally in the Western Empire, but the Eastern Empire, and Roman Africa, were more adventurous, and their models were sometimes copied in the West, for example in Milan. All variations allowed natural light from windows high in the walls, a departure from the windowless sanctuaries of the temples of most previous religions, and this has remained a consistent feature of Christian church architecture. Formulas giving churches with a large central area were to become preferred in Byzantine architecture, which developed styles of basilica with a dome early on.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: A particular and short-lived type of building, using the same basilican form, was the funerary hall, which was not a normal church, though the surviving examples long ago became regular churches, and they always offered funeral and memorial services, but a building erected in the Constantinian period as an indoor cemetery on a site connected with early Christian martyrs, such as a catacomb. The six examples built by Constantine outside the walls of Rome are: Old Saint Peter's Basilica, the older basilica dedicated to Saint Agnes of which Santa Costanza is now the only remaining element, San Sebastiano fuori le mura, San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, Santi Marcellino e Pietro al Laterano, and one in the modern park of Villa Gordiani.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: A martyrium was a building erected on a spot with particular significance, often over the burial of a martyr. No particular architectural form was associated with the type, and they were often small. Many became churches, or chapels in larger churches erected adjoining them. With baptistries and mausolea, their often smaller size and different function made martyria suitable for architectural experimentation.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: With the final legalization of Christianity, the existing styles of Christian art continued to develop, and take on a more monumental and iconic character. Before long very large Christian churches began to be constructed, and the majority of the rich elite adapted Christianity, and public and elite Christian art became grander to suit the new spaces and clients. Hans Belting wrote that "in late antiquity... Christianity adopted the cult images of the "pagans", in a complete reversal of its original attitude, and developed an image practice of its own." But large free-standing sculpture, the medium for the most prominent pagan images, continued to be distrusted and largely shunned for some centuries, and virtually up to the present day in the Orthodox world.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: Although borrowings of motifs such as the Virgin and Child from pagan religious art had been pointed out as far back as the Protestant Reformation, when John Calvin and his followers gleefully used them as a stick with which to beat all Christian art, the belief of André Grabar, Andreas Alföldi, Ernst Kantorowicz and other early 20th-century art historians that Roman Imperial imagery was a much more significant influence "has become universally accepted". A book by Thomas F. Mathews in 1994 attempted to overturn this thesis, very largely denying influence from Imperial iconography in favour of a range of other secular and religious influence, but was roughly handled by academic reviewers.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: More complex and expensive works are seen, as the wealthy gradually converted, and more theological complexity appears, as Christianity became subject to acrimonious doctrinal disputes. At the same time a very different type of art is found in the new public churches that were now being constructed. Somewhat by accident, the best group of survivals of these is from Rome where, together with Constantinople and Jerusalem, they were presumably at their most magnificent. Mosaic now becomes important; fortunately this survives far better than fresco, although it is vulnerable to well-meaning restoration and repair. It seems to have been an innovation of early Christian churches to put mosaics on the wall and use them for sacred subjects; previously, the technique had essentially been used for floors and walls in gardens. By the end of the period the style of using a gold ground had developed that continued to characterize Byzantine images, and many medieval Western ones.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: With more space, narrative images containing many people develop in churches, and also begin to be seen in later catacomb paintings. Continuous rows of biblical scenes appear (rather high up) along the side walls of churches. The best-preserved 5th-century examples are the set of Old Testament scenes along the nave walls of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. These can be compared to the paintings of Dura-Europos, and probably also derive from a lost tradition of both Jewish and Christian illustrated manuscripts, as well as more general Roman precedents. The large apses contain images in an iconic style, which gradually developed to centre on a large figure, or later just the bust, of Christ, or later of the Virgin Mary. The earliest apses show a range of compositions that are new symbolic images of the Christian life and the Church.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: No panel paintings, or "icons" from before the 6th century have survived in anything like an original condition, but they were clearly produced, and becoming more important throughout this period.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: Sculpture, all much smaller than lifesize, has survived in better quantities. The most famous of a considerable number of surviving early Christian sarcophagi are perhaps the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus and Dogmatic sarcophagus of the 4th century. A number of ivory carvings have survived, including the complex late-5th-century Brescia Casket, probably a product of Saint Ambrose's episcopate in Milan, then the seat of the Imperial court, and the 6th-century Throne of Maximian from the Byzantine Italian capital of Ravenna.


title: Early Christian art and architecture

text: Gold sandwich glass or gold glass was a technique for fixing a layer of gold leaf with a design between two fused layers of glass, developed in Hellenistic glass and revived in the 3rd century. There are a very fewer larger designs, but the great majority of the around 500 survivals are roundels that are the cut-off bottoms of wine cups or glasses used to mark and decorate graves in the Catacombs of Rome by pressing them into the mortar. The great majority are 4th century, extending into the 5th century. Most are Christian, but many pagan and a few Jewish, and had probably originally been given as gifts on marriage, or festive occasions such as New Year. Their iconography has been much studied, although artistically they are relatively unsophisticated. Their subjects are similar to the catacomb paintings, but with a difference balance including more portraiture of the deceased (usually, it is presumed). The progression to an increased number of images of saints can be seen in them. The same technique began to be used for gold tesserae for mosaics in the mid-1st century in Rome, and by the 5th century these had become the standard background for religious mosaics.


title: Mbwana Samatta

text: Mbwana Ally Samatta (born 23 December 1992) is a Tanzanian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Belgian Pro League club Genk on loan from Süper Lig club Fenerbahçe, and the Tanzania national team.


title: Mbwana Samatta

text: Samatta began his career as a youth player for Tanzanian club African Lyon in 2008. He turned professional in 2010 with Simba Sports Club, where he played for only half of the season before moving to TP Mazembe, spending a total of five years with them, initially becoming a first-team regular. He was named the 2015 African based Player of the Year and finished the season as the top goalscorer of the CAF Champions League, as he helped TP Mazembe to win the title.


title: Mbwana Samatta

text: In January 2016, Samatta signed for Belgian side K.R.C. Genk, helping them to qualify for the UEFA Europa League and win the Belgian Jupiler League in 2019. Having finished the season as the top goalscorer of the Jupiler League, he also won the Ebony Shoe award in Belgium for his outstanding season with Genk.


