title: Insect morphology

text: The third axillary sclerite (3Ax) lies in the posterior part of the articular region of the wing. Its form is highly variable and often irregular, but the third axillary is the sclerite on which is inserted the flexor muscle of the wing (D). Mesally, it articulates anteriorly (f) with the posterior end of the second axillary, and posteriorly (b) with the posterior wing process of the tergum (PNP), or with a small fourth axillary when the latter is present. Distally, the third axillary is prolonged in a process always associated with the bases of the group of veins in the anal region of the wing, here termed the vannal veins (V). The third axillary, therefore, is usually the posterior hinge plate of the wing base and is the active sclerite of the flexor mechanism, which directly manipulates the vannal veins. The contraction of the flexor muscle (D) revolves the third axillary on its mesal articulations (b, f), and thereby lifts its distal arm; this movement produces the flexion of the wing. The fourth axillary sclerite is not a constant element of the wing base. When present, it is usually a small plate intervening between the third axillary and the posterior notal wing process, and is probably a detached piece of the latter.


title: Insect morphology

text: The median plates (m, m') are also sclerites that are not so definitely differentiated as specific plates as are the three principal axillaries, but they are important elements of the flexor apparatus. They lie in the median area of the wing base distal to the second and third axillaries, and are separated from each other by an oblique line (bf), which forms a prominent convex fold during flexion of the wing. The proximal plate (m) is usually attached to the distal arm of the third axillary and perhaps should be regarded as a part of the latter. The distal plate (m') is less constantly present as a distinct sclerite, and may be represented by a general sclerotization of the base of the mediocubital field of the wing. When the veins of this region are distinct at their bases, they are associated with the outer median plate.


title: Insect morphology

text: In many insect species, the forewing and hindwing are coupled together, which improves the aerodynamic efficiency of flight. The most common coupling mechanism (e.g., Hymenoptera and Trichoptera) is a row of small hooks on the forward margin of the hindwing, or "hamuli", which lock onto the forewing, keeping them held together (hamulate coupling). In some other insect species (e.g., Mecoptera, Lepidoptera, and some Trichoptera) the jugal lobe of the forewing covers a portion of the hindwing (jugal coupling), or the margins of the forewing and hindwing overlap broadly (amplexiform coupling), or the hindwing bristles, or frenulum, hook under the retaining structure or retinalucum on the forewing.


title: Insect morphology

text: When at rest, the wings are held over the back in most insects, which may involve longitudinal folding of the wing membrane and sometimes also transverse folding. Folding may sometimes occur along the flexion lines. Though fold lines may be transverse, as in the hindwings of beetles and earwigs, they are normally radial to the base of the wing, allowing adjacent sections of a wing to be folded over or under each other. The commonest fold line is the jugal fold, situated just behind the third anal vein, although, most Neoptera have a jugal fold just behind vein 3A on the forewings. It is sometimes also present on the hindwings. Where the anal area of the hindwing is large, as in Orthoptera and Blattodea, the whole of this part may be folded under the anterior part of the wing along a vannal fold a little posterior to the claval furrow. In addition, in Orthoptera and Blattodea, the anal area is folded like a fan along the veins, the anal veins being convex, at the crests of the folds, and the accessory veins concave. Whereas the claval furrow and jugal fold are probably homologous in different species, the vannal fold varies in position in different taxa. Folding is produced by a muscle arising on the pleuron and inserted into the third axillary sclerite in such a waythat, when it contracts, the sclerite pivots about its points of articulation with the posterior notal process and the second axillary sclerite.


title: Insect morphology

text: As a result, the distal arm of the third axillary sclerite rotates upwards and inwards, so that finally its position is completely reversed. The anal veins are articulated with this sclerite in such a way that when it moves they are carried with it and become flexed over the back of the insect. Activity of the same muscle in flight affects the power output of the wing and so it is also important in flight control. In orthopteroid insects, the elasticity of the cuticle causes the vannal area of the wing to fold along the veins. Consequently, energy is expended in unfolding this region when the wings are moved to the flight position. In general, wing extension probably results from the contraction of muscles attached to the basilar sclerite or, in some insects, to the subalar sclerite.


title: Insect morphology

text: The typical and usual segments of the insect leg are divided into the coxa, one trochanter, the femur, the tibia, the tarsus, and the pretarsus. The coxa in its more symmetrical form, has the shape of a short cylinder or truncate cone, though commonly it is ovate and may be almost spherical. The proximal end of the coxa is girdled by a submarginal basicostal suture that forms internally a ridge, or basicosta, and sets off a marginal flange, the coxomarginale, or basicoxite. The basicosta strengthens the base of the coxa and is commonly enlarged on the outer wall to give insertion to muscles; on the mesal half of the coxa, however, it is usually weak and often confluent with the coxal margin. The trochanteral muscles that take their origin in the coxa are always attached distal to the basicosta. The coxa is attached to the body by an articular membrane, the coxal corium, which surrounds its base. These two articulations are perhaps the primary dorsal and ventral articular points of the subcoxo-coxal hinge. In addition, the insect coxa has often an anterior articulation with the anterior, ventral end of the trochantin, but the trochantinal articulation does not coexist with a sternal articulation. The pleural articular surface of the coxa is borne on a mesal inflection of the coxal wall. If the coxa is movable on the pleural articulation alone, the coxal articular surface is usually inflected to a sufficient depth to give a leverage to the abductor muscles inserted on the outer rim of the coxal base. Distally the coxa bears an anterior and a posterior articulation with the trochanter. The outer wall of the coxa is often marked by a suture extending from the base to the anterior trochanteral articulation. In some insects the coxal suture falls in line with the pleural suture, and in such cases the coxa appears to be divided into two parts corresponding to the episternum and epimeron of the pleuron. The coxal suture is absent in many insects.


title: Insect morphology

text: The inflection of the coxal wall bearing the pleural articular surface divides the lateral wall of the basicoxite into a prearticular part and a postarticular part, and the two areas often appear as two marginal lobes on the base of the coxa. The posterior lobe is usually the larger and is termed the meron.


title: Insect morphology

text: The meron may be greatly enlarged by an extension distally in the posterior wall of the coxa; in the Neuroptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera, and Lepidoptera, the meron is so large that the coxa appears to be divided into an anterior piece, the so-called "coxa genuina," and the meron, but the meron never includes the region of the posterior trochanteral articulation, and the groove delimiting it is always a part of the basicostal suture. A coxa with an enlarged meron has an appearance similar to one divided by a coxal suture falling in line with the pleural suture, but the two conditions are fundamentally quite different and should not be confused. The meron reaches the extreme of its departure from the usual condition in the Diptera. In some of the more generalized flies, as in the Tipulidae, the meron of the middle leg appears as a large lobe of the coxa projecting upward and posteriorly from the coxal base; in higher members of the order it becomes completely separated from the coxa and forms a plate of the lateral wall of the mesothorax.


title: Insect morphology

text: The trochanter is the basal segment of the telopodite; it is always a small segment in the insect leg, freely movable by a horizontal hinge on the coxa, but more or less fixed to the base of the femur. When movable on the femur the trochantero femoral hinge is usually vertical or oblique in a vertical plane, giving a slight movement of production and reduction at the joint, though only a reductor muscle is present. In the Odonata, both nymphs and adults, there are two trochanteral segments, but they are not movable on each other; the second contains the reductor muscle of the femur. The usual single trochanteral segment of insects, therefore, probably represents the two trochanters of other arthropods fused into one apparent segment, since it is not likely that the primary coxotrochanteral hinge has been lost from the leg. In some of the Hymenoptera a basal subdivision of the femur simulates a second trochanter, but the insertion of the reductor muscle on its base attests that it belongs to the femoral segment, since as shown in the odonate leg, the reductor has its origin in the true second trochanter.


title: Insect morphology

text: The femur is the third segment of the insect leg, is usually the longest and strongest part of the limb, but it varies in size from the huge hind femur of leaping Orthoptera to a very small segment such as is present in many larval forms. The volume of the femur is generally correlated with the size of the tibial muscles contained within it, but it is sometimes enlarged and modified in shape for other purposes than that of accommodating the tibial muscles. The tibia is characteristically a slender segment in adult insects, only a little shorter than the femur or the combined femur and trochanter. Its proximal end forms a more or less distinct head bent toward the femur, a device allowing the tibia to be flexed close against the under surface of the femur.


title: Insect morphology

text: The terms profemur, mesofemur and metafemur refer to the femora of the front, middle and hind legs of an insect, respectively. Similarly protibia, mesotibia and metatibia refer to the tibiae of the front, middle and hind legs.


title: Insect morphology

text: The tarsus of insects corresponds to the penultimate segment of a generalized arthropod limb, which is the segment called the propodite in Crustacea. In adult insects it is commonly subdivided into from two to five subsegments, or tarsomeres, but in the Protura, some Collembola, and most holometabolous insect larvae it preserves the primitive form of a simple segment. The subsegments of the adult insect tarsus are usually freely movable on one another by inflected connecting membranes, but the tarsus never has intrinsic muscles. The tarsus of adult pterygote insects having fewer than five subsegments is probably specialized by the loss of one or more subsegments or by a fusion of adjoining subsegments. In the tarsi of Acrididae the long basal piece is evidently composed of three united tarsomeres, leaving the fourth and the fifth. The basal tarsomere is sometimes conspicuously enlarged and is distinguished as the basitarsus. On the under surfaces of the tarsal subsegments in certain Orthoptera there are small pads, the tarsal pulvilli, or euplantulae. The tarsus is occasionally fused with the tibia in larval insects, forming a tibiotarsal segment; in some cases it appears to be eliminated or reduced to a rudiment between the tibia and the pretarsus.


title: Insect morphology

text: For the most part the femur and tibia are the longest leg segments but variations in the lengths and robustness of each segment relate to their functions. For example, gressorial and cursorial, or walking and running type insects respectively, usually have well-developed femora and tibiae on all legs, whereas jumping (saltatorial) insects such as grasshoppers have disproportionately developed metafemora and metatibiae. In aquatic beetles (Coleoptera) and bugs (Hemiptera), the tibiae and/or tarsi of one or more pairs of legs usually are modified for swimming (natatorial) with fringes of long, slender hairs. Many ground-dwelling insects, such as mole crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae), nymphal cicadas (Hemiptera: Cicadidae), and scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae), have the tibiae of the forelegs (protibiae) enlarged and modified for digging (fossorial), whereas the forelegs of some predatory insects, such as mantispid lacewings (Neuroptera) and mantids (Mantodea), are specialized for seizing prey, or raptorial. The tibia and basal tarsomere of each hindleg of honey bees are modified for the collection and carriage of pollen.


