title: Calibration curve

text: Many theoretical relationships, such as fluorescence, require the determination of an instrumental constant anyway, by analysis of one or more reference standards; a calibration curve is a convenient extension of this approach. The calibration curve for a particular analyte in a particular (type of) sample provides the empirical relationship needed for those particular measurements.


title: Calibration curve

text: The chief disadvantages are (1) that the standards require a supply of the analyte material, preferably of high purity and in known concentration, and (2) that the standards and the unknown are in the same matrix. Some analytes - e.g., particular proteins - are extremely difficult to obtain pure in sufficient quantity. Other analytes are often in complex matrices, e.g., heavy metals in pond water. In this case, the matrix may interfere with or attenuate the signal of the analyte. Therefore, a comparison between the standards (which contain no interfering compounds) and the unknown is not possible. The method of standard addition is a way to handle such a situation.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: "Tales of Xillia"s reception in Japan was highly positive. At the time of its release in Japan, it was the most preordered "Tales" game in the series and sold half a million copies in a week, before eventually shipping over copies worldwide. The game also won awards from Sony and "Famitsu". The English localization received positive reception for its battle system, neutral to positive reviews for its plot and characters, and criticism for the map designs. The sequel, "Tales of Xillia 2", was released in November 2012 in Japan and in August 2014 in North America and PAL region.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: "Tales of Xillia" consists primarily of two major areas: the field map and the battle screen. The field map is a realistically scaled 3D environment where the player character traverses and interacts with non-player characters, items, or mob avatars. On the field map, character interactions between the party can also be viewed in the form of a sketch story; these sketch stories are referred to as skits and consist of animated portraits and voice acting. When coming into contact with a mob avatar, the environment switches to the battle screen, a 3D representation of an area in which the player commands the characters in battles against the CPU-controlled mobs.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: During battle sequences, the game uses the "Dual Raid Linear Motion Battle System", a variation of the "Linear Motion Battle" used in the "Tales" series. Four characters from the party are chosen to battle and characters not controlled by a player are controlled by artificial intelligence with instructions set by the players beforehand. The enemy mob's number, appearances, behavior, vary and are dependent on the mob's avatar. Both sides' objective is to deplete the other side's health points (HP) using attacks and skills. When a party member's health falls to zero, the party member faints until revived with items, by a healer, or resting at an inn on the field map; Mobs with zero HP disappear from the arena. Killing all the mobs will yield experience points, items, and allows the player to return to the field map. If all four participating party members are defeated, a game over will occur. Skill and attribute development is based on a system of orbs placed on the nodes of a hexagonal web called the Lilium Orb. When characters level up, they receive GP which can then be allocated to the orbs on the web in a uni-linear path. Each orb activated contains either a new skill or an attribute upgrade.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: Battles take place in real-time. Player actions include moving, dashing, standard attacks, and artes; artes are special attacks which consume "Technical Points" (TP), the in-game synonym for magic points. Dashing, standard attacks, and artes usage are also restricted by the "Assault Counter" (AC), a synonym for action points. Party members are able to link to each other to perform unified attacks called linked artes. While linked, the supporting partner provides unique abilities to the character, while also increasing the Linked Artes Gauge. When the Linked Artes Gauge is full, the player character can enter Over Limit which gives them immunity to stagger, unlimited AC, and allows them to use linked artes in succession.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: Two millennia ago, humans developed spyrix, a power source which absorbs spirits. In response, the spirit Maxwell gathered humans, who share a symbiotic relationship with spirits, onto an isolated land protected by a barrier; the isolated land became known as Rieze Maxia and the outer lands as Elympios. As spirits are needed to sustain nature, Maxwell waits for the day all humans on Elympios die off before dispelling the barrier. Twenty years prior to the present, an Elympion cruise ship becomes trapped in Rieze Maxia, eventually forming a terrorist group known as Exodus. Exodus works with the Elympios military to find a way to destroy the barrier. In the present era, Rieze Maxia is ruled by two countries called Rashugal and Auj Oule. While the two countries appear to live in harmony, they both initiate black operations in attempts to conquer the other in hopes of uniting Rieze Maxia as a single country.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: In the present, medical student Jude Mathis investigates a military research facility in order to search for his missing professor. There he witnesses a spyrix-powered weapon called the Lance of Kresnik absorb his professor. The military prep Jude as the next victim, but he is saved by Milla Maxwell, Maxwell's successor. In response, the military activates the lance which absorbs Milla's spirit companions forcing her and Jude to retreat. Jude and Milla decide to confront Rashugal's king who had endorsed the Lance's creation. During their travel, they are joined by Alvin, Elize Lutus, Rowen J. Illbert and Leia Rolando. After Rashugal's king is defeated, Exodus obtains and uses the Lance to temporarily disable the barrier protecting Rieze Maxia, allowing Elympios' army to invade. Assisted by Auj Oule's king, Gaius, the party defeats Exodus at the cost of Milla's life.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: After mourning her death, Jude leads the party to meet Maxwell and attempts to persuade him to dispel the barrier and save Elympios. Reunited with Milla, who has been reborn as a spirit, they convince Maxwell of their cause. However, Gaius and the spirit named Muzét seal Maxwell within the Lance of Kresnik, intent on sustaining the barrier until all spyrixs are destroyed; Maxwell sends the party to Elympios before he is completely subdued. There, the party learns about Elympios' dependence on spyrix and an ongoing research on spyrite, a power source harmless to spirits. With renewed conviction, the party confronts and defeats Gaius and Muzét. Maxwell dispels the barrier and disperses its energy to temporarily power spyrixes until the completion of spyrites. The party returns to their daily lives with Jude joining a spyrite research team, Milla resuming her role as Maxwell, and Gaius uniting Rieze Maxia under his rule.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: The game began development after "Tales of Hearts" was completed. A "Tales" game for the PlayStation 3 was announced on July 28, 2010's "Weekly Shonen Jump" and officially announced by Namco Bandai Games on August 2, 2010; On December 15, 2010 "Tales of Xillia" was unveiled in "Weekly Shonen Jump" and its official website was launched. Its staff, battle system and two main characters were revealed along with the game's main theme, . Between January and March 2011, Namco released information about the other four playable characters. In May the game's release date, a "Xillia" themed PS3, and the game's theme song, "Progress" by Ayumi Hamasaki were revealed, with the Japanese vocals being retained in the Western release. Before the game's release, a Korean game guide of the game was leaked onto the internet forcing Namco to issue a response. Due to time constraints, some planned features were excluded such as an onsen scene and having Gaius or Muzét as playable characters. The game was released on September 8, 2011, and was made available on the Japanese PlayStation Store a year later. The game was re-released under PlayStation 3 The Best label on October 9, 2014.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: In March 2012, "Tales of Xillia" was trademarked in Europe and North America. A Western localization was officially announced by Namco Bandai Games Europe on July 6, 2012, through Twitter. On November 5, 2012, Ted Tsung, the North American producer for "Tales of Xillia", announced the completion of the English voice recordings. On the same day, Europe's localization was announced to have subtitles in English, French, Spanish, German, and Italian. In April 2013, Namco announced the game would be released in August for North America and PAL region; also announced was the collector's edition of the game. In North America, the first print of the game were released as a limited edition bundle. The game was translated by 8-4 and dubbed by Cup of Tea Productions.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: "Tales of Xillia" had several downloadable content (DLC) which changed a character's appearance or provided in-game bonuses such as items, currency, or levels. The majority of the DLC were released weekly between September 8 until October 6, 2011 on the PlayStation Store. Costumes were themed and released in sets; in order of release the sets were, "Star Driver", "The Idolmaster 2", swimwear, steward and maid, school, and "Tales" series. Accompanying these costume releases were hair styles, accessories, palette swaps, and in-game bonuses DLC. Two DLC codes were bundled with physical releases: Ayumi Hamasaki's album "Five" contains Milla's songstress costume; the first print of the game contains a "Tales of Phantasia" outfit for Jude and a "Tales of Destiny" outfit for Milla. The final DLC was the Santa Claus costume set and was released on the PlayStation Store on December 1, 2011.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: In the English localization, the "Tales of Phantasia" and "Tales of Destiny" costumes were given with preorders of the collector's edition; North America's Limited Edition and the PAL region's day one edition also contained the codes. Excluding "Star Driver", the Japanese PlayStation Store's contents were released bi-weekly for North America and PAL region between August 6 and September 3, 2013. The final DLC, the Santa Claus costume set, was released on November 26, 2013.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: "Tales of Xillia" spawned four manga adaptions: two anthology collections and two traditional manga series. Ichijinsha were the publishers for the anthology collections. The first anthology collection is . Its two volumes were released on November 25, 2011, and February 25, 2012. The second anthology collection is . Its three volumes were released between December 24, 2011, and July 25, 2012. The two traditional manga series are by ASCII Media Works and by Media Factory; they are adaptions of the game's storyline and follows one of the two protagonists. The Jude manga has four volumes released between February 2012 and March 2013, while the Milla manga has five volumes between February 2012 and October 2013.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: Shueisha, Yamashita Books, and Enterbrain each published a strategy guide for the game. "Tales of Xillia" was adapted into a novel series under the same name. It is published by ASCII Media Works and three volumes were released between November 10, 2011, and March 10, 2012. A play diary by "Famitsu" was published by Enterbrain on December 8, 2011. is a book by the game's character designers and was released on December 27, 2011, by Ichijinsha. It provides details on the characters' back story and how their design came to be. On the same day, was released by Yamashita Books and expands on "Tales of Xillia"s lore.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: Five drama CDs based on the game's plot were produced by Frontier Works. volumes 1 and 2 were released on May 23 and June 20, 2012. volumes 1 and 2 were released on September 26 and October 24, 2012. was released on January 26, 2013, in a regular and limited edition. It contains a cameo from "Tales of Xillia 2"s Ludger Will Kresnik and Elle Mel Marta. soundtrack was released by Avex Group on September 7, 2011, in a regular and limited edition; it peaked 31st on Oricon's charts.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: At the time of its release in Japan, "Tales of Xillia" was the most preordered "Tales" game in the series and sold half a million copies in a week. In North America, "Tales of Xillia" was one of the top selling games on the PlayStation Network in August 2013. , the game has shipped over copies worldwide. The game was re-released in Japan under the PlayStation 3 The Best label in 2014.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: Due to the amount of sales, Sony awarded "Tales of Xillia" the Gold Prize during the PlayStation Awards; the game also received the User's Choice award from the PlayStation Awards online poll. "Famitsu"s review of the game was highly positive; they praised the game for its attentive visuals, accessibility, and fast battle system. In the "Newtype Anime Awards" from 2011, "Xillia" won the "Game Opening Animation" award. The English localized version of the game was also a nominee for the Satellite Award for Outstanding Role Playing Game in 2013.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: All English reviewers agreed the battle system was fast and engaging; however, "Electronic Gaming Monthly", Game Informer, GameSpot, and "PlayStation Official Magazine" panned the map designs calling them repetitive, lifeless and bland. The plot received neutral to positive reception. Game Revolution wrote "There's a pleasing inertia to the way plotlines form, unfold, and reach a conclusion that propels our heroes ever-forward, never stopping long enough to feel meandering but never feeling rushed or forced either.", praising the narrative to be one of the qualities to the game. Game Informer described the plot as "investing" and liked the balance in tragic and lighthearted moments. Joystiq lauded the execution of the plot for avoiding the usual JRPG "info dumps" and how small plot-lines intertwined into a larger conflict. "PlayStation Official Magazine" considered the plot as average and called it a let-down compared to the combat system. Reviewers have also noted the dual-protagonist execution caused incoherency in Milla's story.