title: Mbwana Samatta

text: In January 2020, he moved to Aston Villa, becoming the first Tanzania-born player to play and score in the Premier League.


title: Mbwana Samatta

text: Samatta was a key figure during TP Mazembe's run to the final of the 2015 CAF Champions League, scoring seven goals in the process and finishing as the competition's top scorer. In their group stage match against Moghreb Tétouan, Samatta scored a memorable hat-trick to secure a place in the semi-finals where they were drawn against Sudanese side Al-Merrikh SC. Mazembe would go on to lift the cup after defeating Algerian side USM Alger in the final 4–1 on aggregate, with Samatta scoring a goal in both legs.


title: Mbwana Samatta

text: At the Glo-CAF Awards on 7 January 2016 at the International Conference Centre in Abuja, Nigeria, he became the first player from East Africa to be crowned the CAF African Player of the Year. Mbwana garnered a total of 127 points, ahead of his TP Mazembe teammate and DR Congo goalkeeper Robert Kidiaba, who amassed 88 points, and Algerian Baghdad Bounedjah trailed in third place with 63 points.


title: Mbwana Samatta

text: In January 2016, after winning the prize for best African player on the continent, he signed a four-and-a-half-year contract with KRC Genk. He was voted the 2017 Most Influential Young Tanzanian in a ranking poll by Avance Media


title: Mbwana Samatta

text: During the 2018–19 season, he led the Belgian First Division A in scoring with 20 goals, as Genk finished the season as league winners. In May 2019 he was awarded with the Ebony Shoe award for his exploits during the campaign.


title: Mbwana Samatta

text: On 20 January 2020, Samatta signed a four-and-a-half-year contract with Premier League club Aston Villa. In doing so, he became the first Tanzanian to sign for a Premier League club, and is the 117th different nationality to play in the competition. The transfer fee paid to Genk was reported as £8.5 million. Samatta made his debut for the club 8 days later in Villa's 2–1 EFL Cup semi-final second-leg win over Leicester City, a result which sealed the club's place in the final of the competition.


title: Mbwana Samatta

text: On 1 February 2020, Samatta scored on his league debut for Aston Villa, in a 2–1 defeat to Bournemouth. This made him the first player from Tanzania to play, and subsequently score in the Premier League.


title: Mbwana Samatta

text: On 25 September 2020, Samatta joined Süper Lig club Fenerbahçe S.K. on an initial loan deal until the end of the season. As part of the deal, Samatta signed a four-year contract at the end of his loan spell in July 2021.


title: Changhe Z-18

text: The Changhe Z-18, also known as Z-8G, is a medium-lift transport helicopter developed by Changhe Aircraft Industries Corporation (CAIC) to replace the Harbin Z-8.


title: Changhe Z-18

text: The Z-18 is a development of the Avicopter AC313 and Harbin Z-8, both of which are developments of the Aérospatiale SA 321 Super Frelon.


title: Changhe Z-18

text: The fuselage reportedly makes greater use of titanium and composites, and replaces the Z-8's boat-shaped lower fuselage with a tail ramp for small vehicles. It has a glass cockpit and is powered by three WZ-6C turboshafts.


title: Changhe Z-18

text: The Z-18's maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) is 13.8 tonnes. In late-2014, the only People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) ships able to operate the helicopter at MTOW were aircraft carriers and large amphibious assault ships.


title: Changhe Z-18

text: The transport Z-18A first appeared in Chinese state media in December 2014, and reportedly underwent high-altitude testing on the Tibetan Plateau in January 2015. The Z-18A reached an altitude of during testing.


title: Decagon

text: In geometry, a decagon (from the Greek δέκα "déka" and γωνία "gonía," "ten angles") is a ten-sided polygon or 10-gon. The total sum of the interior angles of a simple decagon is 1440°.


title: Decagon

text: A "regular decagon" has all sides of equal length and each internal angle will always be equal to 144°. Its Schläfli symbol is {10} and can also be constructed as a truncated pentagon, t{5}, a quasiregular decagon alternating two types of edges.


title: Decagon

text: The picture shows a regular decagon with side length formula_1 and radius formula_2 of the circumscribed circle.


title: Decagon

text: formula_27 and the base height of formula_28 (i.e. the length of formula_29) is formula_30 and the triangle has the area: formula_31.


title: Decagon

text: An alternative formula is formula_35 where "d" is the distance between parallel sides, or the height when the decagon stands on one side as base, or the diameter of the decagon's inscribed circle.


title: Decagon

text: As 10 = 2 × 5, a power of two times a Fermat prime, it follows that a regular decagon is constructible using compass and straightedge, or by an edge-bisection of a regular pentagon.


title: Decagon

text: The length ratio of two inequal edges of a golden triangle is the golden ratio, denoted formula_38 or its multiplicative inverse:


title: Decagon

text: So we can get the properties of a regular decagonal star, through a tiling by golden triangles that fills this star polygon.


title: Decagon

text: Both in the construction with given circumcircle as well as with given side length is the golden ratio dividing a line segment by exterior division the


title: Decagon

text: The "regular decagon" has Dih symmetry, order 20. There are 3 subgroup dihedral symmetries: Dih, Dih, and Dih, and 4 cyclic group symmetries: Z, Z, Z, and Z.


title: Decagon

text: These 8 symmetries can be seen in 10 distinct symmetries on the decagon, a larger number because the lines of reflections can either pass through vertices or edges. John Conway labels these by a letter and group order. Full symmetry of the regular form is r20 and no symmetry is labeled a1. The dihedral symmetries are divided depending on whether they pass through vertices (d for diagonal) or edges (p for perpendiculars), and i when reflection lines path through both edges and vertices. Cyclic symmetries in the middle column are labeled as g for their central gyration orders.


title: Decagon

text: Each subgroup symmetry allows one or more degrees of freedom for irregular forms. Only the g10 subgroup has no degrees of freedom but can seen as directed edges.


title: Decagon

text: The highest symmetry irregular decagons are d10, an isogonal decagon constructed by five mirrors which can alternate long and short edges, and p10, an isotoxal decagon, constructed with equal edge lengths, but vertices alternating two different internal angles. These two forms are duals of each other and have half the symmetry order of the regular decagon.


