title: Necessary Roughness (film)

text: The "Los Angeles Times" called it "a genial, slight, entirely predictable football comedy". Roger Ebert wrote a more positive review, giving the film three out of four stars. Ebert stated that the film is predictable but does not pretend to be anything more than entertainment.


title: Necessary Roughness (film)

text: In an unusual coincidence, Southwest Texas State University, the real team that is the fictional Texas State's first opponent in the film, was renamed Texas State University several years after the film was released. Prior to the renaming a "Texas State University" did not exist. The real Texas State's "Bobcats" (as opposed to the fictional "Fighting Armadillos") now compete at the FBS (Div 1) level, the same level as the fictional Texas State.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Jacob Henry Schiff (born Jakob Heinrich Schiff; January 10, 1847 – September 25, 1920) was a German-born Jewish American banker, businessman, and philanthropist. Among many other things, he helped finance the expansion of American railroads, and the Japanese military efforts against Tsarist Russia in the Russo-Japanese War.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Born in Frankfurt, Germany, Schiff migrated to the United States after the American Civil War and joined the firm Kuhn, Loeb & Co. From his base on Wall Street, he was the foremost Jewish leader from 1880 to 1920 in what later became known as the "Schiff era", grappling with all major Jewish issues and problems of the day, including the plight of Russian Jews under the Tsar, American and international anti-semitism, care of needy Jewish immigrants, and the rise of Zionism. He also became a director of many important corporations, including the National City Bank of New York, Equitable Life Assurance Society, Wells Fargo & Company, and the Union Pacific Railroad. In many of his interests he was associated with E. H. Harriman.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Schiff was born in 1847 in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, to Moses and Clara (née Niederhofheim) Schiff, members of a distinguished Ashkenazi Jewish rabbinical family that traced its lineage in Frankfurt back to 1370. One ancestor, David Tevele Schiff, became lead rabbi in Great Britain and from 1765 until his death was acting head of the London Synagogue. Meir Ben Jacob Schiff, another relative, had become renowned as a Talmudic scholar and commentator in the 14th century. Jacob's father, Moses Schiff, was a broker for the Rothschilds. Schiff was educated in the schools of Frankfurt, and was first employed in the banking and brokerage business as an apprentice in 1861. After the American Civil War had ended in April 1865, Schiff came to the United States, arriving in New York City on August 6. He became a broker on November 21, 1866, and joined the firm of Budge, Schiff & Company in 1867. He became a naturalized citizen of the United States in September 1870.However, Schiff's modern biographer Cohen, says this happened a year later.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Upon the dissolution of Budge, Schiff & Company in 1872, Schiff decided to return to Germany. In 1873 he became manager of the Hamburg branch of the London & Hanseatic Bank. He returned to Frankfurt, however, upon the death of his father later that year. In 1874 Abraham Kuhn of the banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb & Company invited him to return to New York and enter the firm. Not long after joining the firm of Kuhn, Loeb & Co., Schiff was in essence running the business.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Along with H. B. Claflin, Marcellus Hartley, Robert L. Cutting, and Joseph Seligman, he was a founder of the Continental Bank of New York in August 1870.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Schiff accepted Kuhn's invitation in January 1875, bringing to Kuhn, Loeb & Company his connections with Sir Ernest Cassel of London, Robert Fleming of Dundee (later of London), and of the Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas (Bank of Paris and the Netherlands or Paribas). On May 6, 1875, he married Therese Loeb, daughter of Solomon Loeb. The couple were the parents of a son, Mortimer L. Schiff and a daughter, Frieda.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: In 1885, Schiff became head of Kuhn, Loeb & Company. Besides financing Eastern railroads such as the Pennsylvania and the Louisville & Nashville, he took part in the reorganization of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in 1896–99, and at various times aided the American Smelting & Refining Company (ASARCO), the Westinghouse Electric Company, and the Western Union Telegraph Company. Less fortunate was his share in the reorganization in 1902 of the Metropolitan Street Railway of New York.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: He became associated with E. H. Harriman in notable contests with James J. Hill and J.P. Morgan & Company for control of several Western railroads. Schiff served as a director of the Equitable Life Assurance Society, National City Bank of New York, Central Trust Company, Western Union Telegraph Company, Union Pacific Railroad, and Bond & Mortgage Guarantee Company. He was elected a director of Wells Fargo & Company in September 1914 to succeed his brother-in-law, Paul Warburg, who had resigned to accept appointment to the original Federal Reserve Board.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: What is perhaps Schiff's most famous financial action took place during the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). Schiff met with Takahashi Korekiyo, deputy governor of the Bank of Japan, in Paris in April 1904. Schiff agreed to extend loans to the Empire of Japan in the amount of $200 million (equivalent to $ billion in ), through Kuhn, Loeb & Co. These loans were the first major flotation of Japanese bonds on Wall Street, and provided approximately half the funds needed for Japan's war effort. Schiff made this loan in part because he believed gold was not as important as national effort and desire to win a war and due to the apparent underdog status of Japan at the time-a European empire had not yet been defeated by a non-Western nation, in a modern, full-scale war. It is quite likely Schiff also saw this loan as a means of answering, on behalf of the Jewish people for the anti-Semitic actions of the Russian Empire, specifically the recent Kishinev pogrom in 1903.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: This loan attracted worldwide attention, and had major consequences. Since their domestic economy was still developing, Japan's military was dependent on massive imports of munitions, purchases made possible by Schiff's loan. In 1905, Japan awarded Schiff the Order of the Sacred Treasure, and in 1907, the Order of the Rising Sun, Gold and Silver Star, the second highest of the eight classes of that Order. Schiff was the first foreigner to receive the Order in person from Emperor Meiji in the Imperial Palace. Schiff also had a private audience with King Edward VII of the United Kingdom in 1904.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: In addition to his famous loan to Japan, Schiff financed loans to many other nations, including those that would come to comprise the Central Powers. During World War I, Schiff urged U.S. President Woodrow Wilson and other Allied statesmen to end the war as quickly as possible, even without an Allied victory. He feared for the lives of his family, back in Germany, but also for the future of his adopted land. He arranged loans to France and other nations for humanitarian purposes, and spoke out against submarine warfare.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Schiff forbid any of the funds from his loans from going to the Russian Empire, due to the Tzarist regime's oppression of the Jewish people. When the Tzar was overthrown in 1917, Schiff believed that the oppression of Russia's Jews would end and formally repealed the impediments within his firm against lending to Russia.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: "Schiff's gripe against Russia had been its anti-Semitism. At home Schiff had never shown any sympathy for socialism, not even the milder Morris Hillquit variety. Schiff had declared victory for his purposes in Russia after the tsar was toppled in March 1917 and Alexander Kerensky, representing the new provisional government, had declared Jews to be equal citizens. In addition to repeated public statements of support, he used both his personal wealth and the resources of Kuhn Loeb to float large loans to Kerensky's regime. When Lenin and Trotsky seized power for themselves in November 1917, Schiff immediately rejected them, cut off further loans, started funding anti-Bolshevist groups, and even demanded that the Bolsheviks pay back some of the money he'd loaned Kerensky. Schiff also joined a British-backed effort to appeal to fellow Jews in Russia to continue the fight against Germany."


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Schiff believed in the Jewish charitable principle of Zedakah. Beginning in childhood he recalled "Kindness was the keynote of the household... It was made our duty to put one-tenth aside for charity according to the old Jewish tradition."


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Schiff always felt strongly about his connection to the Jewish people, and demonstrated this through his philanthropy. He founded the Jewish Industrial Removal Office which relocated New York immigrant Jews to western United States. He also founded an additional point of immigrant entry to the U.S. through Galveston, Texas. He supported relief efforts for the victims of pogroms in Russia, and helped establish and develop Hebrew Union College, the Jewish Theological Seminary, the Jewish Division in the New York Public Library, and the American Jewish Committee.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Schiff grew to be one of American Jewry's top philanthropists and leaders, donating to nearly every major Jewish cause, New York examples being the Montefiore Home for Chronic Invalids, of which he was president, the Young Men's Hebrew Association building and the Jewish Theological Seminary.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: He was also involved with many secular American causes: in addition to serving on the Board of Managers of the New York Zoological Society, he gave to such organizations as the Boy Scouts of America, the Harvard Semitic Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, Metropolitan Museum of Art, American Fine Arts Society, American Geographical Society, and Barnard College; and a number of other organizations for civil rights and the disadvantaged, such as the American Red Cross, the Visiting Nurse Service of New York and Henry Street Settlement (New York) and Tuskegee Institute.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Schiff was actively concerned with the improvement of civic conditions in New York. He was a vice president of the New York Chamber of Commerce, and a member of the Committee of 70 which resulted in the overthrow of the Tweed Ring.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: On his 70th birthday, he distributed $700,000 among various charitable organizations and public institutions


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Schiff believed in the Talmudic principle that "twice blessed is he who gives in secret." He did not permit his name to be attached to the buildings he sponsored, with the one exception of the Schiff Pavilion at his Montefiore Hospital, and never discussed the size of his gifts. Because of his secrecy, the exact amount of his philanthropic donations is impossible to calculate, but it has been estimated between $50 and $100 million dollars.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: The Action Française movement and its leader, Charles Maurras, claimed that Schiff was thoroughly pro-German and had worked to prevent American entry into World War I. Maurras went so far as to suggest that a telegram from Schiff and other prominent American Jewish leaders convinced President Wilson to give in to certain German arguments at the post-war peace negotiations – including allowing Upper Silesia to have a plebiscite rather than being ceded to Poland. The telegram is not known to have actually existed. Moreover, it has been argued that Schiff stopped financing transactions for Germany or the Central Powers as of 1914, stopped speaking German in public and was eager to demonstrate his moral and financial commitment to the Allied cause.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: A practitioner of Reform Judaism, Schiff supported political, secular Zionism. Despite not agreeing fully with the ideas of Theodor Herzl, and in fact believing that Zionism would cause Americans to question his loyalty, he donated to many Jewish projects in Palestine, including the Technical Institute of Haifa. As the situation for Eastern European Jews grew more dire, with the Russian Revolution and subsequent Russian Civil War, and pogroms in Ukraine, Schiff made more considerable contributions to the Zionist effort; he even offered to join the Zionist organization, provided he could publish a statement he'd prepared. This offer was denied, and so he never formally joined the Zionist camp.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Historian George F. Kennan noted that Schiff helped finance revolutionary propaganda during the Russo-Japanese war and revolution of 1905, through the Society of Friends of Russian Freedom.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: "The Jewish Communal Register of New York City" stated that "Mr. Schiff has always used his wealth and his influence in the best interests of his people. He financed the enemies of autocratic Russia and used his financial influence to keep Russia from the money markets of the United States."


