title: Bellamkonda Suresh

text: Tollywood actor Nandamuri Balakrishna was involved in a shooting incident that took place on 3 June 2004 around 20:50 hrs IST at his residence in Jubilee Hills, Hyderabad. The actor had fired shots at the producer Bellamkonda Suresh and his associate Satyanarayana Chowdhary. Later both the wounded were admitted to Apollo hospital. The circumstances under which the case was handled led to much controversy as purported by the Human Rights Forum (HRF). The HRF questioned the authenticity of people who handled the case, and the circumstances under which the actor was shielded from police by being given refuge in the CARE Hospital without a justifiable cause.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: The golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia, , ), also known as the golden marmoset, is a small New World monkey of the family Callitrichidae. Native to the Atlantic coastal forests of Brazil, the golden lion tamarin is an endangered species. The range for wild individuals is spread across four places along southeastern Brazil, with a recent census estimating 3,200 individuals left in the wild and a captive population maintaining about 490 individuals among 150 zoos.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: The golden lion tamarin gets its name from its bright reddish orange pelage and the extra long hairs around the face and ears which give it a distinctive mane. Its face is dark and hairless. The bright orange fur of this species does not contain carotenoids, which commonly produce bright orange colors in nature. The golden lion tamarin is the largest of the callitrichines. It is typically around and weighs around . There is almost no size difference between males and females. As with all callitrichines, the golden lion tamarin has claw-like nails, instead of the flat nails found in other monkeys and apes, although callitrichines do have a flat nail on the big toe. Tegulae enable tamarins to cling to the sides of tree trunks. It may also move quadrupedally along the small branches, whether through walking, running, leaping or bounding. This gives it a locomotion more similar to squirrels than primates.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: The Golden Lion Tamarin has a very limited distribution range, as over time they have lost all but 2%–5% of their original habitat in Brazil. Today, this tamarin is confined to three small areas of the tropical rain forest in southeastern Brazil: Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, Fazenda União Biological Reserve, and private land through the Reintroduction Program. The first population estimate made in 1972 approximated the count at between 400 and 500. By 1981 the population was reduced to less than 200. Surveys from as recently as 1995 suggested that there may only have been at most 400 golden lion tamarins left in the wild; but the population has since recovered to some 3200 in the wild. Tamarins live along the far southeast border of the country in the municipalities of Silva Jardim, Cabo Frio, Saquarema, and Araruama. However, they have been successfully reintroduced to the municipalities of Rio das Ostras, Rio Bonito, and Casimiro de Abreu. Tamarins live in coastal lowland forests less than 300 m (984 ft) above sea level. They can be found in hilltop forests and swamp forests.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: The golden lion tamarin is active for a maximum of 12 hours daily. It uses different sleeping dens each day. By frequently moving their sleeping nests around, groups minimize the scent left behind, reducing the likelihood of predators finding them. The first activities of the day are traveling and feeding on fruits. As the afternoon nears, tamarins focus more on insects. By late afternoon, they move to their night dens. Tamarin groups use hollow tree cavities, dense vines or epiphytes as sleeping sites. Sites that are between off the ground are preferred. The golden lion tamarin tends to be active earlier and retire later in the warmer, wetter times of the years as the days are longer. During drier times, it forages for insects longer as they become scarcer.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: Golden lion tamarins are characterized by using manipulative foraging under tree barks and epiphytic bromeliads. Their sites of foraging are usually distributed around their home ranges, which are large territories (averaging 123 hectares) in which multiple foraging sites are located, to find sufficient resources over long periods of time. These areas are sufficient enough in size so that even if there is overlap in between the home range of two different groups, the interactions are minimal due to the distribution of the foraging sites (they spend 50% of their time in approximately 11% of their home range).


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: The golden lion tamarin has a diverse, omnivorous diet consisting of fruits, flowers, nectar, bird eggs, insects and small vertebrates. They rely on microhabitats for foraging and other daily activities and tamarins will use bromeliads, palm crowns, palm leaf sheaths, woody crevices, lianas, vine tangles, tree bark, rotten logs, and leaf litters. The golden lion tamarin uses its fingers to extract prey from crevices, under leaves, and in dense growth; a behavior known as "micromanipulation". It is made possible by elongated hands and fingers. Insects make up to 10–15% of its diet. Much of the rest is made of small, sweet, pulpy fruits. During the rainy season, the golden lion tamarin mainly eats fruit; however, during drier times, it must eat more of other foods like nectar and gums. Small vertebrates are also consumed more at these times as insects become less abundant.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: Golden lion tamarins are social and groups typically consist of 2-8 members. These groups usually consist of one breeding adult male and female but may also have 2–3 males and one female or the reverse. Other members include subadults, juveniles and infants of either sex. These individuals are typically the offspring of the adults. When there is more than one breeding adult in a group, one is usually dominant over the other and this is maintained through aggressive behavior. The dominance relationship between males and females depends on longevity in the group. A newly immigrated male is subordinate to the resident adult female who inherited her rank from her mother. Both males and females may leave their natal group at the age of four, however females may replace their mothers as the breeding adult, if they die, which will lead to the dispersal of the breeding male who is likely her father. This does not happen with males and their fathers. Dispersing males join groups with other males and remain in them until they find an opportunity to immigrate to a new group. The vast majority of recruits to groups are males. A male may find an opportunity to enter into a group when the resident male dies or disappears. Males may also aggressively displace resident males from their group; this is usually done by two immigrant males who are likely brothers. When this happens, only one of the new males will be able to breed and will suppress the reproduction of the other. A resident male may also leave a vacancy when his daughter becomes the breeding female and he must disperse to avoid inbreeding. Golden lion tamarins are highly territorial and groups will defend their home range boundaries and resources from other groups.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: Tamarins emit "whine" and "peep" calls, which are associated with alarm and alliances respectively. "Clucks" are made during foraging trips or during aggressive encounters, whether directed at conspecifics or predators. "Trills" are used to communicate over long distances to give away an individual's position. "Rasps" or "screeches" are usually associated with playful behavior. Tamarins communicate through chemicals marked throughout their territories. Reproductive males and females scent mark the most and their non-reproductive counterparts rarely do so. Dominant males use scent marking to show their social status and may suppress the reproductive abilities of the other males.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: The mating system of the golden lion tamarin is largely monogamous. When there are two adult males in a group only one of them will mate with the female. There are cases of a male mating with two females, usually a mother and daughter. Reproduction is seasonal and depends on rainfall. Mating is at its highest at the end of the rainy season between late March to mid-June and births peak during the September–February rains. Females are sexually mature between the ages of 15–20 months but it isn't until they are 30 months old that they can reproduce. Only dominant females can reproduce and will suppress the reproduction of the other females in the group. Males may reach puberty by 28 months. Tamarins have a four-month gestation period. Golden lion tamarin groups exhibit cooperative rearing of the infants. This is due to the fact that tamarins commonly give birth to twins and, to a lesser extent, triplets and quadruplets. A mother is not able to provide for her litter and needs the help of the other members of the group. The younger members of the groups may lose breeding opportunities but they gain parental experience in helping to rear their younger siblings. In their first 4 weeks, the infants are completely dependent on their mother for nursing and carrying. By week five, the infants spend less time on their mother’s back and begin to explore their surroundings. Young reach their juvenile stage at 17 weeks and will socialize other group members. The sub-adult phase is reached at 14 months, when a tamarin first displays adult behaviors.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: The golden lion tamarin has a mutualistic interaction with 96 species of plants found in the Atlantic Forest. This interaction is based on seed dispersal and food sources for the tamarins. The tamarins show repeat visits to those plants with abundant resources. They tend to move around their territories, and therefore, seeds are dispersed to areas far from the parent shadow, which is ideal for germination. Their seed distribution is important to forest regeneration, and genetic variability and survival of endangered plant species.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: A study has shown that increased predation has caused significant decreases in the population numbers. A survey conducted in 1992 found the number of wild population of golden lion tamarins to be 562 individuals in 109 groups. Currently, the average group size includes 3.6 to 5.7 individuals and densities from 0.39 groups/km to 2.35 groups/km. These predatory attacks occur at the golden lion tamarin sleeping sites. The predators make those sleeping sites, which are mainly tree holes (about 63.6%), larger in order to attack the golden lion tamarins, sometimes wiping out the entire family. The preferred sleeping sites of most golden lion tamarins are tree holes in living trees next to other larger trees with a small percentage of canopy cover. These sleeping sites not only provide a place for sleep, but also offer protection and easy access to foraging sites. Most of the tree holes are lower to the ground, so they are easier to enter. Tree holes that are located in living trees are drier, warmer, and have a lower number of insects and therefore a decreased percentage of transmitted diseases. A smaller percentage of canopy coverage allows the golden lion tamarins to detect the predators faster, and being surrounded by other large trees allows them access to escape routes. Due to degradation of their habitats, there are fewer trees that can support entire social groups and some have to resort to using bamboo (17.5%), vine tangles (9.6%), and bromeliads (4.7%) as a sleeping site, making them more susceptible to predators. Golden lion tamarins are known to use different den sites, but do not change sites often. They are more likely to reuse secure sites that will offer protection. However, the disadvantage of doing so is that predators are able to learn where these sites are located. Golden lion tamarins also scent mark their den holes, so they can quickly return to them in the afternoon time when predators are most active. While excessive scent makes it easier for golden lion tamarins to find their sleeping sites, it also helps predators locate their prey. Moreover, increased deforestation has decreased habitat space, providing predators easy access to their prey, causing a decline in the golden lion tamarin population.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: Threats to the golden lion tamarin population include illegal logging, poaching, mining, urbanization, deforestation, pet trading, and infrastructure development and the introduction of alien species. In 1969, the number of individuals in the Atlantic Forest was found to have dropped to a low of 150 individuals. In 1975 the golden lion tamarin was listed under Appendix I of CITES, given to animals threatened with extinction that may be or are being affected by trade. The species was listed as Endangered by the IUCN in 1982, and by 1984 the National Zoological Park in Washington, D.C. and the World Wide Fund for Nature, through the Golden Lion Tamarin Association, began a reintroduction programme from 140 zoos worldwide. Despite the success of the project, the IUCN classification rose to Critically Endangered in 1996. By 2003 the successful establishment of a new population at União Biological Reserve enabled downgrading the species to endangered, but the IUCN warns that extreme habitat fragmentation from deforestation means the wild population has little potential for any further expansion. In an attempt to curb the golden lion tamarin's precipitous decline, several conservation programs have been undertaken. The intent is to strengthen the wild population and maintain a secure captive population in zoos worldwide. The survival rate of re-introduced animals has been encouraging, but destruction of unprotected habitat continues.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: Because of the extensive habitat loss of the golden lion tamarin, the wild population reached endangered status in the early 1980s. Beginning in 1983, there has been a huge effort on behalf of scientists and conservationists to reintroduce captive-born golden lion tamarins back into the wild. With the help of the Brazilian government, conservationists established the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve and the União Biological Reserve as sites for reintroduction. The goals of the reintroduction process include increasing the size as well as the genetic diversity of the wild population, increasing the available range to better encompass the historic range of the tamarins in Brazil, and widening the scope of public awareness and education programs.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: The first step of reintroduction begins with zoo free ranging programs, where tamarins have access to explore the entire zoo. However, they are kept on zoo grounds by the presence of a nest box, an ice box like container where their food is kept. When the tamarins are reintroduced in Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, they require a large amount of post-release training and veterinary care. For the first 6–18 months the reintroduced groups are monitored. Additionally, 1-2 tamarins from each group are radio collared to allow careful monitoring, and all reintroduced tamarins are tattooed and dye marked for easy identification.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: Secondly, in an effort to save the golden lion tamarins from extinction, some of the golden lion tamarins have been removed from small, isolated unsafe forests and placed into a larger, protected forest; specifically they were moved to União Biological Reserve and Poço das Antas reserve. This effort to move the golden lion tamarins into União Biological Reserve in Brazil began in 1991. The golden lion tamarins faced the potential of getting new diseases that they had not been previously exposed to. Many were exposed to callitrichid hepatitis, and contracted the disease.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: Despite the challenge of illness, the forty-two translocated golden lion tamarins' population grew to over 200 in União Biological Reserve. The number of wild golden lion tamarins is now up in the thousands in all reserves and ranches combined in Brazil. These numbers were once down in the 200s in 1991. By 2025, the number of golden lion tamarins that are protected is projected to be greater than 2000.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: Golden lion tamarins are native to the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. Their original habitat was located from the southern part of the state of Rio de Janeiro to the southern part of the state of Espirito Santo. However, deforestation of Atlantic Forest for commercial purposes, predation, and capture of the golden lion tamarins for animal trade and sale as pets has limited their population to about five municipalities across Rio de Janeiro. Most of the population is now found in the Poco des Antas Biological Reserve in Rio de Janeiro.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: However, due to the deforestation and fragmentation of the Atlantic forest, their home ranges have decreased in size. The decrease in size has been reported in terms of fragmentation, and today the forest consists of thousands of fragments equaling only 8% of its former size. This directly affects their areas of foraging and subsequently, the amount of resources available.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: The habitat of the tamarins also affects their behavior and social interactions. For example, the type of trees present has a significant effect on the behavior of juvenile golden lion tamarins. Their juvenile behavior is characterized by social play between individuals of different ages and species. This is a key aspect of their social, cognitive and motor skill development, and it influences their behavior when facing competition and predators; how they play mirrors the way they act when facing predatory or competitive interactions. Social play is observed more in large branches (>10 cm) and vine tangles (4m above ground), which is considered safe for them, as they are less vulnerable to predators, compared to play in the dangerous areas including canopy branches and the forest floor. Therefore, deforestation affects the diversity in the forest and decreases the "safe" areas for play for the juvenile tamarins. As a result, play decreases and therefore the development of learned survivorship behaviors does as well. Also, if play is observed in the dangerous areas, the individuals are more exposed to predators, leading to a population decline; which resembles the effect of predation on their sleeping sites. The exposure to predation not only affects the juvenile tamarins but the adults as well, since it has been observed that play happens in the center of the group for protection of the young.