title: Insect morphology

text: The ground plan of the abdomen of an adult insect typically consists of 11–12 segments and is less strongly sclerotized than the head or thorax. Each segment of the abdomen is represented by a sclerotized tergum, sternum, and perhaps a pleurite. Terga are separated from each other and from the adjacent sterna or pleura by a membrane. Spiracles are located in the pleural area. Variation of this ground plan includes the fusion of terga or terga and sterna to form continuous dorsal or ventral shields or a conical tube. Some insects bear a sclerite in the pleural area called a laterotergite. Ventral sclerites are sometimes called laterosternites. During the embryonic stage of many insects and the postembryonic stage of primitive insects, 11 abdominal segments are present. In modern insects there is a tendency toward reduction in the number of the abdominal segments, but the primitive number of 11 is maintained during embryogenesis. Variation in abdominal segment number is considerable. If the Apterygota are considered to be indicative of the ground plan for pterygotes, confusion reigns: adult Protura have 12 segments, Collembola have 6. The orthopteran family Acrididae has 11 segments, and a fossil specimen of Zoraptera has a 10-segmented abdomen.


title: Insect morphology

text: Generally, the first seven abdominal segments of adults (the pregenital segments) are similar in structure and lack appendages. However, apterygotes (bristletails and silverfish) and many immature aquatic insects have abdominal appendages. Apterygotes possess a pair of styles; rudimentary appendages that are serially homologous with the distal part of the thoracic legs. And, mesally, one or two pairs of protrusible (or exsertile) vesicles on at least some abdominal segments. These vesicles are derived from the coxal and trochanteral endites (inner annulated lobes) of the ancestral abdominal appendages. Aquatic larvae and nymphs may have gills laterally on some to most abdominal segments. Of the rest of the abdominal segments consist of the reproductive and anal parts.


title: Insect morphology

text: The organs concerned specifically with mating and the deposition of eggs are known collectively as the external genitalia, although they may be largely internal. The components of the external genitalia of insects are very diverse in form and often have considerable taxonomic value, particularly among species that appear structurally similar in other respects. The male external genitalia have been used widely to aid in distinguishing species, whereas the female external genitalia may be simpler and less varied.


title: Insect morphology

text: The terminalia of adult female insects include internal structures for receiving the male copulatory organ and his spermatozoa and external structures used for oviposition (egg-laying; section 5.8). Segments 8 and 9 bear the genitalia; segment 10 is visible as a complete segment in many "lower" insects but always lacks appendages. Most female insects have an egg-laying tube, or ovipositor; it is absent in termites, parasitic lice, many Plecoptera, and most Ephemeroptera. Ovipositors take two forms:


title: Insect morphology

text: The terminal abdominal segments have excretory and sensory functions in all insects, besides the reproductive function in adults. The small segment 11 may be represented by an epiproct (usually a dorsal plate or filament above the anus of certain insects); other appendages include:


title: Insect morphology

text: The nervous system of an insect can be divided into a brain and a ventral nerve cord. The head capsule is made up of six fused segments, each with a pair of ganglia, or a cluster of nerve cells outside of the brain. The first three pairs of ganglia are fused into the brain, while the three following pairs are fused into a structure of three pairs of ganglia under the insect's esophagus, called the subesophageal ganglion.


title: Insect morphology

text: The thoracic segments have one ganglion on each side, which are connected into a pair, one pair per segment. This arrangement is also seen in the abdomen but only in the first eight segments. Many species of insects have reduced numbers of ganglia due to fusion or reduction. Some cockroaches have just six ganglia in the abdomen, whereas the wasp "Vespa crabro" has only two in the thorax and three in the abdomen. Some insects, like the house fly "Musca domestica", have all the body ganglia fused into a single large thoracic ganglion.


title: Insect morphology

text: At least a few insects have nociceptors, cells that detect and transmit sensations of pain. This was discovered in 2003 by studying the variation in reactions of larvae of the common fruitfly Drosophila to the touch of a heated probe and an unheated one. The larvae reacted to the touch of the heated probe with a stereotypical rolling behavior that was not exhibited when the larvae were touched by the unheated probe. Although nociception has been demonstrated in insects, there is not a consensus that insects feel pain consciously.


title: Insect morphology

text: An insect uses its digestive system for all steps in food processing: digestion, absorption, and feces delivery and elimination. Most of this food is ingested in the form of macromolecules and other complex substances like proteins, polysaccharides, fats, and nucleic acids. These macromolecules must be broken down by catabolic reactions into smaller molecules like amino acids and simple sugars before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion. The main structure of an insect's digestive system is a long enclosed tube called the alimentary canal (or gut), which runs lengthwise through the body. The alimentary canal directs food in one direction: from the mouth to the anus. The gut is where almost all of insects' digestion takes place. It can be divided into three sections – the foregut, midgut and hindgut – each of which performs a different process of digestion. In addition to the alimentary canal, insects also have paired salivary glands and salivary reservoirs. These structures usually reside in the thorax, adjacent to the foregut.


title: Insect morphology

text: The first section of the alimentary canal is the foregut (element 27 in numbered diagram), or stomodaeum. The foregut is lined with a cuticular lining made of chitin and proteins as protection from tough food. The foregut includes the buccal cavity (mouth), pharynx, esophagus, and Crop and proventriculus (any part may be highly modified), which both store food and signify when to continue passing onward to the midgut. Here, digestion starts as partially chewed food is broken down by saliva from the salivary glands. As the salivary glands produce fluid and carbohydrate-digesting enzymes (mostly amylases), strong muscles in the pharynx pump fluid into the buccal cavity, lubricating the food like the salivarium does, and helping blood feeders, and xylem and phloem feeders.


title: Insect morphology

text: From there, the pharynx passes food to the esophagus, which could be just a simple tube passing it on to the crop and proventriculus, and then on ward to the midgut, as in most insects. Alternately, the foregut may expand into a very enlarged crop and proventriculus, or the crop could just be a diverticulum, or fluid filled structure, as in some Diptera species.


title: Insect morphology

text: The salivary glands (element 30 in numbered diagram) in an insect's mouth produce saliva. The salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward through the head to an opening called the salivarium, located behind the hypopharynx. By moving its mouthparts (element 32 in numbered diagram) the insect can mix its food with saliva. The mixture of saliva and food then travels through the salivary tubes into the mouth, where it begins to break down. Some insects, like flies, have extra-oral digestion. Insects using extra-oral digestion expel digestive enzymes onto their food to break it down. This strategy allows insects to extract a significant proportion of the available nutrients from the food source.


title: Insect morphology

text: Once food leaves the crop, it passes to the midgut (element 13 in numbered diagram), also known as the mesenteron, where the majority of digestion takes place. Microscopic projections from the midgut wall, called microvilli, increase the surface area of the wall and allow more nutrients to be absorbed; they tend to be close to the origin of the midgut. In some insects, the role of the microvilli and where they are located may vary. For example, specialized microvilli producing digestive enzymes may more likely be near the end of the midgut, and absorption near the origin or beginning of the midgut.


title: Insect morphology

text: In the hindgut (element 16 in numbered diagram), or proctodaeum, undigested food particles are joined by uric acid to form fecal pellets. The rectum absorbs 90% of the water in these fecal pellets, and the dry pellet is then eliminated through the anus (element 17), completing the process of digestion. The uric acid is formed using hemolymph waste products diffused from the Malpighian tubules (element 20). It is then emptied directly into the alimentary canal, at the junction between the midgut and hindgut. The number of Malpighian tubules possessed by a given insect varies between species, ranging from only two tubules in some insects to over 100 tubules in others.


title: Insect morphology

text: Insect respiration is accomplished without lungs. Instead, the insect respiratory system uses a system of internal tubes and sacs through which gases either diffuse or are actively pumped, delivering oxygen directly to tissues that need it via their trachea (element 8 in numbered diagram). Since oxygen is delivered directly, the circulatory system is not used to carry oxygen, and is therefore greatly reduced. The insect circulatory system has no veins or arteries, and instead consists of little more than a single, perforated dorsal tube that pulses peristaltically. Toward the thorax, the dorsal tube (element 14) divides into chambers and acts like the insect's heart. The opposite end of the dorsal tube is like the aorta of the insect circulating the hemolymph, arthropods' fluid analog of blood, inside the body cavity. Air is taken in through openings on the sides of the abdomen called spiracles.


title: Insect morphology

text: There are many different patterns of gas exchange demonstrated by different groups of insects. Gas exchange patterns in insects can range from continuous and diffusive ventilation, to discontinuous gas exchange. During continuous gas exchange, oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is released in a continuous cycle. In discontinuous gas exchange, however, the insect takes in oxygen while it is active and small amounts of carbon dioxide are released when the insect is at rest. Diffusive ventilation is simply a form of continuous gas exchange that occurs by diffusion rather than physically taking in the oxygen. Some species of insect that are submerged also have adaptations to aid in respiration. As larvae, many insects have gills that can extract oxygen dissolved in water, while others need to rise to the water surface to replenish air supplies, which may be held or trapped in special structures.


title: Insect morphology

text: Insect blood or haemolymph's main function is that of transport and it bathes the insect's body organs. Making up usually less than 25% of an insect's body weight, it transports hormones, nutrients and wastes and has a role in, osmoregulation, temperature control, immunity, storage (water, carbohydrates and fats) and skeletal function. It also plays an essential part in the moulting process. An additional role of the haemolymph in some orders, can be that of predatory defence. It can contain unpalatable and malodourous chemicals that will act as a deterrent to predators. Haemolymph contains molecules, ions and cells; regulating chemical exchanges between tissues, haemolymph is encased in the insect body cavity or haemocoel. It is transported around the body by combined heart (posterior) and aorta (anterior) pulsations, which are located dorsally just under the surface of the body. It differs from vertebrate blood in that it does not contain any red blood cells and therefore is without high oxygen carrying capacity, and is more similar to lymph found in vertebrates.