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Schiff died at his Fifth Avenue home in Manhattan, New York City on September 25, 1920. His funeral was held three days later at Temple Emanu-El, then located at Forty-third Street and Fifth Avenue in Manhattan.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: His estate was estimated at about $50,000,000 (approximately $ today). He bequeathed $1,350,000 to various institutions, most of which had received benefactions during his life. The largest bequests were $500,000 to the Federation for the support of Jewish Philanthropic Societies of New York City and $300,000 to the Montefiore Home.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: The Jacob Schiff Center, named after him, was a prominent Jewish cultural center and synagogue from the 1930s through at least the 1960s. It was located on Valentine Avenue, near the intersection of Fordham Road and the Grand Concourse in the Fordham section of the Bronx.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: New York City public school number 192 in West Harlem is also named for him. It serves grades pre-K through 5.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: Jacob-Schiff-Straße in Frankfurt is named after him, in honor of the charitable donations he had made to the city. When the Nazi Party took power in 1933, the street's name was changed to Mummstraße after Daniel Heinrich Mumm von Schwarzenstein, the city's former mayor, as part of aryanization. After World War II ended, the street's name was changed back.


title: Jacob Schiff

text: David T. Schiff's son Andrew Neman Schiff was married previously to former Vice President Al Gore's daughter, Karenna. Together they had three children, before divorcing in 2010.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: The 5th Wave is a trilogy of young adult post-apocalyptic sci-fi novels written by American author Rick Yancey. The series started in May 2013 with the first book, "The 5th Wave". A sequel titled "The Infinite Sea" was published in 2014. The trilogy concluded in 2016 with the final book, "The Last Star".


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Earth is systematically attacked by a group of aliens known as "the Others". They exist in an unknown form and attack through a series of waves. After the first four waves have decimated the human population, the remaining populace is terrifyingly awaiting the arrival a new Fifth Wave, one that will supposedly wipe the human race clean off the planet. The story follows a group of children as they try to find their way through a world that is slowly reverting to the Stone Age.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Yancey stated in an interview with "Lightspeed Magazine" that the basis for "The 5th Wave" came from a question he asked his wife about her worst fears. "It was one of those three a.m. conversations where your mind starts going, and I asked her, on the spur of the moment, 'What is your greatest fear?' She said, without hesitation, 'Alien abduction.'" Yancey continued on, telling how he developed the plot for the series. "It was basically trying to think like an alien, and considering the fact that if they are out there, they probably wouldn’t attack without getting to know us very, very well. They would learn how we think, they would learn about what do humans do in times of crisis, and they would turn that to their own advantage. So, when I was working through how the attacks might work, I realized first that it couldn’t just be one attack—the world’s too big—you’d have to do it in stages, or waves." The first book was officially published on May 7, 2013.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: The book opens in the midst of the Fourth Wave and follows Cassie's quest to find her brother, Sammy, after he is taken by U.S. Army soldiers. Cassie is shot by an Other-affiliated sniper, a "Silencer", from the woods on her trek, and is later rescued by Evan Walker, who nurses her back to health and agrees to help her find her brother. Meanwhile, Sammy arrives at Wright-Patterson AFB, which is now a "training camp" called Camp Haven. It is revealed over the course of the story that the soldiers are recruiting (truly, abducting) children into an army, telling them they are the last hope for fighting back against the Others. Sammy is placed in Squad 53 and befriends squadmate Ben Parish, who is coincidentally Cassie's long-lost crush from high school. After the two set out, Cassie and Evan are attacked by a squad from Wright-Patterson, and, after seeing how easily Evan dispatches them, Cassie finds out that Evan was the Silencer who originally shot her. He then helped her because he had fallen in love and couldn't bring himself to kill her. The two, though uneasily, coordinate a plan to extract Sammy then begin executing it. While deployed, Ben and his squadmate Ringer start to piece together their true purposes and learn that Wright-Patterson is actually run by the Others. It is revealed that the Others are masquerading as a resistance force, abducting and training the children into a fighting force, which they will deploy as the Fifth Wave to end humanity. Ben and Ringer decide to bolt with the rest of Squad 53, but Ben insists on going back for Sammy, who was left on base due to his age.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Ben and Cassie both enter the base. They eventually run into each other and join each other. They find Sammy, but are taunted and thwarted by the acting commander of the base, Colonel Alexander Vosch. Evan saves them and says his goodbyes to Cassie before he detonates bombs that level the base, though he is lost in the process. Cassie, Ben, and Sammy ride off with Squad 53 as Wright-Patterson is destroyed.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: The book was adapted into a film by J Blakeson and Columbia Pictures, under the title "The 5th Wave", and was released on January 22, 2016. The film was mildly successful, though news is still pending regarding the production of a sequel.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: The book becomes much more involved with the members of Squad 53 and the character Ringer. The group takes refuge in an old hotel near the ruins of Wright-Patterson, at Cassie's insistence that Evan is still alive. Ringer sets out to find an alternate route, though it goes awry when she mistakes Teacup, a small girl of the squad, for a Silencer, shoots her, and is taken by an approaching helicopter. Evan is revealed to have survived, having been rescued by another Silencer named Grace. Evan attempts to kill Grace after he finds out she is hunting Cassie, and though he fails, he manages to flee during an attack by hidden assailants. Evan finds the hotel Cassie is stationed at, though he is shot and knocked out in a misunderstanding with Squad 53. Cassie tends to him, while Ben angrily awaits his awakening. Later, a helicopter quickly flies over the hotel, and then a small girl, whom Sammy identifies as one Megan, appears. Evan wakes up and warns them that she is rigged with a bomb that explodes when it comes into contact with human breath. Evan and Cassie extract the bomb from Megan's throat. Grace appears and, after a violent confrontation, is killed when Private Poundcake detonates the bomb near her, also killing himself and destroying the hotel.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: The second part of the story follows Private Ringer. She is taken to a base somewhere, similar to Wright-Patterson, and meets the alive-and-well Colonel Vosch. Vosch constantly thwarts her with mind games and preaches to her a philosophy that "rage is not the answer". She semi-befriends a recruit called Razor, who is aware that Vosch and the staff of the base are indeed the Others. Vosch installs Ringer with a piece of technology, the "twelfth system", that enhances her strength. He also reveals to Ringer that Silencers were never actually Others, just humans planted with fake memories and enhanced by the twelfth system with a link to the alien Mothership. It is concluded that there are only dozens of true Others in the world, and that the Mothership is the last remnant of their society programmed with the goal of eradicating humans. Ringer and Razor attempt to escape, though Razor secretly conspired with Vosch, and they were being monitored the entire time. Ringer learns, neutralizes Razor, and runs off, but not fast enough to evade Vosch, who incapacitates her. Razor is ordered to rejuvenate Ringer, though he does more and the two sleep together in a rough, hazy love. When they arrive back on base, Razor kills Teacup, whom Vosch used as a bargaining chip, in order to set Ringer free. Razor is shot dead, and Ringer escapes the base.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: As the novel closes, Cassie and Squad 53 recover from the bomb that destroyed the hotel, when Evan, weak and exhausted, emerges from the woods.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: The book was noted for its dark appeal, and was released to the same good reception as its predecessor.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: The Fifth Wave is still commencing, or so the characters believe. Ringer and Evan know that once Vosch and the other few Others are withdrawn from the surface, the Mothership will drop massive bombs on the surface to obliterate any trace of humanity left on Earth. Cassie and Squad 53 settle in the dead Silencer Grace's former home. Ringer returns to Vosch knowing that he will kill Ben Parish and the rest of Squad 53 if she does not kill the persistently rebellious Evan Walker for him. She takes a helicopter to the town that the squad stationed themselves in and is attacked by a Silencer. She is met by Ben after the Silencer is killed, and the two head to the house. Ringer immediately attempts to kill Evan, but they are interrupted by an incoming helicopter. Evan realizes why Ringer intended to kill him and he submits and is taken.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: The group devises a plan to not only save Evan but to end the Others permanently. Cassie and Ringer infiltrate the base via a hijacked helicopter. Ringer detonates several bombs to incite chaos on the base, and, after many complications, they reach the command center of the base. Ben, having stayed behind to protect Sam and Megan, is attacked by a patrol and the three are taken back to the base. Cassie and Ringer attempt to find Evan's data on the CPU to locate him, though they do not know how to sift through each cell individually, and so Cassie downloads the data of every logged person to her own head to find it. She learns everything there is to know about anything who was ever downloaded in the CPU, and she learns the codes and layout of the base. Evan arrives, now completely devoid of humanity at the hands of the twelfth system. He fights Ringer and disables her easily. However, he walks into a trap when Cassie drops a live electric cable on the wet surface beneath him (as a result of the sprinkler system). Ringer wakes up to see Vosch, who has become attached to her and wishes to bring her with him in his extraction pod. The conversation is only a decoy from Ringer, allowing Cassie to shoot and kill him from behind. Cassie then uses the knowledge she gained to open Vosch's escape pod and she ascends into the sky. Ringer gets ahold of a device from Vosch that will electrocute any soldier with a tracking implant in them. Without much else of a choice, she activates it. Ben, Sam, and Megan dive out of their helicopter as the soldiers and pilot die, and they realize Cassie and Ringer must still be alive.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Cassie, now ascending to the Mothership, has a chance to glimpse the memories that she now has from tens of thousands of people. She begins to truly think about what humanity is worth, when the pod nears the Mothership. She takes out an explosive pill from her pocket that Vosch originally gave to Ringer so she could kill herself rather than be destroyed in the bombs of the Fifth Wave. She bites down on the pill, and the Mothership explodes. Ben and the kids witness this to their sorrow and delight. They enter the base and find Ringer paralyzed on the floor.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Some time later, the group has settled down in a house in Marble Falls, with Ben and Ringer raising Sam and Megan like their own children, and Evan (the twelfth system having kept him alive and the group having restored his memories and humanity with the CPU) watches over them. Seeing no future for himself there, he sets off away from the four, on a mission to kill every single Silencer and Fifth Waver there is left in the world.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Cassiopeia "Cassie" Marie Sullivan - the main protagonist of the series. Her namesake is the constellation Cassiopeia. Both of her parents died in the first four waves. Her younger brother Sammy is taken by The Others to a "training camp" called Camp Haven, formerly, Wright-Patterson AFB. She is seventeen years old and is described as a short, strawberry-blonde girl with average features.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Evan Walker - a farm boy from rural Ohio. All of his family and girlfriend were killed in the Third Wave by the Red Death. Earlier in his life at a carnival, he meets Grace, who is the only person he finds to be like him, an Other. He saves Cassie after she is shot by an Other sniper, the "Silencer". Cassie soon finds out that Evan is actually an Other and not truly human. He is described as being a tall boy, at least eighteen or nineteen years old, being very muscular with chocolate-brown hair. Cassie also notes his soft hands. He develops strong feelings for Cassie, and so does she. Though, these feelings are strained when Cassie learns that Evan is an Other. Evan is rescued by Grace, who tries to seduce him, but, after they are attacked and Grace is wounded, he makes his way to Cassie. Grace, however, follows him there. A confrontation ensues, after which Poundcake blows up the hotel after Evan was left behind in the hotel, and it is not clear if Evan survives. However, at the end of "The Infinite Sea", he emerges from the woods to find Cassie.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Benjamin "Ben" Thomas Parish or "Zombie" - the varsity quarterback of the football team at Cassie's school. Cassie secretly was in love with him. His family was killed during the first four waves by a group of psychotic looters. He is crushed by the fact that he ran while his baby sister was killed. He keeps a locket with a photo of her. He becomes a member of Camp Haven's makeshift army, not knowing that they are The Others (though he eventually finds out), taking the nickname "Zombie". After one of his squadmates goes crazy, or "Dorothy", Private Ringer replaces him. He obsesses with getting her to smile. Cassie describes him as overall gorgeous.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Marika "Ringer" - a member of Squad 53. Her father was an Atheist and a chess player. He taught her how to play. Marika's father was usually drunk. Her father is infected with the Red Death and dies of the disease. Marika wandered through the wilderness before forcefully being recruited into Camp Haven's army, where she took the nickname "Ringer". She is a replacement after Private Tank of Squad 53 went crazy, "Dorothy", and pulled a gun on his squad. Zombie is obsessed with getting Ringer to smile. On their first patrol, she and Zombie find that Camp Haven's officials are actually The Others. She is described as having glossy black hair and mild Asian features. In "The Infinite Sea", she grows closer to Private Teacup, and, after being captured, grows feelings for a recruit named Razor.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Sammy "Nugget" Sullivan - Cassie's five-year-old little brother. At his refugee camp, he boards a bus from Camp Haven and is recruited into its army, unbeknownst to his father's death. He joins Squad 53 and friends Zombie deeply. Sammy is not allowed to go on his squad's patrol due to his age. (We later find out the purpose of kids his age at Camp Haven in "The Infinite Sea".) Zombie, Cassie, and Evan unite after Commander Vosch attempts to kill Sammy. Evan destroys the base, though it is not clear whether he survives or not, and Cassie, Sam and Ben escape.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Vosch - the leading officer at Camp Haven. He is sadistic and cruel. He survives the destruction of Camp Haven and "enhances" Ringer with the twelfth system, a piece of Other technology designed to enhance the human anatomy in ways such as strength, agility, and speed. Vosch also tries to kill Sammy via electrocution while having Zombie and Cassie watch, though Evan managed to cut the power at Camp Haven just in time. Vosch also personally killed Cassie's father at her refugee camp.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Grace - a Silencer like Evan. They befriended each other before the waves began. Grace saves Evan after he destroys Camp Haven. One night after one of her hunts, she tries to seduce Evan, but he attacks her and renders her unconscious. Believing her to be dead, Evan heads back to the hotel Cassie's group has taken refuge in. Grace follows him to Cassie's group where she then attacks them. After this violent confrontation, Private Poundcake, now mortally wounded, goes back to the hotel to retrieve the bomb dropped by Sammy and detonates it an arms-length away from Grace, killing both of them.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Dumbo - the medical officer in Squad 53. One of his most prominent features is his extraordinarily large ears, like his namesake.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Allison "Teacup" or "Cup" - a seven-year-old member of Squad 53. She is described as "the meanest seven-year-old you've ever seen" by Zombie. Teacup grows close to Ringer after the destruction of Camp Haven. She is shot by Ringer who mistakes her for an Other. Teacup is captured alongside Ringer and Vosch uses Teacup as leverage against Ringer. Teacup is killed by Razor so Vosch will have no more leverage against her.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Poundcake - a chubby member of Squad 53 who is mostly silent. His mother was killed by the Red Death. While he was on a supply run, he returned to find his brother gone. On the supply run, he found only a sweet treat, his namesake, as his drill sergeant thought he was "so sweet". He sacrificed himself to save the others of his group by detonating a bomb rigged to detonate on high concentrations of carbon dioxide in close proximity to Grace, a Silencer targeting the group.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Megan - a seven-year-old girl rescued and taken to Camp Haven. She meets and befriends Sammy on the bus they ride. Megan is, along with many other kids her age that are part of the Fifth Wave, rigged with a carbon dioxide-bomb. She is dropped off near Cassie's group's hideout. Evan and Cassie manage to get the bomb out of her, for which they plan to use to attack the others, though Poundcake ends up detonating it to save the others from Grace.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Flintstone "Flint" - a boy around Ben and Cassie's age. He is the former leader of Squad 53, until his drill sergeant, Reznik, replaced him with Zombie. He accidentally kills himself after he messes with the piece of equipment Zombie and Ringer found on Reznik. He was a skeptic of the conspiracy they told of.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Tank - a young boy in Squad 53. He goes "Dorothy" (crazy) and is replaced by Ringer. Zombie and Dumbo discover him dead in the P&D Hangar (Processing and Disposal).