title: Golden lion tamarin

text: Additionally, this deforestation and fragmentation also leads to demographic instabilities, and an increased probability of inbreeding, consequently leading to inbreeding depression and a population decline. In the case of inbreeding, the problem lies in the increase of the isolated fragments where golden lion tamarins live. Inbreeding leads to low levels of genetic diversity and has a negative effect on survivorship; inbred offspring have a lower survivorship than non-inbred offspring. Fragmentation leads to a decline in dispersal and as a result, a decline in breeding with individuals of other groups. Consequently, inbreeding depression is observed in these populations. With delay breeding, the decrease and shortage of territory puts pressure on golden lion tamarins to disperse in order to find necessary resources and areas suitable for their survival. However, dispersal is risky and requires a lot of energy that could have been used for reproduction instead.


title: High Roller (Ferris wheel)

text: High Roller is a , diameter giant Ferris wheel on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada, United States. Owned and operated by Caesars Entertainment, it opened to the public on March 31, 2014 as the world's tallest, and is the world's second tallest Ferris wheel. It is taller than the Singapore Flyer, which had held the record since 2008.


title: High Roller (Ferris wheel)

text: High Roller was announced in August 2011 as the centerpiece of Caesars Entertainment Corporation's $550 million The LINQ. Arup Engineering, which previously consulted on the Singapore Flyer, acted as the structural engineer.


title: High Roller (Ferris wheel)

text: The wheel rotates on a pair of custom-designed spherical roller bearings, each weighing approximately . Each bearing has an outer diameter of , an inner bore of , and a width of .


title: High Roller (Ferris wheel)

text: The outer rim comprises 28 sections, each long, which were temporarily held in place during construction by a pair of radial struts, prior to being permanently secured by four cables.


title: High Roller (Ferris wheel)

text: The passenger cabins (or capsules) are mounted on the wheel's outboard rim and are individually rotated by electric motors to smoothly maintain a horizontal cabin floor throughout each full rotation. Preliminary designs anticipated 32 passenger cabins, each with a 40-passenger capacity —with the final design accommodating 28 40-person cabins and a total capacity of 1,120 passengers.


title: High Roller (Ferris wheel)

text: Each cabin weighs approximately , has a diameter of , includes of glass, and is equipped with eight flat-screen televisions.


title: High Roller (Ferris wheel)

text: At night the wheel is illuminated by a 2,000-LED system which can display a single solid color, differently colored sections, multiple colors moving around the rim, and custom displays for special events and holidays.


title: High Roller (Ferris wheel)

text: Located on Las Vegas Boulevard, across from Caesars Palace, construction was originally scheduled to begin in September 2011 with a late 2013 completion; subsequently revised to early 2014.


title: High Roller (Ferris wheel)

text: The outer rim of the wheel was completed on September 9, 2013. The first passenger cabin was delivered and installed in November 2013 and the final cabin was installed the following month. After preliminary testing, High Roller's lighting system was illuminated at sunset on February 28, 2014. High Roller opened to the public at 4 p.m. EST on March 31, 2014.


title: High Roller (Ferris wheel)

text: Tickets were originally expected to cost less than $20 per ride, but estimates had risen to "about $25 per person" by mid-2012 then "about $30 per person" in September 2013 news reports.


title: High Roller (Ferris wheel)

text: When High Roller opened to the public in March 2014, tickets for a single 30-minute ride, the time taken for the entire wheel to rotate once, cost $24.95 (daytime) and $34.95 (nighttime). Other ticket options included a $59.95 Express Pass, allowing the holder to skip the line and ride any time.


title: High Roller (Ferris wheel)

text: The Ain Dubai in the United Arab Emirates opened on October 21, 2021. It is tall and was announced in February 2013, with construction to begin in June 2013 and completion in 2015. Construction eventually began almost two years behind schedule in May 2015. Erection of the main support structure was completed in 2016.


title: Melee

text: A melee ( or , French: mêlée ) or pell-mell is disorganized hand-to-hand combat in battles fought at abnormally close range with little central control once it starts. In military aviation, a melee has been defined as "[a]n air battle in which several aircraft, both friend and foe, are confusingly intermingled".


title: Melee

text: In the 1579 translation of Plutarch's "Lives of the noble Grecians and Romanes", Sir Thomas North uses the term " to refer to a disorganized retreat. The phrase was later used in its current spelling in Shakespeare's "Richard III", 1594:


title: Melee

text: The phrase comes from the French expression "pêle-mêle", a rhyme based on the old French "mesler", meaning to mix or mingle.


title: Melee

text: The French term "melee" was first used in English in c. 1640 (also derived from the old French "mesler", but the Old French stem survives in "medley" and "meddle").


title: Melee

text: Lord Nelson described his tactics for the Battle of Trafalgar as inducing a "pell mell battle" focused on engagements between individual ships where the superior morale and skill of the Royal Navy would prevail.


title: Melee

text: The destroyer night action of the second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal on 13 November 1942, was so chaotic, and the opposing ships so intermingled, that an officer on later likened it to "a barroom brawl after the lights had been shot out".


title: Melee

text: In Australian Rules Football, the term "melee" is used by the Australian Football League, sports commentators and journalists as a polite term for a brawl or fighting during a football match, where football players physically attack. Melees often start as verbal disagreements between a small number players from the opposing teams, but can quickly escalate into many players from both teams joining in with this physical scuffle.