title: Tales of Xillia

text: Reviewers had mixed opinions on the characters. Generally, reviewers liked the character interactions. IGN praised the diverse characters but panned Milla's English voice acting. Game Revolution felt the characters were relatable and agreed with IGN about Milla's voice noting it sounded robotic and forced. "Electronic Gaming Monthly" described the characters as rather normal and competent compared to the previous "Tales" games, adding that they could imagine the cast having lives and dreams outside of the party's journey. "Edge" described the character interactions as engaging, well written, and praised how the characters avoided the cliché found in manga and anime. Oppositely, "PlayStation Official Magazine" felt the characters "fall into the familiar anime archtypes" and that "flat voice acting and a melodramatic script" made it difficult to feel invested in the cast; Polygon agreed about the character archetypes and called it a lazy strategy used to make the characters understandable.


title: Insurgent (novel)

text: Insurgent is a 2012 science fiction young adult novel by American novelist Veronica Roth and the second book in the "Divergent" trilogy. As the sequel to the 2011 bestseller "Divergent", it continues the story of Tris Prior and the dystopian post-apocalyptic version of Chicago. Following the events of the previous novel, a war now looms as conflict between the factions and their ideologies grows. While trying to save the people that she loves, Tris faces questions of grief, forgiveness, identity, loyalty, politics, and love.


title: Insurgent (novel)

text: The book was first published on May 1, 2012, by the HarperCollins imprints Katherine Tegen Books in the U.S. and HarperCollins Children's Books in the UK, and a "Collector's Edition" was published on October 30 in the United States. "Insurgent" received mostly positive reviews from critics, with reviewers praising Roth's writing.


title: Insurgent (novel)

text: The background to the story, revealed in the first novel of the trilogy, explains how Chicago in the post-apocalyptic future is now a society that defines its citizens by strict conformity to their social and personality affiliations with five different factions. That removes the threat of anyone exercising independent will and threatening the population's safety again by war or some other human-created catastrophe. The factions are "Abnegation" for the selfless, "Amity" for the peaceful, "Candor" for the honest, "Dauntless" for the brave, and "Erudite" for the intelligent. Those who are tested with equal aptitude for more than one faction are deemed "Divergent". Their capability for independent thought beyond the restrictive nature of the factions causes Divergents to be considered threats to the society and to be hunted and killed by the ruthless leader of Erudite to eliminate the "threat" of independent thinking. Factions are meant to be a lifetime allegiance, far more important than family, and "faction before blood" is a societal motto. Those who fail the initiation of their particular faction or subsequently leave it are "Factionless", a permanently-homeless group of outcasts that is deemed to be a drain on society.


title: Insurgent (novel)

text: After the events of "Divergent", Beatrice "Tris" Prior, Tobias "Four" Eaton, Caleb Prior, Peter Hayes, and Marcus Eaton seek refuge in the Amity sector. Tris overhears Marcus and Amity leader Johanna Reyes discuss the fact that the Abnegation leaders died to protect secret information. Erudite and the Dauntless traitors arrive to arrest the Divergents, but Tris flees with Four, Caleb, and Susan Black on a train to the Factionless sector. There, they meet Tobias' mother, Evelyn Johnson-Eaton, who tries to persuade her son to sway Dauntless into joining forces with the Factionless against Erudite.


title: Insurgent (novel)

text: While Caleb and Susan return to Abnegation, Tris and Tobias head to Candor headquarters, where the other Dauntless now reside. Under truth serums, Tobias confides his reasons for transferring to Dauntless, and Tris reveals her killing of Will in self-defense, which strains her relationship with her friend Christina. That night, the Dauntless traitors, led by Eric, arrive and shoot simulation serums into their fellow Dauntless and knock everyone unconscious except the Divergents: Tris, Uriah Pedrad, and several others. As Eric begins executing the Divergents, Tris wounds him and allows the others to capture him as the remaining traitors flee. Their safety is revealed to be guaranteed by Erudite renegade and Will's sister, Cara.


title: Insurgent (novel)

text: Tris, Tobias, Lynn, and Shauna spy on the discussion arranged by the Candor leader Jack Kang with Jeanine Matthews's representative and Dauntless traitor, Max. Lynn shoots and kills Max, and Shauna is rendered paraplegic by a nerve serum. To prevent Jeanine from holding another prisoner exchange, the Dauntless vote to execute Eric, which Tobias does without hesitation. To avoid being dependent on Candor, the Dauntless return to their own headquarters and disable most of the security cameras inside. However, Tris is alerted by Christina that one camera has caused three Dauntless members (Marlene, Hector, and Kee) to become simulated into attempting suicide unless a Divergent is handed over. They are unable to save Marlene.


title: Insurgent (novel)

text: Tris surrenders to Erudite and is placed in a cell by Peter and, to her shock, Caleb, both of whom are working with Jeanine. Tobias follows and is captured but not before he convinces Dauntless to ally with the Factionless, with their insurgency arranged to occur several days. After unsuccessful simulation tests, Jeanine orders Tris' execution, but Peter swaps the lethal dose with a paralytic and frees Tobias, and the three escape to Abnegation. Tris meets with Marcus, who tells her that Jeanine has withheld Abnegation's secret. If the Factionless learned of it, it would certainly be destroyed.


title: Insurgent (novel)

text: Tris, Christina, and Marcus head for Amity to request Johanna's help. She, alongside several others including Susan's brother, Robert, choose to assist them, despite Amity's resistance. They are joined by Cara and another Erudite renegade, Fernando, who act as navigators. The "Insurgents" infiltrate Erudite headquarters. Fernando is killed, but they manage to access Jeanine's laboratory. Inside, Tris faces down simulations before she confronts Jeanine, who is cornered by Tori Wu. Tori kills Jeanine and then brands Tris a traitor. The invasion of Erudite over, Tris learns of the casualties, including Lynn, and the fact that the Factionless have taken all weapons to rule in Jeanine's place. Tris is handcuffed, alongside Christina, Marcus, and the other Insurgents, but manages to pass the information to Tobias, which he and Caleb share through the computers. The secret video, narrated by Edith Prior, from "an organization fighting for peace," reveals that the world had become corrupt, and the city was sealed to allow the Divergents to increase, and Amity was then to open the fence forever and allow the population to re-enter the world. The room erupts into voices as the book ends.


title: Insurgent (novel)

text: The setting is a dystopian Chicago in the far future in which Lake Michigan has turned into a giant marsh. The Candor compound surrounds a ruined Merchandise Mart, called the "Merciless Mart" because of their unrelenting honesty. The Amity live on farms outside a fence that surrounds the city and keeps the other factions in; their central meeting area is a building with a great tree in the center. The Dauntless compound is the combination of a glass building and a deep cave underneath it and is nicknamed "The Pit." The Abnegation sector is a cookie-cutter neighborhood in which "everything looks alike." The Erudite compound is in a futuristic part of the city, including the former site of Grant Park (a sculpture resembling the famous "Cloud Gate" is mentioned in "Divergent"), and the buildings are very advanced.


