title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: A similar breadth of diverse views is present in Vaishnava Agamas as well. The Agama texts of Shaiva and Vaishnava schools are premised on existence of Atman (soul, self) and the existence of an Ultimate Reality (Brahman – called Shiva in Shaivism, and Vishnu in Vaishnavism). The texts differ in the relation between the two. Some assert the dualistic philosophy of the individual soul and Ultimate Reality being different, while others state a Oneness between the two. Kashmir Shaiva Agamas posit absolute oneness, that is God (Shiva) is within man, God is within every being, God is present everywhere in the world including all non-living beings, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and God. The parallel group among Vaishnavas are the Shuddhadvaitins (pure Advaitins).


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: Scholars from both schools have written treatises ranging from dualism to monism. For example, Shivagrayogin has emphasized the non-difference or unity of being (between the Atman and Shivam), which is realized through stages which include rituals, conduct, personal discipline and the insight of spiritual knowledge. This bears a striking similarity, states Soni, to Shankara, Madhva and Ramanujan Vedantic discussions.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The Vedas and Upanishads are common scriptures of Hinduism, states Dhavamony, while the Agamas are sacred texts of specific sects of Hinduism. The surviving Vedic literature can be traced to the 1st millennium BCE and earlier, while the surviving Agamas can be traced to 1st millennium of the common era. The Vedic literature, in Shaivism, is primary and general, while Agamas are special treatise. In terms of philosophy and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Dhavamony, will be acceptable to the Shaivas. Similarly, the Vaishnavas treat the Vedas along with the Bhagavad Gita as the main scripture, and the Samhitas (Agamas) as exegetical and exposition of the philosophy and spiritual precepts therein. The Shaktas have a similar reverence for the Vedic literature and view the Tantras (Agamas) as the fifth Veda.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The heritage of the Agamas, states Krishna Shivaraman, was the "Vedic piety maturing in the monism of the Upanishads presenting the ultimate spiritual reality as Brahman and the way to realizing as portrayed in the Gita".


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The Shaiva Agamas are found in four main schools: Kapala, Kalamukha, Pashupata and Shaiva, and number 28 in total as follows:


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The Shaiva Agamas led to the Shaiva Siddhanta philosophy in Tamil-speaking regions of South-India, which arose from Kashmir Saivism in the Upmost North-Indian region of Kashmir Valley.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The Agamas of Kashmiri Shaivism is also called the Trika Shastra. It centers mainly on the Trika system of mAlinI, siddha and nAmaka Agamas and venerates the triad Shiva, Shakti, Nara (the bound soul) and the union of Shiva with Shakti. The trika philosophy derives its name from the three shaktis, namely, parA, aparA and parApara; and provides three modes of knowledge of reality, that is, non-dual ("abheda"), non-dual-cum-dual ("bhedabheda") and dual ("bheda"). The literature of Kashmiri Shaivism is divided under three categories: Agama shastra, Spanda shastra, and Pratyabhijna shastra. Although the Trika Shastra in the form of Agama Shastra is said to have existed eternally, the founder of the system is considered Vasugupta (850 AD) to whom the Shiva Sutras were revealed. Kallata in Spanda-vritti and Kshemaraja in his commentary Vimarshini state Shiva revealed the secret doctrines to Vasugupta while Bhaskara in his Varttika says a Siddha revealed the doctrines to Vasugupta in a dream.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The Shakta Agamas are commonly known as Tantras, and they are imbued with reverence for the feminine, representing goddess as the focus and treating the female as equal and essential part of the cosmic existence. The feminine "Shakti" (literally, energy and power) concept is found in the Vedic literature, but it flowers into extensive textual details only in the Shakta Agamas. These texts emphasize the feminine as the creative aspect of a male divinity, cosmogonic power and all pervasive divine essence. The theosophy, states Rita Sherma, presents the masculine and feminine principle in a "state of primordial, transcendent, blissful unity". The feminine is the will, the knowing and the activity, she is not only the matrix of creation, she is creation. Unified with the male principle, in these Hindu sect's Tantra texts, the female is the Absolute.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The Shakta Agamas are related to the Shaiva Agamas, with their respective focus on Shakti with Shiva in Shakta Tantra and on Shiva in Shaiva texts. DasGupta states that the Shiva and Shakti are "two aspects of the same truth – static and dynamic, transcendent and immanent, male and female", and neither is real without the other, Shiva's dynamic power is Shakti and she has no existence without him, she is the highest truth and he the manifested essence.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The Shakta Agamas or Shakta tantras are 64 in number. Some of the older Tantra texts in this genre are called "Yamalas", which literally denotes, states Teun Goudriaan, the "primeval blissful state of non-duality of Shiva and Shakti, the ultimate goal for the Tantric Sadhaka".


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The Vaishnava Agamas are found into two main schoolsPancharatra and Vaikhanasas. While Vaikhanasa Agamas were transmitted from Vikhanasa Rishi to his disciples Brighu, Marichi, Atri and Kashyapa, the Pancharatra Agamas are classified into three: "Divya" (from Vishnu), "Munibhaashita" (from Muni, sages), and "Aaptamanujaprokta" (from sayings of trustworthy men).


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: Maharishi Vikhanasa is considered to have guided in the compilation of a set of Agamas named Vaikhānasa Agama. Sage Vikhanasa is conceptualized as a mind-born creation, i.e., "Maanaseeka Utbhavar" of Lord Narayana. Originally Vikhanasa passed on the knowledge to nine disciples in the first manvantara -- Atri, Bhrigu, Marichi, Kashyapa, Vasishta, Pulaha, Pulasthya, Krathu and Angiras. However, only those of Bhrigu, Marichi, Kashyapa and Atri are extant today. The four rishis are said to have received the cult and knowledge of Vishnu from the first Vikahansa, i.e., the older Brahma in the Svayambhuva Manvanthara. Thus, the four sages Atri, Bhrigu, Marichi, Kashyapa, are considered the propagators of vaikhānasa śāstra. A composition of Sage Vikhanasa's disciple Marichi, namely, Ananda-Samhita states Vikhanasa prepared the Vaikhanasa Sutra according to a branch of Yajurveda and was Brahma himself.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The extant texts of vaikhānasa Agama number 28 in total and are known from the texts, vimānārcakakalpa and ānanda saṃhitā, both composed by marīci which enumerate them. They are:


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The 13 Adhikaras authored by Bhrigu are khilatantra, purātantra, vāsādhikāra, citrādhikāra, mānādhikāra, kriyādhikāra, arcanādhikāra, yajnādhikāra, varṇādhikāra, prakīrnṇādhikāra, pratigrṛhyādhikāra, niruktādhikāra, khilādhikāra. However, ānanda saṃhitā attributes ten works to Bhrigu, namely, khila, khilādhikāra, purādhikāra, vāsādhikāraṇa, arcanādhikaraṇa, mānādhikaraṇa, kriyādhikāra, niruktādhikāra, prakīrnṇādhikāra, yajnādhikāra.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The 8 Samhitas authored by Mareechi are Jaya saṃhitā, Ananda saṃhitā, Saṃjnāna saṃhitā, Vīra saṃhitā, Vijaya saṃhitā, Vijita saṃhitā, Vimala saṃhitā, Jnāna saṃhitā. However, ānanda saṃhitā attributes the following works to Marichi—jaya saṃhitā, ānanda saṃhitā, saṃjnāna saṃhitā, vīra saṃhitā, vijaya saṃhitā, vijita saṃhitā, vimala saṃhitā, kalpa saṃhitā.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The 3 Kandas authored by Kashyapa are Satyakāṇḍa, Tarkakāṇḍa, Jnānakāṇḍa. However, Ananda Saṃhitā attributes the satyakāṇḍa, karmakāṇḍa and jnānakāṇḍa to Kashyapa.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The 4 tantras authored by Atri are Pūrvatantra, Atreyatantra, Viṣṇutantra, Uttaratantra. However, Ananda Saṃhitā attributes the pūrvatantra, viṣṇutantra, uttaratantra and mahātantra to Atri.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: Like the Vaikhanasa Agama, the Pancharatra Agama, the Viswanatha Agama is centered around the worship of Lord Vishnu. While the Vaikhansa deals primarily with Vaidhi Bhakti, the Pancharatra Agama teaches both vaidhi and Raganuga bhakti.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The Soura or Saura Agamas comprise one of the six popular agama-based religions of Shaiva, Vaishnava, Shakta, Ganapatya, Kaumara and Soura. The Saura Tantras are dedicated to the sun (Surya) and Soura Agamas are in use in temples of Sun worship.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The Paramanada Tantra mentions the number of sectarian tantras as 6000 for Vaishnava, 10000 for Shaiva, 100000 for Shakta, 1000 for Ganapatya, 2000 for Saura, 7000 for Bhairava, and 2000 for Yaksha-bhutadi-sadhana.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: The chronology and history of Agama texts is unclear. The surviving Agama texts were likely composed in the 1st millennium CE, likely existed by the 5th century CE. However, scholars such as Ramanan refer to the archaic prosody and linguistic evidence to assert that the beginning of the Agama literature goes back to about 5th century BCE, in the decades after the death of Buddha.


title: Agama (Hinduism)

text: Temple and archaeological inscriptions, as well as textual evidence, suggest that the Agama texts were in existence by the 7th century in the Pallava dynasty era. However, Richard Davis notes that the ancient Agamas "are not necessarily the Agamas that survive in modern times". The texts have gone through revision over time.


title: Scarra

text: William Li (born November 25, 1989), better known as Scarra, is an American Twitch streamer and former professional "League of Legends" player. He is most well known for being the mid laner for Team Dignitas. Li is a co-founder of OfflineTV, an online social entertainment group of content creators.


title: Scarra

text: Li started playing "League of Legends" after its official release. He started to get attention from Locust which he knew from "World of Warcraft". He, Rambo, Th3Rat, Naryt, Voyboy and Araragi together created a team to compete in 2010 Newegg Winter Winfest tournament but lost in the tournament.


title: Scarra

text: Li signed with Team Dignitas prior to the start of the inaugural League of Legends Championship Series season.


title: Scarra

text: On October 9, 2011, Li and his team defeated Epik Gamer 2–1 in the IGN Proleague Season 3 - Atlantic City.


title: Scarra

text: Li was able to place third in the IEM Season VI - Global Challenge Kyiv but was defeated in the semifinals.


title: Scarra

text: At the LoLPro.com Curse Invitational in San Francisco, Scarra and Team Dignitas took the grand prize of $20,000.


title: Scarra

text: While on the way back to the United States, Li attended IGN Proleague Season 4 - Las Vegas on April 6, 2012. His team was able to defeat Monomaniac 2-1 and Counter Logic Gaming Prime, 2–1 in the second round. Team Dignitas fell short 2–1 against Team SoloMid and were ultimately eliminated by Counter Logic Gaming Prime 2–0.