title: Aleut language

text: Aleut () or Unangam Tunuu is the language spoken by the Aleut living in the Aleutian Islands, Pribilof Islands, Commander Islands, and the Alaska Peninsula (in Aleut , the origin of the state name Alaska). Aleut is the sole language in the Aleut branch of the Eskimo–Aleut language family. The Aleut language consists of three dialects, including (Eastern Aleut), / (Atka Aleut), and / (Western Aleut; now extinct).


title: Aleut language

text: Various sources estimate there are fewer than 100 to 150 remaining active Aleut speakers. Eastern and Atkan Aleut are classified as "critically endangered and extinct" and have an EGIDS rating of 7. The task of revitalizing Aleut has largely been left to local government and community organizations. The overwhelming majority of schools in the historically Aleut-speaking regions lack any language/culture courses in their curriculum, and those that do fail to produce fluent or even proficient speakers.


title: Aleut language

text: The Eskimo and Aleut peoples were part of a migration from Asia across Beringia, the Bering land bridge between 4,000 and 6,000 years ago. During this period, the Proto-Eskimo-Aleut language was spoken, which broke up around 2000 BC (contemporaneous with the split of Proto-Indo-Iranian). Differentiation of the two branches is thought to have happened in Alaska because of the linguistic diversity found in the Eskimo languages of Alaska relative to the entire geographic area where Eskimo languages are spoken (eastward through Canada to Greenland). After the split between the two branches, their development is thought to have occurred in relative isolation.


title: Aleut language

text: Evidence suggests a culture associated with Aleut speakers on the Eastern Aleutian Islands as early as 4,000 years ago, followed by a gradual expansion westward over the next 1,500 years to the Near Islands. Another westward expansion may have occurred about 1,000 years ago, which may explain the lack of obvious diversification among the Aleut dialects, with Eastern Aleut features having spread westward. This second westward expansion is characterized as a period of cultural affinity with southeastern Alaska and the Pacific Northwest Coast, which may explain linguistic features that Aleut shares with neighboring non-Eskimo languages, such as rules of plural formation.


title: Aleut language

text: Due to colonization by Russian colonizers and traders in the 18th and 19th centuries, Aleut has a large portion of Russian loanwords. However, they do not affect the basic vocabulary and thus do not suggest undue influence on the language.


title: Aleut language

text: In March 2021, the last native speaker of the Bering dialect, Vera Timoshenko, died aged 93 in Nikolskoye, Bering Island, Kamchatka.


title: Aleut language

text: Within the Eastern group are the dialects of the Alaskan Peninsula, Unalaska, Belkofski, Akutan, the Pribilof Islands, Kashega and Nikolski. The Pribilof dialect has more living speakers than any other dialect of Aleut.


title: Aleut language

text: The Atkan grouping comprises the dialects of Atka and Bering Island. The last speaker of the Bering Dialect, Vera Timoshenko passed away on 7 March 2021 at the age of 93.


title: Aleut language

text: Attuan was a distinct dialect showing influence from both Atkan and Eastern Aleut. Copper Island Aleut (also called Medny Aleut) is a Russian-Attuan mixed language (Copper Island (, "Medny", "Mednyj") having been settled by Attuans). Despite the name, today Copper Island Aleut is spoken only on Bering Island, as Copper Islanders were evacuated there in 1969.


title: Aleut language

text: All dialects show lexical influence from Russian; Copper Island Aleut has also adopted many Russian inflectional endings. The largest number of Russian loanwords can be seen in the Bering Aleut.


title: Aleut language

text: The modern practical Aleut orthography was designed in 1972 for the Alaska school system's bilingual program:


title: Aleut language

text: The historic Aleut (Cyrillic) alphabet found in both Alaska and Russia has the standard pre-1918 Russian orthography as its basis, although a number of Russian letters were used only in loanwords. In addition, the extended Cyrillic letters г̑ (г with inverted breve), ҟ, ҥ, ў, х̑ (х with inverted breve) were used to represent distinctly Aleut sounds.


title: Aleut language

text: A total of 24+ letters were used to represent distinctly Aleut words, including 6 vowels (а, и, й, у, ю, я) and 16 consonants (г, г̑, д, з, к, ҟ, л, м, н, ҥ, с, т, ў, х, х̑, ч). The letter ҟ has been used in modern Aleut Cyrillic publications to denote the letter ԟ (Aleut Ka) traditionally used to mark the voiceless uvular plosive .


title: Aleut language

text: The consonant phonemes of the various Aleut dialects are represented below. Each cell indicates the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) representation of the phoneme; consonants existing only in loanwords are in parentheses. Note that some phonemes are unique to specific dialects of Aleut.


title: Aleut language

text: Voiceless approximants and devoiced nasals are preaspirated. The preaspiration of approximants causes very little friction and may pronounced more as a breathy voice. The preaspiration of devoiced nasals starts with a voiceless airstream through the nose and may end voiced before a vowel. The preaspiration feature is represented orthographically with an preceding the given sound. For example, a devoiced, preaspirated labial nasal would be written .


title: Aleut language

text: Voiced approximants and nasals may be partly devoiced in contact with a voiceless consonant and at the end of a word.


title: Aleut language

text: The voiceless glottal approximant functions as an initial aspiration before a vowel. In Atkan and Attuan, the prevocalic aspiration contrasts with an audible but not written glottal stop initiation of the vowel. Compare "halal" ("to turn the head") and "alal" ("to need"). This contrast has been lost in Eastern Aleut.


title: Aleut language

text: Modern Eastern Aleut has a much simpler consonant inventory because the voice contrasts among nasals, sibilants and approximants has been lost.


title: Aleut language

text: Consonants listed in the dental column have varied places of articulation. The stop, nasal, and lateral dentals commonly have a laminal articulation. The voiced dental fricative is pronounced interdentally.


title: Aleut language

text: The pronunciation of the sibilant varies from an alveolar articulation to a retracted articulation like a palato-alveolar consonant. There is no contrast between and ʃ in Aleut. Many Aleut speakers experience difficulties with this distinction while learning English.


title: Aleut language

text: Aleut has a basic three-vowel system including the high front , low , and high back . Aleut vowels contrast with their long counterparts , , and .


title: Aleut language

text: The long vowel is pronounced retracted in the vowel space creating a significant distinction relative to the vowel length of . The two high vowels are pronounced with the same vowel quality regardless of vowel length.


title: Aleut language

text: In contact with a uvular, is lowered to , is backed to , and is lowered to . In contact with a coronal, is raised to or , and is fronted to .


title: Aleut language

text: The mid-vowels and occur only in family names like "Nevzorof" and very recently introduced Russian loanwords.


title: Aleut language

text: An Aleut word may contain one to about a dozen syllables, all syllables with a vocalic nucleus. In Atkan and Attuan, there is a word-final CC due to apocopation. There also exist word initial CCC in loanwords.


title: Aleut language

text: A word may begin or end in a vowel, both short and long, with few exceptions. Due to apocopation, short is not found in the final position. The same is true for short , except in some obsolete suffixes, such as -chi 'your' (pl.) which is realized as -chin and -chix in modern Eastern and Atkan Aleut.


title: Aleut language

text: Vowels within a word are separated by at least one consonant. All single consonants can appear in an intervocalic position, with the following exceptions:


title: Aleut language

text: Words begin with any consonant except and preaspirated consonants (with the exception of the preaspirated in Atkan Aleut). Only in loanwords do , , and the borrowed consonants ("p, b, f, d, g, ɹ/ɾ)" appear word-initially.


title: Aleut language

text: The word-initial CC can take many forms, with various restrictions on the distribution of consonants:


title: Aleut language

text: In CC clusters of two voiced continuants, there is often a short transitional vowel. For example, qilĝix̂ 'umbilical cord' is pronounced [-lĝ-] similar to qiliĝi-n 'brain'.


title: Aleut language

text: The combination of two postlingual or two coronal consonants is rare, but attested, such as hux̂xix 'rain pants', aliĝngix̂ 'wolf', asliming 'fit for me', iistalix 'to say; to tell; to call'.


title: Aleut language

text: In CCC clusters, the middle consonant is either , , . For example, taxtxix̂ 'pulse', huxsx̂ilix 'to wrap up', chamchxix̂ 'short fishline'.


title: Aleut language

text: Through apocopation, word-final single consonants /l/ and occur, and word-final consonant clusters ending with or .


title: Aleut language

text: The details of the extensive syncopation characteristic of the Eastern Aleut dialect are described below. In the examples, the syncopated vowel will be shown in parentheses.


title: Aleut language

text: A word medial short vowel may be syncopated between single consonants, except after an initial open short syllable and/or before a final open short syllable. For example, ìx̂am(a)nákux̂ 'it is good' and 'what for?'.


title: Aleut language

text: The syncopation often creates consonant clusters beyond those prescribed by the general rules of Aleut phonotactics. The resulting clusters include:


title: Aleut language

text: In some frequently encountered syncopated forms, which otherwise result in irregular three consonant clusters, the middle uvular fricative is deleted along with the preceding vowel. For example, ' 'saying' and ' 'being said'.


title: Aleut language

text: At slower speeds of speech, the syncopation may not be realized. Compare ' 'you are getting skinny' beside ' 'I am getting skinny'.


title: Aleut language

text: Aleut stress is indeterminate and often difficult to define. Stress varies based on the relation to the beginning or end of the word form, the length of the vowels, the sonority of the consonants, open- or closeness of the syllables, or the number of syllables in sentential rhythm and intonation. Stress affects the length of both vowels and consonants. Stress underlies the distinctive syncopation characteristics of Eastern Aleut. In the following discussion, the acute accent (á) indicates the stronger stress and the grave accent (à) indicates the weaker.


title: Aleut language

text: In Eastern Aleut, stronger stress tends to fall on the penultimate syllable if it is short (has a short vowel), or on the last syllable if it is long (has a long vowel). The weaker stress commonly falls on the first syllable. For example, úlax̂ 'house', tùnúnax̂ 'talked', tùnulákan 'without talking', ìnaqáam 'he himself'.