title: Decagon

text: Coxeter states that every zonogon (a 2"m"-gon whose opposite sides are parallel and of equal length) can be dissected into "m"("m"-1)/2 parallelograms.


title: Decagon

text: In particular this is true for regular polygons with evenly many sides, in which case the parallelograms are all rhombi. For the "regular decagon", "m"=5, and it can be divided into 10 rhombs, with examples shown below. This decomposition can be seen as 10 of 80 faces in a Petrie polygon projection plane of the 5-cube. A dissection is based on 10 of 30 faces of the rhombic triacontahedron. The list defines the number of solutions as 62, with 2 orientations for the first symmetric form, and 10 orientations for the other 6.


title: Decagon

text: A skew decagon is a skew polygon with 10 vertices and edges but not existing on the same plane. The interior of such an decagon is not generally defined. A "skew zig-zag decagon" has vertices alternating between two parallel planes.


title: Decagon

text: A regular skew decagon is vertex-transitive with equal edge lengths. In 3-dimensions it will be a zig-zag skew decagon and can be seen in the vertices and side edges of a pentagonal antiprism, pentagrammic antiprism, and pentagrammic crossed-antiprism with the same D, [2,10] symmetry, order 20.


title: Decagon

text: These can also be seen in these 4 convex polyhedra with icosahedral symmetry. The polygons on the perimeter of these projections are regular skew decagons.


title: Decagon

text: The regular skew decagon is the Petrie polygon for many higher-dimensional polytopes, shown in these orthogonal projections in various Coxeter planes: The number of sides in the Petrie polygon is equal to the Coxeter number, "h", for each symmetry family.


title: The Spider and the Fly (poem)

text: The Spider and the Fly is a poem by Mary Howitt (1799–1888), published in 1829. The first line of the poem is "'Will you walk into my parlour?' said the Spider to the Fly." The story tells of a cunning spider who entraps a fly into its web through the use of seduction and manipulation. The poem is a cautionary tale against those who use flattery and charm to disguise their true intentions.


title: The Spider and the Fly (poem)

text: The poem was published with the subtitle "A new Version of an old Story" in "The New Year’s Gift and Juvenile Souvenir", which has a publication year of 1829 on its title page but, as the title would suggest, was released before New Year’s Day and was reviewed in magazines as early as October 1828.


title: The Spider and the Fly (poem)

text: The opening line is one of the most recognized and quoted first lines in all of English verse. Often misquoted as "Step into my parlour" or "Come into my parlour", it has become an aphorism, often used to indicate a false offer of help or friendship that is in fact a trap. The line has been used and parodied numerous times in various works of fiction.


title: The Spider and the Fly (poem)

text: When Lewis Carroll was reading "Alice's Adventures Under Ground" for publication as "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland", he replaced a negro minstrel song with "The Mock Turtle's Song" (also known as the "Lobster Quadrille"), a parody of Howitt's poem that mimics the meter and rhyme scheme and parodies the first line, but not the subject matter, of the original.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The House of Radziwiłł (; ; ; ) was a powerful magnate family originating from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later also prominent in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The family was founded by Radvila Astikas, but over time it split into many branches, such as the Biržai-Dubingiai and Goniądz-Meteliai lines. However, most of the branches became extinct by the 18th century, with only the Nesvizh-Kleck-Ołyka line surviving to this day. Their descendants were highly prominent for centuries, first in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, later in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Kingdom of Prussia. The family produced many individuals notable in Lithuanian, Polish, Belarusian, German as well as general European history and culture. The Radziwiłł family received the title of "Reichsfürst" (prince) from the Holy Roman Emperor in the mid 16th-century.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The Nesvizh Castle complex, maintained by the family between the 16th century and 1939, is a UNESCO World Heritage site.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The Radziwiłł family is a directly descended branch of the extinct Lithuanian noble Astikai family line. Its first notable member, Kristinas Astikas (born 1363), a close associate of the Lithuanian ruler Vytautas, became Castellan of Vilnius. The patronym Radvila arose following its use by his son Radvila Astikas and grandson Mikalojus Radvila. A legendary version of the patronym's etymology associates it with a child raised by wolves ("rado vilko"). The name has been primarily written in, and recognized by, the polonized version and spelling for several centuries.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The family descends from Lithuanian "bajorai-ducal courtiers" who advanced considerably in the 15th-century politics of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Along with possessions of land near Kernavė, the family's traced place of origin, the Radziwiłł family also inherited the Trąby coat of arms.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: Three of Mikalojus' sons, Mikołaj, Jan, and Jerzy, went on to become the progenitors of the three known Radziwiłł family lines.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The Goniądz-Meteliai line became extinct by the next generation as Mikołaj's descendants consisted of one male heir, Mikołaj III, who entered the priesthood and became the Bishop of Samogitia, thus bearing no known offspring to extend the line.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The Biržai-Dubingiai line was moderately more successful and produced some very notable state officials and politicians, but it also became extinct after Ludwika Karolina Radziwiłł's death in 1695.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The Nesvizh-Kletsk-Olyka line was the most successful and was further divided into smaller family lines to maintain clarity and specificity of descent and the passing of titles. Since the 18th century, all Radziwiłł family members have been descendants of this line. Three sons of Mikołaj "the Black", Mikołaj Krzysztof "the Orphan", Albrycht, and Stanisław "the Pious", are said to be the progenitors of the three smaller branches. The branches are as follows:


title: Radziwiłł family

text: Possibly both the Olyka and older Kletsk lines became extinct, the former in 1656 and the latter in 1690. The direct descendant of the Nesvizh line, Dominik Hieronim's son, Aleksander Dominik, was born before his parents' marriage and formed the so-called Galician branch, which went extinct in 1938.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The younger Kletsk line descends from Michał Hieronim, continued through his son Ludwik Mikolaj. The descendants of his other son, Antoni Henryk, formed the beginning of the so-called Ordynant branch. Other than the Ordynant branch, from the younger Kletsk line also descends the lesser titled branches of Szydłowiec and Połoneczka, as well as Dziatłava, Berdychiv, and Żyrmunów. The younger Kletsk line has continued into the present day.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: Kristinas Astikas, ancestor of the Radziwiłł family, was among these who were granted and adopted the emblem known as "Trąby" after the Union of Horodło in 1413. This emblem later became the hereditary coat of arms of the Radziwiłłs.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: In 1518, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I created Mikalojus Radvila's son, Mikołaj, "Reichsfürst" ("Imperial Prince") of Goniądz and Meteliai after the Jagiellonian-Habsburg congress at Vienna. Mikołaj Radziwiłł also received an expanded, more solemn coat of arms: as princes of the Holy Roman Empire, the Radziwiłłs bore a black eagle, on whose breast is a shield with "Trąby" and other emblems. The family motto is "God advises us" (Polish: "Bóg nam radzi", Belarusian: "Бог нам раіць", "Boh nam rajić").