title: Scarra

text: On June 6, 2012, Li attended the MLG Pro Circuit - Spring Championship with a newly reformed Dignitas, having Voyboy be replaced by Crumbzz. Scarra and Team Dignitas defeated Team Green Forest, Team Dynamic, and Counter Logic Gaming Prime. They lost to Team SoloMid, which they encountered Counter Logic Gaming Prime and lost 2–0, taking home third place.


title: Scarra

text: Li and Team Dignitas participated in 2012 MLG Summer Championship. They originally finished second place in the tournament, but would later be disqualified after MLG determined that there was collusion between Dignitas and the first place team, Curse NA. At the Season Two North American Regionals, they also finished second, losing to Team SoloMid in the finals.


title: Scarra

text: The Season 3 LCS Spring Playoffs took place in April, with Li and his team were sent to the relegation at the Season 3 LCS Summer Promotion. Team Dignitas was able to defeat Team Summon 3-1 and ensure their spot in the summer season.


title: Scarra

text: His team also competed in the 2013 MLG Winter Championship. They went against Gambit Gaming, but lost 2–0.


title: Scarra

text: In April 2013, Li was publicly voted as the NA LCS mid-lane All-Star, which allowed him to play for the North America LCS team and compete in All-Star Shanghai 2013. They lost against China LPL, 2–0. They went on to win against Europe LCS by 2–0. After winning against Europe LCS, they went on to play against Korean OGN Champions and lost 2–0.


title: Scarra

text: On December 10, CLG was fined $10,000 by Riot for poaching Li from Dignitas. Additionally, Scarra would be banned from serving the position of being CLG's head coach for the first three weeks of the spring LCS. Scarra played for CLG Black in the summer season qualifier, but after defeating Maelstrom, they were forced to substituted out AD carry Stixxay for Frost and then lost to both Cloud9 Tempest and Magnetic, missing out on the NACS summer season.


title: Scarra

text: Following his retirement from the League of Legends Championship series, Li made his return to Twitch as a full-time content creator. In June 2017, Li joined Echo Fox's League of Legends Challenger Series team Delta Fox as a midlaner. He would leave two months later, joining Meme Stream Dream Team, a team formed by Delta Fox's former roster. The Dream Team played in three exhibition tournaments: The Tyler1 Championship Series in 2017 and 2018 along with a "showmatch" at the 2018 NA LCS finals.


title: Scarra

text: In July 2017, he and his then-manager, Chris Chan, founded OfflineTV, an online social entertainment group based in Los Angeles, California. Speaking on the origins of the group, Li stated "I think I just wanted to live with friends. That was the origin of it. I wanted to live with people and make cool stuff with other people. It was myself and my manager Chris who started this idea. It just led to where it is today. I can’t say that there was a formula we followed. We faced a lot of problems along the way. However, thanks to these problems, I feel like we came out stronger.


title: Scarra

text: In 2019, Li was one of the most watched Teamfight Tactics streamers following the game's release in June, averaging 7,000 viewers. He also completed a streaming challenge where he streamed every day for the entire year.


title: Shpongle

text: Shpongle is a psychedelic electronic music project from England that formed in 1996. The group includes Hallucinogen and Raja Ram (one of three in The Infinity Project). The duo are considered to be one of the progenitors of the psybient genre - a genre combining world music with psychedelic trance and ambient. Their musical style combines traditional music from all over the world and vocals with contemporary western synthesizer-based psychedelic music. When asked to describe Shpongle's music, Posford has responded that it is "like nothing you've ever heard before."


title: Shpongle

text: Shpongle's first track, "Vapour Rumours", was released on TIP Records' "Infinite Excursions" compilation in 1996. Their debut album, "Are You Shpongled?", was released in 1998 on Twisted Records. On 9 September 2014, Posford confirmed beginning work on a sixth album, which was released as "Codex VI" on October 23, 2017. On 3 October, even before the release of "Codex VI", the duo announced via a Facebook video that they have begun working on their seventh studio album.


title: Shpongle

text: Since June 30, the duo have also been releasing remasters of their previous albums, focussing on releasing special edition vinyl records.


title: Shpongle

text: Posford is generally responsible for the synthesizers, studio work, and live instrumentation, while Raja Ram contributes broad musical concepts and flute arrangements. Raja Ram stated in an interview that "Shpongle" is an umbrella term for feeling positive and euphoric emotions. Shpongle's music is heavily influenced by psychedelic experiences and frequently makes use of sonic textures that approximate psychedelic states as well as vocal samples relating to consciousness expansion, hallucinations, and altered states of awareness. For example, the track "A New Way to Say 'Hooray'" contains a vocal sample of Terence McKenna describing the effects of DMT.


title: Shpongle

text: Shpongle has played several live concerts, and Simon Posford tours frequently, performing live DJ sets. Raja Ram has occasionally accompanied these sets with live flute performances. Shpongle's first live performance was at the Solstice Music Festival at Motosu Highland in Japan in July 2001. They returned to Japan on New Year's Eve 2003 to play the New Maps of Hyperspace event at Tokyo Bay NK Hall together with 1200 Micrograms (featuring Raja Ram) and Hallucinogen.


title: Shpongle

text: Prior to the release of their fourth album Shpongle played a sold out live concert at The Roundhouse venue in Chalk Farm, North London on 31 October 2008. The band featured Andy Gangadeen (drums), Nogera (percussion), Chris Taylor (bass), Pete Callard (guitar), Harry Escott (cello), and Dick Trevor (keyboards and programming); Michele Adamson and Hari Om (voices), three dancers, and for one song only ("Nothing is Something Worth Doing") Manu Delago on hand pan.


title: Shpongle

text: This was followed on 20 December 2008 by a concert in Moscow featuring the same lineup. Shows were also planned for 7 and 9 March 2009 in Sydney and Melbourne, Australia, but these were cancelled due to non-payment of the deposit by the promoters.


title: Shpongle

text: In 2009, Shpongle played a headlining date at the Ozora Festival held near Ozora, Hungary on 15 August; Shpongle also played a latenight DJ set at Rothbury Festival in Rothbury, Michigan over Fourth of July weekend and two album launch shows at the Roundhouse on 30 and 31 October. The duo returned to Moscow to play at Milk on 12 December 2009.


title: Shpongle

text: On 3 August 2010, they opened the Ozora festival in Hungary. This was their tenth documented live performance.


title: Shpongle

text: In January 2011, Shpongle toured Australia, playing dates at the Forum Theatre in Melbourne, the Enmore Theatre in Sydney, and headlining the Rainbow Serpent Festival in Victoria, Australia.


title: Shpongle

text: New unreleased material from the forthcoming album was incorporated in the 2011 tour, the Shpongletron Experience. The tour featured the Shpongletron, designed by visual artist Zebbler. The Shpongletron included a DJ booth and multiple custom-made, video-mapped projection surfaces.


title: Shpongle

text: "Shpongle Live" performed at Camp Bisco X on 8 July 2011 in Mariaville, New York. This was Shpongle's first ever performance as a full ensemble in the United States and was greatly received by fans and newcomers alike. The band also performed two sold-out American shows on Halloween weekend in 2011, playing at the Hammerstein Ballroom in


title: Shpongle

text: New York City on 28 October, and at the Fox Oakland Theater in Oakland, California on 29 October. They debuted the first track from "Museum of Consciousness", called "Brain in a Fish Tank," on 28 October 2011.


title: Shpongle

text: For 2012, Shpongle toured the United States performing DJ sets entitled "Shpongle presents The Masquerade". The last set of this tour was performed on 31 October 2012, at Terminal West in Atlanta, Georgia. On 3 November, they performed with Younger Brother, Hallucinogen, and other Twisted Records artists. Their set included live keyboards and flute, and debuted many new tracks from their most recent album.


title: Shpongle

text: After the ceremony in 2010, on 6 August 2013 Shpongle is once again opening O.Z.O.R.A. Festival with a world premier concert for their new material called "Museum of Consciousness" (2013).


title: Shpongle

text: Oct. 2013 full band live in London at the Troxy. The show was filmed and is available on DVD, released in 2015.


title: Shpongle

text: Shpongle played live with a full 12 piece band at Red Rocks Amphitheater in Morrison, Colorado, on 10 May 2014. The concert was filmed, and released on 23 October 2015 as Shpongle - Live at Red Rocks.


title: Shpongle

text: On 19 November 2014, it was announced via social media that Shpongle would once again begin touring in the United States throughout early 2015, featuring Phutureprimitive as special guest, the return of "Shpongletron 3.1," and with visuals by Zebbler.


title: Shpongle

text: On 21 September 2018, Shpongle announced their last full public concerts, two consecutive nights at Red Rocks Amphitheatre on 3/4 May 2019:


title: Shpongle

text: Although this is their last full public concert, Shpongle will continue to enchant and delight with future studio recordings and album releases, with some Shpongle 7 productions receiving their world premieres at this performance.


title: Richard Lumsden

text: Richard James Lumsden (born 24 June 1965) is an English actor, writer, composer and musician. He has made regular appearances on TV and film throughout his career. Notable series include Channel 4's Emmy-award winning "Sugar Rush", "Is it Legal, Wonderful You" and "The Singapore Grip". He played Ray in Radio 4’s long-running comedy "Clare in the Community".


title: Richard Lumsden

text: Lumsden's early television work includes Foggy in two series of "First of the Summer Wine", Nutter in "The Sharp End, Waterfront Beat, One Foot In The Grave, Brittas Empire, Nelson’s Column, Grace and Favour, Coogan’s Run - Death Of A Salesman," and "Hornblower."


title: Richard Lumsden

text: He played Colin in three series of Simon Nye's "Is it Legal?", Henry in "Wonderful You", Charles in "All About Me", Roger in "The House That Jack Built", as well as episodes of "Dangerfield, People Like Us", "Hardware, Love Soup, The Croydon Poisonings." Nathan in two series of "Sugar Rush", and appearances in "Party Animals, Suburban Shootout, Dis/connected, U Be Dead," and "Free Agents." He appeared as Martin in series three of "The Catherine Tate Show", and Arnold, an ex-boyfriend of Clare Bates in "EastEnders".


title: Richard Lumsden

text: Other tv shows include; "Grown Ups, Summer In Transylvania, Garrow’s Law," two series of "The Impressions Show", three series of "Life Of Riley", "Vexed, Midsommer Murders, Rebecca Front’s Little Cracker, By Any Means, All At Sea," as well as sixteen appearances as different characters in "Holby City, Casualty" and "Doctors", all for the BBC.


title: Richard Lumsden

text: More recent TV work includes "Remember Me, Trollied, Father Brown," three series as Tony in BBC’s "Millie In Between, Crazyhead, Doc Marten, Shakespeare and Hathaway". He played General Percival in ITV’s WW2 drama "The Singapore Grip" filmed in Malaysia, and Taylor Lawson in series 25 of "Silent Witness."