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Kenny "Oompa" - an eight-or-nine-year-old boy on Squad 53. He is killed by grenade shrapnel on the squad's first patrol.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: Razor - a recruit at the base where Ringer was captured. He helped her escape, though Ringer finds out he was secretly working with Vosch. After a fight with Vosch injuring Ringer, Razor is assigned to watch her in a hospital littered with dead bodies. Razor clears these out. He and Ringer attempt to reconcile and do so easily. They in turn sleep together. When they return to the base, he shoots Teacup so that Vosch will have no leverage over Ringer. He in turn is shot and killed himself.


title: The 5th Wave (series)

text: In March 2012, Columbia Pictures picked up the film rights to the trilogy, with Graham King and Tobey Maguire attached as producers. A film adaptation of the first novel in the series was released on January 22, 2016. It was directed by J Blakeson, with a screenplay by Susannah Grant, Akiva Goldsman, and Jeff Pinkner. While the film was a moderate box office success, it was derided by critics and audiences, and prospects of adapting the rest of the series remain low.


title: Afterschool

text: Afterschool is a 2008 American drama film written and directed by Antonio Campos and stars Ezra Miller in his film debut. Filmed at the Pomfret School in Pomfret, Connecticut, "Afterschool" premiered at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival in the program Un Certain Regard. The film gained an Independent Spirit Award and Gotham Award nomination for Campos and won the Jury Prize for experimental narrative film at the Nashville Film Festival.


title: Afterschool

text: While doing a film project at a private school, Internet video-obsessed teenager Robert catches twin sisters dying due to drugs contaminated with rat poison. Confused, Robert does not call for help but rather simply walks over to the girls and sits on the floor with them, pulling one into his lap as she dies. This scene, caught on Robert's camera and by another student on a cell phone, is repeatedly shown, but always from the same angle: with Robert's back to the viewer. The viewer cannot see her death but only hear her cries slowly subside. This is all caught on a video camera Robert was using for a school project. After the deaths, an atmosphere of paranoia and unease sets in among students and teachers, Robert being affected as well. The school claims that the drugs were bought outside the school and enforces a new, much harsher, drug policy wherein bags are searched and students are expelled. Robert and another student, Amy, are assigned to make a memorial video. The school is not happy with the result and has it re-edited, to make a smoother version.


title: Afterschool

text: While making the video, Robert and Amy begin a romantic relationship, wherein they both have sex for the first time in a wooded area. However, it is later hinted that Robert’s roommate may be involved romantically with Amy, as well. He fights with his roommate, who sold the drugs to the twins, and shouts that he killed the girls. The school questions him about this accusation, and is relieved that Robert says it was not substantiated. Robert is asked to take a leave of absence from the school. Toward the end of the film, we are finally shown the scene of the girls' deaths from the front and see Robert pressing his hand over her mouth and nose, smothering her. Later, Robert is shown at the school nurse, taking a daily dose of pills, showing that Robert is now on medication. The film ends as an unseen person with a cell phone videos him while he looks at two pictures of the deceased twins.


title: Afterschool

text: "Afterschool" has an 80% approval rating on review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 44 reviews with an average rating of 6.55/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Antonio Campos' "Afterschool" is an intelligent, ambitious debut that boasts strong performances and plenty of ideas."


title: Shore durometer

text: Higher numbers on the scale indicate a greater resistance to indentation and thus harder materials. Lower numbers indicate less resistance and softer materials.


title: Shore durometer

text: The term is also used to describe a material's rating on the scale, as in an object having a "'Shore durometer' of 90."