title: Radziwiłł family

text: In 1547, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, created Mikołaj "the Black" and his brother, Jan, hereditary "Reichsfürsten" of Nesvizh and Olyka; their cousin Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł was created "Reichsfürst" of Biržai and Dubingiai. The same year King Sigismund II Augustus of Poland married Barbara Radziwiłł and confirmed these titles in 1549. So high a title was rare among the "szlachta" (the Polish nobility): just five Polish families, including the Radziwiłłs, received the title of imperial prince from the Holy Roman emperor.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The Radziwiłł family also divided on religious grounds. Following the Protestant and Polish Reformation, two branches converted to Calvinism. One branch, the Nesvizh–Kletsk-Olyka line, remained as Calvinists for two generations until the children of Mikołaj "the Black" converted to Roman Catholicism before the end of the century. The Biržai-Dubingiai line remained in the Protestant faith until the extinction of their line one century later.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: Both Mikołaj "the Black" and Mikołaj "the Brown" were zealous promoters and active participants of the Protestant religion within the GDL. Mikołaj "the Black" funded the printing of a second version, and first completed, Polish translation of a Protestant Bible, titled the "Radziwiłł Bible" (also known as ""Biblia Brzeska""), which was published in the town of Brest in 1564. His death in 1565 was seen as a severe loss to the Protestant cause in Lithuania. However, Mikołaj "the Red" continued his cousin's work by founding and endowing land to several churches and schools.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: Several prominent family members have been involved in domestic and foreign political arenas. They took an active part in the political life of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Its importance is manifested by family relations with such famous nobility dynasties in Belarus, Ukraine, Poland, the Great Duchy of Lithuania, Samogitia, and Rus like Zaslawski, Rohatinski, Lukomski, and Olshanski-Dobrowicki. The Radziwiłł family joined the rest of the nobility as the state's elite after the signing of the Union of Krewo in 1385.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The significance of the Radziwiłł family is proved by the marriage of Anna to Konrad III Rudy, duke of Masovia, who owned the largest Polish principality. In 1547 Barbara Radziwiłł was married to Sigismund II Augustus, thus becoming the Queen of Poland and setting also in motion a closer relationship to the Papal Curia. Later the Radziwiłłs established family relations not only with the most important families of the Polish, Belarusian and Lithuanian magnate families like Sanguszko, Sapieha or Chodkiewicz, but also with members of royal families like Wiśniowiecki, Sobieski, and Leszczyński.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The political position of the Radziwiłłs was enhanced in the 16th century. In 1515, Mikołaj, as a member of a delegation, headed by King Sigismund I the Old took part in the First Congress of Vienna in Pressburg and Vienna where Emperor Maximilian I met kings of Poland, Hungary and Bohemia. Additionally, Mikolaj "the Black" was the deputy to the Grand Prince when the latter was abroad. From that time on, the Radziwiłłs were also granted the privilege of keeping legal acts and other state documents in Nesvizh.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: In 1583 bishop Jerzy Radziwiłł was elevated to the cardinalate by Pope Gregory XIII, established a closer relationship with the influential noble banking families Altoviti and Strozzi. Later prince Aleksander Ludwik Radziwiłł married Lucrezia Maria Strozzi, great-granddaughter of Bindo Altoviti and Filippo Strozzi.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: During this time until the first half of the 17th century, the Radziwiłłs were the most influential and richest family among the magnate dynasties of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. This status enabled them, along with very few other families, to have their own army. In 1528, the Radziwiłłs owned 18,240 houses, thus being able to have cavalry of 760 horsemen. In 1567, 28,170 houses provided for an expanded 939 horsemen and 1586 infantrymen. In the 18th century, the army of Hieronim Florian, for instance, had 6,000 men and was equal to the entire armed forces of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: Members of the Radziwiłł family held important state posts in the "Rzeczpospolita" and in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 8 chancellors, 7 "hetmans", 15 "castellans", 19 "marszałeks", and 19 "voivodes", almost exclusively representing the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, rather than the Crown, belonged to the dynasty. Radziwiłłs were members of the parliament and of the Tribunal of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. They also held high military posts and took part in the Livonian War, Russo-Polish War of 1647–1667, Northern Wars, participated in the Napoleonic campaign, and the Kościuszko Uprising.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The Radziwiłłs also gained international importance manifested in family relations with German princely dynasties, first established by Albrecht Radziwiłł from Olyka, who married Anna, princess of Courland. Such conjugal unions continued in the 17th and 18th centuries.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: Karol Stanisław Radziwiłł (1734–1790) of the Nieśwież line was the wealthiest magnate in Poland, in the second half of the 18th century, and one of the richest men in Europe. As a patriot, he fought for a free nation that soon after his death would be partitioned between Austria, Prussia and the Russian Empire. During the Great Sejm from 1788 until he died in 1790, he was a leading opponent of reform and King Stanisław II Augustus and his allies, the members of the so-called "Familia" political party headed by the Czartoryski family.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: After the three partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the late 18th century, towns and estates owned by the Radziwiłłs became parts of territories that belonged to Russia, Prussia and Austria. However, all three states recognized the title of princes of the Radziwiłł dynasty and the rights of its members at the family properties. In addition, many members of the Radziwiłł family held high civil and military posts.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: They had family ties with the Dukes of Castellane, the Clary-Aldringen and Sayn-Wittgenstein princes and most importantly with Frederick William II, King of Prussia and his son Frederick William III. Prince Antoni Radziwiłł of the Kletsk line married Princess Louise of Prussia, a daughter of Prince Augustus Ferdinand of Prussia and hence a first cousin of King Frederick William II. This relation helped Antoni to release the vast properties of Nieśwież and Olyka from Russian seizure in 1815, after his cousin, Dominik of the Nieśwież line had fought and died on Napoleons' side in the Polish Legion, and Alexander I of Russia had therefore confiscated his whole property. After the Congress of Vienna, the inheritance was partially given to Antoni.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The couple were prominent patrons of the arts in Berlin during the early 19th century. At their Berlin residence, the Radziwiłł Palace, they hosted well-known personalities, artists and academics, playing a major role in promoting the Prussian-Polish relationship in Berlin. These included Polish politicians in the Prussian Parliament or such famous people as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Frédéric Chopin, Wilhelm and Alexander von Humboldt, Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy and Karl Friedrich Schinkel. In fact, the "Salons" held by the Radziwiłłs were so popular that they became a symbol of "Polish Berlin". Prince Ferdynand Radziwiłł - like Wilhelm von Humboldt, Goethe, Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy and many further notable personalities - also was a member of the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin where people from all walks of life and classes in Berlin came together to study and practice choral music. Although most of their largest estates were located in Russian Poland, the close relation with the Royal House of Prussia caused the family to preferably live at the Berlin court, using their influence, than in Warsaw or St. Petersburg, given their experience with the Czar's seizure of most of the family's property in 1813. Moreover, Michał Gedeon Radziwiłł was the commander-in-chief of the November uprising of 1830–31.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: Elisa Radziwill, a daughter of Antoni and Louise, became the first love of the later Prussian King and German Emperor Wilhelm I. Her brothers Wilhelm (1797–1870) and Bogusław (1809–1873) became Prussian generals and politicians, the latter being an influential opponent of Prussian minister-president (and, from 1871, German Chancellor) Otto von Bismarck in his anti-Catholic politics, later called the Kulturkampf. Bogusław's son Ferdynand (1834–1926) also became an important leader of the Polish minority and opponent of the Germanization and Kulturkampf policies. After Poland regained independence in 1918, he became a Polish citizen and a member of the Polish parliament (Sejm), and so did his son Janusz (1880–1967). Their cousin Stanislaw Radziwiłł was the "aide-de-camp" to the Commander-in-chief Józef Piłsudski. In German-occupied Poland, Janusz tried to use his prestige to improve Nazi treatment of the Poles – unlike his brother Michał who sided with the Nazis, at least at the beginning of the occupation. After the Second World War in 1945, Janusz was arrested by NKVD, and his wife would die in a communist prison in 1947. Janusz died in his two-room apartment in Warsaw, with all of his possessions confiscated and nationalized by the communist government.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: In 1959, Janusz's third son prince Stanisław Albrecht Radziwiłł married Caroline Bouvier, the younger sister of First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: Prince Antoni Radziwiłł was a music and art aficionado and he transformed his properties in Berlin to serve as artistic salons, where aristocrats mingled among artists, painters and composers. Radziwiłł’s Berlin properties hosted frequent amateur theatre play productions.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: Another property Antoni Radziwiłł owned in Prussian-Poland was Antonin, a hunting lodge he had built between 1822-24 by the German architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel, named after him. Later in his life, Antoni Radziwiłł moved permanently to Antonin with his wife, Louise of Prussia, and two daughters Wanda and Eliza. Antoni Radziwiłł was a well-connected composer among European musical circles and with time transformed the Antonin property into a popular musical salon among greatest talents of the area such as Niccolò Paganini, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Frédéric Chopin and Ludwig van Beethoven. Chopin gave music lessons to Antoni Radziwiłł’s daughter Wanda during his stays at the property. During his stays with Radziwiłł family, Chopin also had composed the Polonaise op.3 and Piano Trio Op. 8 and dedicated the latter to Radziwiłł. Antoni Radziwiłł also supported some of the artists financially, among them Fryderyk Chopin. Chopin's visits to Antonin property were documented by Henryk Siemiradzki in a photogravure titled "Chopin u księcia Radziwiłła" ("Chopin's visit to Prince Radziwill").