title: Richard Lumsden

text: Lumsden played Robert Ferrars in Ang Lee’s "Sense and Sensibility". He also appeared in "The Avengers", "Room To Rent", "Silent Cry", "Gospel of John", "Attila The Hun, City Slacker, ("for which he also composed the music) and Ben Wheatley’s "Sightseers".


title: Richard Lumsden

text: In 2014, Lumsden starred in the independent British feature film "Downhill", directed by James Rouse, a comedy about four friends attempting Alfred Wainwright's Coast to Coast Walk. He played Ballested in Jan Vardoen’s "Heart Of Lightness," shot in Norway’s Arctic Circle, and General Ismay in Joe Wright’s "Darkest Hour" (2016).


title: Richard Lumsden

text: Most recently Lumsden starred as Paul in Brook Driver & Finn Bruce’s debut feature film "Swede Caroline", alongside Jo Hartley & Celyn Jones, due for release in 2022/23.


title: Richard Lumsden

text: Notable theatre work includes: "White Teeth" (Kiln, 2018), "It’s All Made Up" (Royal Court, 2017), Cartwright (Telegin) in Chekhov's "Uncle Vanya" for director Robert Icke (also providing the on-stage musical accompaniment, 2016). and Mr Webb in David Cromer’s internationally celebrated production of "Our Town" (2014), both at the Almeida in London.


title: Richard Lumsden

text: He performed his own one–man musical play "We Could Be Heroes" at the Bridewell Theatre, 2004, later transferring to the Mill Theatre, Yvonne Arnaud in Guildford and the Arts Theatre, West End. His repertory theatre work at Stoke-on-Trent and Basingstoke includes the title roles in "Hamlet" and "Master Harold & The Boys", and productions of "As You Like It", "King Lear", "A Trip To Scarborough", "Amadeus", "Juno and the Paycock", "Far From The Madding Crowd" and "Having A Ball". He played Roche in "Rat in the Skull" at Theater Exchange, Minneapolis USA, and John Thorpe in "Northanger Abbey" at Greenwich.


title: Richard Lumsden

text: His writing work includes a seven-hour drama "Wonderful You" for ITV (co-written with Chris Niel), in which he also starred, a one-man musical "We Can Be Heroes" which he performed in London, and five verse plays for BBC Radio 4: "John Dodd Gets Taken for a Ride" (shortlisted for the BBC / Society of Authors’ Imison award for new writing), "A Good Place For Fishing" which starred Anne Reid, and "Man in the Moon, with" Tom Courtenay (shortlisted for the BBC/ Society of Authors’ Tinniswood award) and "A Book By Lester Tricklebank" (with Stephen Tompkinson). Readings of his play "Skeletons" have taken place at Soho Theatre and Leicester Square Theatre.


title: Richard Lumsden

text: Hs debut novel "The Six Loves of Billy Binns," was published by Tinder Press In January 2019. He had previously adapted his story for Radio 4 under the same title, also starring Tom Courtenay.


title: Richard Lumsden

text: Lumsden plays a number of instruments including piano, guitars, bass, banjo, ukulele etc., and has composed music for cinema, television & theatre, including the orchestral & folk soundtrack to the 2009 film "", a full musical score for "Alice in Wonderland" at the New Vic Theatre in Stoke, title music for BBC’s "The Morning Show," and incidental music for numerous TV dramas and theatre productions. He has played many UK gigs with his band Henry Kissing Her, releasing two albums; "A Little of Who You Fancy" (1996) & "Pull" (2006). He also released a CD of piano music, "Concert From The Eyrie" (2001). In 2012, Lumsden and fiddle virtuoso John Dipper released the folk album "Sunshine Takes You". Lumsden released his ‘final’ album of songs, "The Unhurt" in 2020.


title: Richard Lumsden

text: Lumsden attended Lady Manners School, situated in Bakewell in the Peak District, before he trained at the Guildford School of Acting, graduating in 1986. In 1995, Lumsden married actress Sophie Thompson; they separated in 2015. They have two sons, Ernie James (born 1997) and Walter Eric (born 2000).


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Bolesław I the Brave (17 June 1025), less often known as Bolesław the Great, was Duke of Poland from 992 to 1025, and the first King of Poland in 1025. He was also Duke of Bohemia between 1003 and 1004 as Boleslaus IV. A member of the ancient Piast dynasty, Bolesław was a capable monarch and a strong mediator in Central European affairs. He continued to proselytise Western Christianity among his subjects and raised Poland to the rank of a kingdom, thus becoming the first Polish ruler to hold the title of "rex", Latin for king.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: The son of Mieszko I of Poland by his first wife Dobrawa of Bohemia, Bolesław ruled Lesser Poland already during the final years of Mieszko's reign. When the country became divided in 992, he banished his father's last consort, Oda of Haldensleben, purged his half-brothers along with their adherents and successfully reunified Poland by 995. As a devout Christian, Bolesław supported the missionary endeavours of Adalbert of Prague and Bruno of Querfurt. The martyrdom of Adalbert in 997 and Bolesław's successful attempt to ransom the bishop's remains, paying for their weight in gold, consolidated Poland's autonomy from the Holy Roman Empire.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: At the Congress of Gniezno (11 March 1000), Emperor Otto III permitted the establishment of a Polish church structure with a Metropolitan See at Gniezno, independent from the Archbishopric of Magdeburg. Bishoprics were also established in Kraków, Wrocław, and Kołobrzeg, and Bolesław formally repudiated paying tribute to the Empire. Following Otto's death in 1002, Bolesław fought a series of wars against Otto's cousin and heir, Henry II, ending in the Peace of Bautzen (1018). In the summer of 1018, in one of his expeditions, Bolesław I captured Kiev, where he installed his son-in-law Sviatopolk I as ruler. According to legend, Bolesław chipped his blade when striking Kiev's Golden Gate. In honour of this legend, the "Szczerbiec" ("Jagged Sword") would later become the coronation sword of Polish kings.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Bolesław is widely considered one of Poland's most accomplished Piast monarchs; he was an able strategist and statesman, who transformed Poland into an entity comparable to older Western monarchies and arguably raised it to the front rank of European states. Bolesław conducted successful military campaigns to the west, south and east of his realm, and conquered territories in modern-day Slovakia, Moravia, Red Ruthenia, Meissen, Lusatia, and Bohemia. He established the "Prince's Law" and sponsored the construction of churches, monasteries, military forts as well as waterway infrastructure. He also introduced the first Polish monetary unit, the "grzywna", divided into 240 denarii, and minted his own coinage.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Bolesław was born in 966 or 967, the first child of Mieszko I of Poland and his wife, the Bohemian princess Dobrawa. His "Epitaph", which was written in the middle of the , emphasised that Bolesław had been born to a "faithless" father and a "true-believing" mother, suggesting that he was born before his father's baptism. Bolesław was baptised shortly after his birth. He was named after his maternal grandfather, Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia. Not much is known about Bolesław's childhood. His "Epitaph" recorded that he underwent the traditional hair-cutting ceremony at the age of seven and a lock of his hair was sent to Rome. The latter act suggests that Mieszko wanted to place his son under the protection of the Holy See. Historian Tadeusz Manteuffel says that Bolesław needed that protection because his father had sent him to the court of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor in token of his allegiance to the emperor. However, historian Marek Kazimierz Barański notes that the claim that Bolesław was sent as a hostage to the imperial court is disputed.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Bolesław's mother, Dobrawa, died in 977; his widowed father married Oda of Haldensleben who had already been a nun. Around that time, Bolesław became the ruler of Lesser Poland, through it is not exactly clear in what circumstances. Jerzy Strzelczyk says that Bolesław received Lesser Poland from his father; Tadeusz Manteuffel states that he seized the province from his father with the local lords' support; and Henryk Łowmiański writes that his uncle, Boleslav II of Bohemia, granted the region to him.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Mieszko I died on 25 May 992. The contemporaneous Thietmar of Merseburg recorded that Mieszko left "his kingdom to be divided among many claimants", but Bolesław unified the country "with fox-like cunning" and expelled his stepmother and half-brothers from Poland. Two Polish lords Odilien and Przibiwoj, who had supported her and her sons, were blinded on Bolesław's order. Historian Przemysław Wiszewski says that Bolesław had already taken control of the whole of Poland by 992; Pleszczyński writes that this only happened in the last months of 995.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Bolesław's first coins were issued around 995. One of them bore the inscription Vencievlavus, showing that he regarded his mother's uncle Duke Wenceslaus I of Bohemia as the patron saint of Poland. Bolesław sent reinforcements to the Holy Roman Empire to fight against the Polabian Slavs in summer 992. Bolesław personally led a Polish army to assist the imperial troops in invading the land of the Abodrites or Veleti in 995. During the campaign, he met the young German monarch, Otto III.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Soběslav, the head of the Bohemian Slavník dynasty, also participated in the 995 campaign. Taking advantage of Soběslav's absence, Boleslav II of Bohemia invaded the Slavníks' domains and had most members of the family murdered. After learning of his kinsmen's fate, Soběslav settled in Poland. Bolesław gave shelter to him "for the sake of [Soběslav's] holy brother", Bishop Adalbert of Prague, according to the latter's hagiographies. Adalbert (known as Wojciech before his consecration) also came to Poland in 996, because Bolesław "was quite amicably disposed towards him". Adalbert's hagiographies suggest that the bishop and Bolesław closely cooperated. In early 997 Adalbert left Poland to proselytise among the Prussians, who had been invading the eastern borderlands of Bolesław's realm. However, the pagans murdered him on 23 April 997. Bolesław ransomed Adalbert's remains, paying its weight in gold, and buried it in Gniezno. He sent parts of the martyr bishop's corpse to Emperor Otto III who had been Adalbert's friend.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Emperor Otto III held a synod in Rome where Adalbert was canonised on the emperor's request on 29 June 999. Before 2 December 999, Adalbert's brother, Radim Gaudentius, was consecrated "Saint Adalbert's archbishop". Otto III made a pilgrimage to Saint Adalbert's tomb in Gniezno, accompanied by Pope Sylvester II's legate, Robert, in early 1000. Thietmar of Merseburg mentioned that it "would be impossible to believe or describe" how Bolesław received the emperor and conducted him to Gniezno. A century later, Gallus Anonymus added that "[m]arvelous and wonderful sights Bolesław set before the emperor when he arrived: the ranks first of the knights in all their variety, and then of the princes, lined up on a spacious plain like choirs, each separate unit set apart by the distinct and varied colors of its apparel, and no garment there was of inferior quality, but of the most precious stuff that might anywhere be found."