title: Aleut language

text: Eastern Aleut words with more than two syllables exhibit a wider variety of stress patterns. Stress may be attracted to another syllable by a long vowel or relatively sonorant consonant, or by a closed syllable. It's possible the stress can be determined by rhythmic factors so that one word will have different stress in different contexts, such as áĝadax̂ compared to àĝádax̂, both meaning 'arrow'.


title: Aleut language

text: In Atkan and Attuan Aleut, stronger stress more commonly falls on the first syllable. However, long vowels, sonorants, etc. have similar effects on stress as in Eastern Aleut. For example, qánáang 'how many' vs qánang 'where'; ùĝálux̂ 'spear' vs álaĝux̂ 'sea'.


title: Aleut language

text: Stress may also be expressive, as with exclamations or polite requests. Stronger stress falls on the last syllable and is accompanied by a lengthening of a short vowel. For example, kúufyax̂ àqakúx̂"! 'coffee is coming'. Similar structure for polite requests, qadá 'please eat!' vs qáda" 'eat'.


title: Aleut language

text: Under ordinary strong stress, a short syllable tends to be lengthened, either by lengthening the vowel or geminating the following single consonant. Lengthening of the vowel is most common in Eastern, but is found in Atkan before a voiced consonant. In all dialects gemination is common between an initial stressed syllable with a short vowel and a following stressed syllable. For example, ìláan 'from him' pronounced and làkáayax̂ 'a boy' pronounced .


title: Aleut language

text: Word-final velar and uvular fricatives are voiceless when followed by a word-initial voiceless consonant and are voiced when followed by a word-initial voiced consonant or a vowel.


title: Aleut language

text: Word-final nasals and are frequently deleted before an initial consonant other than . For example, ' 'on the ground' and ' 'the interior of the house'.


title: Aleut language

text: In Eastern Aleut, the final vowel may be elided before or contracted with the initial vowel of the following word, as in ' 'he is bleeding awfully'.


title: Aleut language

text: In Atkan, the final syllable of a word form may be clipped off in fast speech. This is even frequent at slow speed in certain constructions with auxiliary verbs. The result will be a sequence of vowels or full contraction:


title: Aleut language

text: Open word classes in Aleut include nouns and verbs, both derived from stems with suffixes. Many stems are ambivalent, being both nominal and verbal (see § Derivation). There are no adjectives other than verbal nouns and participles. Other word classes include pronouns, contrastives, quantifiers, numerals, positional nouns, demonstratives, and interrogatives.


title: Aleut language

text: The anaphoric third person refers to a proceeding term, specified by being marked in the relative case or from context. For example, tayaĝu-m ula-a 'the man's house' and ula-a 'his house'.


title: Aleut language

text: As free forms, the pronouns are used primarily as an object, like fully specified nouns. As enclitics they function as subject markers.


title: Aleut language

text: Positional nouns indicate positional, directional, or some more abstract relation to a definite referent (a person or proceeding noun in relative case). Positional nouns have possessive suffixes but no inherent number.


title: Aleut language

text: Unlike ordinary nouns, positional nouns have two adverbial cases: locative and/or ablative. The most important stem i-, called the dative, has only a locative form (largely irregular) meaning 'to, at, for-'.


title: Aleut language

text: Most are used in absolutive case, as in ula-m agal-a agikux̂ 'he passed behind the house'. Can also be used in the relative case, as in laavki-m agal-a-n ula-a 'the house behind the store'.


title: Aleut language

text: The numeral system is decimal with hatix̂ 'ten' and sisax̂ 'hundred' as the basic higher terms. The higher tens numerals are derived through multiplication (e.g. 2 x10 for 'twenty'). The multiplicative numerals are derived with the suffix -di-m on the base numeral followed by hatix̂ 'ten'. For example, qankudim hatix̂ 'forty'.


title: Aleut language

text: Verbs differ from nouns morphologically by having mood/tense suffixes. Like nominal stems, verb stems may end in a short vowel or consonant. Many stems ending in a consonant had auxiliary vowels which have largely become part of the stem itself.


title: Aleut language

text: Negation is sometimes suffixal, preceding or combining with the mood/tense suffix. In some cases the negation will be followed by the enclitic subject pronoun.


title: Aleut language

text: There are 570 derivational suffixes (postbases) including many composite ones, but about two thirds are found only in a small number of words. There are approximately 175 more common suffixes, considerably less than the Eskimo branch of the family.


title: Aleut language

text: A postbase may be nominal or verbal, yielding nouns derived from nouns or verbs, or verbs derived from verbs or nouns, or from nominal phrases. Many stems are ambivalent, being either nominal or verbal and even some derivatives can be ambivalent.


title: Aleut language

text: Difficulties distinguishing between nominal and verbal parts of speech arise because the parts of speech in Aleut are not easy to distinguish. A verbal stem may be used as a verbal predicate, and quite often as a noun. The verbal use of nouns is also very common.


title: Aleut language

text: The derivational suffixes may combine in strings of up to about six components, some belonging together to form composites. In sequences, each successive suffix often modifies the preceding string.


title: Aleut language

text: The majority of derivatives have a single stem that occurs also without the suffixes in question. While some stems are bound, only occurring with some derivational suffix. For example, compare iĝa-t- 'to scare, frighten' iĝa-x̂ta- 'to fear, be afraid of' iĝa-na- 'to be terrible, frightening'.


title: Aleut language

text: Most Aleut words can be classified as nouns or verbs. Notions which in English are expressed by means of adjectives and adverbs are generally expressed in Aleut using verbs or postbases (derivational suffixes).


title: Aleut language

text: Nouns are obligatorily marked for grammatical number (singular, dual, or plural) and for absolutive case or relative case (some researchers, notably Anna Berge, dispute both the characterization of this feature as "case" and the names "absolutive" and "relative". This approach to Aleut nouns comes from Eskimo linguistics, but these terms can be misleading when applied to Aleut). The absolutive form is the default form, while the relative form communicates a relationship (such as possessive or contrastive) between the noun and another member of the sentence, possibly one that has been omitted. Absolutive and relative are identical in most combinations of person and number.


title: Aleut language

text: In possessive constructions, Aleut marks both possessor and possessum, with the possessor preceding the possessum:


title: Aleut language

text: The verbal predicate of a simple sentence of the final clause of a complex sentence carries the temporal and modal marking in relation to the speech act. Verbs of non-final clauses are marked in relation to the following clause. A complex sentence may contain an unlimited number of clauses.


title: Aleut language

text: Simple sentences may include a subject or no subject. The predicate may be a verb with no complement, a predicate noun with a copula, or a verb with a preceding direct object in the absolutive case and/or an oblique term or local complement.


title: Aleut language

text: The number of arguments may be increased or decreased by verbal derivative suffixes. Arguments of a clause may be explicitly specified or anaphoric.


title: Aleut language

text: The verb of a simple sentence or final clause may have a nominal subject in the absolutive case or a 1st/2nd person subject marker. If the nominal subject is left out, as known from context, the verb implies an anaphoric reference to the subject:


title: Aleut language

text: Positional nouns are a special, closed set of nouns which may take the locative or ablative noun cases; in these cases they behave essentially as postpositions. Morphosyntactically, positional noun phrases are almost identical to possessive phrases:


title: Aleut language

text: Verbs are inflected for mood and, if finite, for person and number. Person/number endings agree with the subject of the verb if all nominal participants of a sentence are overt:


title: Aleut language

text: If a 3rd person complement or subordinate part of it is omitted, as known from context, there is an anaphoric suffixal reference to it in the final verb and the nominal subject is in the relative case:


title: Aleut language

text: When more than one piece of information is omitted, the verb agrees with the element whose grammatical number is greatest. This can lead to ambiguity:


title: Aleut language

text: Although Aleut derives from the same parent language as the Eskimo languages, the two language groups (Aleut and Eskimo) have evolved in distinct ways, resulting in significant typological differences. Aleut inflectional morphology is greatly reduced from the system that must have been present in Proto-Eskimo–Aleut, and where the Eskimo languages mark a verb's arguments morphologically, Aleut relies more heavily on a fixed word order.


title: Aleut language

text: Unlike the Eskimo languages, Aleut is not an ergative-absolutive language. Subjects and objects in Aleut are not marked differently depending on the transitivity of the verb (i.e. whether the verb is transitive or intransitive); by default, both are marked with a so-called absolutive noun ending. However, if an understood complement (which may either be a complement of the verb or of some other element in the sentence) is absent, the verb takes an "anaphoric" marking and the subject noun takes a "relative" noun ending.


title: Aleut language

text: A typological feature shared by Aleut and Eskimo is polysynthetic derivational morphology, which can lead to some rather long words:


title: Aleut language

text: The first contact of people from the Eastern Hemisphere with the Aleut language occurred in 1741, as Vitus Bering's expedition picked up place names and the names of the Aleut people they met. The first recording of the Aleut language in lexicon form appeared in a word list of the Unalaskan dialect compiled by Captain James King on Cook's voyage in 1778. At that time the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg became interested in the Aleut language upon hearing of Russian expeditions for trading.


title: Aleut language

text: In Catherine the Great's project to compile a giant comparative dictionary on all the languages spoken in what was the spread of the Russian empire at that time, she hired Peter Simon Pallas to conduct the fieldwork that would collect linguistic information on Aleut. During an expedition from 1791 to 1792, Carl Heinrich Merck and Michael Rohbeck collected several word lists and conducted a census of the male population that included prebaptismal Aleut names. Explorer Yuriy Feodorovich Lisyansky compiled several word lists. in 1804 and 1805, the czar's plenipotentiary, Nikolai Petrovich Rezanov collected some more. Johann Christoph Adelung and Johann Severin Vater published their "Mithridates oder allgemeine Sprachkunde 1806–1817", which included Aleut among the languages it catalogued, similar to Catherine the Great's dictionary project.