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The family acquired and maintained great wealth and influence from the 15th–16th century until 1939, when the Second World War started. The Radziwiłł family reached the heights of its importance and power during the Polish Golden Age. However, due to the activities of Janusz Radziwiłł during The Deluge, a series of mid-17th-century campaigns in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the family lost much of its wealth and power.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: Regarding their wealth, the Radziwiłłs were not inferior to a royal family. In total, the Radziwiłł family has, over the centuries, had in its possession 23 palaces, 426 large and small towns, 2032 estates, and 10,053 villages. In present-day Belarus they possessed towns and boroughs like Haranyony, Davyd-Haradok, Kletsk, Dzyarzhynsk, Kopys, Dakhva, Mir, Nesvizh, Charnauchitsy, and Shchuchyn; in present-day Ukraine: Olyka with dozens of villages in the Wolyn province (Polish: wojewodztwo); in present-day Poland: Szydłowiec with villages in the Sandomierz province and Nieborów; and in present-day Lithuania: Biržai, Dubingiai, Kėdainiai, and others.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The Goniądz-Meteliai line possessed, during the 15th – 16th centuries, estates like Goniądz, Zaigrad and Podlaskie Lowlands in Poland. In 1612 the Principality of Slutsk with some thirty-two villages passed over to the Radziwiłłs, after Janusz Radziwiłł had married the heiress Zofia Olelkowicz Słucka. Radziwiłłs also expanded their possessions with Brest, Ashmyany, Krychau, Lida, Mazyr and other administrative territories (starostwos). As a result, the Radziwiłłs were granted a lifetime privilege of being governors (starostas) of those territories. However, during Janusz Radziwiłł's lifetime, the interests between his family and the Polish Crown began to drift apart, as the Radziwiłłs sought to increase their wealth and power, safeguard Protestantism and support ethnically Lithuanian culture, which caused him to join the opposition against King Sigismund III Vasa in 1606.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: In 1586, the sons of Mikolaj "the Black" arranged for their fortunes to follow an "ordynacja" (fee tail), which was to have individual properties inherited by their male descendants; see "Radziwiłł Family Fee Tail". The ordynats of Nesvizh, Kletsk, and Olyka were thus formed. In the 19th century the Davyd-Haradok and Przygodzice ordynats were also established. Other possessions could be inherited by female heirs or alienated. Depending on the importance and size of owned lands, they were called either principalities (Nesvizh, Olyka, Biržai, Dubingiai, Kapyl, Slutsk, Staryi Chortoryisk, Stary Zbaraz, Goniądz and Medele), counties (Mir, Biała Podlaska, Dzyarzhynsk, Kopys, Zabłudów, Kėdainiai, Zolkow, Pomorzani, Belykamen, Kražiai), or estates (Nevel, Krasnoye, Sebezh, Musninkai, Sereya, Horodok, Sobolew, Slovatichi, Ruchai, Kolki, Vyazyn, Rafałówka, Zhmigrod, Beloozero, Yampol, Shumsk, Sverzhen, Drisvyaty, Naliboki). The family ties to the banking dynasties Altoviti and Strozzi played an important role to secure titles and wealth with the Roman Curia.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: After the extinction of the Olyka and older Kletsk lines, their fortunes were passed to those of the Nesvizh line. With the death of the heirless Dominik Hieronim in 1813, the Nesvizh line lost its right to the ordynat. Dominik Heronim's son, Aleksander Dominik, was born before his parents' marriage and was thus denied the title and inheritance of his forefathers. He and his descendants had their princely title confirmed by the Austrian Empire. Thus, the ordynat of Nesvizh and Olyka fell into the hands of the younger Kletsk line. This, however, cost the new owner, Antoni Radziwiłł, some diplomatic effort at the Congress of Vienna, as his cousin Dominik had fought in the Polish Legion on Napoleons' side, and Alexander I of Russia had therefore confiscated his whole property. Only because of Prussia's intervention (since Antoni was married to a Prussian princess) he was able to keep the family trust properties, mainly Nesvizh Castle and Olyka Castle with vast lands, while Mir Castle and 18,000 km² of land passed to Dominik's only legitimate child, Stephania, who had to marry a Russian subject, according to the Czar's order, whom she found in Ludwig zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: In this way, all three Radziwiłł ordynats ended up in the possession of one line, represented by the sons of Michal Hieronim, Ludwik Mikolaj of Kletsk and Antoni Henryk of Nesvizh and Olyka. The descendants of Antoni Henryk formed the beginning of the so-called Ordynant branch, out of the younger Kletsk line, in whose possession, other than the three older ordynats of Nesvizh, Kletsk, and Olyka, they also received the two additional titles of Przygodzice and Davyd-Haradok.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: The Radziwiłł family owned 23 castles and palaces. The most fortified of them were in Nesvizh, Olyka, Biržai, Biała, Slutsk, Zolkow, Pomorzany and Zolochiv. The Radziwiłłs possessed palaces in most important cities of the Rzeczpospolita, including those where the Sejm, had its sessions (Warsaw, Hrodna), or the Tribunal held its meetings (Vilnius, Lublin, Navahrudak), in province centres where the Radziwiłłs had their estates (Minsk and Lviv), and in the cities where the Radziwiłłs were economically active (Gdańsk, Wrocław). In the 19th and 20th centuries, the Radziwiłłs also owned property in European capitals like Vienna, Dresden, Berlin and Paris. Residences that emerged in the centres of the possessions of the Radziwiłłs reflected the importance of a town in the history of the family. One of these types of residences was Nesvizh in present-day Belarus, which by the 18th century had developed into a most important princely town.