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Bolesław took advantage of the emperor's pilgrimage. After the Emperor's visit in Gniezno, Poland started to develop into a sovereign state, in contrast with Bohemia, which remained a vassal state, incorporated in the Kingdom of Germany. Thietmar of Merseburg condemned Otto III for "making a lord out of a tributary" in reference to the relationship between the Emperor and Bolesław. Gallus Anonymus emphasised that Otto III declared Bolesław "his brother and partner" in the Holy Roman Empire, also calling Bolesław "a friend and ally of the Roman people". The same chronicler mentioned that Otto III "took the imperial diadem from his own head and laid it upon the head of Bolesław in pledge of friendship" in Gniezno. Bolesław also received "one of the nails from the cross of our Lord with the lance of St. Maurice" from the Emperor.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Gallus Anonymus claimed that Bolesław was "gloriously raised to kingship by the emperor" through these acts, but the Emperor's acts in Gniezno only symbolised that Bolesław received royal prerogatives, including the control of the Church in his realm. Radim Gaudentius was installed as the archbishop of the newly established Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gniezno. At the same time, three suffragan bishoprics, subordinated to the see of Gniezno—the dioceses of Kołobrzeg, Kraków and Wrocław—were set up. Bolesław had promised that Poland would pay Peter's Pence to the Holy See to obtain the pope's sanction to the establishment of the new archdiocese. Unger, who had been the only prelate in Poland and was opposed to the creation of the archdiocese of Gniezno, was made bishop of Poznań, directly subordinated to the Holy See. However, Polish commoners only slowly adopted Christianity: Thietmar of Merseburg recorded that Bolesław forced his subjects with severe punishments to observe fasts and to refrain from adultery:


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: During the time the Emperor spent in Poland, Bolesław also showed off his affluence. At the end of the banquets, he "ordered the waiters and the cupbearers to gather the gold and silver vessels ... from all three days' coursis, that is, the cups and goblets, the bowls and plates and the drinking-horns, and he presented them to the emperor as a toke of honor ... [h]is servants were likewise told to collect the wall-hangings and the coverlets, the carpets and tablecloths and napkins and everything that had been provided for their needs and take them to the emperor's quarters", according to Gallus Anonymus. Thietmar of Merseburg recorded that Bolesław presented Otto III with a troop of "three hundred armoured warriors". Bolesław also gave Saint Adalbert's arm to the Emperor.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: After the meeting, Bolesław escorted Otto III to Magdeburg in Germany where "they celebrated Palm Sunday with great festivity" on 25 March 1000. A continuator of the chronicle of Adémar de Chabannes recorded, decades after the events, that Bolesław also accompanied Emperor Otto from Magdeburg to Aachen where Otto III had Charlemagne's tomb reopened and gave Charlemagne's golden throne to Bolesław.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: An illustrated Gospel, made for Otto III around 1000, depicted four women symbolising Roma, Gallia, Germania and Sclavinia as doing homage to the Emperor who sat on his throne. Historian Alexis P. Vlasto writes that "Sclavinia" referred to Poland, proving that it was regarded as one of the Christian realms subjected to the Holy Roman Empire in accordance with Otto III's idea of "Renovatio imperii"—the renewal of the Roman Empire based on a federal concept. Within that framework, Poland, along with Hungary, was upgraded to an eastern "foederatus" of the Holy Roman Empire, according to historian Jerzy Strzelczyk.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Coins struck for Bolesław shortly after his meeting with the emperor bore the inscription Gnezdun Civitas, showing that he regarded Gniezno as his capital. The name of Poland was also recorded on the same coins referring to the Princes Polonie . The title "princeps" was almost exclusively used in Italy around that time, suggesting that it also represented the Emperor's idea of the renewal of the Roman Empire. However, Otto's premature death on 23 January 1002 put an end to his ambitious plans. The contemporaneous Bruno of Querfurt stated that "nobody lamented" the 22-year-old emperor's "death with greater grief than Bolesław".


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: In 1000 Bolesław issued a law prohibiting hunting beavers and created a office called "Bobrowniczy" whose task was to enforce prince's ordinances.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Three candidates were competing with each other for the German crown after Otto III's death. One of them, Duke Henry IV of Bavaria, promised the Margraviate of Meissen to Bolesław in exchange for his assistance against Eckard I, Margrave of Meissen who was the most powerful contender. However, Eckard was murdered on 30 April 1002, which enabled Henry of Bavaria to defeat his last opponent, Herman II, Duke of Swabia. Fearing that Henry II would side with elements in the German Church hierarchy which were unfavorable towards Poland, and taking advantage of the chaos that followed Margrave Eckard's death and Henry of Bavaria's conflict with Henry of Schweinfurt, Bolesław invaded Lusatia and Meissen. He "seized Margrave Gero's march as far as the river Elbe", and also Bautzen, Strehla and Meissen. At the end of July, he participated at a meeting of the Saxon lords where Henry of Bavaria, who had meanwhile been crowned king of Germany, only confirmed Bolesław's possession of Lusatia, and granted Meissen to Margrave Eckard's brother, Gunzelin, and Strehla to Eckard's oldest son, Herman. The relationship between King Henry and Bolesław became tense after assassins tried to murder Bolesław in Merseburg, because he accused the king of conspiracy against him. In retaliation, he seized and burned Strehla and took the inhabitants of the town into captivity.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Duke Boleslaus III of Bohemia was dethroned and the Bohemian lords made Vladivoj, who had earlier fled to Poland, duke in 1002. The Czech historian Dušan Třeštík writes that Vladivoj seized the Bohemian throne with Bolesław's assistance. After Vladivoj died in 1003, Bolesław invaded Bohemia and restored Boleslaus III who had many Bohemian noblemen murdered. The Bohemian lords who survived the massacre "secretly sent representatives" to Bolesław, asking "him to rescue them from fear of the future", according to Thietmar of Merseburg. Bolesław invaded Bohemia and had Boleslaus III blinded. He entered Prague in March 1003 where the Bohemian lords proclaimed him duke. King Henry sent his envoys to Prague, demanding that Bolesław take an oath of loyalty and pay tribute to him, but Bolesław refused to obey. He also allied himself with the king's opponents, including Henry of Schweinfurt to whom he sent reinforcements. King Henry defeated Henry of Schweinfurt, forcing him to flee to Bohemia in August 1003. Bolesław invaded the Margraviate of Meissen, but Margrave Gunzelin refused to surrender his capital. It is also likely that Polish forces took control of Moravia and the northern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary (present-day mostly Slovakia) in 1003 as well. The proper conquest date of the Hungarian territories is 1003 or 1015 and this area stayed a part of Poland until 1018.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: King Henry allied himself with the pagan Lutici, and broke into Lusatia in February 1004, but heavy snows forced him to withdraw. He invaded Bohemia in August 1004, taking the oldest brother of the blinded Boleslaus III of Bohemia, Jaromír, with him. The Bohemians rose up in open rebellion and murdered the Polish garrisons in the major towns. Bolesław left Prague without resistance, and King Henry made Jaromír duke of Bohemia on 8 September. Bolesław's ally Soběslav died in this campaign.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: During the next part of the offensive King Henry retook Meissen and in 1005, his army advanced as far into Poland as the city of Poznań where a peace treaty was signed. According to the peace treaty Bolesław lost Lusatia and Meissen and likely gave up his claim to the Bohemian throne. Also in 1005, a pagan rebellion in Pomerania overturned Bolesław's rule and resulted in the destruction of the newly established local bishopric.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: In 1007, after learning about Bolesław's efforts to gain allies among Saxon nobles and giving refuge to the deposed duke of Bohemia, Oldřich, King Henry denounced the Peace of Poznań, which caused Bolesław's attack on the Archbishopric of Magdeburg as well as the re-occupation of the marches of Lusatia, though he stopped short of retaking Meissen. The German counter-offensive began three years later (previously, Henry was occupied with rebellion in Flanders), in 1010, but it was of no significant consequence. In 1012, another ineffective campaign by archbishop Walthard of Magdeburg was launched, as he died during that campaign and, consequently, his forces returned home. Later that year, Bolesław once again invaded Lusatia. Bolesław's forces pillaged and burned the city of Lubusz (Lebus). In 1013, a peace accord was signed at Merseburg. As part of the treaty, Bolesław paid homage to King Henry for the March of Lusatia (including the town of Bautzen) and Sorbian Meissen as fiefs. A marriage of Bolesław's son Mieszko with Richeza of Lotharingia, daughter of the Count Palatine Ezzo of Lotharingia and granddaughter of Emperor Otto II, was also performed. During the brief period of peace on the western frontier that followed, Bolesław took part in a short campaign in the east, towards the Kievan Rus' territories.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: In 1014, Bolesław sent his son Mieszko to Bohemia in order to form an alliance with Duke Oldrich against Henry, by then crowned emperor. Oldrich imprisoned Mieszko and turned him over to Henry, who, however, released him in a gesture of good will after being pressured by Saxon nobles. Bolesław nonetheless refused to aid the emperor militarily in his Italian expedition. This led to imperial intervention in Poland and so in 1015 a war erupted once again. The war started out well for the emperor, as he was able to defeat the Polish forces at the Battle of Ciani. Once the imperial forces crossed the river Oder, Bolesław sent a detachment of Moravian knights in a diversionary attack against the Eastern March of the empire. Soon after, the imperial army, having suffered a defeat near the Bóbr marshes, retreated from Poland without any permanent gains. After this event, Bolesław's forces took the initiative. Margrave Gero II of Meissen was defeated and killed during a clash with the Polish forces in late 1015. In 1015 and 1017, Bolesław I attacked the Eastern March and was defeated twice by Henry the Strong and his forces.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Later that year, Bolesław's son Mieszko was sent to plunder Meissen. His attempt at conquering the city, however, failed. In 1017, Bolesław defeated Duke Henry V of Bavaria. In that same year, supported by his Slavic allies, Emperor Henry once again invaded Poland, albeit once again to very little effect. He did besiege the cities of Głogów and Niemcza, but was unable to conquer them. The imperial forces once again were forced to retreat, suffering significant losses. Taking advantage of the involvement of Czech troops, Bolesław ordered his son to invade Bohemia, where Mieszko met very little resistance. On 30 January 1018, the Peace of Bautzen was signed. The Polish ruler was able to keep the contested marches of Lusatia and Sorbian Meissen not as fiefs, but as a part of Polish territory, and also received military aid in his expedition against Rus'. Also, Bolesław (then a widower) strengthened his dynastic bonds with the German nobility through his marriage with Oda, daughter of Margrave Eckard I of Meissen. The wedding took place four days later, on 3 February in the castle of "Cziczani" (also "Sciciani", at the site of either modern Groß-Seitschen or Zützen).