title: Insect morphology

text: Body fluids enter through one-way valved ostia, which are openings situated along the length of the combined aorta and heart organ. Pumping of the haemolymph occurs by waves of peristaltic contraction, originating at the body's posterior end, pumping forwards into the dorsal vessel, out via the aorta and then into the head where it flows out into the haemocoel. The haemolymph is circulated to the appendages unidirectionally with the aid of muscular pumps or accessory pulsatile organs usually found at the base of the antennae or wings and sometimes in the legs, with pumping rates accelerating with periods of increased activity. Movement of haemolymph is particularly important for thermoregulation in orders such as Odonata, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and Diptera.


title: Insect morphology

text: Female insects are able make eggs, receive and store sperm, manipulate sperm from different males, and lay eggs. Their reproductive systems are made up of a pair of ovaries, accessory glands, one or more spermathecae, and ducts connecting these parts. The ovaries make eggs and accessory glands produce the substances to help package and lay the eggs. Spermathecae store sperm for varying periods of time and, along with portions of the oviducts, can control sperm use. The ducts and spermathecae are lined with a cuticle.


title: Insect morphology

text: The ovaries are made up of a number of egg tubes, called ovarioles, which vary in size and number by species. The number of eggs that the insect is able to make vary by the number of ovarioles with the rate that eggs can be developed being also influenced by ovariole design. In meroistic ovaries, the eggs-to-be divide repeatedly and most of the daughter cells become helper cells for a single oocyte in the cluster. In panoistic ovaries, each egg-to-be produced by stem germ cells develops into an oocyte; there are no helper cells from the germ line. Production of eggs by panoistic ovaries tends to be slower than that by meroistic ovaries.


title: Insect morphology

text: Accessory glands or glandular parts of the oviducts produce a variety of substances for sperm maintenance, transport, and fertilization, as well as for protection of eggs. They can produce glue and protective substances for coating eggs or tough coverings for a batch of eggs called oothecae. Spermathecae are tubes or sacs in which sperm can be stored between the time of mating and the time an egg is fertilized. Paternity testing of insects has revealed that some, and probably many, female insects use the spermatheca and various ducts to control or bias sperm used in favor of some males over others.


title: Insect morphology

text: The main component of the male reproductive system is the testis, suspended in the body cavity by tracheae and the fat body. The more primitive apterygote insects have a single testis, and in some lepidopterans the two maturing testes are secondarily fused into one structure during the later stages of larval development, although the ducts leading from them remain separate. However, most male insects have a pair of testes, inside of which are sperm tubes or follicles that are enclosed within a membranous sac. The follicles connect to the vas deferens by the vas efferens, and the two tubular vasa deferentia connect to a median ejaculatory duct that leads to the outside. A portion of the vas deferens is often enlarged to form the seminal vesicle, which stores the sperm before they are discharged into the female. The seminal vesicles have glandular linings that secrete nutrients for nourishment and maintenance of the sperm. The ejaculatory duct is derived from an invagination of the epidermal cells during development and, as a result, has a cuticular lining. The terminal portion of the ejaculatory duct may be sclerotized to form the intromittent organ, the aedeagus. The remainder of the male reproductive system is derived from embryonic mesoderm, except for the germ cells, or spermatogonia, which descend from the primordial pole cells very early during embryogenesis. The aedeagus can be quite pronounced or "de minimis". The base of the aedeagus may be the partially sclerotized phallotheca, also called the


title: Insect morphology

text: phallosoma or theca. In some species the phallotheca contains a space, called the endosoma (internal holding pouch), into which the tip end of the aedeagus may be withdrawn (retracted). The vas deferens is sometimes drawn into (folded into) the phallotheca together with a seminal vesicle.


title: Insect morphology

text: Cockroaches are most common in tropical and subtropical climates. Some species are in close association with human dwellings and widely found around garbage or in the kitchen. Cockroaches are generally omnivorous with the exception of the wood-eating species such as "Cryptocercus"; these roaches are incapable of digesting cellulose themselves, but have symbiotic relationships with various protozoans and bacteria that digest the cellulose, allowing them to extract the nutrients. The similarity of these symbionts in the genus "Cryptocercus" to those in termites are such that it has been suggested that they are more closely related to termites than to other cockroaches, and current research strongly supports this hypothesis of relationships. All species studied so far carry the obligate mutualistic endosymbiont bacterium "Blattabacterium", with the exception of "Nocticola australiensis", an Australian cave dwelling species without eyes, pigment or wings, and which recent genetic studies indicates are very primitive cockroaches.


title: Insect morphology

text: Cockroaches, like all insects, breathe through a system of tubes called "tracheae". The tracheae of insects are attached to the spiracles, excluding the head. Thus cockroaches, like all insects, are not dependent on the mouth and windpipe to breathe. The valves open when the CO level in the insect rises to a high level; then the CO diffuses out of the tracheae to the outside and fresh O diffuses in. Unlike in vertebrates that depend on blood for transporting O and CO, the tracheal system brings the air directly to cells, the tracheal tubes branching continually like a tree until their finest divisions, tracheoles, are associated with each cell, allowing gaseous oxygen to dissolve in the cytoplasm lying across the fine cuticle lining of the tracheole. CO diffuses out of the cell into the tracheole. While cockroaches do not have lungs and thus do not actively breathe in the vertebrate lung manner, in some very large species the body musculature may contract rhythmically to forcibly move air out and in the spiracles; this may be considered a form of breathing.


title: Insect morphology

text: The digestive system of beetles is primarily based on plants, which they for the most part feed upon, with mostly the anterior midgut performing digestion. However, in predatory species (e.g., Carabidae) most digestion occurs in the crop by means of midgut enzymes. In Elateridae species, the predatory larvae defecate enzymes on their prey, with digestion being extraorally. The alimentary canal basically comprises a short narrow pharynx, a widened expansion, the crop and a poorly developed gizzard. After there is a midgut, that varies in dimensions between species, with a large amount of cecum, with a hingut, with varying lengths. There are typically four to six Malpighian tubules.


title: Insect morphology

text: The nervous system in beetles contains all the types found in insects, varying between different species. With three thoracic and seven or eight abdominal ganglia can be distinguished to that in which all the thoracic and abdominal ganglia are fused to form a composite structure. Oxygen is obtained via a tracheal system. Air enters a series of tubes along the body through openings called spiracles, and is then taken into increasingly finer fibers. Pumping movements of the body force the air through the system. Some species of diving beetles (Dytiscidae) carry a bubble of air with them whenever they dive beneath the water surface. This bubble may be held under the elytra or it may be trapped against the body using specialized hairs. The bubble usually covers one or more spiracles so the insect can breathe air from the bubble while submerged. An air bubble provides an insect with only a short-term supply of oxygen, but thanks to its unique physical properties, oxygen will diffuse into the bubble and displacing the nitrogen, called passive diffusion, however the volume of the bubble eventually diminishes and the beetle will have to return to the surface.


title: Insect morphology

text: Like other insect species, beetles have hemolymph instead of blood. The open circulatory system of the beetle is driven by a tube-like heart attached to the top inside of the thorax.


title: Insect morphology

text: Different glands specialize for different pheromones produced for finding mates. Pheromones from species of Rutelinae are produced from epithelial cells lining the inner surface of the apical abdominal segments or amino acid based pheromones of Melolonthinae from eversible glands on the abdominal apex. Other species produce different types of pheromones. Dermestids produce esters, and species of Elateridae produce fatty-acid-derived aldehydes and acetates. For means of finding a mate also, fireflies (Lampyridae) utilized modified fat body cells with transparent surfaces backed with reflective uric acid crystals to biosynthetically produce light, or bioluminescence. The light produce is highly efficient, as it is produced by oxidation of luciferin by the enzymes luciferase in the presence of ATP (adenosine triphospate) and oxygen, producing oxyluciferin, carbon dioxide, and light.


title: Insect morphology

text: A notable number of species have developed special glands that produce chemicals for deterring predators (see Defense and predation). The Ground beetle's (of Carabidae) defensive glands, located at the posterior, produce a variety of hydrocarbons, aldehydes, phenols, quinones, esters, and acids released from an opening at the end of the abdomen. While African carabid beetles (e.g., "Anthia" some of which used to comprise the genus "Thermophilum") employ the same chemicals as ants: formic acid. While Bombardier beetles have well developed, like other carabid beetles, pygidial glands that empty from the lateral edges of the intersegment membranes between the seventh and eighth abdominal segments. The gland is made of two containing chambers. The first holds hydroquinones and hydrogen peroxide, with the second holding just hydrogen peroxide plus catalases. These chemicals mix and result in an explosive ejection, forming temperatures of around 100 C, with the breakdown of hydroquinone to H + O + quinone, with the O propelling the excretion.


title: Insect morphology

text: Tympanal organs are hearing organs. Such an organ is generally a membrane (tympanum) stretched across a frame backed by an air sac and associated sensory neurons. In the order Coleoptera, tympanal organs have been described in at least two families. Several species of the genus "Cicindela" in the family Cicindelidae have ears on the dorsal surface of the first abdominal segment beneath the wing; two tribes in the family Dynastinae (Scarabaeidae) have ears just beneath the pronotal shield or neck membrane. The ears of both families are to ultrasonic frequencies, with strong evidence that they function to detect the presence of bats via their ultrasonic echolocation. Even though beetles constitute a large order and live in a variety of niches, examples of hearing is surprisingly lacking in species, though it is likely that most are just undiscovered.


title: Insect morphology

text: The neuroendocrine system is typical of insects. There is a brain, a subesophageal ganglion, three thoracic ganglia, and six abdominal ganglia. Strong neuron connections connect the neurohemal corpora cardiaca to the brain and frontal ganglion, where the closely related median corpus allatum produces juvenile hormone III in close proximity to the neurohemal dorsal aorta. The digestive system of earwigs is like all other insects, consisting of a fore-, mid-, and hindgut, but earwigs lack gastric caecae which are specialized for digestion in many species of insect. Long, slender (extratory) malpighian tubules can be found between the junction of the mid- and hind gut.