title: Radziwiłł family

text: Over the generations the family members have resided in some notable historic homes. The Radziwiłł family owned a total of 23 palaces. Some of the more prominent of these are:


title: Radziwiłł family

text: Since 1515 both Mikolajs and the Radziwiłł family were elevated to Reichsfürsten of the Holy Roman Empire.


title: Hiroshima Prefecture

text: Hiroshima is the capital and largest city of Hiroshima Prefecture, and the largest city in the Chūgoku region, with other major cities including Fukuyama, Kure, and Higashihiroshima. Hiroshima Prefecture is located on the Seto Inland Sea across from the island of Shikoku, and is bounded to the north by the Chūgoku Mountains. Hiroshima Prefecture is one of the three prefectures of Japan with more than one UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Hiroshima Prefecture

text: The area around Hiroshima was formerly divided into Bingo Province and Aki Province. This location has been a center of trade and culture since the beginning of Japan's recorded history. Hiroshima is a traditional center of the Chūgoku region and was the seat of the Mōri clan until the Battle of Sekigahara.


title: Hiroshima Prefecture

text: Together with Nara and Tokyo, Hiroshima is one of the three prefectures with more than one UNESCO World Heritage Site. The two such sites in Hiroshima Prefecture are:


title: Hiroshima Prefecture

text: Hiroshima prefecture lies in the middle of Japan . Most of the prefecture consists of mountains leading towards Shimane Prefecture; and rivers produce rich plains near the coast.


title: Hiroshima Prefecture

text: The province faces Shikoku across the Seto Inland Sea. Hiroshima Bay opens on the Inland Sea. The prefecture also includes many small islands.


title: Hiroshima Prefecture

text: As of 1 April 2014, 4% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as Natural Parks (the lowest percentage of any prefecture), namely Setonaikai National Park; Hiba-Dōgo-Taishaku and Nishi-Chūgoku Sanchi Quasi-National Parks; and six Prefectural Natural Parks.


title: Hiroshima Prefecture

text: Hiroshima's main industries include automobiles (Mazda is headquartered there) and tourism in two World Heritage Sites: the A-Bomb dome and Itsukushima Shrine.


title: Hiroshima Prefecture

text: Components of the economy are primary industry, secondary industry, and tertiary industry, which compose 0.6%, 32.6%, and 66.2% in 2015. There is 0.6% of unclassified production.


title: Hiroshima Prefecture

text: Value of production of manufacturing is 10,343 billion yen in 2016, which is the 10th largest in Japan. After 2012, production of manufacturing is continuously increasing in 2015.