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Bolesław organised his first expedition east, to support his son-in-law Sviatopolk I of Kiev, in 1013, but the decisive engagements were to take place in 1018 after the Peace of Bautzen was already signed. At the request of Sviatopolk I, in what became known as the Kiev Expedition of 1018, the Polish duke sent an expedition to Kievan Rus' with an army of 2,000–5,000 Polish warriors, in addition to Thietmar's reported 1,000 Pechenegs, 300 German knights, and 500 Hungarian mercenaries. After collecting his forces during June, Bolesław led his troops to the border in July and on 23 July at the banks of the Bug River, near Wołyń, he defeated the forces of Yaroslav the Wise, Prince of Kiev, in what became known as the Battle of the River Bug. All primary sources agree that the Polish prince was victorious in battle. Yaroslav retreated north to Novgorod, opening the road to Kiev. The city, which suffered from fires caused by the Pecheneg siege, surrendered upon seeing the main Polish force on 14 August. The entering army, led by Bolesław, was ceremonially welcomed by the local archbishop and the family of Vladimir I of Kiev. According to popular legend Bolesław notched his sword (Szczerbiec) hitting the Golden Gate of Kiev. Although Sviatopolk lost the throne soon afterwards and lost his life the following year, during this campaign Poland re-annexed the Red Strongholds, later called Red Ruthenia, lost by Bolesław's father in 981.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Historians dispute the exact date of Bolesław's coronation. The year 1025 is most widely accepted by scholars, though the year 1000 is also likely. According to an epitaph, the crowning took place when Otto bestowed upon Bolesław royal regalia at the Congress of Gniezno. However, independent German sources confirmed that after Henry II's death in 1024, Bolesław took advantage of the interregnum in Germany and crowned himself king in 1025. It is generally assumed that the coronation took place on Easter Sunday although Tadeusz Wojciechowski believes that the coronation took place prior to this, on 24 December 1024. The basis for this assertion is that the coronations of kings were usually held during religious festivities. The exact place of the coronation is also highly debated, with the cathedrals of Gniezno or Poznań being the most probable locations. Poland was thereafter raised to the rank of a kingdom before its neighbour, Bohemia.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: It is widely believed that Bolesław had to receive permission for his coronation from the newly-elected Pope John XIX. John was known to be corrupt and it's likely that consent was or could have been obtained through bribes. However, Rome also hoped for a potential alliance to defend itself from Byzantine Emperor Basil II, who launched a military expedition to recover the island of Sicily and who could subsequently threaten the Papal States from the south. Stanisław Zakrzewski put forward the theory that the coronation had the tacit consent of Conrad II and that the pope only confirmed this fact. This is corroborated by Conrad's confirmation of the royal title to Mieszko II, his agreement with the counts of Tusculum, and the papal interactions with Conrad and Bolesław.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: According to Cosmas of Prague, Bolesław I died shortly after his coronation on 17 June 1025. Already in advanced age for the time, the true cause of death is unknown and remains a matter of speculation. Chronicler Jan Długosz (and followed by modern historians and archaeologists) writes that Bolesław was laid to rest at the Archcathedral Basilica of St. Peter and St. Paul in Poznań. In the 14th century, Casimir III the Great reportedly ordered the construction of a new, presumably Gothic, sarcophagus to which he transferred Bolesław's remains.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: The medieval sarcophagus was partially damaged on 30 September 1772 during a fire, and completely destroyed in 1790 due to the collapse of the southern tower. Bolesław's remains were subsequently excavated from the rubble and moved to the cathedral's chapter house. Three bone fragments were donated to Tadeusz Czacki in 1801, at his request. Czacki, a notable Polish historian, pedagogue, and numismatist, placed one of the bone fragments in his ancestral mausoleum in Poryck (now Pavlivka) in the Volhynia region; the other two were given to Princess Izabela Flemming Czartoryska, who placed them in her recently founded Czartoryski Museum in Puławy.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: After many historical twists, the burial place of Bolesław I ultimately remained at Poznań Cathedral, in the Golden Chapel. The content of his epitaph is known to historians. It is Bolesław's epitaph, which, in part, came from the original tombstone, that is one of the first sources (dated to the period immediately after Bolesław's death, probably during the reign of Mieszko II) that gave the King his widely known nickname of "Brave" (Polish: "Chrobry"). Later, Gallus Anonymus, in Chapter 6 of his "Gesta principum Polonorum", named the Polish ruler as "Bolezlavus qui dicebatur Gloriosus seu Chrabri".


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: The contemporaneous Thietmar of Merseburg recorded Bolesław's marriages, also mentioning his children. Bolesław's first wife was a daughter of Rikdag, Margrave of Meissen. Historian Manteuffel says that the marriage was arranged in the early 980s by Mieszko I who wanted to strengthen his links with the Saxon lords and to enable his son to succeed Rikdag in Meissen. Bolesław "later sent her away", according to Thietmar's "Chronicon". Historian Marek Kazimierz Barański writes that Bolesław repudiated his first wife after her father's death in 985 which left the marriage without any political value.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Bolesław "took a Hungarian woman" as his second wife. Most historians identify her as a daughter of the Hungarian ruler Géza, but this theory has not been universally accepted. She gave birth to a son, Bezprym, but Bolesław repudiated her.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Bolesław's third wife, Emnilda, was "a daughter of the venerable lord, Dobromir". Her father was a West Slavic or Lechitic prince, either a local ruler from present-day Brandenburg who was closely related to the imperial Liudolfing dynasty, or the last independent prince of the Vistulans, before their incorporation into Poland. Wiszewski dates the marriage of Bolesław and Emnilda to 988. Emnilda exerted a beneficial influence on Bolesław, reforming "her husband's unstable character", according to Thietmar of Merseburg's report. Bolesław's and Emnilda's oldest (unnamed) daughter "was an abbess" of an unidentified abbey. Their second daughter Regelinda, who was born in 989, was given in marriage to Herman I, Margrave of Meissen in 1002 or 1003. Mieszko II Lambert who was born in 990 was Bolesław's favorite son and successor. The name of Bolesław's and Emnilda's third daughter, who was born in 995, is unknown; she married Sviatopolk I of Kiev between 1005 and 1012. Bolesław's youngest son, Otto, was born in 1000.


title: Bolesław I the Brave

text: Bolesław's fourth marriage, from 1018 until his death, was to Oda ( 995 – 1025), daughter of Margrave Eckard I of Meissen. They had a daughter, Matilda ( 1018 – 1036), betrothed (or married) on 18 May 1035 to Otto of Schweinfurt.


title: United Arab Emirates takeover of Socotra

text: On 30 April 2018, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) deployed more than a hundred troops with artillery and armored vehicles to the Yemeni archipelago of Socotra in the Guardafui Channel without prior coordination with the Yemeni government, causing the relations of the two countries to deteriorate. The initial deployment consisted of UAE military aircraft carrying more than fifty UAE soldiers and two armored vehicles, followed by two more aircraft carrying more soldiers, tanks and other armored vehicles. Al Jazeera reported that shortly after landing, UAE forces dismissed Yemeni soldiers stationed at administrative installations such as Socotra Airport and seaports until further notice, and the flag of the United Arab Emirates was raised above official government buildings in Hadibu.


text: Since 2000, UAE humanitarian organizations such as Emirates Red Crescent have played an active role in Socotra. The organization provided relief and aid in March 2000 after major floods damaged buildings and agriculture. In a 2003 US diplomatic cable, Iranian companies were also noted to have completed several projects in Yemen, including building the Socotra airport strip.


text: In early November 2015, two tropical cyclones – Chapala and Megh – struck the Socotra archipelago, causing severe damages to the main island's infrastructure, homes, roads, and power. Due to the collective impacts of Chapala and Megh, the United Arab Emirates sent an aid ship and plane, carrying tons of food, blankets and tents, and barrels of food.


text: In 2016, the UAE increased supplies delivered to Socotra which had been largely abandoned and forgotten during the ongoing conflict. In October 2016, the 31st cargo aircraft landed in Socotra Airport containing two tons of aid. At that time, the UAE also established a military base on the island as a part of the Saudi Arabian–led intervention.


text: In 2017, Emirati troops had already been deployed on the island as a part of the Saudi Arabian–led intervention, some Yemeni political factions accused the UAE of attempting to occupy Socotra and looting and ravaging the flora of the island.


text: More than a hundred Emirati troops arrived aboard a transport plane, equipped with tanks, armoured vehicles and artillery. Additional troops were deployed in the coming days. Yemeni soldiers at the airport, government offices and seaport were dismissed by the Emiratis. Emirati flags and pictures of Sheikh Mohammed Bin Zayed were seen in place of Yemeni ones.


text: Yemen's internationally recognised government condemned the takeover as "an act of aggression"; however no military resistance to Emirati troops was reported.


text: "The Independent" newspaper reported that the UAE has annexed the island and built a communications network, as well as conducted census and provided Socotra residents with free healthcare and work permits in Abu Dhabi. New schools, roads and hospitals were built by the Emiratis. They also completely rebuilt the seaport and started construction of an Emirati military base right next to the port.


text: Two weeks later on 14 May, Saudi troops were also deployed to the archipelago and a deal was brokered between the United Arab Emirates and Yemen for a joint military training exercise and the return of administrative control of Socotra's airport and seaport to Yemen.


text: A statement from Yemeni Prime Minister Ahmed Obeid bin Daghr’s office said the UAE military’s seizure of the seaport and airport on Socotra was an “unjustified” assault on Yemen's sovereignty. The UAE Foreign Ministry responded by saying it was "surprised" by the statement and blamed the Muslim Brotherhood for "distorting" its role – "The UAE military presence in all liberated Yemeni provinces, including Socotra, comes within the efforts of the Arab Coalition to support legitimate government at this critical stage in the history of Yemen."


text: UAE Foreign Minister Anwar Gargash tweeted, "Some have recently remembered Socotra Island to challenge the Arab coalition and the UAE. We have historical relations with the families and people of Socotra."


text: On 3 May 2018, protests rallied against the UAE takeover, demanding an immediate withdrawal. However, on 6 May 2018, pro-Emirati supporters gathered in the island's capital Hadibu to support the UAE presence on the island.


text: On 10 May 2018, the United States said it was "closely following the situation on the island of Socotra" and called for "de-escalation and dialogue" between the UAE and Yemen.


text: On 11 May 2018, Turkey showed concern about the event. The Turkish Minister of Foreign Affairs said "we are closely following the recent developments in Yemen's Socotra Island. We are concerned about these developments that pose a new threat to the territorial integrity and sovereignty of Yemen", and called on all relevant actors to respect the legitimate Yemeni government and to refrain from taking measures that could further complicate the situation.


text: al-Islah claimed, as of 8 September 2020, that the government of United Arab Emirates (UAE) had been trying to build a military base on Yemen's Socotra island. The Yemeni government has accused the UAE of supporting Southern Transitional Council (STC) to take control of the Socotra province with its own interests in Yemen.


title: Nissen hut

text: A Nissen hut is a prefabricated steel structure for military use, especially as barracks, made from a half-cylindrical skin of corrugated iron. Designed during the First World War by the American-born, Canadian-British engineer and inventor Major Peter Norman Nissen, it was used also extensively during the Second World War, being adapted as the similar Quonset hut in the United States.