title: Shore durometer

text: The scale was defined by Albert Ferdinand Shore, who developed a suitable device to measure hardness in the 1920s. It was neither the first hardness tester nor the first to be called a "durometer" (ISV "duro-" and "-meter"; attested since the 19th century), but today that name usually refers to Shore hardness; other devices use other measures, which return corresponding results, such as for Rockwell hardness.


title: Shore durometer

text: There are several scales of durometer, used for materials with different properties. The two most common scales, using slightly different measurement systems, are the ASTM D2240 type A and type D scales.


title: Shore durometer

text: However, the ASTM D2240-00 testing standard calls for a total of 12 scales, depending on the intended use: types A, B, C, D, DO, E, M, O, OO, OOO, OOO-S, and R. Each scale results in a value between 0 and 100, with higher values indicating a harder material.


title: Shore durometer

text: Durometer, like many other hardness tests, measures the depth of an indentation in the material created by a given force on a standardized presser foot. This depth is dependent on the hardness of the material, its viscoelastic properties, the shape of the presser foot, and the duration of the test. ASTM D2240 durometers allows for a measurement of the initial hardness, or the indentation hardness after a given period of time. The basic test requires applying the force in a consistent manner, without shock, and measuring the hardness (depth of the indentation). If a timed hardness is desired, force is applied for the required time and then read. The material under test should be a minimum of 6 mm (0.25 inches) thick. Theoretical background of the test is considered in Stoßprobleme in Physik, Technik und Medizin by Grundlagen und Anwendungen


title: Shore durometer

text: The ASTM D2240 standard recognizes twelve different durometer scales using combinations of specific spring forces and indentor configurations. These scales are properly referred to as durometer types; i.e., a durometer type is specifically designed to determine a specific scale, and the scale does not exist separately from the durometer. The table below provides details for each of these types, with the exception of Type R.


title: Shore durometer

text: Note: Type R is a designation, rather than a true "type". The R designation specifies a presser foot diameter (hence the R, for radius; obviously D could not be used) of 18 ± 0.5 mm (0.71 ± 0.02 in) in diameter, while the spring forces and indenter configurations remain unchanged. The R designation is applicable to any D2240 Type, with the exception of Type M; the R designation is expressed as Type xR, where x is the D2240 type, e.g., aR, dR, etc.; the R designation also mandates the employment of an operating stand.


title: Shore durometer

text: The final value of the hardness depends on the depth of the indenter after it has been applied for 15 seconds on the material. If the indenter penetrates 2.54 mm (0.100 inch) or more into the material, the durometer is 0 for that scale. If it does not penetrate at all, then the durometer is 100 for that scale. It is for this reason that multiple scales exist. But if the hardness is <10 °Sh or >90 °Sh the results are not to be trusted. The measurement must be redone with adjacent scale type.


title: Shore durometer

text: Durometer is a dimensionless quantity, and there is no simple relationship between a material's durometer in one scale, and its durometer in any other scale, or by any other hardness test.


title: Shore durometer

text: Using linear elastic indentation hardness, a relation between the ASTM D2240 hardness and the Young's modulus for elastomers has been derived by Gent.Gent's relation has the form


title: Shore durometer

text: This relation gives a value of formula_4 at formula_5 but departs from experimental data for formula_6. Mix and Giacomin derive comparable equations for all 12 scales that are standardized by ASTM D2240.


title: Shore durometer

text: A first-order estimate of the relation between ASTM D2240 type D hardness (for a conical indenter with a 15° half-cone angle) and the elastic modulus of the material being tested is


title: Shore durometer

text: Another Neo-Hookean linear relation between the ASTM D2240 hardness value and material elastic modulus has the form


title: Shore durometer

text: where formula_14 is the ASTM D2240 type A hardness, formula_11 is the ASTM D2240 type D hardness, and formula_2 is the Young's modulus in MPa.


title: History of geometry

text: Geometry (from the ; "geo-" "earth", "-metron" "measurement") arose as the field of knowledge dealing with spatial relationships. Geometry was one of the two fields of pre-modern mathematics, the other being the study of numbers (arithmetic).


title: History of geometry

text: Classic geometry was focused in compass and straightedge constructions. Geometry was revolutionized by Euclid, who introduced mathematical rigor and the axiomatic method still in use today. His book, "The Elements" is widely considered the most influential textbook of all time, and was known to all educated people in the West until the middle of the 20th century.


title: History of geometry

text: In modern times, geometric concepts have been generalized to a high level of abstraction and complexity, and have been subjected to the methods of calculus and abstract algebra, so that many modern branches of the field are barely recognizable as the descendants of early geometry. (See Areas of mathematics and Algebraic geometry.)


title: History of geometry

text: The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to early peoples, such as the ancient Indus Valley (see Harappan mathematics) and ancient Babylonia (see Babylonian mathematics) from around 3000 BC. Early geometry was a collection of empirically discovered principles concerning lengths, angles, areas, and volumes, which were developed to meet some practical need in surveying, construction, astronomy, and various crafts. Among these were some surprisingly sophisticated principles, and a modern mathematician might be hard put to derive some of them without the use of calculus and algebra. For example, both the Egyptians and the Babylonians were aware of versions of the Pythagorean theorem about 1500 years before Pythagoras and the Indian Sulba Sutras around 800 BC contained the first statements of the theorem; the Egyptians had a correct formula for the volume of a frustum of a square pyramid.


title: History of geometry

text: Problem 50 of the Ahmes papyrus uses these methods to calculate the area of a circle, according to a rule that the area is equal to the square of 8/9 of the circle's diameter. This assumes that is 4×(8/9) (or 3.160493...), with an error of slightly over 0.63 percent. This value was slightly less accurate than the calculations of the Babylonians (25/8 = 3.125, within 0.53 percent), but was not otherwise surpassed until Archimedes' approximation of 211875/67441 = 3.14163, which had an error of just over 1 in 10,000.


title: History of geometry

text: Ahmes knew of the modern 22/7 as an approximation for , and used it to split a hekat, hekat x 22/x x 7/22 = hekat; however, Ahmes continued to use the traditional 256/81 value for for computing his hekat volume found in a cylinder.


title: History of geometry

text: Problem 48 involved using a square with side 9 units. This square was cut into a 3x3 grid. The diagonal of the corner squares were used to make an irregular octagon with an area of 63 units. This gave a second value for of 3.111...


title: History of geometry

text: Problem 14 in the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus gives the only ancient example finding the volume of a frustum of a pyramid, describing the correct formula:


title: History of geometry

text: The Babylonians may have known the general rules for measuring areas and volumes. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if "π" is estimated as 3. The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the base and the height, however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. The Pythagorean theorem was also known to the Babylonians. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used "π" as 3 and 1/8. The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven miles today. This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. There have been recent discoveries showing that ancient Babylonians may have discovered astronomical geometry nearly 1400 years before Europeans did.


title: History of geometry

text: The Indian Vedic period had a tradition of geometry, mostly expressed in the construction of elaborate altars.


title: History of geometry

text: Early Indian texts (1st millennium BC) on this topic include the "Satapatha Brahmana" and the "Śulba Sūtras".


title: History of geometry

text: According to , the "Śulba Sūtras" contain "the earliest extant verbal expression of the Pythagorean Theorem in the world, although it had already been known to the Old Babylonians." The diagonal rope (') of an oblong (rectangle) produces both which the flank ("pārśvamāni") and the horizontal (') <ropes> produce separately."


title: History of geometry

text: They also contain statements (that with hindsight we know to be approximate) about squaring the circle and "circling the square."


title: History of geometry

text: The "Baudhayana Sulba Sutra", the best-known and oldest of the "Sulba Sutras" (dated to the 8th or 7th century BC) contains examples of simple Pythagorean triples, such as: formula_2, formula_3, formula_4, formula_5, and formula_6 as well as a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square: "The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square." It also contains the general statement of the Pythagorean theorem (for the sides of a rectangle): "The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together."


title: History of geometry

text: According to mathematician S. G. Dani, the Babylonian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322 written c. 1850 BC "contains fifteen Pythagorean triples with quite large entries, including (13500, 12709, 18541) which is a primitive triple, indicating, in particular, that there was sophisticated understanding on the topic" in Mesopotamia in 1850 BC. "Since these tablets predate the Sulbasutras period by several centuries, taking into account the contextual appearance of some of the triples, it is reasonable to expect that similar understanding would have been there in India." Dani goes on to say:


title: History of geometry

text: would not correspond directly to the overall knowledge on the topic at that time. Since, unfortunately, no other contemporaneous sources have been found it may never be possible to settle this issue satisfactorily."


title: History of geometry

text: In all, three "Sulba Sutras" were composed. The remaining two, the "Manava Sulba Sutra" composed by Manava (fl. 750-650 BC) and the "Apastamba Sulba Sutra", composed by Apastamba (c. 600 BC), contained results similar to the "Baudhayana Sulba Sutra".


title: History of geometry

text: For the ancient Greek mathematicians, geometry was the crown jewel of their sciences, reaching a completeness and perfection of methodology that no other branch of their knowledge had attained. They expanded the range of geometry to many new kinds of figures, curves, surfaces, and solids; they changed its methodology from trial-and-error to logical deduction; they recognized that geometry studies "eternal forms", or abstractions, of which physical objects are only approximations; and they developed the idea of the "axiomatic method", still in use today.


title: History of geometry

text: Thales (635-543 BC) of Miletus (now in southwestern Turkey), was the first to whom deduction in mathematics is attributed. There are five geometric propositions for which he wrote deductive proofs, though his proofs have not survived. Pythagoras (582-496 BC) of Ionia, and later, Italy, then colonized by Greeks, may have been a student of Thales, and traveled to Babylon and Egypt. The theorem that bears his name may not have been his discovery, but he was probably one of the first to give a deductive proof of it. He gathered a group of students around him to study mathematics, music, and philosophy, and together they discovered most of what high school students learn today in their geometry courses. In addition, they made the profound discovery of incommensurable lengths and irrational numbers.