title: Insurgent (novel)

text: Some of the major themes in the book are rebellion, romance, bravery, courage, friendship, betrayal, the search for individual identity, and heroism.


title: Insurgent (novel)

text: In the US, the book was released in the paperback format on January 20, 2015. The standard retail version includes previously-unreleased material (deleted scenes). There are also several retailer exclusive versions at Barnes & Noble, Books-A-Million, Target, and Walmart, each with different deleted scenes and questions and answers with the authors.


title: Insurgent (novel)

text: "Insurgent" received mostly-positive reviews from critics. The trade publication "Publishers Weekly" received the novel enthusiastically: "Roth knows how to write. So even though this second book of the trilogy that began with Divergent feels like a necessary bridge between the haunting story she created in book one and the hinted-at chaos of book three, readers will be quick to forgive... The author has a subtle way of pulling readers into a scene ('The outside air... smells green, the way a leaf does when you tear it in half'), and the novel's love story, intricate plot, and unforgettable setting work in concert to deliver a novel that will rivet fans of the first book." Kirkus Reviews said, "The unrelenting suspense piles pursuit upon betrayal upon torture upon pitched battles; the violence is graphic, grisly and shockingly indiscriminate. The climactic reveal, hinting at the secret origins of their society, is neither surprising nor particularly plausible, but the frenzied response makes for another spectacular cliffhanger." Roth has admitted a number of continuity errors in "Insurgent", an aftereffect of overlapping novel drafts.


title: Insurgent (novel)

text: "Insurgent" won Favorite Young Adult Fantasy & Science Fiction and Author of 2012 in the Goodreads Choice Awards. It was also nominated at "Children's Choice Book Awards" for "Teen book of the year" and "Author of the year".


title: Insurgent (novel)

text: Summit Entertainment announced that a film adaptation of "Insurgent" would be released as "The Divergent Series: Insurgent" on March 20, 2015, as a sequel to the film adaptation of "Divergent", with Brian Duffield originally chosen to write the script for the film. On December 16, 2013, it was announced that Neil Burger, the director of "Divergent", would not return to direct "Insurgent" because he was still working on the first film. On February 13, 2014, it was announced that Robert Schwentke was offered the director position for the film and that Akiva Goldsman had been hired to rewrite Duffield's script. "The Divergent Series: Insurgent" began filming in Atlanta on May 27, 2014, and concluded on September 6, 2014.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: Japan Rugby League One (formerly the Top League) is a rugby union competition in Japan. It is the highest level of professional rugby competition in the country. The Japan Rugby Football Union created the competition in 2003, by absorbing the Japan Company Rugby Football Championship, to drive up the overall standard and popularity of the sport and improve the results of the Japan national rugby union team. The chief architect of the league was Hiroaki Shukuzawa who strongly felt the urgency of improving Japanese domestic company rugby to a professional level which would allow Japan to compete more convincingly at Rugby World Cups.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: Until 2022, it was an industrial league, where many players were employees of their company and the teams were all owned by major companies. While the competition was known for paying high salaries, only world-class foreign players and a small number of Japanese players played fully professionally, which meant most of the players still played in an amateur capacity. The delayed 2021 season was the final season of the Top League, with the JRFU adopting a new fully-professional three-tier system from 2022. More details about the new structure was announced to the media in January 2021. Featuring 25 teams, the 12 top-tier clubs would be split into two conferences, with seven teams competing in division two and six in division three. The new competition was formally announced as Japan Rugby League One in July 2021.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: The first season in 2003–04 featured 12 teams. The league was expanded to 14 teams in 2006–07 and 16 teams in 2013–14. The Top League is played during the off-season of the Super Rugby, Therefore, many full-time foreign professionals from Southern Hemisphere countries have played in the Top League, notably Tony Brown, George Gregan and Dan Carter. In the 2010s, salaries in the Top League have risen to become some of the highest in the rugby world; in 2012, South Africa's Jaque Fourie, now with Kobelco Steelers, was widely reported to be the world's highest-paid player.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: The 2021 format of the first all-professional edition for the Japanese club system is divided into three divisions.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: A second-tier Top League Challenge Series was also introduced in 2003. Between 2003–04 and 2016–17, teams from three regional leagues would qualify to this post-season competition, in which they could either win promotion to the next season's Top League, or qualify to promotion play-off matches.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: In 2017, a second-tier Top Challenge League was introduced, to operate in a league format above the regional leagues.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: With the creation of Rugby League One and its three divisions, the "raison d'etre" for the Top Challenge League ceased to exist, and it was discontinued.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: NTT Shining Arcs and Yamaha Jubilo which won their 2005 promotion/relegation play-offs ("Irekaesen") against Canon Eagles and Kyuden Voltex to retain their places for the 2011–12 season. The following teams were in the league:


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: The top 4 sides of the regular season (Suntory, Toshiba, Sanyo, and NEC) competed in the 2012 Top League Champions Cup knock-out tournament for the Top League title at Chichibu, Tokyo. Suntory defeated Sanyo 47–28 in the final to win the title. Both teams met again a few weeks later in the final of the 49th All-Japan Rugby Football Championship.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: Additionally, in the Wildcard play-offs, the Top League teams ranked 5th and 8th (Kintetsu Liners and Yamaha Jubilo) played each other at Hanazono, Osaka, as did the teams ranked 6th and 7th (Kobe Steelers and Ricoh Black Rams), with the winners (Kobe and Yamaha) also qualifying for the All-Japan Rugby Football Championship.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: Honda Heat and Kyuden Voltex were automatically relegated at the completion of the 2009–10 season for finishing 13th and 14th. Toyota Industries Shuttles and NTT Communications Shining Arcs won promotion through the Top Challenge series. The following teams were in the league:


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: The top 4 sides (Toshiba, Sanyo, Toyota and Suntory) from the regular season competed in a knock out tournament to fight for the Top League title. In the final, Sanyo defeated Suntory 28–23.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: IBM Big Blue and Yokogawa Atlastars were automatically relegated at the completion of the 2008–9 season for finishing 13th and 14th. Ricoh and Honda won promotion through the Top Challenge series. Kyuden and Sanix retained their places in Top League when they won their respective promotion and relegation play-offs. The following teams were in the league:


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: Kintetsu Liners returned to the league, and Yokogawa Denki were promoted for the first time (and renamed Yokogawa Musashino Atlastars in the off season). They replaced Ricoh Black Rams and Mitsubishi Sagamihara DynaBoars. The following teams were in the league:


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: Kyuden Voltex and Mitsubishi Sagamihara DynaBoars joined the league for the first time. The following 14 teams were in the Top League in the 2007–08 season:


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: The top four teams (Sanyo, Suntory, Toyota and Toshiba) played in the fifth Microsoft Cup to decide the league champion. Suntory beat Sanyo 14–10 in the final to become the 2007–08 champions. Mitsubishi (14th) and Ricoh (13th) were automatically relegated.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: The number of teams was increased from 12 to 14. Coca-Cola West Red Sparks became the second Kyushu-based team in the Top League. IBM returned to the league.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: The top four teams in the league played in the Microsoft Cup which was officially integrated into the league from this season as the "Top League Play-off Tournament Microsoft Cup". Toshiba won the cup and also won the All-Japan Championship. Secom and World (13th and 14th) were automatically relegated, to be replaced by Kyuden Voltex, the third team from Kyushu to enter the league, and Mitsubishi Sagamihara DynaBoars from Kanto.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: After the pre-season 2005 Challenge series, Secom and Sanix returned after a year out of the league, replacing Kintetsu and IBM. The following 12 teams competed in the third season:


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: Toshiba again won both the league round-robin and the Microsoft Cup knockout competition contested by the top 8 teams after the regular season. Coca-Cola West Japan (now Coca-Cola West Red Sparks) gained promotion to the League at the end of the season. IBM also gained promotion to return to the league.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: Following the 2004 Challenge series with IBM and Toyota being promoted, the following 12 teams competed in the second season:


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: Toshiba won both the league round-robin and the Microsoft Cup knockout competition contested by the top 8 teams after the regular season. The eleventh and twelfth teams (Kintetsu and IBM) were automatically relegated, and the ninth and tenth placed teams (World and Ricoh) had to win their 2005 promotion and relegation play-offs ("Irekaesen") to stay in the Top League, which they did.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: Toshiba won the inaugural Top League title by finishing on top of the round-robin competition. The top eight teams qualified for the inaugural Microsoft Cup. Toshiba went on to lose the final of Microsoft Cup to NEC, but the cup was considered a separate competition to the Top League prior to 2007. Secom and Sanix were relegated at the end of the season. IBM and Toyota were promoted.


title: Japan Rugby League One

text: The following foreign players that have played in the Top League have either won or been nominated for a major IRB award, played in a Rugby World Cup, played for a combined-nations touring side, or captained their national team.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Persecution of people with albinism (sometimes abbreviated PWA) is based on the belief that certain body parts of albinistic people can transmit magical powers. Such superstition is present especially in some parts of the African Great Lakes region, it has been promulgated and exploited by witch doctors and others who use such body parts as ingredients in rituals, concoctions and potions with the claim that their magic will bring prosperity to the user ("muti" or medicine murder).