title: Nissen hut

text: A Nissen hut is made from a sheet of metal bent into half a cylinder and planted in the ground with its axis horizontal. The cross-section is not precisely semi-circular, because the bottom of the hut curves out slightly. The exterior is formed from curved corrugated steel sheets 10 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 2 inches (3.2 × 0.7 m), laid with a two-corrugation lap at the side and a 6-inch (15 cm) overlap at the ends. Three sheets cover the arc of the hut. They are attached to five 3 × 2 inch (7.5 × 5 cm) wooden purlins and 3 × 2 inch wooden spiking plates at the ends of the floor joists.


title: Nissen hut

text: The purlins are attached to eight T-shaped ribs (1¾ × 1¾ × ⅛ inch; 4.5 × 4.5 × 0.5 cm) set at 6 feet 0.5 inch (1.8 m) centres. Each rib consists of three sections bolted together using splice plates, and each end is bolted to the floor at the bearers. With each rib are two straining wires, one on each side, and a straining ratchet (or in some cases a simple fencing wire strainer). The wires are strained during construction. The straining wires do not appear in the original Nissen patent.


title: Nissen hut

text: The purlins are attached to the ribs using a "hook" bolt, which hooks through a pre-drilled hole in the rib and is secured into the purlin. The hook bolt is a unique feature of the Nissen design.


title: Nissen hut

text: Interior lining could be horizontal corrugated iron or material like hardboard attached to the ribs. Sometimes corrugated asbestos cement sheeting was used. If required, the space between the lining and the exterior may be used for insulation and services.


title: Nissen hut

text: The walls and floors rest on foundations consisting of 4 × 4 inch (10 × 10 cm) stumps with 15 × 9 inch (38 × 23 cm) sole plates. On these are 4 × 3 inch (10 × 8 cm) bearers and 4 × 2 inch (10 × 5 cm) joists at 2 feet 10 inch (86 cm) centres. The floor is made from tongue and groove floorboards.


title: Nissen hut

text: Windows and doors may be added to the sides by creating a dormer form by adding a frame to take the upper piece of corrugated iron and replacing the lower piece with a suitable frame for a door or window.


title: Nissen hut

text: Nissen huts come in three internal spans (diameters)—16 ft (4.9 m), 24 ft (7.3 m) or 30 ft (9.2 m). The longitudinal bays come in multiples of 6 ft (1.8 m), allowing the length of the cylinder to be any multiple of 6 ft.


title: Nissen hut

text: The corrugated steel half-circles used to build Nissen huts can be stored efficiently because the curved sheets can be cupped one inside another. However, there is no standard model of Nissen hut, because the design was never static and changed according to demand.


title: Nissen hut

text: Between 16 and 18 April 1916, Major Peter Norman Nissen of the 29th Company Royal Engineers of the British Army began to experiment with hut designs. Nissen, a mining engineer and inventor, constructed three prototype semi-cylindrical huts. The semi-cylindrical shape was derived from the drill-shed roof at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario (collapsed 1896). Nissen's design was subject to intensive review by his fellow officers, Lieutenant Colonels Shelly, Sewell and McDonald, and General Clive Gerard Liddell, which helped Nissen develop the design. After the third prototype was completed, the design was formalized and the Nissen hut was put into production in August 1916. At least 100,000 were produced in the First World War.


title: Nissen hut

text: Nissen patented his invention in the UK in 1916 and patents were taken out later in the United States, Canada, South Africa and Australia. Nissen received royalties from the British government, not for huts made during the war, but only for their sale after the conflict. Nissen received some £13,000 and was awarded the DSO (Distinguished Service Order).


title: Nissen hut

text: Two factors influenced the design of the hut. First, the building had to be economical in its use of materials, especially considering wartime shortages of building material. Second, the building had to be portable. This was particularly important in view of the wartime shortages of shipping space. This led to a simple form that was prefabricated for ease of erection and removal. The Nissen hut could be packed in a standard Army wagon and erected by six men in four hours. The world record for erection was 1 hour 27 minutes.


title: Nissen hut

text: Production of Nissen huts waned between the wars, but was revived in 1939. Nissen Buildings Ltd. waived its patent rights for wartime production during the Second World War (1939–45). Similar-shaped hut types were developed as well, notably the larger Romney hut in the UK and the Quonset hut in the United States. All types were mass-produced in the thousands. The Nissen hut was used for a wide range of functions; apart from accommodation, they functioned as churches and bomb stores among other uses.


title: Nissen hut

text: Accounts of life in the hut generally were not positive. Huts in the United Kingdom were frequently seen as cold and draughty, while those in the Middle East, Asia and the Pacific were seen as stuffy and humid.


title: Nissen hut

text: Although the prefabricated hut was conceived to meet wartime demand for accommodation, similar situations, such as construction camps, are places where prefabricated buildings are useful. The Nissen hut was adapted into a larger prefabricated two-storey house and marketed by Nissen-Petren Ltd. Four of the original prototypes survive in Queen Camel in Somerset. The standard Nissen hut was often recycled into housing. A similar approach was taken with the U.S. Quonset hut at the end of the war, with articles on how to adapt the buildings for domestic use appearing in "Home Beautiful" and "Popular Mechanics".


title: Nissen hut

text: In Aultbea on Loch Ewe, in Scotland, a large Nissen hut cinema built by the Royal Navy was donated to the village after WW2, and remains in use as a community hall. Nissen hut houses survive in Hvalfjörður, Iceland. They were built to house naval personnel during the Second World War.


title: Nissen hut

text: However, the adaptation of the semi-cylindrical hut to non-institutional uses was not popular. Neither the Nissen nor the Quonset developed into popular housing, despite their low cost. One reason was the association with huts: a hut was not a house, with all the status a house implies. The second point was that rectangular furniture does not fit into a curved-wall house very well, and, thus, the actual usable space in a hut might be much less than supposed.


title: Nissen hut

text: In the UK, after the Second World War many were converted for agricultural or industrial purposes, and numerous examples have since been demolished.


title: Nissen hut

text: Most post-Second World War Nissen huts were used by governments. However, there is one block that was built as private housing. Fifty Nissen huts were constructed in Belmont North, a suburb of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia. They were designed to provide cheap, ready-made housing for post-war British migrant families. Seventeen of the huts have been demolished over the years, but the remainder have been refurbished, improved and extended and remain popular with their owners. However attempts to have the remaining huts heritage listed in 2009 failed in the face of opposition from some owners.


title: Nissen hut

text: The story of Western Australia's post-War migrants has been marked with the state heritage-listing of the remaining parts of the former Main Roads Migrant Camp in Narrogin, Western Australia. The camp housed European migrants who had been displaced by the war and resettled in Western Australia, then employed in road construction. The Australian Government worked with the United Nations to accept, resettle and provide employment for many thousands of Europeans after the Second World War.


title: Nissen hut

text: Main Roads was one of three migrant camps set up in Narrogin in the late 1940s and used until the mid-1950s. The camp's conditions were basic, with migrants living in tents and Nissen huts. The three Nissen huts are the only ones to survive. Post-war migrants played a vital role in the development of the state through the construction of state and local government buildings, roads and railways. Today, the place is used by Main Roads Western Australia as its Wheatbelt South Region Headquarters.


title: Motif-Index of Folk-Literature

text: The Motif-Index of Folk-Literature is a six volume catalogue of motifs, granular elements of folklore, composed by American folklorist Stith Thompson (1932–1936, revised and expanded 1955–1958). Often referred to as Thompson's motif-index, the catalogue has been extensively used in folklore studies, where folklorists commonly use it in tandem with the Aarne–Thompson–Uther Index, an index used for folktale type analysis.


title: Motif-Index of Folk-Literature

text: The motif-index and the AT or ATU indices are regarded as standard tools in the study of folklore. For example, folklorist Mary Beth Stein says, "Together with Thompson's six-volume "Motif-Index of Folk-Literature", with which it is cross-indexed, "The Types of Folktale" constitutes the most important reference work and research tool for comparative folk-tale analysis. Alan Dundes who was an outspoken critic also said substantially the same thing, without confining the application to comparative studies: "[the indices] index constitute two of the most valuable tools in the professional folklorist's arsenal of aids for analysis".


title: Motif-Index of Folk-Literature

text: In the context of the index, Thompson has defined "motif" as follows: "A "motif" is the smallest element in a tale having a power to persist in tradition. In order to have this power it must have something unusual and striking about it".


title: Motif-Index of Folk-Literature

text: But in the "Motif-index" itself, Thompson had also provided a more "cautious" definition: "[a]nything that goes to make up a traditional narrative... When the term motif is employed, it is always in a very loose sense, and is made to include any of the elements of narrative structure".


title: Motif-Index of Folk-Literature

text: This use of the noun "motif" is specialized to the field of folklore studies. According to the "Oxford English Dictionary" ("OED"), folkloristic use of the noun "motif" is not summed up in the definition for literary criticism (“Motif,” def. 3a), but deserves its own separate sense of this definition (“Motif,” def. 3b). Similarly, the compound noun "motif index" is used in cultural anthropology to denote "an index of standard motifs, esp. those found in folk tales" ("OED", “Motif Index,” def. C2).


title: Motif-Index of Folk-Literature

text: Thompson discusses composing the "Motif-Index of Folk-Literature" in his autobiography, "A Folklorist's Progress: Reflection of a Scholar's Life". In producing the motif-index, Thompson built upon the research of Finnish folklorist Antti Aarne, who in 1910 published an index of European tale-types, Thompson himself had revised in 1928 to cover the region from Europe to Asia: this is known as the Aarne-Thompson tale type index. In his "Motif-Index", Thompson then compiled, classified, and numbered the traditional motifs of the mostly European folktale types in the tale-type index.


title: Motif-Index of Folk-Literature

text: Thompson's motif-index organizes thousands of motifs. Entries are first organized by an umbrella topic (for example, category S is "Unnatural Cruelty"). Entries are then divided into more specific subcategories. For example, entry S50 "Cruel relatives-in-law" contains the sub-entry S51.1 "Cruel mother-in-law plans death of daughter-in-law". Thompson's "The Folktale" includes the following overview of the motif-index:


title: Motif-Index of Folk-Literature

text: There has been expressed the idea that a combined set of motifs (in the motif-index) may constitute a folktale narrative (cf. the description of the "Motif-Index" as "a huge catalogue of folk narratives elements that may variously combine to form whole folk narratives" by Jan Harold Brunvand).


title: Motif-Index of Folk-Literature

text: This idea had already been anticipated by Alexander Veselovsky who wrote that "cluster of motifs" constituted a "plot", influencing Russian formalists like Vladimir Propp, whose study prefigured Stith Thompson's "Motif-Index", as has been pointed out.


title: Motif-Index of Folk-Literature

text: In the book "The Folktale", Stith Thompson invokes this phrase "cluster of motifs" in several passages, as here, in connection with tales involving the dead helper:


title: Motif-Index of Folk-Literature

text: But in this instance, Thompson is warning that the motif cluster is rather "only a framework for the adventures of the hero", containing "at least three different tales within".