title: History of geometry

text: Plato (427-347 BC) was a philosopher, highly esteemed by the Greeks. There is a story that he had inscribed above the entrance to his famous school, "Let none ignorant of geometry enter here." However, the story is considered to be untrue. Though he was not a mathematician himself, his views on mathematics had great influence. Mathematicians thus accepted his belief that geometry should use no tools but compass and straightedge – never measuring instruments such as a marked ruler or a protractor, because these were a workman's tools, not worthy of a scholar. This dictum led to a deep study of possible compass and straightedge constructions, and three classic construction problems: how to use these tools to trisect an angle, to construct a cube twice the volume of a given cube, and to construct a square equal in area to a given circle. The proofs of the impossibility of these constructions, finally achieved in the 19th century, led to important principles regarding the deep structure of the real number system. Aristotle (384-322 BC), Plato's greatest pupil, wrote a treatise on methods of reasoning used in deductive proofs (see Logic) which was not substantially improved upon until the 19th century.


title: History of geometry

text: Euclid (c. 325-265 BC), of Alexandria, probably a student at the Academy founded by Plato, wrote a treatise in 13 books (chapters), titled "The Elements of Geometry", in which he presented geometry in an ideal axiomatic form, which came to be known as Euclidean geometry. The treatise is not a compendium of all that the Hellenistic mathematicians knew at the time about geometry; Euclid himself wrote eight more advanced books on geometry. We know from other references that Euclid's was not the first elementary geometry textbook, but it was so much superior that the others fell into disuse and were lost. He was brought to the university at Alexandria by Ptolemy I, King of Egypt.


title: History of geometry

text: "The Elements" began with definitions of terms, fundamental geometric principles (called "axioms" or "postulates"), and general quantitative principles (called "common notions") from which all the rest of geometry could be logically deduced. Following are his five axioms, somewhat paraphrased to make the English easier to read.


title: History of geometry

text: Concepts, that are now understood as algebra, were expressed geometrically by Euclid, a method referred to as Greek geometric algebra.


title: History of geometry

text: Archimedes (287-212 BC), of Syracuse, Sicily, when it was a Greek city-state, is often considered to be the greatest of the Greek mathematicians, and occasionally even named as one of the three greatest of all time (along with Isaac Newton and Carl Friedrich Gauss). Had he not been a mathematician, he would still be remembered as a great physicist, engineer, and inventor. In his mathematics, he developed methods very similar to the coordinate systems of analytic geometry, and the limiting process of integral calculus. The only element lacking for the creation of these fields was an efficient algebraic notation in which to express his concepts.


title: History of geometry

text: After Archimedes, Hellenistic mathematics began to decline. There were a few minor stars yet to come, but the golden age of geometry was over. Proclus (410-485), author of "Commentary on the First Book of Euclid", was one of the last important players in Hellenistic geometry. He was a competent geometer, but more importantly, he was a superb commentator on the works that preceded him. Much of that work did not survive to modern times, and is known to us only through his commentary. The Roman Republic and Empire that succeeded and absorbed the Greek city-states produced excellent engineers, but no mathematicians of note.


title: History of geometry

text: The great Library of Alexandria was later burned. There is a growing consensus among historians that the Library of Alexandria likely suffered from several destructive events, but that the destruction of Alexandria's pagan temples in the late 4th century was probably the most severe and final one. The evidence for that destruction is the most definitive and secure. Caesar's invasion may well have led to the loss of some 40,000-70,000 scrolls in a warehouse adjacent to the port (as Luciano Canfora argues, they were likely copies produced by the Library intended for export), but it is unlikely to have affected the Library or Museum, given that there is ample evidence that both existed later.


title: History of geometry

text: Civil wars, decreasing investments in maintenance and acquisition of new scrolls and generally declining interest in non-religious pursuits likely contributed to a reduction in the body of material available in the Library, especially in the 4th century. The Serapeum was certainly destroyed by Theophilus in 391, and the Museum and Library may have fallen victim to the same campaign.


title: History of geometry

text: In the Bakhshali manuscript, there is a handful of geometric problems (including problems about volumes of irregular solids). The Bakhshali manuscript also "employs a decimal place value system with a dot for zero." Aryabhata's "Aryabhatiya" (499) includes the computation of areas and volumes.


title: History of geometry

text: Brahmagupta wrote his astronomical work "" in 628. Chapter 12, containing 66 Sanskrit verses, was divided into two sections: "basic operations" (including cube roots, fractions, ratio and proportion, and barter) and "practical mathematics" (including mixture, mathematical series, plane figures, stacking bricks, sawing of timber, and piling of grain). In the latter section, he stated his famous theorem on the diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral:


title: History of geometry

text: Brahmagupta's theorem: If a cyclic quadrilateral has diagonals that are perpendicular to each other, then the perpendicular line drawn from the point of intersection of the diagonals to any side of the quadrilateral always bisects the opposite side.


title: History of geometry

text: Chapter 12 also included a formula for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral (a generalization of Heron's formula), as well as a complete description of rational triangles ("i.e." triangles with rational sides and rational areas).


title: History of geometry

text: Brahmagupta's formula: The area, "A", of a cyclic quadrilateral with sides of lengths "a", "b", "c", "d", respectively, is given by


title: History of geometry

text: Brahmagupta's Theorem on rational triangles: A triangle with rational sides formula_9 and rational area is of the form:


title: History of geometry

text: The first definitive work (or at least oldest existent) on geometry in China was the "Mo Jing", the Mohist canon of the early philosopher Mozi (470-390 BC). It was compiled years after his death by his followers around the year 330 BC. Although the "Mo Jing" is the oldest existent book on geometry in China, there is the possibility that even older written material existed. However, due to the infamous Burning of the Books in a political maneuver by the Qin Dynasty ruler Qin Shihuang (r. 221-210 BC), multitudes of written literature created before his time were purged. In addition, the "Mo Jing" presents geometrical concepts in mathematics that are perhaps too advanced not to have had a previous geometrical base or mathematic background to work upon.


title: History of geometry

text: The "Mo Jing" described various aspects of many fields associated with physical science, and provided a small wealth of information on mathematics as well. It provided an 'atomic' definition of the geometric point, stating that a line is separated into parts, and the part which has no remaining parts (i.e. cannot be divided into smaller parts) and thus forms the extreme end of a line is a point. Much like Euclid's first and third definitions and Plato's 'beginning of a line', the "Mo Jing" stated that "a point may stand at the end (of a line) or at its beginning like a head-presentation in childbirth. (As to its invisibility) there is nothing similar to it." Similar to the atomists of Democritus, the "Mo Jing" stated that a point is the smallest unit, and cannot be cut in half, since 'nothing' cannot be halved. It stated that two lines of equal length will always finish at the same place, while providing definitions for the "comparison of lengths" and for "parallels", along with principles of space and bounded space. It also described the fact that planes without the quality of thickness cannot be piled up since they cannot mutually touch. The book provided definitions for circumference, diameter, and radius, along with the definition of volume.


title: History of geometry

text: The Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) period of China witnessed a new flourishing of mathematics. One of the oldest Chinese mathematical texts to present geometric progressions was the "Suàn shù shū" of 186 BC, during the Western Han era. The mathematician, inventor, and astronomer Zhang Heng (78-139 AD) used geometrical formulas to solve mathematical problems. Although rough estimates for pi (π) were given in the "Zhou Li" (compiled in the 2nd century BC), it was Zhang Heng who was the first to make a concerted effort at creating a more accurate formula for pi. Zhang Heng approximated pi as 730/232 (or approx 3.1466), although he used another formula of pi in finding a spherical volume, using the square root of 10 (or approx 3.162) instead. Zu Chongzhi (429-500 AD) improved the accuracy of the approximation of pi to between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927, with ⁄ (密率, Milü, detailed approximation) and ⁄ (约率, Yuelü, rough approximation) being the other notable approximation. In comparison to later works, the formula for pi given by the French mathematician Franciscus Vieta (1540-1603) fell halfway between Zu's approximations.


title: History of geometry

text: "The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art", the title of which first appeared by 179 AD on a bronze inscription, was edited and commented on by the 3rd century mathematician Liu Hui from the Kingdom of Cao Wei. This book included many problems where geometry was applied, such as finding surface areas for squares and circles, the volumes of solids in various three-dimensional shapes, and included the use of the Pythagorean theorem. The book provided illustrated proof for the Pythagorean theorem, contained a written dialogue between of the earlier Duke of Zhou and Shang Gao on the properties of the right angle triangle and the Pythagorean theorem, while also referring to the astronomical gnomon, the circle and square, as well as measurements of heights and distances. The editor Liu Hui listed pi as 3.141014 by using a 192 sided polygon, and then calculated pi as 3.14159 using a 3072 sided polygon. This was more accurate than Liu Hui's contemporary Wang Fan, a mathematician and astronomer from Eastern Wu, would render pi as 3.1555 by using ⁄. Liu Hui also wrote of mathematical surveying to calculate distance measurements of depth, height, width, and surface area. In terms of solid geometry, he figured out that a wedge with rectangular base and both sides sloping could be broken down into a pyramid and a tetrahedral wedge. He also figured out that a wedge with trapezoid base and both sides sloping could be made to give two tetrahedral wedges separated by a pyramid. Furthermore, Liu Hui described Cavalieri's principle on volume, as well as Gaussian elimination. From the "Nine Chapters", it listed the following geometrical formulas that were known by the time of the Former Han Dynasty (202 BCE–9 CE).


title: History of geometry

text: Continuing the geometrical legacy of ancient China, there were many later figures to come, including the famed astronomer and mathematician Shen Kuo (1031-1095 CE), Yang Hui (1238-1298) who discovered Pascal's Triangle, Xu Guangqi (1562-1633), and many others.


title: History of geometry

text: By the beginning of the 9th century, the "Islamic Golden Age" flourished, the establishment of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad marking a separate tradition of science in the medieval Islamic world, building not only Hellenistic but also on Indian sources.


title: History of geometry

text: Although the Islamic mathematicians are most famed for their work on algebra, number theory and number systems, they also made considerable contributions to geometry, trigonometry and mathematical astronomy, and were responsible for the development of algebraic geometry.


title: History of geometry

text: Al-Mahani (born 820) conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to problems in algebra. Al-Karaji (born 953) completely freed algebra from geometrical operations and replaced them with the arithmetical type of operations which are at the core of algebra today.