title: Aleut language

text: It wasn't until 1819 that the first professional linguist, the Dane Rasmus Rask, studied Aleut. He collected words and paradigms from two speakers of Eastern Aleut dialects living in Saint Petersburg. In 1824 came the man who would revolutionize Aleut as a literary language. Ioann Veniaminov, a Russian Orthodox priest who would later become a saint, arrived at Unalaska studying Unalaskan Aleut. He created an orthography for this language (using the Cyrillic alphabet; the Roman alphabet would come later), translated the Gospel according to St. Matthew and several other religious works into Aleut, and published a grammar of Eastern Aleut in 1846.


title: Aleut language

text: The religious works were translated with the help of Veniaminov's friends Ivan Pan'kov (chief of Tigalda) and Iakov Netsvetov (the priest of Atka), both of whom were native Aleut speakers. Netsvetov also wrote a dictionary of Atkan Aleut. After Veniaminov's works were published, several religious figures took interest in studying and recording Aleut, which would help these Russian Orthodox clerics in their missionary work. Father Innocent Shayashnikov did much work in the Eastern Fox-Island dialect translating a Catechism, all four Gospels and Acts of Apostles from the New Testament, and an original composition in Aleut entitled: "Short Rule for a Pious Life".


title: Aleut language

text: Most of these were published in 1902, although written years earlier in the 1860s and 1870s. Father Lavrentii Salamatov produced a Catechism, and translations of three of the four Gospels (St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John) in the Western-Atkan dialect. Of Father Lavrentii's work, the Gospel of St. Mark was published in a revised orthography (1959), and in its original, bilingual Russian-Aleut format (2007), together with his Catechism for the youth of Atka Island (2007). The Atkan-dialect Gospel of St. John was also electronically published (2008), along with the Gospel of St. Luke (2009) in the original bilingual format, completing the set of Fr. Lavrentii's biblical translations.


title: Aleut language

text: The first Frenchman to record Aleut was Alphonse Pinart, in 1871, shortly after the United States purchase of Alaska. A French-Aleut grammar was also produced by Victor Henry, titled "Esquisse d'une grammaire raisonnee de la langue aleoute d'apres la grammaire et le vocabulaire de Ivan Veniaminov" (Paris, 1879). In 1878, American Lucien M. Turner began work on collecting words for a word list. Benedykt Dybowski, a Pole, began taking word lists from the dialects the Commander Islands in 1881, while Nikolai Vasilyevich Slyunin, a Russian doctor, did the same in 1892.


title: Aleut language

text: From 1909 to 1910, the ethnologist Waldemar Jochelson traveled to the Aleut communities of Unalaska, Atka, Attu and Nikolski. He spent nineteen months there doing fieldwork. Jochelson collected his ethnographic work with the help of two Unalaskan speakers, Aleksey Yachmenev and Leontiy Sivtsov. He recorded many Aleut stories, folklore and myth, and had many of them not only written down but also recorded in audio. Jochelson discovered much vocabulary and grammar when he was there, adding to the scientific knowledge of the Aleut language.


title: Aleut language

text: In the 1930s, two native Aleuts wrote down works that are considered breakthroughs in the use of Aleut as a literary language. Afinogen K. Ermeloff wrote down a literary account of a shipwreck in his native language, while Ardelion G. Ermeloff kept a diary in Aleut during the decade. At the same time, linguist Melville Jacobs picked up several new texts from Sergey Golley, an Atkan speaker who was hospitalized at the time.


title: Aleut language

text: John P. Harrington furthered research into the Pribilof Island dialect on St. Paul Island in 1941, collecting some new vocabulary along the way. In 1944, the United States Department of the Interior published "The Aleut Language" as part of the war effort, allowing World War II soldiers to understand the language of the Aleuts. This English language project was based on Veniaminov's work.


title: Aleut language

text: In 1950, Knut Bergsland began an extensive study of Aleut, perhaps the most rigorous to date, culminating in the publication of a complete Aleut dictionary in 1994 and a descriptive grammar in 1997. Bergsland's work would not have been possible without key Aleut collaborators, especially Atkan linguist Moses Dirks.


title: Aleut language

text: Michael Krauss, Jeff Leer, Michael Fortescue, and Jerrold Sadock have published articles about Aleut.


title: Aleut language

text: Alice Taff has worked on Aleut since the 1970s. Her work constitutes the most detailed accounts of Aleut phonetics and phonology available.


title: Aleut language

text: Anna Berge conducts research on Aleut. Berge's work includes treatments of Aleut discourse structure and morphosyntax, and curricular materials for Aleut, including a conversational grammar of the Atkan dialect, co-authored with Moses Dirks.


title: Aleut language

text: Bering Island dialect and Mednyj Aleut language have been extensively studied by Soviet and Russian linguists: , , . A dictionary and a comprehensive grammar were published.


title: Aleut language

text: In 2005, the parish of All Saints of North America Orthodox Church, began to re-publish all historic Aleut language texts from 1840–1940. Archpriest Paul Merculief (originally from the Pribilofs) of the Russian Orthodox Diocese of Alaska and the Alaska State Library Historical Collection generously contributed their linguistic skills to the restoration effort. The historic Aleut texts are available on the parish's Aleut library.


title: Aleut language

text: Revitalization efforts are a recent development for the Aleut language and are mostly in the hands of the Aleuts themselves. The first evidence of the preservation of the language came in the form of written documentation at the hands of the Russian Orthodox Church missionaries. However, as the historical events and factors transpired, Aleut's falling out of favor has brought upon a necessity for action if the language is to survive much longer. Linguistic experts have been reaching out to the Aleut community in attempts to record and document the language from the remaining speakers. Such efforts amount to "100 hours of conversation, along with the transcription and translation in Aleut, that will be transferred to compact disks or DVDs". If Aleut does go extinct, these records will allow linguists and descendants of the Aleutian people to pass on as much knowledge of the language as they can. Efforts like this to save the language are being sponsored by universities and local community interest groups, like the Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Association Task Force for Language Revitalization, while government relations with the Aleut people are severely limited. Similarly to the native languages of California, the native languages of Alaska had been given little attention from the United States government. While linguists are working to record and document the language, the local Aleutian community groups are striving to preserve their language and culture by assisting the linguists and raising awareness of the Aleut population.


title: Polish plait

text: Polish plait (Latin: "Plica polonica", or "plika", "Kołtun" in Polish meaning matted), less commonly known in English as plica or trichoma, is a formation of hair. This term can refer to either a hairstyle or a medical condition. It also relates to the system of beliefs in European folklore, and healing practices in traditional medicine in medieval Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that supported, matted hair as an amulet, or as a catchment for illness leaving the body.


title: Polish plait

text: Plica Polonica (synonym, "plica neuropathica"; common name, "Polish plait") is an uncommon condition in which the hair shaft becomes entangled irreversibly, forming a mass which is matted and sometimes can be sticky and moist.


title: Polish plait

text: In this condition, the protective layer of hair (cuticle) is damaged, and the cortex of the hair is exposed. The cortex is a more moist and sticky part of the hair than the outer layer, and the affected hairs adhere to each other and other unaffected hairs. Several factors may contribute to this condition: chemical exposure, hair with natural kinks, hair extensions, quality of water and shampoo, or absence of hair grooming and poor hair care techniques. It may also be caused by or accompanied with lice infestation (pediculosis) leading to inflammation of the scalp, or the mass can become malodorous.


title: Polish plait

text: Larry Wolff in his book "Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of Enlightenment" mentions that in Poland, for about a thousand years, some people wore the hair style of the Scythians. Zygmunt Gloger in his "Encyklopedia staropolska" mentions that Polish plait was worn as a hair style by some people, regardless of gender, in the Pinsk region and the Masovia region at the beginning of the 19th century. He used the term "kołtun zapuszczony" which denotes artificial formation of Polish plait. According to folklore studies today, the style was formed using liquids or wax. Among liquids, a mixture of wine and sugar was used or washing hair daily with water in which herbs were boiled. The most commonly used herb was Vinca ("Vinca major"), followed by Lycopodium clavatum and moss, which caused hair to mat. A similar effect can be had by rubbing hair with wax, or inserting a piece of a candle at the hair ends. Newer Polish dictionaries mention "plica" as a disease, but the old ones also mention artificially created plica.


title: Polish plait

text: In modern times the hairstyle is also known as mono-dreadlock (or mono-dread for short), alluding to how its structure is comparable to a single, massive strand of a dreadlock hairstyle, as well as beaver tail as the mass of hair may resemble the tail of a beaver. The hairstyle can vary in size, from large beaver tails to small plaits.


title: Polish plait

text: The Polish plait was quite common in Europe during past centuries when hair grooming was largely neglected. It affected mostly the peasantry, but was not unusual among higher social classes.


title: Polish plait

text: Due to superstitious beliefs, the Polish plait used to be particularly common in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, hence its English and Latin name. Similarly, in German it is called "Weichselzopf", or Vistula braid, "zopf" meaning a braid, and the "Vistula" is a river in Poland. Initially, the plait was considered an amulet to keep illness away from the body, as it was believed that when disease resolved it left the body to live in the hair, resulting in lessened suffering. For this reason, people not only allowed it to develop, but even encouraged it. According to M. Marczewska, who researched the subject from the perspective of folklore studies, animistic beliefs and long-held pagan beliefs relating to illness viewed illness as caused by an invading evil spirit, which by convalescence left the body and was less problematic when living in the hair formation, which was then shed naturally or cut and ritualistically disposed of by persons specializing in folk medicine or practitioners of folk magic. As people believed that the formation of plica was a sign of resolving of disease, plica, as a hairstyle, was also formed artificially by washing with mixtures of herbs, sweetened wine, waxing, etc.