title: Insect morphology

text: The reproductive system of females consist of paired ovaries, lateral oviducts, spermatheca, and a genital chamber. The lateral ducts are where the eggs leave the body, while the spermatheca is where sperm is stored. Unlike other insects, the gonopore, or genital opening is behind the seventh abdominal segment. The ovaries are primitive in that they are polytrophic (the nurse cells and oocytes alternate along the length of the ovariole). In some species these long ovarioles branch off the lateral duct, while in others, short ovarioles appear around the duct.


title: Insect morphology

text: The genitalia of female flies are rotated to a varying degree from the position found in other insects. In some flies this is a temporary rotation during mating, but in others it is a permanent torsion of the organs that occurs during the pupal stage. This torsion may lead to the anus being located below the genitals, or, in the case of 360° torsion, to the sperm duct being wrapped around the gut, despite the external organs being in their usual position. When flies mate, the male initially flies on top of the female, facing in the same direction, but then turns round to face in the opposite direction. This forces the male to lie on its back in order for its genitalia to remain engaged with those of the female, or the torsion of the male genitals allows the male to mate while remaining upright. This leads to flies having more reproduction abilities than most insects and at a much quicker rate. Flies come in great populations due to their ability to mate effectively and in a short period of time especially during the mating season.


title: Insect morphology

text: The female lays her eggs as close to the food source as possible, and development is very rapid, allowing the larva to consume as much food as possible in a short period of time before transforming into the adult. The eggs hatch immediately after being laid, or the flies are ovoviviparous, with the larva hatching inside the mother. Larval flies, or maggots, have no true legs, and little demarcation between the thorax and abdomen; in the more derived species, the head is not clearly distinguishable from the rest of the body. Maggots are limbless, or else have small prolegs. The eyes and antennae are reduced or absent, and the abdomen also lacks appendages such as cerci. This lack of features is an adaptation to a food-rich environment, such as within rotting organic matter, or as an endoparasite. The pupae take various forms, and in some cases develop inside a silk cocoon. After emerging from the pupa, the adult fly rarely lives more than a few days, and serves mainly to reproduce and to disperse in search of new food sources.


title: Insect morphology

text: In reproductive system of butterflies and moths, the male genitalia are complex and unclear. In females there are three types of genitalia based on the relating taxa: monotrysian, exoporian, and dytresian. In the monotrysian type there is an opening on the fused segments of the sterna 9 and 10, which act as insemination and oviposition. In the exoporian type (in Hepialoidea and Mnesarchaeoidea) there are two separate places for insemination and oviposition, both occurring on the same sterna as the monotrysian type, 9/10. In most species the genitalia are flanked by two soft lobes, although they may be specialized and sclerotized in some species for ovipositing in area such as crevices and inside plant tissue. Hormones and the glands that produce them run the development of butterflies and moths as they go through their life cycle, called the endocrine system. The first insect hormone PTTH (Prothoracicotropic hormone) operates the species life cycle and diapause (see the relates section). This hormone is produced by corpora allata and corpora cardiaca, where it is also stored. Some glands are specialized to perform certain task such as producing silk or producing saliva in the palpi. While the corpora cardiaca produce PTTH, the corpora allata also produces juvenile hormones, and the prothorocic glands produce moulting hormones.


title: Insect morphology

text: In the digestive system, the anterior region of the foregut has been modified to form a pharyngeal sucking pump as they need it for the food they eat, which are for the most part liquids. An esophagus follows and leads to the posterior of the pharynx and in some species forms a form of crop. The midgut is short and straight, with the hindgut being longer and coiled. Ancestors of lepidopteran species, stemming from Hymenoptera, had midgut ceca, although this is lost in current butterflies and moths. Instead, all the digestive enzymes other than initial digestion, are immobilized at the surface of the midgut cells. In larvae, long-necked and stalked goblet cells are found in the anterior and posterior midgut regions, respectively. In insects, the goblet cells excrete positive potassium ions, which are absorbed from leaves ingested by the larvae. Most butterflies and moths display the usual digestive cycle, however species that have a different diet require adaptations to meet these new demands.


title: Insect morphology

text: In the circulatory system, hemolymph, or insect blood, is used to circulate heat in a form of thermoregulation, where muscles contraction produces heat, which is transferred to the rest of the body when conditions are unfavorable. In lepidopteran species, hemolymph is circulated through the veins in the wings by some form of pulsating organ, either by the heart or by the intake of air into the trachea. Air is taken in through spiracles along the sides of the abdomen and thorax supplying the trachea with oxygen as it goes through the lepidopteran's respiratory system. There are three different tracheae supplying oxygen diffusing oxygen throughout the species body: The dorsal, ventral, and visceral. The dorsal tracheae supply oxygen to the dorsal musculature and vessels, while the ventral tracheae supply the ventral musculature and nerve cord, and the visceral tracheae supply the guts, fat bodies, and gonads.


title: Ravi Kumar Dahiya

text: Ravi Kumar Dahiya (born 12 December 1997), also known as Ravi Kumar or Ravi Dahiya, is an Indian freestyle wrestler who won a silver medal at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics in the 57 kg category. Dahiya is also a bronze medallist from 2019 World Wrestling Championships and a three-time Asian champion. In the 2022 Birmingham Commonwealth Games, he won the gold medal in the men's 57kg freestyle wrestling category at Birmingham, England.


title: Ravi Kumar Dahiya

text: Ravi was born on 12 December 1997 in a Jat family and hails from the village Nahri in Sonipat district, Haryana. Since age 10, Dahiya was trained by Satpal Singh at the Chhatrasal Stadium in North Delhi. His father Rakesh Dahiya, a small farmer, would travel around 39 km every day from their village to the Chhatrasal stadium to deliver fresh milk and fruits, which were part of his wrestling diet, for more than a decade. Ravi is a devotee of Lord Shiva.


title: Ravi Kumar Dahiya

text: Dahiya started wrestling in his early teens and won the silver medal in the 2015 Junior World Wrestling Championships at Salvador de Bahia in the 55 kg freestyle category. He picked up an injury in 2017 which kept him out of action for more than a year. In his comeback year, he won the silver medal at the 2018 World U23 Wrestling Championship in Bucharest, India's only medal at the competition, in the 57 kg category. Dahiya remained unbeaten at the 2019 Pro Wrestling League, representing the title winning team, Haryana Hammers.


title: Ravi Kumar Dahiya

text: He was ranked fifth at the 2019 Asian Wrestling Championships in Xi'an, after losing the bronze medal match.


title: Ravi Kumar Dahiya

text: In his World Championships debut in 2019, Dahiya defeated the European champion Arsen Harutyunyan in the round of 16, and the 2017 world champion Yuki Takahashi in the quarterfinal, to earn one of the six available quota places for the 2020 Summer Olympics. He lost to defending champion and eventual gold medalist Zaur Uguev in the semifinal round. However, he managed to take the bronze after defeating Reza Atri of Iran. On the back of his medal win, Dahiya was included in the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports' Target Olympic Podium Scheme (TOPS) in October 2019.


title: Ravi Kumar Dahiya

text: Dahiya won gold at the 2020 Asian Wrestling Championships in New Delhi and the 2021 Asian Wrestling Championships in Almaty.


title: Ravi Kumar Dahiya

text: At the 2020 Summer Olympics, Dahiya won his first two bouts on technical superiority. In the semifinal, he pinned the Kazakh wrestler Nurislam Sanayev down in the final minute to win by fall, after trailing in the bout on points. There were reports that Dahiya endured a bite from his opponent, Nurislam Sanayev in the semi-final match. In the final, Dahiya had to settle for silver as he was defeated 4–7 on points by ROC wrestler Zaur Uguev. Dahiya became the second Indian wrestler to win an Olympic silver after Sushil Kumar.


title: Ravi Kumar Dahiya

text: At the 2022 Yasar Dogu Tournament, he won the gold medal after defeating Uzbek Gulomjon Abdullaev 11–10 in the final. At the 2022 World Wrestling Championships, he lost to Uzbekistan's Gulomjon Abdullaev in the pre-quarterfinals.


title: Very-low-calorie diet

text: A very-low-calorie diet (VLCD), also known as semistarvation diet and crash diet, is a type of diet with very or extremely low daily food energy consumption. Often described as a fad diet, it is defined as a diet of per day or less. Modern medically supervised VLCDs use total meal replacements, with regulated formulations in Europe and Canada which contain the recommended daily requirements for vitamins, minerals, trace elements, fatty acids, protein and electrolyte balance. Carbohydrates may be entirely absent, or substituted for a portion of the protein; this choice has important metabolic effects. Medically supervised VLCDs have specific therapeutic applications for rapid weight loss, such as in morbid obesity or before a bariatric surgery, using formulated, nutritionally complete liquid meals containing 800 kilocalories or less per day for a maximum of 12 weeks.


title: Very-low-calorie diet

text: Unmonitored VLCDs with insufficient or unbalanced nutrients can cause sudden death by cardiac arrest either by starvation or during refeeding.


title: Very-low-calorie diet

text: Very-low-calorie diets (VLCDs) are diets of or less energy intake per day, whereas low-calorie diets are between 1000-1200 kcal per day.


title: Very-low-calorie diet

text: The routine use of VLCDs is not recommended due to safety concerns, but this approach can be used under medical supervision if there is a clinical rationale for rapid weight loss in obese individuals, as part of a "multi-component weight management strategy" with continuous support and for a maximum of 12 weeks, according to the NICE 2014 guidelines. The US dietary guidelines recommend that VLCDs can be used for weight loss in obese individuals only in limited circumstances and only under supervision by experienced personnel in a medical care setting where the individual can be medically monitored and high-intensity lifestyle intervention can be provided. For the general public, VLCDs are not recommended due to low evidence. As there are considerable risks of starvation with an inadequately composed or supervised VLCD, people attempting these diets must be monitored closely by a physician to prevent complications.