title: Motif-Index of Folk-Literature

text: Thompson also explains that a single motif may be found in numerous folktales “from all parts of the earth” (383).


title: Motif-Index of Folk-Literature

text: Many folklorists have produced extensive motif and tale-type indices for culture areas not covered by Thompson, or covered only to a limited extent. For surveys, see


title: Parramatta

text: Parramatta () is a suburb and major commercial centre in Greater Western Sydney, located in the state of New South Wales, Australia. It is located approximately west of the Sydney central business district on the banks of the Parramatta River. Parramatta is the administrative seat of the local government area of the City of Parramatta and is often regarded as the main business district of Greater Western Sydney. Parramatta also has a long history as a second administrative centre in the Sydney metropolitan region, playing host to a number of state government departments as well as state and federal courts. It is often colloquially referred to as "Parra".


title: Parramatta

text: Parramatta, founded as a British settlement in 1788, the same year as Sydney, is the oldest inland European settlement in Australia and is the economic centre of Greater Western Sydney. Since 2000, government agencies such as the New South Wales Police Force and Sydney Water have relocated to Parramatta from the centre of Sydney.


title: Parramatta

text: Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity occurred in Parramatta from around 30,000 years ago. The Darug people who lived in the area before European settlement regarded the area as rich in food from the river and forests. They named the area Baramada or Burramatta ('Parramatta') which means Eel ("Burra") Place ("matta"). Similar Darug words include Cabramatta (Grub place) and Wianamatta (Mother place). Other references are derived from the words of Captain Watkin Tench, a white British man with a poor understanding of the Darug language, and are incorrect. To this day many eels and other sea creatures are attracted to nutrients that are concentrated where the saltwater of Port Jackson meets the freshwater of the Parramatta River. The Parramatta Eels Rugby League club chose their symbol as a result of this phenomenon.


title: Parramatta

text: Parramatta was founded in 1788, the same year as Sydney. As such, Parramatta is the second oldest city in Australia, being only 10 months younger than Sydney. The British Colonists, who had arrived in January 1788 on the First Fleet at Sydney Cove, had only enough food to support themselves for a short time and the soil around Sydney Cove proved too poor to grow the amount of food that 1,000 convicts, soldiers and administrators needed to survive. During 1788, Governor Arthur Phillip had reconnoitred several places before choosing Parramatta as the most likely place for a successful large farm. Parramatta was the furthest navigable point inland on the Parramatta River (i.e. furthest from the thin, sandy coastal soil) and also the point at which the river became freshwater and therefore useful for farming.


title: Parramatta

text: On Sunday 2 November 1788, Governor Phillip took a detachment of marines along with a surveyor and, in boats, made his way upriver to a location that he called The Crescent, a defensible hill curved round a river bend, now in Parramatta Park. As a settlement developed, Governor Phillip gave it the name "Rose Hill" after British politician George Rose. On 4 June 1791 Phillip changed the name of the township to Parramatta, approximating the term used by the local Aboriginal people. A neighbouring suburb acquired the name "Rose Hill", which today is spelt "Rosehill".


title: Parramatta

text: In an attempt to deal with the food crisis, Phillip in 1789 granted a convict named James Ruse the land of Experiment Farm at Parramatta on the condition that he develop a viable agriculture. There, Ruse became the first European to successfully grow grain in Australia. The Parramatta area was also the site of the pioneering of the Australian wool industry by John Macarthur's Elizabeth Farm in the 1790s. Philip Gidley King's account of his visit to Parramatta on 9 April 1790 is one of the earliest descriptions of the area. Walking four miles with Governor Phillip to Prospect, he saw undulating grassland interspersed with magnificent trees and a great number of kangaroos and emus.


title: Parramatta

text: The Battle of Parramatta, a major battle of the Australian frontier wars, occurred in March 1797 where Eora leader Pemulwuy led a group of Bidjigal warriors, estimated to be at least 100, in an attack on the town of Parramatta. The local garrison withdrew to their barracks and Peulwuy held the town until he was eventually shot and wounded. A year later, a government farm at Toongabbie was attacked by Pemulwuy, who challenged the New South Wales Corps to a fight.


title: Parramatta

text: Governor Arthur Phillip built a small house for himself on the hill of The Crescent. In 1799 this was replaced by a larger residence which, substantially improved by Governor Lachlan Macquarie from 1815 to 1818, has survived to the present day, making it the oldest surviving Government House anywhere in Australia. It was used as a retreat by Governors until the 1850s, with one Governor (Governor Brisbane) making it his principal home for a short period in the 1820s.


title: Parramatta

text: In 1803, another famous incident occurred in Parramatta, involving a convicted criminal named Joseph Samuel, originally from England. Samuel was convicted of murder and sentenced to death by hanging, but the rope broke. In the second attempt, the noose slipped off his neck. In the third attempt, the new rope broke. Governor King was summoned and pardoned Samuel, as the incident appeared to him to be divine intervention.


title: Parramatta

text: In 1814, Macquarie opened a school for Aboriginal children at Parramatta as part of a policy of improving relations between Aboriginal and European communities. This school was later relocated to "Black Town".


title: Parramatta

text: Parramatta has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: "Cfa") with mild to cool, somewhat short winters and warm to usually hot summers, alongside moderate rainfall spread throughout the year.


title: Parramatta

text: Summer maximum temperatures are quite variable, often reaching above , on average 13.1 days in the summer season, and sometimes remaining in the low 20s, especially after a cold front or a sea breeze, such as the southerly buster. Northwesterlies can occasionally bring hot winds from the desert that can raise temperatures higher than mostly from November to February, and sometimes above in January and early February during severe heatwaves. The record highest temperature (since 1967) was on 4 January 2020. Parramatta is warmer than Sydney CBD in the summer due to the urban heat island effect and its inland location. In extreme cases though, it can be warmer than Sydney, especially when sea breezes do not penetrate inland on hot summer and spring days. For example, on 28 November 2009, the city reached , while Parramatta reached , almost higher.


title: Parramatta

text: Rainfall is slightly higher during the first three months of the year because the anticlockwise-rotating subtropical high is to the south of the country, thereby allowing moist easterlies from the Tasman Sea to penetrate the city. The second half of the year tends to be drier (late winter/spring) since the subtropical high is to the north of the city, thus permitting dry westerlies from the interior to dominate. Drier winters are also owed to its position on the leeward side of the Great Dividing Range, which block westerly cold fronts (that are more common in late winter) and thus would become foehn winds, whereby allowing decent amount of sunny days and relatively low precipitation in that period. Thunderstorms are common in the months from early spring to early autumn, occasionally quite severe thunderstorms can occur. Snow is virtually unknown, having been recorded only in 1836 and 1896 Parrammatta gets 106.6 days of clear skies annually.


title: Parramatta

text: Depending on the wind direction, summer weather may be humid or dry, though the humidity is mostly in the comfortable range, with the late summer/autumn period having a higher average humidity than late winter/early spring.


title: Parramatta

text: Church Street is home to many shops and restaurants. The northern end of Church Street, close to Lennox Bridge, features "al fresco" dining with a diverse range of cuisines. Immediately south of the CBD Church Street is known across Sydney as 'Auto Alley' for the many car dealerships lining both sides of the street as far as the M4 Motorway.


title: Parramatta

text: Since 2000, Parramatta has seen the consolidation of its role as a government centre, with the relocation of agencies such as the New South Wales Police Force Headquarters and the Sydney Water Corporation from Sydney CBD. At the same time, major construction work occurred around the railway station with the expansion of Westfield Shoppingtown and the creation of a new transport interchange. The western part of the Parramatta CBD is known as the Parramatta Justice Precinct and houses the corporate headquarters of the New South Wales Department of Attorney General and Justice. Other legal offices include the Children's Court of New South Wales and the Sydney West Trial Courts, Legal Aid Commission of NSW, Office of Trustee and Guardian (formerly the Office of the Protective Commissioner), NSW Registry of Births, Deaths and Marriages, and the Office of the Director of Public Prosecutions. Nearby on Marsden Street is the Parramatta Courthouse and the Drug Court of New South Wales. The Garfield Barwick Commonwealth Law Courts Building (named in honor of Sir Garfield Barwick), houses courts of the Federal Magistrates Court and the Family Court of Australia. The NSW Government has also announced plans to secure up to 45,000m2 of new A-grade leased office space in Parramatta to relocate a further 4,000 workers from the Sydney CBD.


title: Parramatta

text: Parramatta Square (previously known as Civic Place) is a proposed civic precinct located in the heart of the city, adjacent to Parramatta Town Hall. The proposal includes a redevelopment of the Parramatta Civic Centre, a culture and arts centre and a new plaza. The designs of the first two projects, a 65-storey residential skyscraper and an office building were announced on 20 July 2012. Parramatta Square will also become home to 3,000 National Australia Bank employees to be relocated from the Sydney CBD by 2020.


title: Parramatta

text: Centenary Square, formerly known as Centenary Plaza, was created in 1975 when the then Parramatta City Council closed a section of the main street to traffic to create a pedestrian plaza. It features an 1888 Centennial Memorial Fountain and adjoins the 1883 Parramatta Town Hall and St John's Cathedral.


title: Parramatta

text: A hospital known as The Colonial Hospital was established in Parramatta in 1818. This then became Parramatta District Hospital. Jeffery House was built in the 1940s. With the construction of the nearby Westmead Hospital complex public hospital services in Parramatta were reduced but after refurbishment Jeffery House again provides clinical health services. Nearby, Brislington House has had a long history with health services. It is the oldest colonial building in Parramatta, dating to 1821. It became a doctors residence before being incorporated into the Parramatta Hospital in 1949.


title: Parramatta

text: Parramatta is a major business and commercial centre, and home to Westfield Parramatta, the tenth largest shopping centre in Australia. Parramatta is also the major transport hub for Western Sydney, servicing trains and buses, as well as having a ferry wharf and future light rail and metro services. Major upgrades have occurred around Parramatta railway station with the creation of a new transport interchange, and the ongoing development of the Parramatta Square local government precinct.


title: Parramatta

text: Church Street takes its name from St John's Cathedral (Anglican), which was built in 1802 and is the oldest church in Parramatta. While the present building is not the first on the site, the towers were built during the time of Governor Macquarie, and were based on those of the church at Reculver, England, at the suggestion of his wife, Elizabeth. The historic St John's Cemetery is located nearby on O'Connell Street.


title: Parramatta

text: St Patrick's Cathedral (Roman Catholic) is one of the oldest Catholic churches in Australia. Construction commenced in 1836, but it wasn't officially complete until 1837. In 1854 a new church was commissioned, although the tower was not completed until 1880, with the spire following in 1883. It was built on the site to meet the needs of a growing congregation. It was destroyed by fire in 1996, with only the stone walls remaining.