title: Polish plait

text: In the early 17th century, people began to believe plaits were an external symptom of an internal illness. A growing plait was supposed to take the illness "out" of the body, and therefore it was rarely cut off; in addition, the belief that a cut-off plait could avenge itself and bring an even greater illness discouraged some from attacking it. It was also believed that casting a magic spell on someone could cause that person to develop a Polish plait, hence also the name "elflock" was used in English, also "Hexenzopf" (witches' plait) in German.


title: Polish plait

text: These convictions were so widespread and strong that some people lived their whole lives with a Polish plait. A plait could sometimes grow very long – even up to 80 cm (31.5"). Polish plaits could take various forms, from a ball of hair to a long tail. Plaits were even categorized; plaits were "male" and "female", "inner" and "outer", "noble" and "fake", "proper" and "parasitical".


title: Polish plait

text: British diarist and Samuel Johnson's friend, Hester Thrale, in her book "Observations and Reflections Made in the Course of a Journey through France, Italy, and Germany", described a Polish plait she saw in 1786 in the collection of the Elector of Saxony in Dresden: "the size and weight of it was enormous, its length four yards and a half [about 4.1 m]; the person who was killed by its growth was a Polish lady of quality well known in King Augustus's court."


title: Polish plait

text: During the Age of Enlightenment<nowiki>, it became common to use the terms </nowiki>"Plica Polonica" (Polish plait) and "Plica Judiaica" (Jewish plait), as well as the term "Polish ringworm" in English. In addition to antisemitism, there was also prejudice against Eastern Europeans. According to Larry Wolff's book "The Invention of Eastern Europe", Poles were considered "semi-Asians", the descendants of Tatars and barbarians. Maurice Fishberg in his book "The Jews: A Study of Race and Environment" mentions both terms. It was a common belief that plica was a contagious disease which originated in Poland after the Mongol invasion and later spread to other countries. Diderot wrote in his encyclopedia entry, due to his misunderstanding of the text in Polish chronicler Martin Cromer, that the Tatar invasion of Poland was the source of plica. An example of the belief in the spread of plica as a contagious disease by foreign hosts was the Victorian-era British belief that the plica was spread like a disease by Polish traders in artificial hair, not from neglect by the affected British. George Lefevre, in his book "An Apology for the Nerves" mentions the terms "plica Polonica" and "plica Judiaca" and also gives information about the belief that wearing the Polish national costume can cause plica in the wearer. He describes the case of a woman in Berlin who did not wear the Polish national costume, yet was affected with plica. He concluded, "Neither, therefore, are strangers free from it, nor is produced by dress alone."


title: Polish plait

text: Zygmunt Gloger in the "Encyklopedia Staropolska" argued that according to research done by the Grimm Brothers and Rosenbaum, "plica polonica" and the idea that it spread from Poland was an error, as it was also found among the Germanic population of Bavaria and Rhine River area. He said that the word "weichselzopf" (Vistula plait) was a later alteration of the name "wichtelzopf" (plait of a wight); "wichtel" means wight in German, a being or sentient thing.


title: Polish plait

text: In the second half of the 19th century, some medical professionals waged a war against superstition and lack of hygiene among the peasantry, and traditional folk medicine. Many plaits, often to the horror of their owners, were cut off. In Western Galicia, Professor Józef Dietl made a particular effort to examine and treat Polish plaits. He was also a politician, and his methods of dealing with persons with plicas are controversial today: he organized an official census of people suffering from the disease, they were not allowed to receive help by charitable organizations, were forbidden entrance to some buildings such as schools and offices, and he also proposed fines, which spawned rumors that plaits would be taxed. Those practices were said to have helped eradicate the Polish plait in the region. A huge, 1.5-meter long, preserved plica can be seen in the Museum of the Faculty of Medicine (Medical College, Jagiellonian University) in Kraków. In the areas of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth which were occupied by the Russian Empire, young men with plica were exempt from service in the tsarist army. It is unknown how many plicas were natural or how many were man-made dreadlocks. The Polish word for the Polish plait, "kołtun", is now used figuratively in Poland to denote an uneducated person with an old-fashioned mindset.


title: Polish plait

text: Plica was believed to be caused by supernatural entities. The names often describe the believed cause of tangled hair. In Britain this condition was believed to be caused by elves, hence the name "elflock" (mentioned in Shakespearean poetry and folk tales), although this term could refer to tangles much milder than a Polish plait. Folk belief in Germany associated it with witches or wights (Hexen or Wichtel) giving plica the names Hexenzopf or Wichtelzopf; in Poland, the cause was an unclean spirit. One of the names of plica in Polish was wieszczyca, "wieszcz" means bard, specifically, a folk poet with the gift of prophesy or a vampire-like living person. In German folklore, plica appears in one of the Brothers Grimm's fairy tales, in which a girl doesn't comb her hair for one year and finds golden coins in her plica.


title: Polish plait

text: Many illnesses were associated with plica and were synonymous with the folk name for this condition. According to Marczewska, about thirty diseases were associated with plica in Polish folklore. In German and Bohemian spells, there are as many as seventy diseases. Poles were afraid to upset the unclean spirit, and, to pacify it, inserted offerings such as coins into the plica. Kołtun (or "gościec", its Polish folk name) did not necessarily describe only the hair formation, it also described the bodily illness without the presence of tangled hair. Pain (especially in joints), rheumatism, etc. were synonymous with it. If plica was present, it was blamed for whims and cravings, which needed to be satisfied promptly; people around a person with plica needed to assist the sufferer to comply with the cravings. Marczewska points out that one old Polish dictionary stated that kołtun created strong cravings, especially for wine (which was imported and expensive).


title: Pau López

text: Pau López Sabata (born 13 December 1994) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Ligue 1 club Marseille.


title: Pau López

text: López reached the final of the 2017 European Under-21 Championship with Spain. He made his full debut the following year.


title: Pau López

text: López was born in Girona, Catalonia. He joined Espanyol's youth setup in 2007 at the age of 12, after starting out at hometown club Girona. He made his senior debut with the former's B team in the 2013–14 season, in Segunda División B.


title: Pau López

text: On 12 June 2014, López signed a new four-year contract with Espanyol, also being promoted to the main squad. He played his first match as a professional on 17 December, starting in a 1–0 home win against Alavés in the round of 32 of the Copa del Rey and being first choice in the tournament as his team reached the semi-finals for the first time in nine years.


title: Pau López

text: López's debut in La Liga occurred on 1 February 2015, after starter Kiko Casilla was sent off in the 40th minute of the fixture at Sevilla for handling Iago Aspas' shot outside of the penalty area, and he conceded once in an eventual 3–2 defeat. After the latter's departure to Real Madrid in the summer, he became the starter.


title: Pau López

text: On 6 January 2016, during an away fixture against Barcelona in the Copa del Rey, López repeatedly stamped on Lionel Messi after the two players became entangled, in an action that eluded the referee but was caught on camera. On 31 August, he joined Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur on loan for the 2016–17 season, being third choice behind Hugo Lloris and Michel Vorm, he failed to make a single competitive appearance.


title: Pau López

text: After his return to the RCDE Stadium, López continued to start under new manager Quique Sánchez Flores.


title: Pau López

text: On 4 July 2018, López signed a five-year deal with fellow top-tier club Betis on a free transfer. Under Quique Setién, he missed just five league matches in his only season as the team finished in 10th place.


title: Pau López

text: López joined Serie A club Roma on 9 July 2019 on a five-year contract, for a reported fee of €23.5 million. He made his debut on 25 August in a 3–3 home draw with Genoa, making a further 31 appearances by the end of the campaign for the fifth-placed team. On 26 January 2020, he made a mistake in the Derby della Capitale to gift a goal to Lazio's Francesco Acerbi in a 1–1 draw.


title: Pau López

text: In 2020–21, López started as back-up to Antonio Mirante, before returning to the team after the veteran's injury. His season was ended prematurely by a shoulder injury against Manchester United in the semi-final of the UEFA Europa League.


title: Pau López

text: On 8 July 2021, López was loaned to Ligue 1 club Marseille for the upcoming season, with an option to buy in the summer of 2022. Facing competition from experienced Steve Mandanda, he made his debut on 11 September in a 2–0 win away to Monaco, and retained his place over the France international throughout the campaign.


title: Pau López

text: López made his international debut on 26 December 2015, having a player of the match performance for Catalonia in a 1–0 friendly loss to the Basque Country. On 28 March 2016, he played his first game with the Spain under-21 team, in a 1–0 win against Norway at the Estadio Nueva Condomina.


title: Pau López

text: On 17 May 2016, López and Espanyol teammate Marco Asensio were called up to the senior team for a friendly against Bosnia and Herzegovina. He only won his first cap more than two years later, after coming on as a 75th-minute substitute for Kepa Arrizabalaga in a 1–0 win over the same opposition in Las Palmas.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: Henry VIII is a collaborative history play, written by William Shakespeare and John Fletcher, based on the life of Henry VIII. An alternative title, , is recorded in contemporary documents, with the title not appearing until the play's publication in the First Folio of 1623. Stylistic evidence indicates that individual scenes were written by either Shakespeare or his collaborator and successor, John Fletcher. It is also somewhat characteristic of the late romances in its structure. It is noted for having more stage directions than any of Shakespeare's other plays.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: During a performance of "Henry VIII" at the Globe Theatre in 1613, a cannon shot employed for special effects ignited the theatre's thatched roof (and the beams), burning the original Globe building to the ground.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: The play opens with a Prologue (by a figure otherwise unidentified), who stresses that the audience will see a serious play, and appeals to the audience members: "The first and happiest hearers of the town," to "Be sad, as we would make ye."