title: Very-low-calorie diet

text: VLCDs appear to be more effective than behavioral weight loss programs or other diets, achieving approximately more weight loss at 1 year and greater sustained weight loss after several years. When used in routine care, there is evidence that VLCDs achieve average weight loss at 1 year around or about 4% more weight loss over the short term. VLCDs can achieve higher short-term weight loss compared to other more modest or gradual calorie restricted diets, and the maintained long-term weight loss is similar or greater. VLCDs were shown to reduce lean body mass. Combining VLCD with other obesity therapies yield more effective results in weight loss. Low-calorie and very-low-calorie diets may produce faster weight loss within the first 1–2 weeks of starting compared to other diets, but this superficially faster loss is due to glycogen depletion and water loss in the lean body mass and is regained quickly afterward.


title: Very-low-calorie diet

text: VLCDs are efficient and recommended for liver fat reduction and weight loss before bariatric surgery.


title: Very-low-calorie diet

text: A 2001 review found that VLCD has no serious harmful effect when done under medical supervision, for periods of 8–16 weeks with an average weight loss of 1.5-2.5 kg/week. However, VLCD may increase the risk of developing gallstones if the fat content of VLCD is not sufficient, but data is lacking to know the precise amount of fat that is necessary to avoid gallstones formation. Indeed, dietary fat stimulates gall bladder contraction, thus, if following a fat-free VLCD, the bladder does not empty. Another potential side effect is constipation (depending on the fiber content of the diet).


title: Very-low-calorie diet

text: VLCD were not found to increase food cravings, and on the contrary, appear to reduce food cravings more than low-calorie diets.


title: Very-low-calorie diet

text: Previous formulations (medical or commercial) of carbohydrate-free very low calorie diets provided 200–800 kcal/day and maintained protein intake, but eliminated any carbohydrate intake and sometimes fat intake as well. These diets subject the body to starvation and produce an average weekly weight loss of . However, the total lack of carbohydrates avoids protein sparing and thus produce a loss of lean muscle mass, as well as other adverse side effects such as increased risks of gout, and electrolyte imbalances, and are thus disadvised. Total diet replacement programs are the modern formulations regulated in Europe and Canada to ensure the recommended daily intake of necessary nutrients, vitamins and electrolyte balance. Compared to older VLCD formulas, the total diet replacements better preserve lean body mass, reduce known side effects and improve .


title: Very-low-calorie diet

text: Unmonitored VLCDs with insufficient macronutrient and mineral intake have the potential to cause an electrolyte imbalance and sudden death via ventricular tachycardia either by starvation or upon refeeding.


title: Very-low-calorie diet

text: The earliest data on VLCDs come from the aftermath of World War II, when several scientific experiments were undertaken to examine what conditions could lead to starvation and how to rehabilitate safely to eating, such as the Minnesota Starvation Experiment, in an effort to reduce the casualties caused by famine following the war.


title: Very-low-calorie diet

text: In 1978, 58 people died in the United States after following very-low-calorie liquid protein diets. Following this event, the FDA requires since 1984 that protein VLCDs providing fewer than 400 calories a day carry a warning that they can cause serious illness and need to be followed under medical supervision. However, newer regulations require this warning only on protein products that aim to provide more than half of a person's calories and are promoted for weight loss or as a food supplement. This enabled protein VLCD drinks such as Slim-Fast that provide fewer than 400 calories to avoid warnings by recommending that users "also eat one sensible meal each day".


title: Very-low-calorie diet

text: In 1991, the Federal Trade Commission charged three liquid VLCD companies, Optifast, Medifast and Ultrafast, with deceptive advertising. The case was settled after the companies agreed to stop using what the FTC alleged to be deceptive claims about the long-term results and the safety of these diets.


title: Steven Callahan

text: Steven Callahan (born 6 February 1952) is an American author, naval architect, inventor, and sailor. In 1981, he survived for 76 days adrift on the Atlantic Ocean in a liferaft. Callahan recounted his ordeal in the best-selling book "" (1986), which was on "The New York Times" best-seller list for more than 36 weeks.


title: Steven Callahan

text: He holds three U.S. patents: a drogue-like boat stability and directional-control device (Patent No. 6684808); a Folding Rigid-Inflatable Boat (FRIB) (Patent No. 6367404); and a Folding Rigid-bottom Boat (FRB) (Patent No. 6739278). The initial model FRIB, called "The Clam" was developed on the basis of his survival experience. The Clam is a multifunction self-rescue dinghy, designed for use as a proactive lifeboat (as well as a yacht tender) that allows the sailor to sail to safety.


title: Steven Callahan

text: Callahan asserts that "It certainly would be nice to have a completely different kind of raft now, what the French call a "Dynamic" raft, meaning the thing sails. The last time I lost my boat, had I been able to beam reach, I could have shortened my drift from 1,800 miles to 450; had I been able to sail even dead downwind but increase speed to a moderate 2.5 knots, I would have been afloat 25 days rather than 76; had I been able to do both I would have sailed to safety in a mere 6 or 7 days."


title: Steven Callahan

text: Callahan departed from Newport, Rhode Island, United States, in 1981 on the "Napoleon Solo", a sloop he designed and built himself, single-handedly sailed the boat to Bermuda, and continued the voyage to England with friend Chris Latchem. He had left Cornwall that fall, bound for Antigua as part of the Mini Transat 6.50 single-handed sailing race from Penzance, England, but dropped out of the race in La Coruña, Spain. Bad weather had sunk several boats in the fleet and damaged many others including "Napoleon Solo". Callahan made repairs and continued voyaging down the coast of Spain and Portugal, out to Madeira and the Canaries. He departed from El Hierro in the Canary Islands on January 29, 1982, still headed for Antigua. In a growing gale, seven days out, his vessel was badly holed by an unknown object during a night storm, and became swamped, although it did not sink outright due to watertight compartments Callahan had designed into the boat. In his book, Callahan writes that he suspects the damage occurred from a collision with a whale.


title: Steven Callahan

text: Unable to stay aboard "Napoleon Solo" as it filled with water and was overwhelmed by breaking seas, Callahan escaped into a six-man Avon inflatable life raft, measuring about across. He stood off in the raft, but managed to get back aboard several times to dive below and retrieve a piece of cushion, a sleeping bag, and an emergency kit containing, among other things, some food, navigation charts, a short spear gun, flares, torch, 3 solar stills for producing drinking water and a copy of "Sea Survival", a survival manual written by Dougal Robertson, a fellow ocean survivor. Before dawn, a big breaking sea parted the life raft from "Napoleon Solo" and Callahan drifted away.


title: Steven Callahan

text: The raft drifted westward with the South Equatorial Current and the trade winds. After exhausting the meager food supplies he had salvaged from the sinking sloop, Callahan survived by catching food. He mainly ate mahi-mahi, as well as triggerfish, which he speared, along with flying fish, barnacles, and birds that he captured. The sea life was all part of an ecosystem that evolved and followed him for across the ocean. He collected drinking water from two solar stills (the third of which he had cut open in order to know how to use them) and various jury-rigged devices for collecting rainwater, which together produced on average just over a pint of water per day.


title: Steven Callahan

text: Callahan's use of an EPIRB (Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon) and many flares did not trigger a rescue. EPIRBs were not monitored by satellites at the time, and he was in too empty a part of the ocean to be heard by aircraft. Ships did not spot his flares. While adrift, he spotted nine ships, most in the two sea lanes he crossed, but from the beginning, Callahan knew that he could not rely upon rescue but instead must, for an undetermined time, rely upon himself and maintaining a shipboard routine for survival. He routinely exercised, navigated, prioritized problems, made repairs, fished, improved systems, and built food and water stocks for emergencies.


title: Steven Callahan

text: On the eve of April 20, 1982, he spotted lights on the island of Marie Galante, south east of Guadeloupe. The next day, on Callahan's 76th day afloat in the raft, fishermen picked him up just offshore, drawn to him by birds hovering over the raft, which were attracted by the ecosystem that had developed around it. During the ordeal, he faced sharks, raft punctures, equipment deterioration, physical deterioration, and mental stress. Having lost a third of his weight and being covered with scores of saltwater sores, he was taken to a local hospital and spent six weeks recovering.


title: Steven Callahan

text: During his journey, Callahan experienced a few positive elements aside from suffering, describing the night sky at one point as "A view of heaven from a seat in hell." He still enjoys sailing and the sea, which he calls the world's greatest wilderness. Since his survival drift, he's made dozens of additional offshore passages and ocean crossings, most of them with no more than two other crew.


title: Steven Callahan

text: This incident is featured on the "I Shouldn't Be Alive" episode "76 Days Adrift". Callahan's story also featured on an episode of British survival expert Ray Mears television series Extreme Survival.


title: Steven Callahan

text: In the making of the 2012 movie "Life of Pi", director Ang Lee asked Callahan to be a consultant on living aboard a life raft. Ang Lee told Callahan, "I want to make the ocean a real character in this movie." Callahan made lures and other tools seen in the movie.


title: Hoochie coochie

text: The hoochie coochie () is a catch-all term to describe several sexually provocative belly dance-like dances from the mid-to late 1800s. Also spelled hootchy-kootchy and a number of other variations, it is often associated with "The Streets of Cairo, or the Poor Little Country Maid" song, also known as "the snake charmer song". "Hoochie Coochie Man" (originally titled "I'm Your Hoochie Cooche Man") is also a blues standard written by Willie Dixon and first recorded by Muddy Waters in Chicago, January 7, 1954. Numerous cover versions of this classic continue to be recorded. Hoochie Coochie is also mentioned in Alan Jackson's hit country music song "Chattahoochee", and the Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller songs "Little Egypt (Ying-Yang)" and "Saved" (sung by LaVern Baker).


title: Hoochie coochie

text: Such dances, or something similar, were performed at the Crystal Palace Exhibition in London in 1851, the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876, and the World's Fair in Paris in 1889. Although such dances became wildly popular in the United States during the Chicago World's Fair in 1893, there is no evidence of them being known by the name, "Coochie Coochie" until about a year after the fair closed, and "Hoochie Coochie" about a year later. Before, during and immediately after the fair, these dances were frequently called, "Mussel dance", "stomach dance", "danse du ventre" and sometimes, "Kouta Kouta". The transition from "kouta kouta" to "coochie coochie", and later, "hoochie coochie", may have been influenced by the expressions, "hoochy, coochy, coochy", "kutchy, kutchy", or "kutchy, kutchy coo", which were found in popular song lyrics from the 1860s and the 1880s.