title: History of geometry

text: Thābit ibn Qurra (known as Thebit in Latin) (born 836) contributed to a number of areas in mathematics, where he played an important role in preparing the way for such important mathematical discoveries as the extension of the concept of number to (positive) real numbers, integral calculus, theorems in spherical trigonometry, analytic geometry, and non-Euclidean geometry. In astronomy Thabit was one of the first reformers of the Ptolemaic system, and in mechanics he was a founder of statics. An important geometrical aspect of Thabit's work was his book on the composition of ratios. In this book, Thabit deals with arithmetical operations applied to ratios of geometrical quantities. The Greeks had dealt with geometric quantities but had not thought of them in the same way as numbers to which the usual rules of arithmetic could be applied. By introducing arithmetical operations on quantities previously regarded as geometric and non-numerical, Thabit started a trend which led eventually to the generalisation of the number concept.


title: History of geometry

text: In some respects, Thabit is critical of the ideas of Plato and Aristotle, particularly regarding motion. It would seem that here his ideas are based on an acceptance of using arguments concerning motion in his geometrical arguments. Another important contribution Thabit made to geometry was his generalization of the Pythagorean theorem, which he extended from special right triangles to all triangles in general, along with a general proof.


title: History of geometry

text: Ibrahim ibn Sinan ibn Thabit (born 908), who introduced a method of integration more general than that of Archimedes, and al-Quhi (born 940) were leading figures in a revival and continuation of Greek higher geometry in the Islamic world. These mathematicians, and in particular Ibn al-Haytham, studied optics and investigated the optical properties of mirrors made from conic sections.


title: History of geometry

text: Astronomy, time-keeping and geography provided other motivations for geometrical and trigonometrical research. For example, Ibrahim ibn Sinan and his grandfather Thabit ibn Qurra both studied curves required in the construction of sundials. Abu'l-Wafa and Abu Nasr Mansur both applied spherical geometry to astronomy.


title: History of geometry

text: A 2007 paper in the journal "Science" suggested that girih tiles possessed properties consistent with self-similar fractal quasicrystalline tilings such as the Penrose tilings.


title: History of geometry

text: The transmission of the Greek Classics to medieval Europe via the Arabic literature of the 9th to 10th century "Islamic Golden Age" began in the 10th century and culminated in the Latin translations of the 12th century.


title: History of geometry

text: A copy of Ptolemy's "Almagest" was brought back to Sicily by Henry Aristippus (d. 1162), as a gift from the Emperor to King William I (r. 1154–1166). An anonymous student at Salerno travelled to Sicily and translated the "Almagest" as well as several works by Euclid from Greek to Latin. Although the Sicilians generally translated directly from the Greek, when Greek texts were not available, they would translate from Arabic. Eugenius of Palermo (d. 1202) translated Ptolemy's "Optics" into Latin, drawing on his knowledge of all three languages in the task.


title: History of geometry

text: The rigorous deductive methods of geometry found in Euclid's "Elements of Geometry" were relearned, and further development of geometry in the styles of both Euclid (Euclidean geometry) and Khayyam (algebraic geometry) continued, resulting in an abundance of new theorems and concepts, many of them very profound and elegant.


title: History of geometry

text: Advances in the treatment of perspective were made in Renaissance art of the 14th to 15th century which went beyond what had been achieved in antiquity.


title: History of geometry

text: In Renaissance architecture of the "Quattrocento", concepts of architectural order were explored and rules were formulated. A prime example of is the Basilica di San Lorenzo in Florence by Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446).


title: History of geometry

text: In c. 1413 Filippo Brunelleschi demonstrated the geometrical method of perspective, used today by artists, by painting the outlines of various Florentine buildings onto a mirror.


title: History of geometry

text: Soon after, nearly every artist in Florence and in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings, notably Masolino da Panicale and Donatello. Melozzo da Forlì first used the technique of upward foreshortening (in Rome, Loreto, Forlì and others), and was celebrated for that. Not only was perspective a way of showing depth, it was also a new method of composing a painting. Paintings began to show a single, unified scene, rather than a combination of several.


title: History of geometry

text: As shown by the quick proliferation of accurate perspective paintings in Florence, Brunelleschi likely understood (with help from his friend the mathematician Toscanelli), but did not publish, the mathematics behind perspective. Decades later, his friend Leon Battista Alberti wrote "De pictura" (1435/1436), a treatise on proper methods of showing distance in painting based on Euclidean geometry. Alberti was also trained in the science of optics through the school of Padua and under the influence of Biagio Pelacani da Parma who studied Alhazen's "Optics'.


title: History of geometry

text: Piero della Francesca elaborated on Della Pittura in his "De Prospectiva Pingendi" in the 1470s. Alberti had limited himself to figures on the ground plane and giving an overall basis for perspective. Della Francesca fleshed it out, explicitly covering solids in any area of the picture plane. Della Francesca also started the now common practice of using illustrated figures to explain the mathematical concepts, making his treatise easier to understand than Alberti's. Della Francesca was also the first to accurately draw the Platonic solids as they would appear in perspective.


title: History of geometry

text: Perspective remained, for a while, the domain of Florence. Jan van Eyck, among others, was unable to create a consistent structure for the converging lines in paintings, as in London's The Arnolfini Portrait, because he was unaware of the theoretical breakthrough just then occurring in Italy. However he achieved very subtle effects by manipulations of scale in his interiors. Gradually, and partly through the movement of academies of the arts, the Italian techniques became part of the training of artists across Europe, and later other parts of the world.


title: History of geometry

text: The culmination of these Renaissance traditions finds its ultimate synthesis in the research of the architect, geometer, and optician Girard Desargues on perspective, optics and projective geometry.


title: History of geometry

text: The "Vitruvian Man" by Leonardo da Vinci(c. 1490) depicts a man in two superimposed positions with his arms and legs apart and inscribed in a circle and square. The drawing is based on the correlations of ideal human proportions with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise "De Architectura".


title: History of geometry

text: In the early 17th century, there were two important developments in geometry. The first and most important was the creation of analytic geometry, or geometry with coordinates and equations, by René Descartes (1596–1650) and Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665). This was a necessary precursor to the development of calculus and a precise quantitative science of physics. The second geometric development of this period was the systematic study of projective geometry by Girard Desargues (1591–1661). Projective geometry is the study of geometry without measurement, just the study of how points align with each other. There had been some early work in this area by Hellenistic geometers, notably Pappus (c. 340). The greatest flowering of the field occurred with Jean-Victor Poncelet (1788–1867).


title: History of geometry

text: In the late 17th century, calculus was developed independently and almost simultaneously by Isaac Newton (1642–1727) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716). This was the beginning of a new field of mathematics now called analysis. Though not itself a branch of geometry, it is applicable to geometry, and it solved two families of problems that had long been almost intractable: finding tangent lines to odd curves, and finding areas enclosed by those curves. The methods of calculus reduced these problems mostly to straightforward matters of computation.


title: History of geometry

text: The very old problem of proving Euclid's Fifth Postulate, the "Parallel Postulate", from his first four postulates had never been forgotten. Beginning not long after Euclid, many attempted demonstrations were given, but all were later found to be faulty, through allowing into the reasoning some principle which itself had not been proved from the first four postulates. Though Omar Khayyám was also unsuccessful in proving the parallel postulate, his criticisms of Euclid's theories of parallels and his proof of properties of figures in non-Euclidean geometries contributed to the eventual development of non-Euclidean geometry. By 1700 a great deal had been discovered about what can be proved from the first four, and what the pitfalls were in attempting to prove the fifth. Saccheri, Lambert, and Legendre each did excellent work on the problem in the 18th century, but still fell short of success. In the early 19th century, Gauss, Johann Bolyai, and Lobachevsky, each independently, took a different approach. Beginning to suspect that it was impossible to prove the Parallel Postulate, they set out to develop a self-consistent geometry in which that postulate was false. In this they were successful, thus creating the first non-Euclidean geometry. By 1854, Bernhard Riemann, a student of Gauss, had applied methods of calculus in a ground-breaking study of the intrinsic (self-contained) geometry of all smooth surfaces, and thereby found a different non-Euclidean geometry. This work of Riemann later became fundamental for Einstein's theory of relativity.


title: History of geometry

text: It remained to be proved mathematically that the non-Euclidean geometry was just as self-consistent as Euclidean geometry, and this was first accomplished by Beltrami in 1868. With this, non-Euclidean geometry was established on an equal mathematical footing with Euclidean geometry.


title: History of geometry

text: While it was now known that different geometric theories were mathematically possible, the question remained, "Which one of these theories is correct for our physical space?" The mathematical work revealed that this question must be answered by physical experimentation, not mathematical reasoning, and uncovered the reason why the experimentation must involve immense (interstellar, not earth-bound) distances. With the development of relativity theory in physics, this question became vastly more complicated.


title: History of geometry

text: All the work related to the Parallel Postulate revealed that it was quite difficult for a geometer to separate his logical reasoning from his intuitive understanding of physical space, and, moreover, revealed the critical importance of doing so. Careful examination had uncovered some logical inadequacies in Euclid's reasoning, and some unstated geometric principles to which Euclid sometimes appealed. This critique paralleled the crisis occurring in calculus and analysis regarding the meaning of infinite processes such as convergence and continuity. In geometry, there was a clear need for a new set of axioms, which would be complete, and which in no way relied on pictures we draw or on our intuition of space. Such axioms, now known as Hilbert's axioms, were given by David Hilbert in 1894 in his dissertation "Grundlagen der Geometrie" ("Foundations of Geometry"). Some other complete sets of axioms had been given a few years earlier, but did not match Hilbert's in economy, elegance, and similarity to Euclid's axioms.


title: History of geometry

text: In the mid-18th century, it became apparent that certain progressions of mathematical reasoning recurred when similar ideas were studied on the number line, in two dimensions, and in three dimensions. Thus the general concept of a metric space was created so that the reasoning could be done in more generality, and then applied to special cases. This method of studying calculus- and analysis-related concepts came to be known as analysis situs, and later as topology. The important topics in this field were properties of more general figures, such as connectedness and boundaries, rather than properties like straightness, and precise equality of length and angle measurements, which had been the focus of Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry. Topology soon became a separate field of major importance, rather than a sub-field of geometry or analysis.