title: Parramatta

text: On 29 November 2003, the new St Patrick's Cathedral was dedicated. The historic St Patrick's Cemetery is located in North Parramatta. The Uniting Church is represented by Leigh Memorial Church. Parramatta Salvation Army is one of the oldest active Salvation Army Corps in Australia. Parramatta is also home to the Parramatta and Districts Synagogue, which services the Jewish community of western Sydney.


title: Parramatta

text: The Greek Orthodox Parish and Community of St Ioannis (St John The Frontrunner) Greek Orthodox Church was established in Parramatta in May 1960 under the ecumenical jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia to serve the predominantly emigrating Greek population of Greater Western Sydney. Originally, the liturgies were held in the hall of St John's Ambulance Brigade in Harris Park until the completion of the church in December 1966 located in Hassall Street Parramatta. The parish sold this property in 2014 and is now located at the corner of George and Purchase Streets. The Parish Community of St Ioannis continues to serve over 5,000 Greek parishioners.


title: Parramatta

text: A Buddhist temple is located in Cowper Street, Parramatta. Parramatta's Mosque is in an apartment building on Marsden Street, Parrmatta. The district is served by BAPS Swaminarayan Hindu temple located on Eleanor St, Rosehill, and a Murugan Hindu temple in Mays Hill, off Great Western Highway.


title: Parramatta

text: Parramatta Park is a large park adjacent to Western Sydney Stadium that is a popular venue for walking, jogging and bike riding. It was formerly the Governor's Domain, being land set aside for the Governor to supply his farming needs, until it was gazetted as a public park in 1858. As the Governor's Domain, the grounds were considerably larger than the current 85 hectare Parramatta Park, extending from Parramatta Road in the south as evident by a small gatehouse adjacent to Parramatta High School. For a time Parramatta Park housed a zoo until 1951 when the animals were transferred to Taronga Zoo.


title: Parramatta

text: Parramatta is known as the 'River City' as the Parramatta River flows through the Parramatta CBD. Its foreshore features a playground, seating, picnic tables and pathways that are increasingly popular with residents, visitors and CBD workers.


title: Parramatta

text: Prince Alfred Square is a Victorian era park located within the CBD on the northern side of the Parramatta River. It is one of the oldest public parks in New South Wales with trees dating from circa 1869. Prior to being a public park, it was the site of Parramatta's second gaol from 1804 until 1841 and the first female factory in Australia between 1804 and 1821.


title: Parramatta

text: In contrast to the high level of car dependency throughout Sydney, a greater proportion of Parramatta's workers travelled to work on public transport (45.2%) than by car (36.2%) in 2016.


title: Parramatta

text: Parramatta railway station is a major transport interchange on the Sydney rail network. It is served by Sydney Trains' Cumberland Line, Inner West & Leppington Line and North Shore & Western Line. NSW TrainLink operate intercity services on the Blue Mountains Line as well as services to rural New South Wales. The station was originally opened in 1855, located in what is now Granville, and known as Parramatta Junction. The station was moved to its current location and opened on 4 July 1860, five years after the first railway line in Sydney was opened, running from Sydney to Parramatta Junction.


title: Parramatta

text: The current station was upgraded, with work beginning in late 2003 and the new interchange opening on 19 February 2006. The original station still exists within the over-all structure as part of Platform 4.


title: Parramatta

text: Parramatta is also serviced by a major bus interchange located on the south eastern side of the railway station. The interchange is served by buses utilising the North West T-Way to Rouse Hill and the Liverpool-Parramatta T-Way to Liverpool. Parramatta is also serviced by two high-frequency Metrobus services:


title: Parramatta

text: A free bus Route 900 is operated by Transdev NSW in conjunction with the state government. Route 900 circles Parramatta CBD. A free bus also links Parramatta Stadium to Parramatta railway station during major sporting events.


title: Parramatta

text: The Parramatta ferry wharf is at the Charles Street Weir, which divides the tidal saltwater from the freshwater of the upper river, on the eastern boundary of the Central Business District. The wharf is the westernmost destination of Sydney Ferries' Parramatta River ferry services.


title: Parramatta

text: The Parramatta Light Rail project was announced in 2015. Lines originating from Carlingford and Olympic Park via Wentworth Point will form a combined route at Rydalmere or Camellia and pass through Parramatta before terminating at Westmead. The line will open in 2023.


title: Parramatta

text: Sydney Metro West is a planned metro line between the Sydney central business district and Westmead. The line was announced in 2016 and would include a station at Parramatta.


title: Parramatta

text: Parramatta Road has always been an important thoroughfare for Sydney from its earliest days. From Parramatta the major western road for the state is the Great Western Highway. The M4 Western Motorway, running parallel to the Great Western Highway has taken much of the traffic away from these roads, with entrance and exit ramps close to Parramatta.


title: Parramatta

text: James Ruse Drive serves as a partial ring-road circling around the eastern part of Parramatta to join with the Cumberland Highway to the north west of the city.


title: Parramatta

text: The main north-south route through Parramatta is Church Street. To the north it becomes Windsor Road, and to the south it becomes Woodville Road.


title: Parramatta

text: According to the 2016 census conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the suburb of Parramatta had a population of 25,798. Of these:


title: Parramatta

text: Parramatta is home to several primary and secondary schools. Arthur Phillip High School is the oldest public school in the district (it is in buildings which have been continuously used as a school since 1875), established in 1960 in its own right. Parramatta High School was the first coeducational school in the Sydney metropolitan area established in 1913. Our Lady of Mercy College is one of the oldest Catholic schools in Australia. Macarthur Girls High School is successor to an earlier school 'Parramatta Commercial and Household Arts School'. Others schools include Parramatta Public School, Parramatta East Public School, Parramatta West Public School, and St Patrick's Primary Parramatta.


title: Parramatta

text: Several tertiary education facilities are also located within Parramatta. A University of New England study centre and two Western Sydney University campuses are situated in the suburb. The Western Sydney University Parramatta Campus consists of four sites: Parramatta South (the main site), Parramatta North (including the adjacent UWS Village, the Parramatta City campus located at 100 George Street and the Flagship Parramatta City Campus located at One Parramatta Square. Parramatta South campus occupies the site of the historic Female Orphan School. Alphacrucis College is a national vocational and higher education college is also located in the suburb. The University of Sydney has also announced that it intends to establish a new campus in Parramatta.


title: Parramatta

text: On 16 March 2020, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation opened a new Western Sydney newsroom in Horwood Place at Parramatta incorporating space for 12 staff and news production equipment with the capacity to broadcast live radio programs. According to the ABC, the opening formed part of its strategic goal to improve its presence in outer metropolitan areas. Additionally, the ABC announced on 16 June 2021 its intention to relocate approximately 300 employees to Parramatta, which is part of a five-year plan which aims to have 75% of its content makers based away from the network's Ultimo headquarters by 2025.


title: Parramatta

text: As the centre of the City of Parramatta, as well as the centre and second largest business district of Sydney, Parramatta hosts many festivals and events. Riverside Theatres is a performing arts centre located on the northern bank of Parramatta River. The city hosts the following events:


title: Parramatta

text: Parramatta Park contains Old Government House and thus Parramatta was once the capital of the colony of New South Wales until Governors returned to residing in Sydney in 1846. Another feature is the natural amphitheatre located on one of the bends of the river, named by Governor Philip as "the Crescent", which is used to stage concerts. It is home to the Dairy Cottage, built from 1798 to 1805, originally a single-room cottage and is one of the earliest surviving cottages in Australia.


title: Parramatta

text: The remains of Governor Brisbane's private astronomical observatory, constructed in 1822, are visible. Astronomers who worked at the observatory, discovering thousands of new stars and deep sky objects, include James Dunlop and Carl Rümker. In 1822, the architect S. L. Harris designed the Bath House for Governor Brisbane and built it in 1823. Water was pumped to the building through lead pipes from the river. In 1886, it was converted into a pavilion.


title: Parramatta

text: Parramatta is the home of several professional sports teams. These teams include the Parramatta Eels of the National Rugby League and Western Sydney Wanderers of the A-League. Both teams formerly played matches at Parramatta Stadium that has since been demolished, and replaced with the 30,000-seat Western Sydney Stadium. Parramatta Stadium was also home to the now dissolved Sydney Wave of the former Australian Baseball League and Parramatta Power of the former National Soccer League. The newly built Bankwest Stadium opened its gates for the community on 14 April 2019 with free entry for all fans. Located on O’Connell Street, the stadium is in proximity of the Parramatta CBD. The opening sporting event was the 2019 Round 6 NRL clash between Western Sydney rivals the Parramatta Eels and Wests Tigers on Easter Monday 22 April. The Eels won the match by a score of 51-6. It is being predicted that the new stadium will boost Western Sydney economy by contributing millions of dollars to it.


title: Greater Cairo

text: The Greater Cairo Area (GCA; ) is the largest metropolitan area in Egypt, the largest urban area in Africa, the Middle East, and the Arab world, and the 6th largest metropolitan area in the world. It consists of all cities in the Cairo Governorate as well as Giza, 6th of October, Sheikh Zayed City in the Giza Governorate and Shubra El Kheima and Obour in the Qalyubia Governorate, with a total population estimated at 20,901,000; area: 1,709 km; density: 10,400/km.


title: Greater Cairo

text: The Greater Cairo Area and its surrounding region is classified as hot desert climate (BWh) in Köppen-Geiger classification, as all of Egypt. Cairo and its surrounding region have very similar day to day temperatures; however, the less populated parts at the east and the west do not have the urban heat, which makes them more prone to have soft hail.


title: Lineage II

text: Lineage II is a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) for Microsoft Windows and the second game in the "Lineage" series. It is a prequel to "Lineage" and is set 150 years before the first game. It has become popular since its October 1, 2003 launch in South Korea, reporting 1,000,918 unique users during the month of March 2007. To date, the game has been played by more than 14 million users, most of whom are based in Asia.


title: Lineage II

text: "Lineage II" adopted a free-to-play model in Lineage II: Goddess of Destruction, with all game content being free except for "purchasable in-game store items and packs" in November 2011. A prequel, , was released as a mobile game in 2016.


title: Lineage II

text: The first thing a player does when playing "Lineage II" is to create a character. They can choose their character's race and personalise the character's face and hair. However, the gameplay allows many options for personalisation of the character visuals: for example, the player can choose attributes and traits like a hairstyle, hair colour, facial expression, and gender among other features.


title: Lineage II

text: Every player has to begin the game in a temple in their character's race's zone (for example: Humans start in "Talking Island" and the Dark Elves in "The Shilen Temple"). Most commonly, the player can choose between a mage and a fighter in each race except Dwarves and Kamael, which can be only fighters.


title: Lineage II

text: A major part of "Lineage II" gameplay is the combat. Monsters can be found outside of Towns on the hunting fields or deep inside underground dungeons. When the player defeats a monster, their character gets XP and SP to help them level up and learn new skills.