title: Hoochie coochie

text: Described by the "New York Journal" in 1893 as "Neither dancing of the head nor the feet", it was a dance performed by women of, or presented as having, Middle-Eastern or Eastern European Gypsy heritage, often as part of traveling sideshows.


title: Hoochie coochie

text: The hoochie coochie replaced the much older can-can as the ribald dance of choice in New York dance halls by the 1890s.


title: Hoochie coochie

text: Since the dance was performed by women, female impersonators or drag queens, a "goochie man", or "hoochie coochie man", either watched them or ran the show. Alternatively, from the directly sexual meaning of "goochie goochie", he was successful with women. The dance was still popular at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition: the World's Fair of 1904, but had all but disappeared by the Second World War.


title: Hoochie coochie

text: Pronounced or according to Webster's dictionary definition, the words can be found in literature with a number of alternate spellings:


title: Prosenjit Chatterjee filmography

text: Prosenjit Chatterjee is an Indian film actor, producer and television presenter, who works predominantly in Bengali and Hindi language films. He debuted as a child actor in the Hrishikesh Mukherjee-directorial "Chotto Jigyasa", for which he has won the Bengal Film Journalists' Association – Most Outstanding Work of the Year Award. After a string of films where he acted as a child actor, he made his debut as a lead actor in "Duti Pata", which was a critically and commercially unsuccessful.


title: Prosenjit Chatterjee filmography

text: In 1987, Prosenjit's breakthrough role came opposite Vijeta Pandit in "Amar Sangi"; a highly successful romantic drama directed by Sujit Guha. He made his debut in Hindi cinema with the David Dhawan-directorial "Aandhiyan". Following this, he went on to act in numerous commercial films until 2003, when he acted in "Chokher Bali". He earned critical acclaim for playing the role of an immobile but emotionally expressive poet in "Shob Charitro Kalponik", a famous Bengali actor in "Autograph", a poet and folk singer in "Moner Manush", a Portuguese-origin Bengali folk poet and his reincarnation in "Jaatishwar", a disgraced police officer in "Baishe Srabon" and a depressed father in "Shankhachil".


title: Prosenjit Chatterjee filmography

text: In 2012, he made a comeback to Bollywood through "Shanghai" and more recently "Traffic". He has won numerous accolades throughout his career, including 7 Bengal Film Journalists' Association – Best Actor Awards, 4 Kalakar Awards and 2 Filmfare Awards East. As a producer, he had won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Bengali for "Shankhachil". Chatterjee produced the Rituparno Ghosh scripted the critically acclaimed television series "Gaaner Oparey", which launched the careers of brothers Arjun Chakraborty and Gaurav Chakraborty and Mimi Chakraborty as well.


title: Prosenjit Chatterjee filmography

text: In 2016, he debuted in the non-fiction category of television with a 99-episode mini-series, titled "Mahanayak". Produced by Shree Venkatesh Films and directed by Birsa Dasgupta, the show starred Paoli Dam, Tanushree Chakraborty and Priyanka Sarkar in other pivotal roles and was based on the life of a superstar of the 60s era — a life fraught with career highs and personal turbulence. Chatterjee has also hosted the family game show "Banglar Shera Poribaar" with Rachana Banerjee on Zee Bangla.


title: Tex Winter

text: Morice Fredrick "Tex" Winter (February 25, 1922 – October 10, 2018) was an American basketball coach and innovator of the triangle offense. He was a head coach in college basketball for 30 years before becoming an assistant coach in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was an assistant


title: Tex Winter

text: to Phil Jackson on nine NBA championship teams with the Chicago Bulls and the Los Angeles Lakers. Winter was inducted to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 2011.


title: Tex Winter

text: Winter was born near Wellington, Texas (a fact which later provided him with his nickname when his family moved to California) 15 minutes after twin sister Mona Francis. The Winter family moved to Lubbock, Texas in 1929, where his mechanic father died of an infection when Tex was ten years old. Winter had to work while in elementary school to help his family, one such job was to collect boxes for a local baker in exchange for day-old bread. In 1936, Winter and his sister moved to Huntington Park, California with their mother, who would work as a clothing store sales manager. His older football star brother Ernest remained in Texas to finish high school while his older sister Elizabeth had already married and moved to California first and encouraged them to move there. While attending Huntington Park High School, Winter worked with Phil Woolpert and Pete Newell as a ball boy for Loyola University.


title: Tex Winter

text: After graduation from high school in 1940, Winter attended college at Compton Junior College for two years, where he became a renowned pole vaulter and earned a scholarship to Oregon State University. He was on the basketball and track teams at both schools. As a pole vaulter, Winter competed against Bob Richards, a 1948 and 1952 Olympian. He was considered a strong candidate for the US Olympic team in 1944, but the Olympics were cancelled by World War II.


title: Tex Winter

text: Winter met his wife Nancy at Oregon State. Both of them entered the United States Navy in early 1943, with Winter going into fighter pilot training and his wife into WAVES. After his pilot's wings were conferred he was assigned to fighter pilot duty in the Pacific. However, his orders were rescinded after his brother's plane was shot down, and Winter remained at Naval Air Station Glenview in Illinois for the duration of the war. After the war, he was assigned to NAS Corpus Christi as a test pilot for an experimental jet craft. While in the navy, Winter was a starting guard for his basketball team under the commanding officer Chuck Taylor. He left the Navy with the rank of Ensign in 1946.


title: Tex Winter

text: Winter returned to college after the war at the University of Southern California, where he learned the triangle offense from his coach Sam Barry. At USC, Winter became an All-American pole vaulter and was a teammate of Bill Sharman, Alex Hannum, and Gene Rock, future professional basketball players.


title: Tex Winter

text: After graduating college in 1947, Winter immediately entered the coaching profession as an assistant to Hall-of-Famer Jack Gardner at Kansas State University. He would work as a basketball coach for the next 61 years.


title: Tex Winter

text: In 1952, Winter began a two-year stint as head coach at Marquette University, becoming the youngest coach in major college basketball. In 1954 Winter returned to Kansas State. Winter served as Kansas State's head coach for the following 15 years, posting a 261-118 (.689) record. He still owns the record for most league titles (eight) in school history and twice led the Wildcats to the Final Four (1958 and 1964). Winter guided K-State to postseason play seven times overall, including six trips to the NCAA Tournament, and boasts one of the highest winning percentages in K-State's history.


title: Tex Winter

text: Winter was named UPI National Coach of the Year in 1958 after he led Kansas State to the Final Four by knocking off Oscar Robertson and second-ranked Cincinnati in an 83-80 double-overtime thriller. Junior center Bob Boozer was one of three Wildcats to be named a first team All-America, along with teammates Jack Parr and Roy DeWitz. K-State advanced to their fourth Final Four in 1964. Winter's Wildcats knocked off Texas Western and Wichita State to reach Municipal Auditorium in Kansas City, Missouri. Two-time Big Eight selection Willie Murrell averaged 25.3 points per game during the run, which ended in a 90-82 loss to eventual national champion UCLA.


title: Tex Winter

text: In 1962, Winter also wrote the book, entitled "The Triple-Post Offense", on the triangle offense – the offense which he utilized with such success at Kansas State. Following his leaving Kansas State to his assistant Cotton Fitzsimmons, Winter also served as head coach at the University of Washington (1968-1971, where he was hired by then Athletic Director Joseph Kearney), Northwestern University (1973-1978), and Long Beach State. In 1982, LSU's Dale Brown, who Winter befriended when Brown was a high school coach, hired him as an assistant for one year 1983-84. In 30 years as a college head coach, Winter compiled a career record of 453–334.


title: Tex Winter

text: Winter was hired by Pete Newell as head coach of the Houston Rockets for two seasons, 1971–1973, posting a 51–78 () record. He was fired and replaced by assistant coach Johnny Egan on January 21, 1973. The trading of Elvin Hayes to the Baltimore Bullets prior to the 1972–73 season and the Rockets' subsequent subpar performance were factors in his dismissal.


title: Tex Winter

text: In 1985, Winter started another chapter of his life after contemplating retirement, serving as an assistant coach with the Chicago Bulls, and teaching the triangle offense to Michael Jordan. He was hired to the position by General Manager Jerry Krause, an old friend he had met while at Kansas State. As an assistant to Phil Jackson, who took over as the Bulls' head coach in 1989, Winter and his ball-movement offense were an integral part of the Bulls' NBA championships in 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, and 1998. Winter followed Jackson to the Los Angeles Lakers. Led by Shaquille O'Neal and Kobe Bryant, the Lakers won three championships using the triangle system in 2000, 2001, and 2002. Winter was also a consultant for the NBA champion 2008–09 Los Angeles Lakers team.


title: Tex Winter

text: On April 25, 2009, Winter suffered a stroke in Manhattan, Kansas, while attending a Kansas State basketball reunion.


title: Tex Winter

text: He lived near Kansas State in Manhattan, Kansas with his Alzheimer's-stricken wife and son Brian. He suffered from the after-effects of his 2009 stroke, counting an uncooperative right side and nerve pain in his neck and shoulder. He has two other sons, Russ and Chris.


title: Tex Winter

text: Winter is a member of several halls of fame, including the Kansas Sports Hall of Fame and the National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame, and he was awarded the John Bunn Award for lifetime achievement from the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame. In June 2010, he was given the Chuck Daly Lifetime Achievement Award by the NBA Coaches Association.


title: Tex Winter

text: On his eighth time on the final ballot for the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame, it was announced on April 2, 2011, that Winter had been elected. He was formally inducted on August 12, with his Boston-based physicist son Chris giving a speech in his behalf.


title: Tex Winter

text: On May 26, 2012, Winter was inducted into the Compton Community College Athletics Hall of Fame, under the category of Basketball.


title: Please Don't Go (KC and the Sunshine Band song)

text: "Please Don't Go" is a song recorded by American disco and funk band KC and the Sunshine Band and released in 1979 as the second single from their sixth album, "Do You Wanna Go Party" (1979). Originally written in the key of D flat, the song was the band's first love ballad. In the song, the subject pleads for a second chance. Shortly after the song's one-week run at number one, the group broke up and Harry Wayne Casey went solo. The song was a number-one hit on the Australian ARIA Charts, their sixth and final number-one hit in Canada on the "RPM" national chart as well as their fifth and final number-one hit on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. "Please Don't Go" was actually part of a double-sided single, with the flip slide "I Betcha Didn't Know That" being released to R&B stations and hitting number 25 on the R&B chart.