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: Act I opens with a conversation between the Dukes of Norfolk and Buckingham and Lord Abergavenny. Their speeches express their mutual resentment over the ruthless power and overweening pride of Cardinal Wolsey. Wolsey passes over the stage with his attendants, and expresses his own hostility toward Buckingham. Later Buckingham is arrested on treason charges—Wolsey's doing.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: The play's second scene introduces King Henry VIII, and shows his reliance on Wolsey as his favourite. Queen Katherine enters to protest about Wolsey's abuse of the tax system for his own purposes; Wolsey defends himself, but when the King revokes the Cardinal's measures, Wolsey spreads a rumour that he himself is responsible for the King's action. Katherine also challenges the arrest of Buckingham, but Wolsey defends the arrest by producing the Duke's Surveyor, the primary accuser. After hearing the Surveyor, the King orders Buckingham's trial to occur.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: At a banquet thrown by Wolsey, the King and his attendants enter in disguise as masquers. The King dances with Anne Bullen.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: Two anonymous Gentlemen open Act II, one giving the other an account of Buckingham's treason trial. Buckingham himself enters in custody after his conviction, and makes his farewells to his followers and to the public. After his exit, the two Gentlemen talk about court gossip, especially Wolsey's hostility toward Katherine. The next scene shows Wolsey beginning to move against the Queen, while the nobles Norfolk and Suffolk look on critically. Wolsey introduces Cardinal Campeius and Gardiner to the King; Campeius has come to serve as a judge in the trial Wolsey is arranging for Katherine.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: Anne Bullen is shown conversing with the Old Lady who is her attendant. Anne expresses her sympathy at the Queen's troubles; but then the Lord Chamberlain enters to inform her that the King has made her Marchioness of Pembroke. Once the Lord Chamberlain leaves, the Old Lady jokes about Anne's sudden advancement in the King's favour.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: A lavishly-staged trial scene (Act II Scene 4) portrays Katherine's hearing before the King and his courtiers. Katherine reproaches Wolsey for his machinations against her, and refuses to stay for the proceedings. But the King defends Wolsey, and states that it was his own doubts about the legitimacy of their marriage that led to the trial. Campeius protests that the hearing cannot continue in the Queen's absence, and the King grudgingly adjourns the proceeding. (Act III) Wolsey and Campeius confront Katherine among her ladies-in-waiting; Katherine makes an emotional protest about her treatment.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: Norfolk, Suffolk, Surrey, and the Lord Chamberlain are shown (Act III Scene 2) plotting against Wolsey. A packet of Wolsey's letters to the Pope have been re-directed to the King; the letters show that Wolsey is playing a double game, opposing Henry's planned divorce from Katherine to the Pope while supporting it to the King. The King shows Wolsey his displeasure, and Wolsey for the first time realises that he has lost Henry's favour. The noblemen mock Wolsey, and the Cardinal sends his follower Cromwell away so that Cromwell will not be brought down in Wolsey's fall from grace.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: The two Gentlemen return in Act IV to observe and comment upon the lavish procession for Anne Bullen's coronation as Queen, which passes over the stage in their presence. Afterward they are joined by a third Gentleman, who updates them on more court gossip – the rise of Thomas Cromwell in royal favour, and plots against Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury. (Scene 2) Katherine is shown ill; is told of Wolsey's death; has a vision of dancing spirits. Caputius visits her. Katherine expresses her continuing loyalty to the King, despite the divorce, and wishes the new queen well.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: Act V. The King summons a nervous Cranmer to his presence, and expresses his support; later, when Cranmer is shown disrespect by the King's Council, Henry reproves them and displays his favour of the churchman. Anne Bullen gives birth to a daughter, the future Queen Elizabeth. In the play's closing scenes, the Porter and his Man complain about trying to control the massive and enthusiastic crowds that attend the infant Elizabeth's christening; another lush procession is followed by a prediction of the glories of the new born princess's future reign and that of her successor. The Epilogue, acknowledging that the play is unlikely to please everyone, asks nonetheless for the audience's approval.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: As usual in his history plays, Shakespeare relied primarily on Raphael Holinshed's "Chronicles" to achieve his dramatic ends and to accommodate official sensitivities over the materials involved. Other material was sourced or adapted from the 1570 edition of Foxe's Book of Martyrs, for example Catherine of Aragon's plea to Henry before the Legatine Court. Shakespeare not only telescoped events that occurred over a span of two decades, but jumbled their actual order. The play implies, without stating it directly, that the treason charges against the Duke of Buckingham were false and trumped up; and it maintains a comparable ambiguity about other sensitive issues. The disgrace and beheading of Anne Boleyn (here spelled "Bullen") is carefully avoided, and no indication of the succeeding four wives of Henry VIII can be found in the play.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: Most modern scholars date "Henry VIII" to 1613, the year in which the Globe Theatre burned down during one of the play's earliest known performances. One contemporary report states that the play was new at the time of the fire, having "been acted not passing 2 or 3 times before".


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: Despite this evidence, there has been much debate about the date of the work. Nicholas Rowe in 1709 wrote that the play must date from after the death of Elizabeth in 1603 because its "E[u]logy upon Q. Elizabeth, and her Successor K. James, in the latter end of his Henry VIII, is a Proof of that Play's being written after the Accession of the latter of those two Princes to the Crown of England". Rowe was writing before the discovery of the document on the 1613 fire, which was first published by the 18th century scholar Thomas Tyrwhitt and seemed to confirm his view.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: However, several 18th- and 19th-century scholars, including Samuel Johnson, Lewis Theobald, George Steevens, Edmond Malone, and James Halliwell-Phillipps, dated the play's composition to before 1603. Malone suggested that the brief passage in praise of James was probably added for a performance during his reign but that the extended glorification of Elizabeth implies that it was intended for her ears. James "hated her memory", so such praise was not likely to have been written under him. Malone mistook the 12 Feb 1604 Stationer's Register entry of "the Enterlude of K. Henry VIII" (Samuel Rowley's "When You See Me You Know Me", 1605) as Shakespeare's play, and he argued that the reference to the newness of the play in 1613 derived from the fact that it had been expanded with a new prologue and epilogue, perhaps written by Ben Jonson. In fact, Shakespeare's play was first registered on 8 November 1623, along with 15 other previously unpublished works, in preparation for the publication of the 1623 "First Folio". Halliwell-Phillipps also took the view that the play performed in 1613 was an altogether different work.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: These views are no longer held by most modern scholars. Plays offering positive portrayals of major Tudor figures like Henry VIII ("When You See Me You Know Me") and Queen Elizabeth ("If You Know Not Me, You Know Nobody" by Thomas Heywood, 1605) were in fact performed, published, and re-published throughout the Stuart era. Since the play is now generally believed to be one of Shakespeare's collaborations with John Fletcher, the 1613 date is consistent with other such collaborations.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: The play was published as the work of Shakespeare, and was accepted as such by scholars until 1850, when the possibility of collaboration with John Fletcher was first raised by James Spedding, an expert on Francis Bacon. Fletcher was the writer who replaced Shakespeare as the principal playwright of the King's Men. He is known to have collaborated with Shakespeare on other plays, but there is no contemporary evidence of it for this play; the evidence lies in the style of the verse, which in some scenes appears closer to Fletcher's typical style than Shakespeare's. It is also not known whether Fletcher's involvement can be characterised as collaboration or revision, though the apparent division of scenes between the writers strongly suggests the former.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: Spedding and other early commentators relied on a range of distinctive features in Fletcher's style and language preferences, which they saw in the Shakespearean play. For the next century the question of dual authorship was controversial, with more evidence accumulating in favour of the collaborative hypothesis. In 1966, Erdman and Fogel could write that "today a majority of scholars accept the theory of Fletcher's partial authorship, though a sturdy minority deny it."


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: An influential stylistic or stylometric study was undertaken by Cyrus Hoy, who in 1962 divided the play between Shakespeare and Fletcher based on their distinctive word choices, for example Fletcher's uses of "ye" for "you" and "'em" for "them". In the mid-nineteenth century, James Spedding had proposed a similar division based on the use of eleven-syllable lines; he arrived at the same conclusions Hoy would reach a century later. The Spedding-Hoy division is generally accepted, although subsequent studies have questioned some of its details.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: "Henry VIII" is believed to have been first performed as part of the ceremonies celebrating the marriage of Princess Elizabeth in 1612–1613, although the first recorded performance was on 29 June 1613. The performance is especially noteworthy because of the fire that destroyed the Globe Theatre during the performance, as described in several contemporary documents. These confirm that the fire took place on that date. The King's Men were able to continue performances at the Blackfriars Theatre, their indoor playhouse, a venue having particular significance for contemporary audiences as it was the real location of the powerful trial scene in the play.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: One often reported tradition associated with the play involves John Downes, prompter of the Duke of York's Company from 1662 to 1706. In his "Roscius Anglicanus" (1708), Downes claims that the role of Henry VIII in this play was originally performed by John Lowin, who "had his instructions from Mr. Shakespeare himself."


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: Fifteen years to the day after the fire, on 29 June 1628, The King's Men performed the play again at the Globe. The performance was witnessed by George Villiers, the contemporary Duke of Buckingham (no relation to or descendant of the Duke of Buckingham portrayed in the play), who left half-way through, once the play's Duke of Buckingham was executed. (A month later, Villiers was assassinated.)