title: History of geometry

text: Developments in algebraic geometry included the study of curves and surfaces over finite fields as demonstrated by the works of among others André Weil, Alexander Grothendieck, and Jean-Pierre Serre as well as over the real or complex numbers. Finite geometry itself, the study of spaces with only finitely many points, found applications in coding theory and cryptography. With the advent of the computer, new disciplines such as computational geometry or digital geometry deal with geometric algorithms, discrete representations of geometric data, and so forth.


title: Mahabharat (2013 film)

text: Mahabharat is a 2013 Indian Hindi-language computer animated historical drama film, directed by Amaan Khan and based on the Hindu epic of the same name. The film is produced by Kushal Kantilal Gada and Dhaval Jayantilal Gada. The film was a Christmas release on 27 December 2013. Several actors like Amitabh Bachchan, Sunny Deol, Ajay Devgn, Anil Kapoor, Jackie Shroff, Vidya Balan, Manoj Bajpayee, Deepti Naval were signed up for the characters in the film. It is touted as the most expensive animated film in Bollywood. The movie tells the story of the Indian epic "Mahabharata". It received mixed reviews, with praise for its voice acting, but criticism for its animations.


title: Mahabharat (2013 film)

text: Two brothers come across a magic coin and fight for it. A bird appears from the coin and begins reciting the Mahabharata as a message for all of mankind.


title: Mahabharat (2013 film)

text: She sings the summary of the war's origins. Sage Durwas visits Princess Kunti's palace and blesses her that she will obtain sons from the gods. Kunti asks for a son from the sun god but becomes ridiculed for being an unwed mother, so she leaves him in a basket to float away in River Ganga. She marries Pandu and has 3 sons: Yudhishtir, Bheem and Arjun. Pandu's second wife, Madri, gives birth to Nakul and Sahadev. Pandu's sons are known as the Pandavas. Pandu's blind brother, Dhritarashta, has 100 sons, the Kauravas, with his wife Gandhari. The eldest Kaurava is Duryodhan. The Pandavas and Kauravas learn under Sage Dronacharya and develop animosity between one another, which sparks the Mahabharata.


title: Mahabharat (2013 film)

text: In Hastinapur, grandsire Bheeshma arrives at the exhibition of the Pandavas' and Kauravas' weapon skills. Karan, Kunti's first son that she gave away, arrives to challenge Arjun as the best archer. He is originally not allowed to participate in the challenge because he is not royalty, but Duryodhan declares him the King of Ang, eager to see Karan defeat Arjuna. Seeing them duel each other, Dronacharya declares Karan and Arjuna as equally skillful warriors. Yudhishtir is declared the King of Hastinapur, which makes Duryodhan jealous. His uncle, Shakuni, helps him devise a plan that will burn the Pandavas to ashes. They plan to burn their palace, but Vidur, another uncle, tells Bheem of the plan beforehand. Everyone believes that the Pandavas and Kunti have been burned alive, but with the help of Vidur, they use an underground escape route to flee the burning palace. Vidur advises them to live undercover in the forest for some time to build their strength and supporters, telling them that Krishna will guide them.


title: Mahabharat (2013 film)

text: King Draupad holds a competition to find a husband for his daughter, Draupadi. The Pandavas arrive in the disguise of Brahmins to partake, and Arjuna wins the competition. When Arjuna comes to tell Kunti the news, without hearing what happened, Kunti orders Arjuna to share whatever he has won amongst all five brothers. Krishna arrives and explains how in her past life, Draupadi had asked for a husband five times, and Shiva had granted this request.


title: Mahabharat (2013 film)

text: The Pandavas create a palace of illusions and invite Duryodhan, where Draupadi insults him out of vengeance. Duryodhan leaves feeling humiliated and angry. Duryodhan sets up a gambling match, where Yuddhishtir loses his kingdom and all of his possessions. He gambles away Draupadi, who Duryodhan publicly disrobes. Draupadi prays to Krishna, who uses his divine power to protect her dignity. To atone for their sins of gambling and not protecting Draupadi, the Pandavas go into exile again.


title: Mahabharat (2013 film)

text: Krishna warns the Kauravas against starting war, but they do not pay heed. Arjuna tells Krishna he cannot fight against his family, but Krishna tells him this is a war of right and wrong, and he must fight for the truth. Krishna reminds him that souls are immortal, so he should not worry about killing his family members' bodies. The Pandavas realize that they can't win until Bheeshma is on the battlefield because he has a boon that he cannot die. Arjuna reluctantly shoots him with many arrows to incapacitate him. The Pandavas send Arjuna's son Abhimanyu on the battlefield to break Dronacharya's labyrinth. Duryodhan and Shakuni trap Abhimanyu in the labyrinth formation and stab him from the back.


title: Mahabharat (2013 film)

text: Kunti visits Karan and tells her that she is his mother, begging him to spare the Pandavas. He promises not to kill any of the Pandava brothers except for Arjuna. On the battlefield, Duryodhan gets angry with Karan for not shooting the Pandavas when they are easy targets. Instead, while Karna is fixing his stuck wheel, Krishna tells Arjuna to shoot him, and Karan sacrifices himself for the sake of his mother. Seeing his army being defeated, Duryodhan sits in the ocean to meditate and Bheem follows him. They engage in duel until Bheem hits him in the thigh and kills him, ending the war. Kunti reveals to everyone that Karna was her eldest son and that he sacrificed himself for her to remove the stigma against him. Yuddhistir is crowned king and the Pandavas rule Hastinapur.


title: Mahabharat (2013 film)

text: The story telling bird tells the boys that they should never forget the lessons from the Mahabharat, such as respecting elders and living in unity.


title: Mahabharat (2013 film)

text: Amitabh Bachchan lent his baritone voice and sombre expressions to Bheeshma Pitamah, which coincidentally is the first time he dubbed for an animated character in his 51-year+ film career since 1969. Anil Kapoor dubbed for Karna while he was given an option to dub for the characters of both Karna and Arjuna. He took 15 days to complete his work while Manoj Bajpayee finished the dubbing for his character in just four days in Future Works Studio in Andheri, Mumbai. The trailer of the film was unveiled on 16 November 2013. Besides the launch of the trailer there were three audiovisuals that introduced the animated characters of Balan, Kapoor and Devgn. Jackie Shroff lent his voice for Duryodhan. Lord Krishna's voice is dubbed by Shatrughan Sinha. None of the A-listers charged any remuneration for lending their voices to the characters in the film. Film producers gave Shatrughan Sinha an option to choose any of the roles to lend his voice to. Sinha selected the role of Krishna. "Mahabharat" has an insurance cover of crore, thus becoming the highest insured Bollywood production film, beating "My Name Is Khan" (2010), which was insured for crore.


title: Mahabharat (2013 film)

text: The film received mixed reviews. Subhash K. Jha said, "If you were hoping that animation films would come of age with this purported epic, you are in for a disappointment. Though the characters from the "Mahabharat" have faces and voices of the biggest stars, the images do not add up to a compelling canvas. Not by a wide margin." "India TV" said, "The presentation is epic in intent, yes. Alas, the execution, packaging and projection leave the epic undernourished and over-emphasized." and rated it 2 out of 5 stars.


title: Mahabharat (2013 film)

text: Meena Iyer of "The Times of India" rated it three and half out of five, saying "Amitabh Bachchan's bartitone is used for the stellar Bheeshma Pitamah. Although the Big B doesn't have muscular arms like his animated counterpart, their faces match. A superlative list of actors like Sunny Deol (Bheem), Ajay Devgn (Arjun), Anil Kapoor (Karan), Jackie Shroff (Duryodhan), Manoj Bajpayee (Yudhisthir), Anupam Kher (Shakuni) and Vidya Balan (Draupadi) have also infused life into the computer generated characters with their inimitable voices." and concluded, "On the flip side, the animation effort itself is immature and several notches below those of Hollywood films. Yet the dub effort by the Bollywood superstars uplifts this epic, making it enjoyable."


title: Mahabharat (2013 film)

text: Deepanjana Pal of "Firstpost" said, "The artwork in "Mahabharat" is appalling and the animation is worse. From the movements of the characters to the visual effects - like two arrows going at each other - it looks like a pirated and outdated version of MS Paint was used to create the film." and added, "The movements of the characters are awkward and jerky, making it look like the mythical heroes learned how to walk from Godzilla. The battle scenes are not only badly drawn and animated, they're also boring." and concluded, "This new "Mahabharata" isn't so much a kid-friendly version as one made for dummies, by dummies."


title: Mahabharat (2013 film)

text: Taran Adarsh of "Bollywood Hungama" rated the film 3 out of 5 stars, saying "The USP of "Mahabharat" is that the characters in the film bear a strong resemblance to the actors lending them their voices. The film should work for two more reasons: the riveting story and the superior quality animation [a handful of scenes notwithstanding]. Besides, minute detailing has gone into the costumes, effects and the overall look." and concluded, "The one flaw that stands out is the lip sync of the characters with the voiceovers, which seems to go out of place in a few sequences.".


title: Charwoman

text: A charwoman (also chargirl, charlady or char) is an old-fashioned occupational term, referring to a paid part-time worker who comes into a house or other building to clean it for a few hours of a day or week, as opposed to a maid, who usually lives as part of the household within the structure of domestic service. A charwoman might work independently, often for cash in hand, or might come through an employment agency.


title: Charwoman

text: Before 1960, the term "charwoman" was used as an official job title by government agencies in the United States, including municipal and state governments and by federal agencies such as the Department of Commerce and Labor, the Bureau of the Census, and the Bureau of Immigration.


title: Charwoman

text: Charwomen have also sometimes been referred to as "scrubwomen". The word has the same root as "chore woman", one hired to do odd chores around the house. In British English, "cleaner" is now used much more often. In American English, the term "maid" is often used for any woman who cleans a home or hotel, whether she lives there or not.