text: The song was the first No. 1 hit of the 1980s on the "Billboard" Hot 100. It was also an international chart hit, reaching No. 1 in Australia and Canada and charting in Belgium (No. 8), West Germany (No. 20), Ireland (No. 5), the Netherlands (No. 7), New Zealand (No. 3), Norway (No. 4) and the UK (No. 3).


text: A sound-alike cover of Double You's arrangement was released as the debut single by the British group KWS and hit number one on the UK Singles Chart for five weeks in May 1992 and reached number six on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 in October that year. In Germany, the song reached No. 7 but disappeared out of the German Singles Chart the following week due to legal issues with Double You, who covered the song before. Due to this fall, "Please Don't Go" is the song with the highest position that dropped out of the country's singles chart the following week.


text: It was recorded and released after record company Network Records failed to secure UK distribution rights for the Double You version. KWS band member Chris King heard the Double You version in a club in early 1992, and, bringing together the other KWS members to form the band, decided to cover it "like the Love Affair covered Robert Knight's 'Everlasting Love' or David Parton covered Stevie Wonder's 'Isn't She Lovely'." The similarity between the versions resulted in Network paying compensation to Roberto Zanetti, Double You's producer, following three years of legal action.


text: The KWS version was dedicated in honour of Nottingham Forest (European football) defender Des Walker, who was on the verge of signing for Italian team Sampdoria. It was also a double A-side with "Game Boy"; King recalled: "We wanted something new and Game Boy was my son's favourite games console at the time. There were various mixes on the 12-inch single with silly names like "Afternoon of the Rhino", which had been the title of a northern soul single by Mike Post."


text: The single was picked up as a news story by a local Nottingham TV station. BBC Radio 1 soon made it "Record of the Week" and it climbed from number 30 in the UK Singles Chart to number 9 and then in its third week to number 1, which is when the group first performed it on "Top of the Pops". They performed it five times on the show, one week upsetting Elton John by using Dressing Room 1, relegating John to Dressing Room 2. Across the song's five-week reign at the top of the UK Singles Chart, it kept SL2's "On a Ragga Tip", Guns N' Roses' "Knockin' on Heaven's Door", Shut Up & Dance's "Raving I'm Raving" and Kris Kross' "Jump" stalled at number 2. It was ultimately certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry.


text: The same week "Please Don't Go" was withdrawn in Germany, and only seven days after the song reached the 500,000 sales mark in the UK, the Nottinghamshire County Council honoured KWS with a civic reception. Council chairman Gordon Young commented: "All the good work they are doing is helping to put Nottingham in a good light. We like to put on receptions for people that have achieved something. We are proud of what they have done and will wish them well for the future."


text: Joseph McCombs of AllMusic was mixed in his assessment of the KWS cover, writing that: "The bright vocals, synth bleeps, and predictable house groove that drove 'Please Don't Go' to the top of the charts wear thin quickly." Larry Flick from "Billboard" described the song as a "House-induced cover" and noted further that the beats "are hard enough to fill dancefloors, but are brightened by radio-friendly vocals and slick synths." In 2017, "BuzzFeed" listed the song at number 52 in their list of "The 101 Greatest Dance Songs Of the '90s". "It's hard to muster much love for 'Please Don’t Go' – a barely adequate trot through a good song," Tom Ewing of "Freaky Trigger" wrote in his 3/10 review of the cover; "It's a good example, though, of one of the nineties least-regarded, most revival-immune style, the generic dance cover version. [...] 'Please Don’t Go' isn't quite as deathly as the king of the dance cover version, Undercover's formica take on 'Baker Street', but it’s never memorable. That this nullity got five weeks at the top [of the UK charts] says more about the immobile singles chart than any double-digit run." Ewing considers "Game Boy", the other song in the double A-side release, to be as close as the UK Singles Chart came to a hardcore number one, but nonetheless concedes that: "As 'ardkore goes, it's poor, a collection of five years of weary dance tropes in search of even one good hook – Beltram-style hoover noises, house piano, cut-up vocal samples, a dubby bassline, none of them sticking around long enough to make an impact."


text: In 2008 "Please Don't Go" was covered by Swedish musician Basshunter. Idea to cover "Please Don't Go" came out from Basshunter's office. The dance song lasts two minutes and 58 seconds. It was produced by Basshunter, Robert Uhlmann and Scott Simons. "Please Don't Go" was released by Warner Music Sweden on May 19, 2008. On July 14 it was released as number three on Basshunter's third studio album "Now You're Gone – The Album".


text: The song was originally planned to be released in the United Kingdom as the second single from "Now You're Gone – The Album" on June 23, 2008. However, the release was cancelled due to technical difficulties and "All I Ever Wanted" took its place on June 30. It had much more success than originally thought as the single reached number 2 in the UK charts. However, despite rumours that this would be the third single in the United Kingdom, "Angel in the Night" was released instead and was premiered on BBC Radio 1 on August 22, 2008, during Scott Mills's "Friday Floor Fillers".


text: Priya Elan from "The Guardian" described the single as europop. Editor of "Popjustice" compared "Please Don't Go" to "Now You're Gone" but with all the fun and sponteneity reduced to a joyless and attempt to quickly capitalise on its predecessor's success. In 2009 "Please Don't Go" was called number 43 of The 50 Worst Songs of the '00s by "The Village Voice". Maura Johnston said that it stitches together the undeterred stomp of Gary Glitter's "Rock And Roll Part 2" and the keyboards of L.A. Style's "James Brown Is Dead". "Please Don't Go" debuted at number 39 on May 29, 2008 and after two weeks reached number six on Swedish singles chart. It also charted on Slovak airplay chart.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: The Jaguar XJ (X351) is the fourth and final generation of the Jaguar XJ saloon manufactured by British automobile manufacturer Jaguar, and later Jaguar Land Rover. Announced in 2009, and going on sale from 2010, the X351 combines revised styling with underpinnings of the previous X350 generation. The model was discontinued in 2019.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: Jaguar invited Jay Leno to unveil the new XJ during the launch at the Saatchi Gallery in London on 9 July 2009. The event was broadcast live on the Jaguar website. The US model was unveiled at the 2009 Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: Production of the car was due to begin in September 2009, with first deliveries being made in early 2010. Production later began in 2010, with the car arriving in dealer showrooms in May 2010. Production was initially carried out only at the Castle Bromwich Assembly plant in Birmingham, England. From 2014, assembly from complete knockdown kits (CKD) of the XJ commenced at Jaguar Land Rover's facility in Pune, India.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: The XJ was designed at Jaguar Land Rover's Whitley plant in Coventry, by a team led by design director Ian Callum. Design work began in 2005, with final design approval taking place in November 2006 and the design being frozen in the first half of 2008.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: The new design is a complete departure from any earlier XJ model, although mechanically the car is a development of its predecessor.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: In addition to the standard version with a wheelbase, a long-wheelbase version was available with a wheelbase. At the 2010 Moscow Motor Show, a high security version of the car called the XJ Sentinel was introduced. This is an armoured version of Long Wheelbase XJ with B7-level ballistic protection as well as providing protection against 15 kg TNT or equivalent explosive. It has the 5.0 L supercharged V8 engine shared with the XJ Supersport having a power output of and 19-inch wheels with Dunlop Self Supporting Technology run-flat tyres.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: However, unlike other full-size flagship executive cars, the long-wheelbase variant was designed first and is expected to make up 67 percent of sales in the United States market.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: The engine used by the X351 are enlarged and upgraded versions of the previously used V8 petrol and V6 diesel engines.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: All 2010 models of the Jaguar XJ include standard six-speed automatic transmission with Jaguar Sequential Shift carried over from the X350, the main change being steering wheel shift paddles rather than the "J" gate gear selector. The XJ has an electronically limited top speed of , although the limiter has been raised to for the XJR model. An eight speed automatic transmission was introduced from 2013 onwards.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: The XJ features a lightweight aluminium floorpan and body (with 50% recycled material content) based on the X350 chassis and retaining a proportion of the earlier floor pan. The biggest change is reversion to steel coil springs for the front suspension, retaining air suspension for the rear only. Continuously variable damping is electronically controlled as before but with driver selectable modes. The aluminium alloy uni-body makes the XJ L among the lightest of the full-size executive saloons despite its exterior proportions, weighing in at , which is lighter than the mid-size/executive BMW 550i.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: Driver information and entertainment is provided by a Bowers & Wilkins 1,200-watt, 20-speaker Dolby 7.1 surround-sound system


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: and a bi-directional touch screen display - on which the driver can only see the vehicle functions (and satellite navigation data), but a front passenger can simultaneously view a DVD movie or a television transmission. Standard equipment levels on the United States-spec XJ L with the base engine includes a panoramic dual-pane moonroof, lane-departure warning, navigation, quad-zone climate control and power sunshades, which is considered to be generous at this price point compared to other flagship executive saloons.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: On 11 May 2010, the British Prime Minister, David Cameron, took delivery of the dark grey (car No. 10) of Jaguar XJ Sentinel as his official transport. In 2011, David Cameron took the delivery of another XJ Sentinel featuring "bomb proof" doors, bullet proof glass and armoured plating beneath the floor of the car, respectively replacing the previous XJ Sentinel. The car was used for transporting the former British Prime Minister Theresa May, and was also used by the former Prime Minister Boris Johnson.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: Based on XJ L Portfolio with a 5.0-litre V8 engine, it includes XJ rear seat comfort pack and gloss oak interior veneer as standard equipment.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: The XJ Ultimate is a special model introduced in 2011. Available only in the long wheelbase configuration, the car was developed by the Jaguar Land Rover's specialist Engineered To Order (ETO) division and was unveiled at the 2012 Beijing Auto Show.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: Mechanical equipment for the US model includes a 5.0 L supercharged V8 engine rated at and an eight-speed automatic transmission. The XJ went on sale in late 2012 as 2013 model year vehicle.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: In India, the XJ Ultimate is available with a 5.0-litre V8 petrol engine that costs or with a 3.0-litre V6 turbocharged diesel engine that costs .