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: As a result, people with albinism have been persecuted, killed and dismembered, and graves of albinos dug up and desecrated. At the same time, people with albinism have also been ostracised and even killed for exactly the opposite reason, because they are presumed to be cursed and bring bad luck. The persecutions of people with albinism take place mostly in Sub-Saharan African communities, especially among East Africans.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Albinism is a genetically inherited condition which is very rare and, worldwide, affects approximately one in twenty thousand people. Although rare in the western world, albinism is quite common in sub-Saharan Africa, likely as a result of consanguineous alliances. Both parents, who may or may not be albinos themselves, must carry the gene if it is to be passed on to the child. Albinism occurs in both males and females and is not specific to any race or ethnic group. Statistics show that fifty percent of albinistic people in Tanzania have a known albinistic relative, although very few understand or are educated about the medical and genetic causes of this condition. Many believe it is a punishment from God or bad luck, and that their "disease" could be contagious, which is often the view of even members of the medical and professional community. These misconceptions, coupled with the lack of education, are some of the key reasons that albinism is so heavily persecuted. This lack of knowledge about people with albinism means that folktales and superstition in the name of witchcraft take the place of medical and scientific facts in the minds of many native Africans, with and without albinism, which in turn has major effects on the social integration of albinistic people into African society. Ninety-eight percent of albinos die by the age of forty for reasons which could easily be prevented.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: A report was released on 1 April 2014 by the Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, office of the Canadian charity Under the Same Sun. Titled "Reported Attacks of Persons with Albinism", the document reviews 180 countries and lists 129 recent killings and 181 other attacks, all within 23 African countries. These attacks include mutilation, violence, violation of graves, and cases of asylum-seeking.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: In Tanzania, albinos represent one in every 1429 births, a much higher rate than in any other nation. According to Al-Shymaa Kway-Geer, an albino member of parliament, there are 6977 officially registered albinos in Tanzania. However, it is believed that there may be up to 17000 undocumented. A number of albinos have migrated to the Dar es Salaam area, as they feel safer in an urban setting. Tanzania is thought to have the largest population of albinos in Africa. Albinos are especially persecuted in Shinyanga and Mwanza, where witch doctors have promoted a belief in the potential magical and superstitious properties of albinos' body parts. This can cause immense strain on families and relationships. An albino child is often seen as a bad omen and treated as unwanted. Many albino babies become victims of infanticide due to these superstitious views.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: After 2015 when Tanzania enacted tougher steps against violence against albinos, Malawi has seen a "steep upsurge in killings" with 18 reported killings since November 2014, and the likely toll being higher because of missing persons and unreported murders. President Peter Mutharika has formed a committee to study the situation. Additionally, Malawi has faced an immense amount of graves belonging to Albino people being robbed in more recent history. In 2017, police found at least 39 cases of illegal removals of the bodies of Albino people from their graves or having body parts removed from their corpses. Another phenomenon that has also begun to occur is an increase in religious leaders, police, and government officials being charged and convicted of slaying Albino people in Malawi. As of 2018, there has been speculation President Mutharika making moves toward implementing the death penalty to convicted murderers of Albino people as a way to significantly decrease the attacks being perpetrated, putting fear into those who do it for business or religious purposes and making it substantially less acceptable by witch doctors and other people who follow superstitions. There is a death penalty in place, but it has not been put in to use since the government changed to democracy in 1994, and convicts who are given the death penalty have sat in prison for life instead. The president sees this as a way to tighten judicial control and work to eradicate the hate crimes committed against Albinos.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: In 2018, Malawian MP Esther Jolobala alleged that there were significant delays in the Malawian Police Service's response to reports of crimes against albinos.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: On the report of Zambian Albinism Organisations like AFZ and others there are about 25,324 people with albinism in Zambia, according to the country's last census, conducted in 2010. "Noting the efforts made by the Zambia government to promote the welfare of PWA in the country including prohibiting racial discrimination of persons as well as offenses causing bodily harm through the Constitution as well as Penal Code of Zambia; supporting the publishing of a handbook called "Living with Albinism in Zambia: Information for children and young people" which aims to teach children about healthcare, sun damage and the differences between them and their family and peers; Including PWA in the 2010 Census of Population and Housing; Occasional purchase and free distribution of sunscreen lotions to PWA; and hosting cancer clinics where PWA go for cancer treatment covering medical bills for some of them. However, there are a number of issues that are yet to be adequately addressed." The latest killing in Zambia was reported in March 2020


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: African rituals and spiritual ideas about albinism have led to the brutal murder of and attacks on innocent men, women and especially children. These ideas have been around for many generations, but in recent years witch doctors have been teaching misconceived ideas about the promise of wealth, success, and power when albino hair or limbs are used in a potion as part of witchcraft practices. This has gained public attention nationally and internationally as these crimes have been reported as crimes against human rights. "Infanticide, kidnapping, amputations, and decapitations, committed for purposes of supplying highly valued body parts used for amulets, which are then sold in underground witchcraft market." Therefore, this causes great unrest and angst among the albino population, who must be protected and often live in a state of solitude simply to protect their own lives and to prevent being hunted like animals.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: US congressman Gerry Connolly in 2010 introduced legislation to protect albinos and urge local governments to protect albinos, stating that "With their help and the passage of this resolution today, maybe we can bring an end to these horrific and heinous crimes."


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: It is clear that "the main driving forces underlying these profiling crimes are ignorance, myth, and superstition, such as the belief that individuals with albinism possess superpowers or that their body parts bestow fortune and health." It is commonly known that in many communities, predominantly in Tanzania and parts of east Africa, superstitious views derived from ancient spiritual beliefs and reinforced by local witch doctors have been carried through centuries of ritualistic practices and mythical beliefs. This creates a serious risk to the lives of persons with albinism as the people believe it will bring them wealth, power, success, or health depending on the variances of interpretation. Senior police officers claim that these body parts may be sold for as much as US$75,000 on the black market for a set of arms, legs, ears, and genitals from an individual with albinism. Therefore, there has been an extensive amount of albino murders in the past decade especially in Burundi and Tanzania, wherein 2007 more than seventy documented killings took place and one hundred and fifty body parts of albinos were reported to have been chopped off. Now the number of killings is well over one hundred, with low conviction rates, and albinos continue to have limbs severed, leaving many crippled or severely maimed, traumatized and tortured in the process.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: This threat to albinos has the potential to cause extreme trauma and stress in their daily lives, which are already impacted by the stress of their condition, affecting skin and eyesight, placing albinos in a constant state of insecurity and distrust. According to Navi Pillay, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, because of the social and educational exclusion which can often occur there are often very low education levels in albinos, so that they lack social and economic tools to live productive lives. It also "is a common belief that albinos have low brain capacity and are unable to function at the same level as 'normal people'. Therefore, their ability to learn is often deficient due to the fact that one hundred percent of albinos suffer from some form of visual impairment and there often are not sufficient educational facilities, learning supplies or funding to support children with limited sight. This causes extensive bullying, exclusion from peer groups, low self-esteem and confidence, along with emotional and mental illness stemming from rejection by society, and often family members who harbor superstitious myths about albinos. It is clearly revealed that no matter what mythical or spiritual mantra a person may be following or believing about albinos there is a general view in "nearly all cultures in the region of East Africa held and some still hold the view that albinos are less desirable beings who are less than human." Therefore, homes and schools specifically for albinos, such as Buhangija Albino School, have been created as safe environments for learning, growing and permanently residing. Many children fear to ever return to their families, believing that they may be killed by even their closest relatives. Ukerewe Island is a key example of this, displayed in the film home to a large community of people with albinism where 62 albinos reside, most likely to remain in solitude and away from albino hunters.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: The UN report submitted as part of the Human Rights Council resolution 23/13 of 13 June 2013 states that albinos are often regarded as "ghosts and not human beings, who can be wiped off the global map." They are often persecuted as devils or people who are a bad omen or suffer from a curse. In some communities, it is "believed that contact with them will bring bad luck, sickness or death." Therefore, this is discrimination and mental and emotional persecution alone, where severe bullying of children, exclusion and abandonment occurs even without brutal physical persecution.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: However, the issues which have created a spotlight for the Human Rights Council of the United Nations are the murder of albinos for medicine and dismemberment, and attacks, and murder of persons with albinism. Another myth that imposes a risk on people with albinism is the belief that "sexual intercourse with a woman or a girl with albinism can cure HIV/AIDS." Sacrifice of albinos has believed also to "appease the god of the mountain" when fear of a volcano eruption is possible, and it is believed that pulling the hair of albinos can bring good luck. It has also been reported that "miners use the bones of persons with albinism as amulets or bury them where they are drilling for gold. The attacks which occur usually result in the death or severe mutilation of the albino, which according to the Human rights council can in "some cases involve trade in organs, trafficking in persons and sale of children, infanticide and abandonment of children."