title: Charwoman

text: A "char" or "chare" was a term (of work) in the sixteenth century, which gave rise to the word being used as a prefix to denote people working in domestic service. The usage of "charwoman" was common in the mid-19th century, often appearing as an occupation in the UK census of 1841. It fell out of common use in the later decades of the 20th century, often replaced by the term "daily (woman)". Unlike a maid or housekeeper (typically live-in positions), the charwoman usually worked for hourly wages, usually on a part-time contract, often having several different employers.


title: Charwoman

text: In British literature, Victorian examples includes Mrs. Dilber, Ebenezer Scrooge's charwoman, who appears in Charles Dickens's "A Christmas Carol". In the short story "The Diary of Anne Rodway", by Wilkie Collins, Anne investigates the murder of her friend Mary and learns that the suspect's wife is a woman "ready to turn her hand to anything: charing, washing, laying-out, keeping empty houses..." A charwoman appears in Franz Kafka's "The Metamorphosis" (1915).


title: Charwoman

text: In 1926, Lord Dunsany's fantasy novel "The Charwoman's Shadow" was published to good reviews. A woman granted eternal life, but not eternal youth, finds herself working forever as a magician's charwoman.


title: Charwoman

text: A charwoman, Sarah Cobbin, is a critical character in the detective novel "Part for a Poisoner" (1948) by E.C.R. Lorac. In the comic strip "Andy Capp" (from 1957), Andy's wife Flo is a charwoman. Another well-known fictional charwoman is Ada Harris, the central character in Paul Gallico's novel "Mrs 'Arris goes to Paris" (1958) and its three sequels.


title: Charwoman

text: Charwomen have often appeared on stage, radio, film, and television. The music hall comedian Arthur Lucan portrayed throughout his career a feisty Irish charwoman named Mrs. Riley opposite his wife Kitty McShane, who depicted Mrs Riley's daughter. The public's enthusiasm for these stage characters prompted the couple to make the pair a part of their repertoire and this led to sixteen Old Mother Riley films, from 1937 to 1952. In the radio comedy series "It's That Man Again" (1939–1949), Dorothy Summers played the part of Mrs Mopp, an office char whose catchphrase was "Can I do you now, Sir?" (i.e., "May I clean your office now, Sir?" but with an obvious double entendre). "Coronation Street" character Hilda Ogden (Jean Alexander) achieved mass popularity in the United Kingdom, and has become synonymous with charwoman due to her several jobs cleaning for businesses and neighbours in the show's local area, Weatherfield.


title: Charwoman

text: In 1963, Peggy Mount starred in "Ladies Who Do", in which a group of charwomen go into high finance under the guidance of the eccentric Colonel Whitforth (Robert Morley), in order to save their old neighbourhood from a team of ruthless developers led by Harry H. Corbett. In 1966–67, Kathleen Harrison starred as a charwoman who inherits £10 million from her employer, on the television series "Mrs. Thursday". Mabel (played by Barbara New) was the lowly charwoman and a main character in the 1990s British sitcom "You Rang, M'Lord?", which was set in the 1920s.


title: Charwoman

text: American comedian Carol Burnett made a charwoman character into a signature routine during her television career with Garry Moore and later on her own popular long-running variety show.


title: E series of preferred numbers

text: The E series is a system of preferred numbers (also called preferred values) derived for use in electronic components. It consists of the E3, E6, E12, E24, E48, E96 and E192 series, where the number after the 'E' designates the quantity of logarithmic value "steps" per decade. Although it is theoretically possible to produce components of any value, in practice the need for inventory simplification has led the industry to settle on the E series for resistors, capacitors, inductors, and zener diodes. Other types of electrical components are either specified by the Renard series (for example fuses) or are defined in relevant product standards (for example IEC 60228 for wires).


title: E series of preferred numbers

text: During the Golden Age of Radio (1920s to 1950s), numerous companies manufactured AM radio receivers for consumer use. In the early years, many components were not standardized between radio manufacturers. The capacitance values of capacitors (previously called condensers) and resistance values for resistors were different than today.


title: E series of preferred numbers

text: In 1924, the Radio Manufacturers Association (RMA) was formed by 50 radio manufacturers in Chicago to license and share patents. Over time, this group created some of the earliest standards for electronics components. In 1936, the RMA adopted a preferred number system for the resistance values of fixed composition resistors. Over time, resistor manufacturers migrated from older resistance values to the 1936 resistance value standard.


title: E series of preferred numbers

text: American and British military production during World War II was a major influence for establishing common standards across many industries, especially in electronics, where it was essential to produce large quantities of standardized electronic parts very quickly for wireless communication and Radar devices. Later, the mid-20th century baby boom and the invention of the transistor kicked off demand for consumer electronics goods during the 1950s. As transistor radio production migrated towards Japan during the late-1950s, it was critical for the electronic industry to have international standards.


title: E series of preferred numbers

text: As worked on by the RMA, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) began work on an international standard in 1948. The first version of this IEC Publication 63 (IEC 63) was released in 1952. Later, IEC 63 was revised, amended, and renamed into the current version known as IEC 60063:2015.


title: E series of preferred numbers

text: The E series of preferred numbers was chosen such that when a component is manufactured it will end up in a range of roughly equally spaced values (geometric progression) on a logarithmic scale. Each E series subdivides each decade magnitude into steps of 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192 values. Subdivisions of E3 to E192 ensure the maximum error will be divided in the order of 40%, 20%, 10%, 5%, 2%, 1%, 0.5%. Also, the E192 series is used for 0.25% and 0.1% tolerance resistors.


title: E series of preferred numbers

text: Since the electronic component industry established component values before standards discussions in the late-1940s, they decided that it wasn't practical to change the former established values. These older values were used to create the E6, E12, E24 series standard that was accepted in Paris in 1950 then published as IEC 63 in 1952. Eight of the E24 values do not match the following formula.


title: E series of preferred numbers

text: where formula_2 is the rounded value, formula_3 is an integer of the E series group size, and formula_4 is an integer of formula_5


title: E series of preferred numbers

text: For E3 to E24, the values are rounded to 2 significant figures. For unknown historical reasons, eight older industry values (shown in bold) are different from the calculated values.


title: E series of preferred numbers

text: The E3 series is rarely used, except for some components with high variations like electrolytic capacitors, where the given tolerance is often unbalanced between negative and positive such as or , or for components with uncritical values such as pull-up resistors. The calculated constant tangential tolerance for this series gives ( − 1) ÷ ( + 1) = 36.60%, approximately. While the standard only specifies a tolerance greater than 20%, other sources indicate 40% or 50%. Currently, most electrolytic capacitors are manufactured with values in the E6 or E12 series, thus E3 series is mostly obsolete.


title: E series of preferred numbers

text: Since some values in the E24 series do not exist in the E48, E96 and E192 series, resistor manufacturers have added the missing E24 values to of their 1%, 0.5%, 0.25%, 0.1% tolerance families. This allows easier purchasing migration between different tolerance parts. This type of combination is noted on resistor datasheets and webpages as "E96 + E24" and "E192 + E24".


title: E series of preferred numbers

text: If a manufacturer sold resistors with all values in a range of 10 ohms to 10 megaohms, the available resistance values for E3 through E12 would be:


title: E series of preferred numbers

text: If a manufacturer sold capacitors with all values in a range of 10 pF to 1000 μF, the available capacitance values for E3 and E6 would be:


title: Rebecca Saire

text: Rebecca Saire (born 16 April 1963) is a British actress and writer who gained early attention when, at the age of fourteen, she played Juliet for the "BBC Television Shakespeare" series.


title: Asshole

text: The word asshole (in North American English) or arsehole (in all other major varieties of the English language), is a vulgarism used to describe the anus, and often used pejoratively (as a type of synecdoche) to refer to people.


title: Asshole

text: The word "arse" in English derives from the Proto-Germanic (reconstructed) word "*arsaz", from the Proto-Indo-European word "*ors-", meaning "buttocks" or "backside". The combined form "arsehole" is first attested from 1500 in its literal use to refer to the anus. The metaphorical use of the word to refer to the worst place in a region (e.g., "the arsehole of the world"), is first attested in print in 1865; the use to refer to a contemptible person is first attested in 1933. In the ninth chapter of his 1945 autobiography, "Black Boy", Richard Wright quotes a snippet of verse that uses the term: "All these white folks dressed so fine / Their ass-holes smell just like mine ...". Its earliest known usage in newspaper as an insult was 1965. As with other vulgarities, these uses of the word may have been common in oral speech for some time before their first appearances in print. By the 1970s, "Hustler" magazine featured people they did not like as "Asshole of the Month." In 1972, Jonathan Richman of Modern Lovers recorded his song "Pablo Picasso", which includes the line "Pablo Picasso was never called an asshole."


title: Asshole

text: Until the early 1990s, the word was considered one of a number of words that could not be uttered on commercial television in the United States. Comedian Andrew Dice Clay caused a major shock when he uttered the word during a televised MTV awards show in 1989. However, there were PG-13 and R rated films in the 1980s that featured use of the word, such as the R-rated "The Terminator" (1984), the PG-13-rated "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation" (1989), and the PG-rated "Back to the Future" (1985). By 1994, however, vulgarity had become more acceptable, and the word was featured in dialog on the long-running television series "NYPD Blue", though it has yet to become anything close to commonplace on network TV. In some broadcast edits (such as the syndication airings of "South Park"), the word is partially bleeped out, as "assh—". A variant of the term, "ass clown", was coined and popularized by the 1999 comedy film "Office Space".


title: Asshole

text: The word is mainly used as a vulgarity, generally to describe people who are viewed as stupid, incompetent, unpleasant, or detestable. Moral philosopher Aaron James, in his 2012 book, "", gives a more precise meaning of the word, particularly to its connotation in the United States: A person, who is almost always male, who considers himself of much greater moral or social importance than everyone else; who allows himself to enjoy special advantages and does so systematically; who does this out of an entrenched sense of entitlement; and who is immunized by his sense of entitlement against the complaints of other people. He feels he is not to be questioned, and he is the one who is chiefly wronged.