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: Introduced in 2013, the XJR is a high performance variant of the XJ. Available in short and long wheelbase configurations, it includes a 5.0-litre supercharged V8 engine rated at and , an increased top speed to , eight-speed automatic transmission with a bespoke tuning for the XJR, a new front splitter and aerodynamic sill section combined with an additional rear spoiler and unique 'R' bonnet louvres, Electronic Active Differential and Dynamic Stability Control systems calibrated to enhance handling characteristics, new 20-inch 'Farallon' forged alloy wheels with bespoke Pirelli low-profile tyres, semi-aniline leather, a choice of veneers and contrasting stitching on the seats.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: The XJR was initially unveiled at 2013 New York Auto Show, followed by the 2013 Goodwood Festival of Speed. The US model went on sale as 2014 model year vehicle.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: Changes include optional Intelligent All-Wheel Drive System for 3.0-litre V6 petrol engine models, addition of long-wheelbase models, power output of the XJR model increased to , Intelligent Stop/Start system for all engines and increased headroom for long-wheelbase models (except US model).


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: The XJ received a facelift in 2015. Changes include LED front and rear lights, rear J-Blade lights, a new grille, and a new InControl Touch Pro infotainment system, new driver assistance technology and a new audio system.


title: Jaguar XJ (X351)

text: On 30 May 2019, Autocar reported that Jaguar would discontinue the current XJ in July 2019, partly to make way for a new flagship electric XJ planned to be built at Castle Bromwich. The article mentioned that despite its status it was Jaguar's least popular model, selling 301 in September 2018 compared with 4492 F Pace SUVs and 2252 XE saloons. In February 2021, it was announced that the electric XJ successor was also cancelled for the present.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: Hibernate ORM (or simply Hibernate) is an object–relational mapping tool for the Java programming language. It provides a framework for mapping an object-oriented domain model to a relational database. Hibernate handles object–relational impedance mismatch problems by replacing direct, persistent database accesses with high-level object handling functions.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: Hibernate's primary feature is mapping from Java classes to database tables, and mapping from Java data types to SQL data types. Hibernate also provides data query and retrieval facilities. It generates SQL calls and relieves the developer from the manual handling and object conversion of the result set.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: The mapping of Java classes to database tables is implemented by the configuration of an XML file or by using Java Annotations. When using an XML file, Hibernate can generate skeleton source code for the persistence classes. This is auxiliary when annotations are used. Hibernate can use the XML file or the Java annotations to maintain the database schema.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: There are provided facilities to arrange one-to-many and many-to-many relationships between classes. In addition to managing associations between objects, Hibernate can also manage reflexive associations wherein an object has a one-to-many relationship with other instances of the class type.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: Objects in an object-oriented application follow OOP principles, while objects in the back-end follow database normalization principles, resulting in different representation requirements. This problem is called "object–relational impedance mismatch". Mapping is a way of resolving the object–relational impedance mismatch problem.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: Hibernate provides a SQL inspired language called Hibernate Query Language (HQL) for writing SQL-like queries against Hibernate's data objects. "Criteria Queries" are provided as an object-oriented alternative to HQL. Criteria Query is used to modify the objects and provide the restriction for the objects.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: HQL (Hibernate Query Language) is the object-oriented version of SQL. It generates database independent queries so that there is no need to write database-specific queries. Without this capability, changing the database would require individual SQL queries to be changed as well, leading to maintenance issues.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: Hibernate provides transparent persistence for Plain Old Java Objects (POJOs). The only strict requirement for a persistent class is a no-argument constructor, though not necessarily . Proper behavior in some applications also requires special attention to the and methods in the object classes. Hibernate recommends providing an identifier attribute, and this is planned to be a mandatory requirement in a future release.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: Collections of data objects are typically stored in Java collection classes, such as implementations of the and interfaces. Java generics, introduced in Java 5, are also supported. Hibernate can be configured to lazy load associated collections. Lazy loading is the default as of Hibernate 3.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: Related objects can be configured to "cascade" operations from one object to the other. For example, a parent class object can be configured to cascade its and operations to its child class objects.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: Hibernate can be used both in standalone Java applications and in Java EE applications using servlets, EJB session beans, and JBI service components. It can also be included as a feature in other programming languages. For example, Adobe integrated Hibernate into version 9 of ColdFusion (which runs on J2EE app servers) with an abstraction layer of new functions and syntax added into CFML.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: In Hibernate jargon, an "entity" is a stand-alone object in Hibernate's persistent mechanism which can be manipulated independently of other objects. In contrast, a "component" is subordinate to an entity and can be manipulated only with respect to that entity. For example, an Album object may represent an entity; but the Tracks object associated with the Album objects would represent a "component" of the Album entity, if it is assumed that Tracks can only be saved or retrieved from the database through the Album object. Unlike J2EE, Hibernate can switch databases.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: Hibernate was started in 2001 by Gavin King with colleagues from Cirrus Technologies as an alternative to using EJB2-style entity beans. The original goal was to offer better persistence capabilities than those offered by EJB2; by simplifying the complexities and supplementing certain missing features.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: In early 2003, the Hibernate development team began Hibernate2 releases, which offered many significant improvements over the first release.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: JBoss, Inc. (now part of Red Hat) later hired the lead Hibernate developers in order to further its development.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: In 2005, Hibernate version 3.0 was released. Key features included a new Interceptor/Callback architecture, user defined filters, and JDK 5.0 Annotations (Java's metadata feature). , Hibernate 3 (version 3.5.0 and up) was a certified implementation of the Java Persistence API 2.0 specification via a wrapper for the Core module which provides conformity with the JSR 317 standard.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: In Dec 2011, Hibernate Core 4.0.0 Final was released. This includes new features such as multi-tenancy support, introduction of ServiceRegistry (a major change in how Hibernate builds and manages "services"), better session opening from SessionFactory, improved integration via "org.hibernate.integrator.spi.Integrator" and auto discovery, internationalization support, message codes in logging, and a more distinction between the API, SPI or implementation classes.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: In September 2015, Hibernate ORM 5.0.2 Final was released. It has improved bootstrapping, hibernate-java8, hibernate-spatial, Karaf support.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: In November 2018, Hibernate ORM 5.1.17 Final was released. This is the final release of the 5.1 series.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: In October 2018, Hibernate ORM 5.3 Final was released. It featured Java Persistence API 2.2 inheritance caching.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: The org.hibernate.Session interface represents a Hibernate session, i.e., the main point of the manipulation performed on the database entities. The latter activities include (among the other things) managing the persistence state (transient, persisted, detached) of the objects, fetching the persisted ones from the database and the management of the transaction demarcation.


title: Hibernate (framework)

text: A session is intended to last as long as the logical transaction on the database. Due to the latter feature, Session implementations are not expected to be thread safe nor to be used by multiple clients.


title: Camargue

text: Camargue (, , , ; ) is a region of France located south of Arles, between the Mediterranean Sea and the two arms of the Rhône delta. The eastern arm is called the "Grand Rhône"; the western one is the "Petit Rhône".


title: Camargue

text: Administratively it lies within the department of Bouches-du-Rhône, (Mouths of the Rhône), and covers parts of the territory of the communes of Arles, Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône and Marseille. A further expanse of marshy plain, the Petite Camargue (little Camargue), just to the west of the "Petit Rhône", lies in the department of Gard.


title: Camargue

text: With an area of over , the Camargue is western Europe's largest river delta. It is a vast plain comprising large brine lagoons or "étangs", cut off from the sea by sandbars and encircled by reed-covered marshes. These are in turn surrounded by a large cultivated area.


title: Camargue

text: Approximately a third of the Camargue is either lakes or marshland. The central area around the shoreline of the "Étang de Vaccarès" has been protected as a regional park since 1927, in recognition of its great importance as a haven for wild birds. In 2008, it was incorporated into the larger Parc naturel régional de Camargue.


title: Camargue

text: The Camargue is home to more than 400 species of birds and has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International. Its brine ponds provide one of the few European habitats for the greater flamingo. The marshes are also a prime habitat for many species of insects, notably (and notoriously) some of the most ferocious mosquitos to be found anywhere in France. Camargue horses (Camarguais) roam the extensive marshlands, along with Camargue cattle (see below).


title: Camargue

text: The native flora of the Camargue have adapted to the saline conditions. Sea lavender and glasswort flourish, along with tamarisks and reeds.


title: Camargue

text: Officially established as a regional park and nature reserve in 1970, the Parc Naturel Régional de Camargue covers . This territory is some of the most natural and most protected in all of Europe. A roadside museum provides background on flora, fauna, and the history of the area.


title: Camargue

text: Humans have lived in the Camargue for millennia, greatly affecting it with drainage schemes, dykes, rice paddies and salt pans. Much of the outer Camargue has been drained for agricultural purposes.


title: Camargue

text: The Camargue has an eponymous horse breed, the white Camarguais. Camargue horses are ridden by the "gardians" (cowboys), who rear the region's cattle for fighting bulls for regional use and for export to Spain, as well as sheep. Many of these animals are raised in semi-feral conditions, allowed to roam through the Camargue within a manade, or free-running herd. They are periodically rounded up for culling, medical treatment, or other events.


title: Camargue

text: Few towns of any size have developed in the Camargue. Its "capital" is Arles, located at the extreme north of the delta where the Rhône forks into its two principal branches. The only other towns of note are along the sea front or near it: Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, about to the southwest and the medieval fortress-town of Aigues-Mortes on the far western edge, in the "Petite Camargue". Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer is the destination of the annual Romani pilgrimage for the veneration of Saint Sarah.


title: Camargue

text: The Camargue was exploited in the Middle Ages by Cistercian and Benedictine monks. In the 16th–17th centuries, big estates, known locally as "mas", were founded by rich landlords from Arles. At the end of the 18th century, they had the Rhône diked to protect the town and their properties from flooding. In 1858, the building of the "digue à la mer" (dyke to the sea) achieved temporary protection of the delta from erosion, but it is a changing landform, always affected by waters and weather.