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: With escalating killings, President Kikwete publicly and repeatedly condemned witch doctors, their helpers and middlemen, and the clients, which include members of the police force, for these murders. Victims include children snatched or abducted from their parents. The killers and their accomplices use hair, arms, legs, skin, eyes, genitals, and blood in rituals or for witch potions.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights has published a preliminary report regarding discrimination which has been directed toward people with albinism. This report has been submitted as part of the Human Rights Council resolution 23/13 of 13 June 2013. It reinforced that "states would adopt specific measures to protect and preserve the rights to life and security of persons with albinism, as well as their right not to be subject to torture and ill treatment, and ensure their access to adequate health care, employment, education and justice." The discrimination of albinos is often demonstrated by family members and relatives especially at birth, and ill-treatment by general society is widespread where there are severe issues of social exclusion and stigma. The Resolution 23/13 explains the Human Rights council's concerns about "attacks against persons with albinism". Therefore, the Council encouraged the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) to submit a report. Navi Pillay is the current United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. As the representative, on 11 March 2014 she submitted a message which overviewed the current status of discrimination against persons with albinism and possible pathways for change and development in protection of albinos. "People with albinism have the right to live without fear or bullying, discrimination, social exclusion, killing and dismemberment." This footage was published on 13 March 2014 to overview the current situation surrounding albinos who live in fear of being murdered or captured for the purposes of murder medicine and witch doctors belief in the magical potential of albino hair and limbs.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Also a key issue is the influence of educating the public to encourage the removal of the social stigma associated with albinos in a society which does not completely understand that albinism is not a curse or a spiritual ghost, but simply a skin condition. In Zimbabwe albinos have been given the name "sope" which indicated that they are possessed by evil spirits, and in Tanzania they are known as "nguruwe" meaning 'pig', or "zeru" which means 'ghost'. The Report discusses the "most serious human rights violations faced by persons with albinism, primarily focusing on the ritual killings and attacks to which they are subjected." It also includes recommendations to the international community and member states action towards persons with albinism.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: International federation Secretary General Bekele Geleta states that "Albinism is one of the most unfortunate vulnerabilities… and needs to be addressed immediately at international level." This is a cry for international exposure and help to ensure that people suffering from albinism can be protected from inhumane killings and to be sheltered from the merciless hunters of albino body parts for their potions and spiritual medicine. "The main issues that should be addressed include skin cancer prevention education, stigma and discrimination denouncement, and swift prosecution of albino hunters and their sponsors." Therefore, it is clear that albinos are facing many issues in their lives, and must be protected on the basis of human rights even if they look different and unlike any other race on earth. It is "imperative to inform the medical community and the general national and international public about the tragedies faced by albinos to protect them from skin cancer and ritualistic murders by individuals seeking wealth through clandestine markets perpetuating witchcraft."


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: A number of steps were taken by the government to protect the albino population. The president ordered a crackdown on witchdoctors in the spring of 2008. In addition, an albino woman, Al-Shymaa Kway-Geer, was named to become a member of the parliament, the first albino in such a position in the history of Tanzania. Police have also been advised to generate lists of albinos and provide special protection for them.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: To foil graverobbers, graves of the albinistic were to be sealed with concrete. However, by October 2008, killings had not abated, and while some suspects had been apprehended, no convictions had taken place. It was estimated that over 50 murders had taken place since March 2007, many of them in the mining and fishing communities near Lake Victoria, especially at Mwanza, Shinyanga and Mara.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: In January 2009, "Prime Minister Pinda had declared war on the albino hunters, and in an effort to stop the trade in albino body parts he had revoked the licenses of all the country's witch doctors who use the body parts in their black magic fetishes."


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: The first ever conviction for the killing of an albino in Tanzania occurred on 23 September 2009 at the High Court in Kahama. This was a "landmark verdict" was due to the fact that there have been more than 50 murders known at this time and this was the first actual conviction. The conviction came about following the murder and mutilation of a 14-year-old boy, Matatizo Dunia, who was attacked by three men in Bukombe district in Shinyanga Region in December 2008.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: The men carried Dunia from his home late at night before brutally murdering him. One of them was later found with Dunia's leg in his possession. The rest of Dunia's body parts were located concealed in shrubbery. The men confessed a desire to sell Dunia's parts to a witch doctor, yet despite this, their legal team had not anticipated the death sentence of hanging which the three men would receive.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: The Canada- and Tanzania-based Under The Same Sun albinism activist organisation praised the breakthrough but its founder Peter Ash remarked: "This is one conviction. There are 52 other families still awaiting justice". The Tanzania Albino Society's chairman Ernest Kimaya called for the hanging to be made public to further demonstrate to others that the issue of killing albinos was to be taken seriously.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: This issue with witchcraft and its power and influence is that a witch doctor has, as he is almost always "revered by society as ultimate truth". Most tribes in ancient times would have committed infanticide upon an albino child seeing it as a bad omen, practiced by the Sukuma, the Digo and the Maasai. However, in some tribes the albinos were made the sacrifices of offerings to the gods or for such uses as potions which is what they are still hunted for today in the 21st century. "One of the most dangerous myths and the crux of recent attacks against PWA is that their body parts can be made into potions that give good luck and wealth to its users."


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: In 2006 some of the first publicly reported killings were spoken about in the media, such as 34-year-old albino woman, Arithi, who was murdered with her arms and legs hacked off and sold. Some cases which have been key in recent years firstly occurred in 2008 when a Tanzanian man tried to sell his albino wife for a price of US$3,000 to Congolese businessmen. Although the businessmen managed to escape their arrest, Interpol has been assigned to attempt to track these men. this is what led to President Jakaya Kikewere ordering a tightening of police and protection from prosecution, however due to corruption there is still proof that even policeman are being bribed and "bought off" to turn a blind eye to certain crimes if they are receiving pecuniary gain. Although according to BBC News 170 witch doctors have been arrested for involvement in inhumane interactions and intentions with albinos.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Another example which occurred where two mothers who were attacked by gangs with machetes in order to get to their albino children. The men broke into a refugee house known as the Lugufu Camp in Kigoma in search of the children; although the children remained untouched the women received severe injuries. A further case uncovered by US congressman Gerry Connolly was the November 2008 in Ruyigi, Burundi where the case of a 6-year old albino girl who was shot dead and her head and limbs were hacked off, leaving only her dismembered torso.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Many organisations have been set up to help protect and provide for communities with albinism. Films have also been produced to encourage, educate and create an international understanding of the trials which persons with albinism are facing in a modern world still dealing with ancient rituals and practices which encourage murder for medicine. This is against all international human rights legislation and therefore it is important that persons with albinism are collectively protected. Organisations such as National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation (NOAH), Tanzania Albino Centre (TAC), based in Arusha, Tanzania; aiming to "improve the lives of albinos with educational and medical assistance so that they may live safe, accepted, and prosperous lives in the society of their choice." Other groups include the "Albinism Foundation Zambia" (AFZ), based in Lusaka, founded by musician John Chiti, who is diagnosed with Albinism, "Assisting Children in Need" (ACN); and "Under the Same Sun" where Ash, also having albinism himself, states his aspirations and purpose for the project: "I have a dream that one day in Africa, people with albinism will take their rightful place throughout every level of society, and that the days of discrimination against persons with albinism will be a faint memory!" The Vision of "Albinism Foundation Zambia" is, according to their website: "Persons with Albinism in Zambia enjoying and exercising their rights and fundamental freedoms on an equal basis with the rest of society without any form of discrimination on the basis of their condition"


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: The International Federation of Red Cross (IFRC) is a key part of the albino protection movement who are working to integrate persons with albinism back into society safely in Burundi "striving to minimize their vulnerability to hunters, skin cancer, and educational and social marginalization." The IFRC particularly works with protecting mothers and children who are fearing persecution and they assist them in providing safe homes and protection where children are frightened of attackers and by providing a special arena for the albinos it ensures safety protection and an environment of love, understanding of one another all with albinism, and unity in the battle against persecution and discrimination. The Red Cross have made it very clear in their publications that the government must also take drastic steps in protection of persons with albinism to stop the persecution. They have stated that it is imperative that the government strives to "Ensure effective legal protection for people with albinism, use local administrative structures to locate and protect albino people in hiding and conduct public anti-discrimination campaigns and extend medical services to albinos in need."


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Asante Mariamu is another organisation which was created after the survival of Mariamu Staford from an anti-albino attack which is determined to ensure that there is "swift prosecution and convictions of their killers" and therefore encouraging justice. This story was presented to the US House of Representatives in March 2010 where US Congressman Gerry Connolly was impacted by this horrific story and "moved me to take action". He introduced a bill to take action to severe violence being performed against persons with albinism in east Africa and to bring justice and punishment to perpetrators. He spoke to the house in March 2010 urging his colleagues "to join me and Mariamu Stanford in bringing international attention to this horrific abuse of human rights." This legislation condemns any injury, murder or mutilation of persons with albinism and specifically urges the local east African government especially in Tanzania and Burundi "to take immediate action to prevent further violence against persons with albinism." There are many more which are working on protecting persons with albinism from persecution, and providing adequate health care, sun protection and learning facilities to ensure that persons with albinism are treated fairly and with all human rights, and not hunted as animals in fear of their life. Albino Awareness day has also been created by Dr Aisha Sethi who is an assistant professor of dermatology in the Pritzker School of Medicine which is celebrated on 4 May each year. The President has also appointed Al-Shymaa Kway-Geer, himself a person with albinism, as an MP who seeks to be a voice in the Tanzanian parliament for protection against persecution of persons with albinism in society and encourages facilities and support of their physical, medical, and education protection and enhancement.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Under the Same Sun is a Canadian-founded organization with support focused on Tanzania and based in Dar es Salam, founded in 2008 by Peter Ash with a vision to "promote via advocacy and education, the wellbeing of persons who are often marginalized or misunderstood. We are driven by the belief that all persons have intrinsic value and since they are created in the image of God." Therefore, they are acting upon the moral and human rights values to support victims to end the discrimination and persecution of innocent persons with albinism. According to Under The Same Sun, to eradicate attacks against persons with albinism, "it is necessary to focus on eliminating reliance on witchcraft beliefs by strengthening the provision of infrastructure such as schools and hospitals while enhancing the sense of fairness by improving on the system of justice." Therefore, regaining persons with albinism their rights to being treated as human, fairly as functioning members of society who may look different and suffer severe vulnerabilities die to their physical condition, but do not deserve to be murdered or hurt in any way because of ancient myths claiming sacrifice of these people will create future benefit for another person.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Albinism Foundation Zambia is based in Lusaka, Zambia. The founder of the Albinism Foundation of Zambia (AFZ) is John Chiti as the first person with albinism to come out in the lime light in Zambia as awarded musician. He then began to mobilise the albinism community using his own resources and later formed this foundation through which they could profile their concerns on issues of governance to government and stake holders. The Albinism Foundation Zambia was thus established in 2008 as a non-governmental organization that works to promote the welfare of persons with albinism in Zambia. It is also the first albinism organization in Zambia.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Amnesty International has run several campaigns against the persecution and discrimination of persons with albinism. 'Albinism in Malawi: Stop the Killings' is a campaign run by the organization that was started to "stop ritual murders of people with Albinism".