title: Hiroshima Prefecture

text: Similar to the rest of Japan, most people in the Hiroshima Prefecture are Shinto or Buddhist. in 1996 51.2% of the population was Buddhist, 2 were affiliated with Shinto Sects, 44.8% practiced Folk Shinto, and 2% were Christian.


title: Tukoji Rao Holkar

text: Tukoji Rao Holkar (26 June 1723 – 15 August 1797), belonging to the Holkar clan of the Marathas was the feudatory of Indore (r. 1795–1797). Tukoji Holkar was the adopted son of Malhar Rao Holkar, he was the second son of Shrimant Tanuji Holkar, a nephew of Malhar Rao Holkar. Thus he was also the grand-nephew of Malhar Rao Holkar. He married two wives. He had four sons Kashi Rao, Malhar Rao II Holkar, Yashwant Rao, Vithoji Rao.


title: Tukoji Rao Holkar

text: Tukoji Rao Holkar was from the Dhangar community. After the demise of Ahilyabai Holkar, Tukoji Rao was the only suitable person who could preserve the splendour of Holkar kingdom intact. He became the fourth ruler of the kingdom for a short period from 1795 to 1797 and protected the province as a courageous soldier. It was a time of crisis when Tukoji Rao received the responsibility of the Holkar Kingdom. Khanderao, husband of Ahilyabai had already lost his life in Kumbher war of 1754. Tukoji Rao Holkar was the most trustworthy commander-in-chief of Shreemant Malhar Rao Holkar. While on death bed, Malhar Rao's appreciation of Tukoji further intensified his loyalty to the royal house of Holkars. Malhar Rao said "You are the only one who can uphold my name and protect Prince Male Rao Holkar (grandson of Malhar Rao) after my death". But, Male Rao also had a very short-life span. He died on 13 March 1767 due to sickness. At this juncture, it was Tukoji Rao who has submitted himself to the service of Ahilyabai and she could withstand with the challenges she had in the service of her people of Malwa. Ahilyabai also respected him as her brother-in-law as Tukoji Rao was the adopted son of Malhar Rao Holkar I.


title: Tukoji Rao Holkar

text: The remarkable and sincere services rendered by Tukoji Rao Holkar I during the reign of Malhar Rao Holkar I as a Commander in his army and during Ahilyabai Holkar as a Commander-in-Chief could congregate much recognition to his extraordinary talents in administration and as a chief of the armed forces. He, in the meantime, never forgot for a moment his original sense of obligation to the royal house of Holkars. He was more than obedient; he was dutiful, and all his actions were directed to please and conciliate the royal chair to which he was solely indebted for his high station. The people of Malwa felt themselves secure in the hands of Tukoji Rao Holkar I and the territories comprising the Holkar State continued to be prosperous for nearly two years after the death of Ahilya Bai.


title: Tukoji Rao Holkar

text: He actively participated in the conquests of Punjab and fought in the Battles of Lahore, Attock, and Peshawar in which he commanded many of the Maratha forces in the Punjab region and the frontier regions of Attock and Peshawar. He also conquered Jallalabad for a brief period where he defeated Jahan Khan. Later after the debacle in Third Battle of Panipat, he played an important role Maratha Resurrection and subsequent First Anglo-Maratha War. Post that his relation with Mahadaji Scindia deteriorated.


title: Tukoji Rao Holkar

text: Tukoji Rao died on 15 August 1797. He left behind him "the character of a good soldier, a plain, unaffected man and one whose courage was superior to his craft. The records show that during his lifetime he never used a seal of his own, and always been remained loyal to Malhar Rao and his family until his last breath."


title: Honda Ballade

text: The Honda Ballade is a subcompact automobile built by Honda of Japan. It began as a four-door higher equipment content version of the Civic in 1980. The Ballade was developed at the same time the Honda Vigor appeared, which was a higher content Honda Accord. In Japan, the Ballade was sold exclusively at "Honda Verno" dealerships alongside the Vigor, Prelude, CR-X, and Quint. In the UK it was launched at the same time as the very similar Triumph Acclaim with which it shared a Honda-built engine.


title: Honda Ballade

text: The name of the car was taken from "ballade", the French word for a ballad. Because both the four-door Ballade sedan and the five-door hatchback Quintet were both high luxury content vehicles derived from the Honda Civic, the Ballade represented a type of music, and the Quintet represented a musical group. The Ballade competed in Japan with the Toyota Sprinter, and the Nissan Laurel Spirit as the Civic competed with the Corolla, and the Sunny.


title: Honda Ballade

text: It was launched in September 1980, nine months after the agreement between Honda and British Leyland to produce their own versions of the car and work on future cars together. Although the original Ballade was never sold in Europe, British Leyland produced its own version of the Ballade - the Triumph Acclaim - from 1981 to 1984. In North America the Ballade nameplate was never used, the model instead being sold as the Civic Sedan.


title: Honda Ballade

text: After 1984, the Ballade shared most of its body panels with the Civic, except for a sportier front end, and formed the basis of the CR-X sports car and the original Rover 200. Of this second generation Ballade the top model - EX-i - featured a 1.5L naturally aspirated 12-valve all-aluminium engine with multi-point fuel injection (using Honda's PGM-FI system) developing , the same engine was used on the first generation Civic CRX. Other features of the EX-i included electric windows all-round, electric and heated wing mirrors, metallic paint, vented front disc brakes and hydraulic power-assisted steering. Lower specification models featured the same 1.5L engine but with fueling provided via a carburetor, producing . In keeping with the styling trend shared with other "Honda Verno" products, the second generation car adopted partially concealed headlights starting in 1983, shared with the Vigor, Quint Integra, Ballade Sports CR-X, and the Prelude.


title: Honda Ballade

text: The Ballade in Japan was replaced in September 1987, with the Honda Concerto 5-door hatchback and sedan as the luxury Civic offering at newly established "Honda Clio" dealerships in Japan. As the Ballade was essentially a luxury version of the Civic sedan, Honda repositioned the Ballade from "Honda Verno", first with the Concerto name, then renamed again as the Honda Domani at "Honda Clio", and introduced it with the Honda Accord, the Honda Inspire, and the Honda Legend in 1992, with the Civic now headlining at "Honda Primo" stores. The sport-oriented version of the Civic loosely held by the Ballade evolved into the Honda Integra, and assumed the market position originally held by the Ballade at "Honda Verno" dealership locations.