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Films which have been created are also helping to raise awareness and tell the stories of persecuted persons with albinism, beginning with "In My Genes", a 2009 Kenyan documentary directed by Lupita Nyong'o (later a key actor from the 2013 film "Twelve Years a Slave"). It was followed in 2010 by "", by Canadian filmmaker Jean-François Méan, which tells the story of Vicky Ntetema, a Tanzanian journalist who investigated the trade for albinotic body parts in Tanzania. This film became the cornerstone of a national campaign sponsored by Under the Same Sun to end the wave of violence. After the film's broadcast, the murder rate, which had been steady for three years, dropped by 90%.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: "White Shadow", a German–Italian–Tanzanian 2013 drama film written, produced and directed by Noaz Deshe, drew international attention to the issue, screening at various film festivals, winning the Lion of the Future Award at the Venice festival. Also released in 2013, "In the Shadow of the Sun", a documentary filmed in Tanzania over the course of six years by Harry Freeland, featured the struggles of Josephat Torner, a campaigner for de-mystification of the superstitions about albinistic people and their use for witchcraft; and teenaged Vedastus, who hopes to survive the persecution of persons with albinism to adulthood.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: And also The Beautiful Ones Are Born, a yet to be released short film by one of the youngest Nigerian Film maker Dami Taiwo.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: "My Colour, Your Kind", a 1998 Australian film, gives a powerful, impressionistic insight into the feelings of alienation experienced by a teenage albino Aboriginal girl. In a convent boarding school in Alice Springs, she is misunderstood and bullied by a severe, unloving nun. She escapes in dreams and eventually in reality to her mother where she feels at peace.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: By June 2008 killings had been reported in neighboring Kenya and possibly also the Democratic Republic of Congo.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: In October 2008 AFP reported on the further expansion of killings of albinos to the Ruyigi region of Burundi. Body parts of the victims are then smuggled to Tanzania where they are used for witch doctor rituals and potions. Albinos have become "a commercial good", commented Nicodeme Gahimbare in Ruyigi, who established a local safe haven in his fortified house.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Oculocutaneous albinism, OCA2, is the most common gene type of albinism inherited disorders among the Bantu population of southern Africa. It occurs at a frequency of 1:4000. The incidence in Sotho people in northern South Africa is at its highest, with a ratio of 1:1500 in neonates. Albinism is the largest cause of childhood visual impairment in northern South Africa with a frequency of 1:1900 among the black population. Statistics on albinism in South Africa are largely incomplete however, studies quoted by the World Health Organization in 2006 reported that 1:4000 were born with albinism, compared to about 1:20 000 worldwide.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: South African human geneticist Trefor Jenkins has made vast contributions to assist in understanding the social and cultural milieu of albinism, the medical risks and implications, resolving the molecular basis and aetiology for OCA2 in Southern Africa.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Children with albinism in rural areas are exposed to high levels of ultraviolet light without the adequate protective gear resulting in skin damage. Only 12% of public schools provided SPF15 sunscreen for children with albinism. Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck is the most common type of cutaneous tumours in African patients with albinism. Non melanoma cancers, namely basal and squamos cell carcinoma, which are usually rare in black populations are common among the vulnerable group living with albinism. A South African study of 111 participants with OCA revealed that 23%


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: of these participants developed skin cancer with the head area being the most commonly affected site. Many people from rural areas like the Eastern Cape with albinism are unaware of the precautionary measures required to protect their skin. Dr Willie Visser, head of the dermatology division at Stellenbosch University and Tygerberg Hospital, said that while white South Africans presented with skin cancer only after the age of 60, most albinos presented with skin cancer as young as 20. The government health facilities are required to provide sunblock lotion to albinos on a monthly basis however this need is not always met due to stock-outs and lack of knowledge on the part of health workers.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Racial appearance and descent played a key role in the racial classification process during Apartheid. Additionally, different sociological and psychological give skin colour its many connotations. Skin colour is traditionally an instant indicator of identifying race and racial differences. Traditional definitions of race suggest that race and colour are inseparable however, for people with albinism race and colour are not linked. Though colour and race are used interchangeably, they remain independent grounds for discrimination. Individuals living with albinism should be protected against unfair discrimination on the basis of their race as well as their skin tone. Individuals living with albinism are exposed to discrimination, stigmatisation and prejudice based on their colour as well as their race. Skin tone discrimination may be interracial or it can be intraracial. Scott argues that because current classifications of race do not afford people living with albinism adequate protection, a new category of colour should be proposed. Mswela argues that additional divisions and classifications of race will reinforce problems associated with race.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: The difference in appearance in the child with albinism creates socialization and adaption problems. The distinctive phenotypical difference of black (African) people with albinism and the rest of the population group leads to barriers in social integration thus ostracism. South Africans living with albinism are among the most vulnerable in the country and there is hardly a serious attempt to protect these citizens from human rights violations, violent crimes, and threats. The extent of violent crimes for people with albinism is not as high as other African countries however, surges of violent crimes against people with albinism have been noted. Their sensitivity to sunlight, which limits the extent to which they can participate in outdoor activities, contributes to the physical and social isolation of children living with albinism. There has been an obligation and responsibility placed on the government to protect vulnerable people after the constitutional court decision on the "Carmichele v Minister of Safety & Security" case. The litigation in the Carmichele case creates a strategy for bringing a precautionary suit against the state based on the contention that the state has a duty to protect persons with albinism from violent acts. The South African government has designated the month of September as Albinism Awareness month. Thando Hopa is a 24-year-old Public Prosecutor and model living with albinism. She is one of the few black albino models and albinism activists in the world.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Many African communities depend on traditional explanations of albinism rather than the biomedical explanation. This often leads to a negative socialisation of the individual with albinism. People living with albinism are often referred to by derogatory names such as 'inkawu', the Nguni term for white baboon, 'isishawa' a Zulu translation of a person who is cursed as well as 'zeru zeru' which means ghost like.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: Three people were convicted of the murder of 20 year old Thandazile Mpunzi, including her 17 year old boyfriend. The boyfriend lured Mpunzi to an isolated area on the afternoon of 1 August 2015 in the Phelandaba area of Emanguzi in northern KwaZulu-Natal. She was strangled, murdered and dismembered. They planned to sell the body parts of Mpunzi for a fortune. They claimed that a traditional healer told them they would get rich if they mixed Mpunzi's blood and parts with 'muthi'. Two of the accused pleaded guilty of murder and are sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. Numerous accounts of murdered as well as missing people with albinism are reported. The trading of albino body parts has become a lucrative business.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: After events involving murders of albino people by three Tanzanian men had been publicised by the BBC and others, the European Parliament strongly condemned the killing of albinos in Tanzania on 4 September 2008.


title: Persecution of people with albinism

text: The U.S. House of Representatives passed H. Resolution 1088, introduced by Rep. Gerry Connolly (D, VA), by a vote of 418-1 on 22 February 2010. The resolution condemns the attacks and killings; categorizes them as human rights violations, and urges the governments of Tanzania and Burundi to vigorously prosecute such cases and to conduct educational campaigns to combat the superstitious beliefs that underlie the violent attacks.


title: Complication (medicine)

text: A complication in medicine, or medical complication, is an unfavorable result of a disease, health condition, or treatment. Complications may adversely affect the prognosis, or outcome, of a disease. Complications generally involve a worsening in severity of disease or the development of new signs, symptoms, or pathological changes which may become widespread throughout the body and affect other organ systems. Thus, complications may lead to the development of new diseases resulting from a previously existing disease. Complications may also arise as a result of various treatments.


title: Complication (medicine)

text: The development of complications depends on a number of factors, including the degree of vulnerability, susceptibility, age, health status, and immune system condition. Knowledge of the most common and severe complications of a disease, procedure, or treatment allow for prevention and preparation for treatment if they should occur.