title: Honda Ballade

text: Known in South Africa as the SC9, or informally as the "popup" as to not confuse it with the SH4. This particular model had motorised eyelids which popped up when the main headlights were switched on.


title: Honda Ballade

text: Engines included 1.3-liter 12-valve EV, 1.5-liter 12-valve EW, 1.5-liter 12-valve PGMFI EW and ZC (first gen) D-series.


title: Honda Ballade

text: Also known as the Honda Civic series EF (internationally), the Civic Sedan, or the Ballade series SH4 (South Africa).


title: Honda Ballade

text: In 1996 the Ballade and Civic got a facelift with a total of 12 changes. Honda & Colt(Mitsubishi) Division of Mercedes-Benz of South Africa marketing manager Guy Franken says: "With a total 12 derivatives in the range we believe that we have the entire small/intermediate car market covered and offer value in performance, specification, safety and affordability."


title: Honda Ballade

text: There was also an AMG (Mercedes Benz) version sold at AMG dealers since AMG Managed the racing team. It had some small modifications that allowed it to produce 129kW in B16A6 format. A Sport trim was also available, it added Sport badges, an aluminum gear knob like the DC2 Type R and subtle suspension tuning.


title: Honda Ballade

text: The Ballade name continued to be used for a Civic-based model in South Africa, where it was used instead of Civic on locally produced versions until 2001. South African Ballades were assembled by the local subsidiary of Daimler-Benz, which wanted to market a smaller and cheaper car in addition to its Mercedes-Benz models. The Ballade name was adopted because it was perceived to have more luxury and upmarket connotations than the Civic name. This was important because the Ballade was sold through the Mercedes-Benz dealership channel.


title: Naya Daur (1957 film)

text: Naya Daur () is a 1957 Indian Hindi-language social drama film directed and produced by B. R. Chopra. It was written by Akhtar Mirza. It stars Dilip Kumar, Vyjayanthimala in lead roles, along with Ajit, Jeevan, Johnny Walker, Chand Usmani, Nazir Hussain, Manmohan Krishna, Leela Chitnis, Pratima Devi, Daisy Irani, Radhakishan form an ensemble cast. The film narrates the story of Shankar and Krishna, two best friends who fall for the same woman, Rajni.


title: Naya Daur (1957 film)

text: For this film, Dilip Kumar won the Filmfare Award for Best Actor for the third time in a row, being his fourth overall. The film was later dubbed in Tamil as "Pattaliyin Sabatham" ("The Proletariat's Vow") in 1958. "Naya Daur" also inspired Aamir Khan's Academy Award nominated film "Lagaan" (2001).


title: Naya Daur (1957 film)

text: "Naya Daur" was the second-highest grossing Indian film of the year 1957 and also the second-highest grossing Indian film of the decade, behind "Mother India" (1957). At the time of its release, it briefly became the highest grossing Indian film ever; later being surpassed by "Mother India (1957)." By many sources, it remains one of the top 10 highest-grossing Indian films of all time when adjusted for ticket-price inflation. It became the highest-grossing sports film ever at the time of its release and remains one of the highest ticket-selling sports film, despite its release only being in India.


title: Naya Daur (1957 film)

text: The tongawala Shankar and the woodcutter Krishna are best friends in a poor village. At a train station, Shankar meets Rajni, who arrives there with her mother and brother, and fall in love with each other. At the same time, Krishna also sees Rajni and falls for her.


title: Naya Daur (1957 film)

text: Kundan from the city arrives at the village and wants to modernize and mechanize the business which he does so by getting an electric saw thus making several workers at the mill lose their jobs. When Shankar and Krishna both come to know that they both love Rajni, they plan on deciding on who will marry her; if Rajni offers white flowers when she goes to the temple, she will marry Shankar and if she offers yellow flowers, she will marry Krishna. Manju, Shankar's sister who is in love with Krishna, hears the conversation and stealthily switches Rajni's yellow flowers with white flowers at the temple. Krishna, who sees Manju switching the flowers, thinks that Shankar has told her to do this and it leads Krishna and Shankar into a fight. The saddened Shankar tells Rajni that he would not have fallen for her, if he knew that his friend also loves her. Rajni becomes heart-broken after hearing this tells him that she can not change her feelings for him, but he can if he wants and goes away.


title: Naya Daur (1957 film)

text: Kundan introduces a bus in the village thus taking away the tongawalas' livelihood. They ask him to remove it, but he refuses. Shankar says that what he has done is for the betterment of himself only. Kundan, however, tells Shankar that if he can drive his tonga faster than the bus then he will remove the later. Shankar agrees to do it but the rest of the tongawalas tell him not to as the bus will be faster. Shankar consents to the race and asks time for three months to prepare for the race. He make a plan to build a road, which is six miles shorter than the road which leads to the temple. The disturbed villagers tell Shankar that he has gone mad with his stubbornness and do not support him with the making of the road, letting him to do it alone.


title: Naya Daur (1957 film)

text: Shankar starts to lose heart when he starts to build the road alone, but Rajni joins him, saying that she will always be with him, which makes Shankar happy. Soon, the rest of the tongawalas join them to build the road. Krishna joins Kundan's side and asks him to help to make sure that the road does not get complete. The villagers, all together, overcome difficulties along the way and finally finish the building. Krishna decides to take things up in his own hands and breaks the bridge made by the villagers which was the most important path of the road. Manju sees him doing this and confronts Krishna and tells him that she changed the flowers on her own and not on the words of her brother as she loves him. Krishna on hearing this realises his mistake and starts repairing the bridge immediately with the help of Manju.


title: Naya Daur (1957 film)

text: Finally, the race takes place with Shankar emerging as the victor. Krishna comes to congratulate Shankar and both the friends make up with each other furthermore Shankar and Rajni unite while Krishna and Manju unite with each other.


title: Naya Daur (1957 film)

text: "Naya Daur" was directed and produced by B. R. Chopra under his banner B. R. Films, which was established by him in 1955 and had produced the commercially and critically successful family drama "Ek Hi Raasta", starring Meena Kumari and Sunil Dutt, in the next year.