title: Complication (medicine)

text: Complications are not to be confused with sequelae, which are residual effects that occur after the acute (initial, most severe) phase of an illness or injury. Sequelae can appear early in the development of disease or weeks to months later and are a result of the initial injury or illness. For example, a scar resulting from a burn or dysphagia resulting from a stroke would be considered sequelae. In addition, complications should not be confused with comorbidities, which are diseases that occur concurrently but have no causative association. Complications are similar to adverse effects, but the latter tern is typically used in pharmacological contexts, or when the negative consequence is expected or common.


title: Complication (medicine)

text: Atrial fibrillation is a type of arrhythmia characterized by rapid and irregular heart rhythms due to irregular atrial activation by the atrioventricular (AV) node. In the pathogenesis of atrial fibrillation, there is no effective pumping of blood into either the pulmonary or systemic circulation from the left ventricle of the heart. The left and right ventricles (lower chambers of the heart) do not fill properly due to the irregular contraction of the left and right atria (upper chambers of the heart).


title: Complication (medicine)

text: A patient with atrial fibrillation may experience symptoms of fatigue, dizziness or lightheadedness, heart palpitations, chest pain, and shortness of breath. The heart does not effectively pump blood into the pulmonary or systemic vasculature, and causes the blood to remain within the chambers of the heart. The collection of blood within the heart due to atrial fibrillation can cause and increase the risk of development of a thrombus (blood clot). The thrombus can also develop into an embolus (mobile blood clot) and travel into the systemic circulation. Atrial fibrillation is associated with an increase in risk of having a stroke especially if the embolus travels to the brain.


title: Complication (medicine)

text: Diabetes mellitus, also known simply as diabetes, is a disorder of the regulation of blood glucose (a common type of sugar) levels. There are two types of chronic diabetes mellitus: type I and type II. Both lead to abnormally high levels of blood glucose as the body is not able to properly absorb the sugar into tissues. Diabetes requires a life-long consistent monitoring of food intake, blood sugar levels, and physical activity. Diabetes mellitus may present a series of complications in an advanced or more severe stage, such as:


title: Complication (medicine)

text: Pregnancy is the development of an embryo or fetus inside the womb of a female for the rough duration of 9 months or 40 weeks from the last menstrual period until birth. It is divided into three trimesters, each lasting for about 3 months. The 1st trimester is when the developing embryo becomes a fetus, organs start to develop, limbs grow, and facial features appear. The 2nd and 3rd trimesters are marked by a significant amount of growth and functional development of the body. During this time, the woman's body undergoes a series of changes and many complications may arise involving either the fetus, the mother, or both.


title: Complication (medicine)

text: Streptococcal pharyngitis, also known as strep throat, is an infection of the respiratory tract caused by group A Strep, "Streptococcus pyogenes", a gram-positive, cocci, beta-hemolytic (lyses blood cells) bacteria. It is primarily spread by direct contact and the transfer of fluids via oral or other secretions and manifests largely in children. Common symptoms associated with streptococcal pharyngitis include sore throat, fever, white excretions at the back of the mouth, and cervical adenopathy (swollen lymph nodes underneath the chin and around the neck area). Streptococcal pharyngitis can lead to various complications and recurrent infection can increase the likelihood. In many of these, lack of treatment and the body's immune response is responsible for the additional adverse reactions. These include:


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: The Congress of the Republic of Peru () is the unicameral body that assumes legislative power in Peru.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Congress' composition is established by Chapter I of Title IV of the Constitution of Peru. Congress is composed of representatives who sit in congressional districts allocated to each region, as well as two special districts, Lima Province and Peruvian citizens living abroad, on a basis of population as measured by the Peruvian Census in multi-member districts. The number of voting representatives is fixed by the Constitution at 130. Pursuant to the 2017 Census, the largest delegation is that of Lima Province, with 36 representatives. Due to broadly interpreted impeachment wording in the 1993 Constitution of Peru, the Congress can impeach the President of Peru without cause, effectively making the legislature more powerful than the executive branch. Corruption is widespread throughout Congress as legislators use their office for parliamentary immunity and other benefits, with the large majority of Peruvians disapproving of Congress and its behavior.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Congress is charged with the responsibility to pass laws and legislative resolutions, as well as to interpret, amend, or repeal existing laws. Congress also ratifies international treaties, approves the national budget, and authorizes loans on behalf of the country. It may also override presidential observations to bills by a vote of more than half the legal number of congressmen. It can also remove government official including the President, consent to the entry of foreign troops into the national territory, and authorize the President to leave the country. Congress meets at the Legislative Palace in Lima.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: The presiding officer is the President of Congress, who is elected by the members thereof (and is therefore traditionally the leader of the controlling party). The President and three vice-presidents are chosen by the controlling governing coalition.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: The first Peruvian Congress was installed in 1822 as the Constitutional Congress led by Francisco Xavier de Luna Pizarro. In 1829, the government installed a bicameral Congress, made up by a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. This system was interrupted by a number of times by Constitutional Congresses that promulgated new Constitutions that lasted for a couple of years. The Deputies reunited in the Legislative Palace and the Senators went to the former Peruvian Inquisition of Lima until 1930, when Augusto B. Leguía was overthrown by Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro. He installed a Constitutional Congress (1931–1933) that promulgated the Constitution of 1933. By order of the president, the Peruvian Aprista Party members that were in Congress were arrested for their revolutionary doctrines against the government. When Sánchez Cerro was assassinated in 1933 by an APRA member, General Óscar R. Benavides took power and closed Congress until 1939, when Manuel Prado Ugarteche was elected president. During various dictatorships, the Congress was interrupted by coups d'état. In 1968, Juan Velasco Alvarado overthrew president Fernando Belaúnde by a coup d'état, closing again the Congress.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: The 1979 Constitution was promulgated on 12 July 1979 by the Constitutional Assembly elected following 10 years of military rule and replaced the suspended 1933 Constitution. It became effective in 1980 with the re-election of deposed President Fernando Belaúnde. It limited the president to a single five-year term and established a bicameral legislature consisting of a 60-member Senate (upper house) and a 180-member Chamber of Deputies (lower house). Members of both chambers were elected for five-year terms, running concurrently with that of the president. Party-list proportional representation was used for both chambers: on a regional basis for the Senate, and using the D'Hondt method for the lower house. Members of both houses had to be Peruvian citizens, with a minimum age of 25 for deputies and 35 for senators. At the beginning of the 1990s, the bicameral congress had a low public approval rating. President Alberto Fujimori did not have the majority in both chambers, the opposition led the Congress, impeding the power that Fujimori had as president. He made the decision of dissolving Congress by a self-coup to his government in 1992.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Following the self-coup, in which Congress was dissolved, the Democratic Constitutional Congress established a single chamber of 120 members. The Democratic Constitutional Congress promulgated the 1993 Constitution in which gave more power to the President. The new unicameral Congress started working in 1995, dominated by Fujimori's Congressmen that had the majority. The Congress permits a one-year term for a Congressman or Congresswoman to become President of Congress.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: During the presidencies of Ollanta Humala, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and Martín Vizcarra, the right-wing Congress led by the daughter of the former Peruvian dictator Alberto Fujimori, Keiko Fujimori, obstructed much of the actions performed by the presidents. According to Walter Albán, head of Transparency International Peru, the Congress of Peru has recently been infiltrated by criminal groups that obstruct reforms in order to maintain their status and parliamentary immunity.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: The 2016-2021 congressional term was dissolved by President Martín Vizcarra in September 2019, triggering the 2019–2020 Peruvian constitutional crisis. Vizcarra issued a decree that set snap elections for 26 January 2020. The representatives served out the remainder of the original legislative term, which expired in July 2021.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: On 26 July 2021, the new and current Congress was sworn in, with an alliance led by Popular Action member María del Carmen Alva successfully gaining control of Peru's Congress.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: On 7 December 2022, the President of Peru attempted to dissolve the congress, however in reaction, he was impeached and removed by congress. At the time, Congress had its lowest approval rating, with less than 10% of Peruvians approving of the legislative body.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Article 90 of the Peruvian Constitution sets three qualifications for congressmen: (1) they must be natural-born citizens; (2) they must be at least 25 years old; (3) they must be an eligible voter. Candidates for president cannot simultaneously run for congress while vice-presidential candidates can.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Furthermore, Article 91 states that high-ranking government officers and any member of the armed forces or national police can only become congressmen six months after leaving their post.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Congressmen serve for a five-year term and can be re-elected indefinitely even though this is very rare. Elections for congress happen simultaneously as the election for president. Seats in congress are assigned to each region in proportion to the region's population. Congressional elections take place in April.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: The D'Hondt method, a party-list proportional representation system, is used to allocate seats in congress. Political parties publish their party list for each region ahead of the election. Candidates do not need to be members of the political party they run for but may run for such party as a guest. Each candidate is assigned a number within the list. The citizenry thus votes for the party of their preference directly. Additionally, voters may write two specific candidates' number on the ballot as their personal preference.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Congressmen may not be tried or arrested without prior authorization from Congress from the time of their election until a month after the end of their term.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Congressmen must follow the Congress' code of ethics which is part of its self-established Standing Rules of Congress. "La Comisión de Ética Parlamentaria", or Parliamentary Ethics Committee, is in charge of enforcing the code and punishing violators. Discipline consist of (a) private, written admonishments; (b) public admonishments through a Congressional resolution; (c) suspension from three to 120 days from their legislative functions.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Any congressmen may lose their parliamentary immunity if authorized by Congress. The process is started by the Criminal Sector of the Supreme Court who presents the case to the Presidency of Congress. The case is then referred to a special committee of 15 congressmen known as "Comisión de Levantamiento de Inmunidad Parlamentaria", or Committee on Lifting Parliamentary Immunity, that decides if the petition should be heard by the body as a whole. The accused congressmen has the right to a lawyer and to defend himself before the committee and before the Plenary Assembly. The final decision is then communicated back to the Supreme Court.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Every congressman receives a monthly salary of 15,600 Peruvian soles (approximately US$4,000). They further receive 7,617 Peruvian soles (approximately $2,100) for congressional function expenses and 2,530 Peruvian soles (approximately $700) for congressional representation week expenses to support them in their official and representational duties to their district. Each congressman further receives a 33,027 Peruvian soles (approximately $9,000) personnel allowance. Congressman also receive a one-time extra monthly salary before the beginning of their term, known as an installation expenses allowance.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: The most important officer is the President of Congress who is fourth in line of presidential succession if both the President and both vice-presidents are incapable of assuming the role. The President of Congress can only serve as interim president as he is required to call new elections if all three executive officers are not incapable of serving. This has happened once since the adoption of the current constitution when Valentín Paniagua became the interim president after the fall of the Alberto Fujimori regime in 2000.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: The President of Congress is elected for a one-year term by the rest of Congress. Re-election is possible but uncommon. The President of Congress is almost always from the majority party. Its most important responsibility is to control and guide debate in Congress. He also signs, communicates and publishes bills and other decisions made by Congress. He may delegate any of these responsibilities to one of the vice-presidents of Congress.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: The president serves along three vice-presidents who are collectively known as "Mesa Directiva del Congreso", known as the Bureau in English. The three vice-presidents are not always from the same party as the president. The Bureau approves all administrative functions as well as all of Congress' internal financial policy and hiring needs. Any member of the Bureau may be censored by any member of Congress.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: "El Consejo Directivo", or Executive Council, consists of the four members of the Bureau as well as representatives from each political party in Congress which are known as Executive-Spokespersons. Its composition is directly proportional to the number of seats each party holds in Congress. The council has administrative and legislative responsibilities. Similar to the United States House Committee on Rules, it sets the calendar for the Plenary Assembly and fixes floor time for debating calendar items.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Each political party in Congress chooses a Spokesperson who acts as the party leader and is a member of the Board of Spokespersons alongside the members of the Bureau. The Board of Spokespersons main role deals with committee assignments as well as the flow of bills from the committees to the Plenary Assembly.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: La Oficialía Mayor, or Secretariat General, is the body of personnel led by the Secretary-General. It is responsible for assisting all members of Congress with daily managerial tasks. The Secretary-General is chosen and serves under the direction of the Bureau and Executive Council.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Standing Committees are in charge of the study and report of routine business of the calendar, especially in the legislative and oversight function. The President of Congress, in coordination with Parliamentary Groups or upon consultation with the Executive Council, proposes the number of Standing Committees. Each party is allocated seats on committees in proportion to its overall strength.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Most committee work is performed by 24 standing committees. They examine matters within their jurisdiction of the corresponding government departments and ministries. They may also impede bills from reaching the Plenary Assembly.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Investigative committee are in charge of investigating a specific topic as directed by Article 97 of the Constitution. Appearances before investigative committees are compulsory, under the same requirements as judicial proceedings. Investigative committee have the power to access any information necessary, including non-intrusive private information such as tax filings and bank financial statements. Investigative committees final reports are non-binding to judicial bodies.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Special committees are set up for ceremonial purposes or for the realization of special study or joint work with other government organizations or amongst congressional committees. They disband after they fulfill their assigned tasks.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: The Permanent Assembly, or "Comisión Permanente", fulfills the basic functions of Congress when it is under recess or break. It is not dissolved even if Congress is dissolved by the President. It also fulfills some Constitutional functions while Congress is in session similar to what an upper-chamber would. It has the responsibility of appointing high-ranking government officers and commencing the removal process of them as well as the heads of the two other branches of government. The Plenary Assembly may assign this committee special responsibilities excluding constitutional reform measures, approval of international treaties, organic acts, the budget, and the General Account of the Republic Act.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: The Assembly consist of twenty-five percent of the total number of congressmen elected proportionally to the number of seats each party holds in Congress. They are installed within the first 15 days of the first session of Congress' term.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Congressmen must follow the Congress' code of ethics which is part of its self-established Standing Rules of Congress. "La Comisión de Ética Parlamentaria", or Parliamentary Ethics Committee, is in charge of enforcing the code and punishing violators. Discipline consists of (a) private, written admonishments; (b) public admonishments through a Congressional resolution; (c) suspension from 3 to 120 days from their legislative functions.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Article 102 of the Peruvian Constitution delineated ten specific functions of Congress which deal with both its legislative power as well as its role as a check and a balance to the other branches of government:


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: After widespread protests the previous year, the 2021 election saw a surge in support for the new left-wing Free Peru, which also won the presidential election with Pedro Castillo on the same day. However, a coalition of right-wing parties holds the majority of Congress and have been strongly opposed to President Castillo. The Fujimorist Popular Force, that had dominated the legislature during the reign of Keiko Fujimori, regained 9 seats from their poor performance in the 2020 election, making them the second largest party, while the new far-right Popular Renewal party also gained 13 seats while the conservative Go on Country won 7 seats. The previously dominant center-right parties Popular Action and Alliance for Progress both lost some seats. The new or previously minor parties that has gained ground in the 2020 election, Purple Party, We Are Peru and Podemos Perú also all lost seats, while the Ethnocacerist Union for Peru, leftist Broad Front and Agrarian Agricultural People's Front all failed to win any seats. Contigo, the successor to former president Pedro Pablo Kuczynski's Peruvians for Change party, also failed to win a seat and continued its downwards trend of the previous election, receiving only around 0.05% of the vote.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Peruvian expresident Martín Vizcarra proposed a series of political reforms as a response to the CNM audios scandal during his Independence Day message on 28 July 2018. One of his proposals was the establishment of a bicameral legislature similar to the one that existed in Peru before the 1993 Constitution.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Congress passed a version of Vizcarra's bicameralism proposal on 3 October 2018. Legislators were to be elected by direct elections similar to the ones held now for Congress for a period of five years. The presidency of Congress would alternate annually between the presidency of each one of the Chambers. Each chamber would take on special duties and responsibilities unique to their chamber. The Senate would approve treaties, authorize the mobilization of foreign troops into the national territory, and have the final say on accusations of high-ranking officials made by the Chamber of Deputies. The Chamber of Deputies would approve the budget, delegate legislative faculties to the executive, and conduct investigations. The proposal was modified by the Popular Force majority in Congress to weaken the power of the presidency and President Vizcarra quickly withdrew his support for creating a bicameral congress.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: A referendum on the bicameralism proposal, as well as three other constitutional amendment proposals, was held on 9 December 2018. The bicameralism proposal was rejected by 90.52% of the voters as consequence of Vizcarra withdrawal of support for the proposal.


title: Congress of the Republic of Peru

text: Congressman Omar Chehade presented a new bicameralism constitutional amendment in November 2020 which has so far not been approved by Congress.


title: Portable toilet

text: A portable or mobile toilet (colloquial terms: thunderbox, portaloo, porta-john or porta-potty) is any type of toilet that can be moved around, some by one person, some by mechanical equipment such as a truck and crane. Most types do not require any pre-existing services or infrastructure, such as sewerage, but are completely self-contained. The portable toilet is used in a variety of situations, for example in urban slums of developing countries, at festivals, for camping, on boats, on construction sites, and at film locations and large outdoor gatherings where there are no other facilities. Most portable toilets are unisex single units with privacy ensured by a simple lock on the door. Some portable toilets are small molded plastic or fiberglass portable rooms with a lockable door and a receptacle to catch the human excreta in a container.


title: Portable toilet

text: A portable toilet is not connected to a hole in the ground (like a pit latrine), nor to a septic tank, nor is it plumbed into a municipal system leading to a sewage treatment plant. The chemical toilet is probably the most well-known type of portable toilet, but other types also exist, such as urine-diversion dehydration toilets, composting toilets, container-based toilets, bucket toilets, freezing toilets and incineration toilets. A bucket toilet is a very simple type of portable toilet.


title: Portable toilet

text: A chemical toilet collects human excreta in a holding tank and uses chemicals to minimize the odors. These chemicals may either mask the odor or contain biocides that hinder odor-causing bacteria from multiplying, keeping the smell to a minimum. Chemical toilets include those on plane and trains (although many of these are now vacuum toilets), as well as much simpler ones.


title: Portable toilet

text: A simpler type of portable toilet may be used in travel trailers (caravans, camper vans) and on small boats. They are also referred to as "cassette toilet" or "camping toilet", or under brand names that have become generic trademarks. The "Oxford English Dictionary" lists "Porta Potti" ("with arbitrary respelling") as "A proprietary name for: a portable chemical toilet, as used by campers", and gives mostly American examples from 1968. The OED gives this proprietary name a second meaning, "a small prefabricated unit containing a toilet, designed for easy transportation and temporary installation esp. outdoors", which Wikipedia covers under chemical toilet.