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: During the Restoration era, Sir William Davenant staged a production, starring Thomas Betterton, that was seen by Pepys. Thomas Betterton played Henry in 1664, and Colley Cibber revived it frequently in the 1720s. Subsequent stagings of the play by David Garrick, Charles Kean, Henry Irving (who chose to play Wolsey, the villain and perhaps the showier role of the play, in 1888, with Ellen Terry as the noble Katherine of Aragon). The longest Broadway run the play has had is Herbert Beerbohm Tree's 1916 production in which Lyn Harding played Henry and Tree played Wolsey, running 63 performances. Tree's production was notable for its elaborate exploitation of the play's pageantry, typical of the expensive and spectacular staging of the era. The production subsequently toured, with Sydney Greenstreet taking over the title role.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: The play's popularity has waned in the mid twentieth century, although Charles Laughton played Henry at Sadler's Wells Theatre in 1933 and Margaret Webster directed it as the inaugural production of her American Repertory Company on Broadway in 1946 with Walter Hampden as Wolsey and Eva Le Gallienne as Katherine. John Gielgud played Wolsey, Harry Andrews the king and Edith Evans Katharine at Stratford in 1959.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: Another notable production was the first at the reconstructed Shakespeare's Globe from 15 May to 21 August 2010, as part of the theatre's first season of Shakespeare's history plays, with cannon fire at the same point as the 1613 production and a cast including Dominic Rowan as Henry, Miranda Raison as Anne, Ian McNeice as Wolsey and Kate Duchêne as Katherine (with Raison also playing Anne in the same season's "Anne Boleyn"). It was staged at the Folger Shakespeare Theatre (Washington, D.C.) from 12 October until 28 November 2010; this production added a puppeter-narrator, played by Louis Butelli, named for Henry VIII's jester, Will Sommers, as well as the character of Mary I, played by Megan Steigerwald. A remount of that production also played at Alabama Shakespeare Festival in 2012.


title: Henry VIII (play)

text: In 2019 the play was done in repertory at the Studio Theatre at Canada's Stratford Festival. The production was filmed by Cineplex for broadcast in theatres;


title: Mort

text: Mort is a fantasy novel by British writer Terry Pratchett. Published in 1987, it is the fourth "Discworld" novel and the first to focus on the character Death, who only appeared as a side character in the previous novels. The title is the name of its main character, and is also a play on words: in French and Catalan, "mort" means "death". The French language edition is titled "Mortimer", and the Catalan language edition is titled "Morth".


title: Mort

text: In the BBC's 2003 Big Read contest, viewers voted on the "Nation's Best-loved Book"; "Mort" was among the Top 100 and chosen as the most popular of Pratchett's novels.


title: Mort

text: In 2004, Pratchett stated that "Mort" was the first Discworld novel with which he was "pleased", stating that in previous books, the plot had existed to support the jokes, but that in "Mort", the plot was integral.


title: Mort

text: As a teenager, Mort has a personality and temperament that makes him unsuited to the family farming business. Mort's father Lezek takes him to a local hiring fair in the hope that Mort will land an apprenticeship; not only would this provide a job for his son, but it would also make his son's propensity for thinking someone else's problem. Just before the last stroke of midnight, Death arrives and takes Mort on as an apprentice (though his father thinks he has been apprenticed to an undertaker). Death takes Mort to his domain, where he meets Death's elderly manservant Albert, and his adopted daughter Ysabell. Mort later accompanies Death as he travels to collect the soul of a king, who is due to be assassinated by the scheming Duke of Sto Helit. After Mort unsuccessfully tries to prevent the assassination, Death warns him that all deaths are predetermined, and that he cannot interfere with fate.


title: Mort

text: Later on, Death assigns Mort to collect the soul of Princess Keli, daughter of the murdered king, but he instead kills the assassin the Duke had sent after her. Keli lives, but shortly after the assassin's death people begin acting as if something had happened without knowing why, such as a solemn song being played. She soon finds that the rest of the world no longer acknowledges her existence at all unless she confronts them and even then only in a confused manner which is forgotten immediately after. She subsequently employs the wizard Igneous Cutwell, who is able to see her as he is trained to see things that are invisible to normal people (like death) to make her existence clear to the public. Mort eventually discovers that his actions have created an alternate reality in which Keli lives, but he also learns that it is being overridden by the original reality and will eventually cease to exist, killing Keli. While consulting Cutwell, Mort sees a picture of Unseen University's founder, Alberto Malich, noting that he bears a resemblance to Albert.


title: Mort

text: Mort and Ysabell travel into the Stack, a library in Death's domain that holds the biographies of everyone who has ever lived, in order to investigate Albert, eventually discovering that he is indeed Malich. They further learn that Malich had feared monsters waiting for him in the afterlife, and performed a reversed version of the Rite of AshkEnte in the hope of keeping Death away from him. However, the spell backfired and sent him to Death's side, where he has remained in order to put off his demise. During this time, Death, yearning to relish what being human is like, travels to Ankh-Morpork to indulge in new experiences, including getting drunk, dancing, gambling and finding a job. Mort in turn starts to become more like Death, adopting his mannerisms and aspects of his personality, while his own is slowly overridden.


title: Mort

text: Death's absence forces Mort to collect the next two souls, who are both located on separate parts of the Disc, and due to die on the same night that the alternate reality will be destroyed. Before he and Ysabell leave to collect the souls, Mort uses the part of Death within him to force Albert to provide a spell that will slow down the alternate reality's destruction. After Mort and Ysabell leave, Albert returns to Unseen University, under the identity of Malich. His eagerness to live on the Disc is reinvigorated during this time, and he has the wizards perform the Rite of AshkEnte in the hope of finally escaping Death's grasp. The ritual summons both Death and the part of Death that had been taking Mort over, restoring him to normal. Unaware of Albert's treachery, Death takes him back into his service, the Librarian preventing the wizard's escape.


title: Mort

text: Mort and Ysabell travel to Keli's palace, where the princess and Cutwell have organised a hasty coronation ceremony in the hope that Keli can be crowned queen before the alternate reality is destroyed. With the reality now too small for Albert's spell, Mort and Ysabell save Keli and Cutwell from being destroyed with the alternate reality. They return to Death's domain to find a furious Death waiting for them, the latter having learned of Mort's actions from Albert. Death dismisses Mort and attempts to take the souls of Keli and Cutwell, but Mort challenges him to a duel for them. Though Death eventually wins the duel, he spares Mort's life and sends him back to the Disc.


title: Mort

text: Death convinces the gods to change the original reality so that Keli rules in place of the Duke, who was inadvertently killed during Death and Mort's duel. Mort and Ysabell – who have fallen in love over the course of the story – get married, and are made Duke and Duchess of Sto Helit by Keli, while Cutwell is made the Master of the Queen's Bedchamber. Death attends Mort and Ysabell's reception, where he warns Mort that he will have to make sure that the original Duke's destiny is fulfilled, and presents him with the alternate reality he created, now shrunk to the size of a large pearl, before the two part on amicable terms.


title: Mort

text: The novel has been adapted by Robin Brooks for BBC Radio Four. Narrated by Anton Lesser, with Geoffrey Whitehead as Death, Carl Prekopp as Mort, Clare Corbett as Ysabell and Alice Hart as Princess Keli, the programme was first broadcast in four parts in mid-2004 and has been repeated frequently, most recently on Radio 4 Extra.


title: Mort

text: An English musical adaptation of "Mort" was presented in Guildford in August 2008 by Youth Music Theatre UK. The adaptation was by Jenifer Toksvig (sister of Sandi Toksvig) and the composer was Dominic Haslam. A new production, directed by Luke Sheppard, was staged at the Greenwich Theatre in 2011.


title: Mort

text: After the film "The Princess And The Frog", Disney animators John Musker and Ron Clements planned that their next project would be an animated film version of "Mort", but their failure to obtain the film rights prevented them from continuing with the project.


title: Mort

text: Dave Langford reviewed "Mort" for "White Dwarf" #96, and stated that "After a slightly less successful experiment in "Equal Rites", Pratchett has sussed the combination of hilarity with a tortuous plot, and the rest of us would-be humorists hate him for it."


title: Gary Numan discography

text: The following is a comprehensive discography of Gary Numan, a British singer and musician. Numan (born Gary Webb, 1958) released his first record in 1978 as part of the outfit Tubeway Army. Initially unsuccessful, the band scored a huge hit in 1979 with the single "Are Friends Electric" and their second album "Replicas", both of which reached number one in the UK. Numan then decided to release further recordings under his own name, beginning with the single "Cars" later in 1979. Both this and the subsequent album "The Pleasure Principle" also reached number one in the UK, and Numan became a leading force in the British electronic music scene. He scored a third number one album in 1980 with "Telekon", and more hit singles and albums until the mid 1980s when his popularity waned. Despite this, he has continued to record and tour on a regular basis up to the present day. His 2017 studio album, "Savage (Songs from a Broken World)", entered the UK Albums Chart at no. 2, which was Numan's highest chart peak since 1980. His most recent album, 2021's Intruder, also entered the UK charts at no. 2.


title: Disney's Typhoon Lagoon

text: Disney's Typhoon Lagoon is a water theme park located at the Walt Disney World Resort in Lake Buena Vista, Florida near Orlando, and is one of two operating water parks at the resort. It is the second water park to open at the resort, preceded by Disney's River Country which closed in November 2001.


title: Disney's Typhoon Lagoon

text: The park, which opened on June 1, 1989, is home to one of the world's largest outdoor wave pools where it is even possible to bodysurf. The theme of the park is the "Disney legend" of a typhoon that wreaked havoc upon a formerly pristine tropical paradise. Ships, fishing gear, and surfboards are strewn about where the storm flung them. Its centerpiece is "Miss Tilly", a shrimp boat impaled upon a mountain named "Mount Mayday" that erupts a geyser of water every half hour, right before the bells of the watch sound on it. Its mascot is "Lagoona Gator".


title: Disney's Typhoon Lagoon

text: In 2016, the park admitted approximately 2,277,000 visitors, currently making it the second most visited water park in the world. It operates year-round, with an annual maintenance closure during either the fall or winter. During the closure, its sister park, Blizzard Beach, will remain open.


title: Disney's Typhoon Lagoon

text: Of the major parks at Disney World, it is the only one that lies within the city limits of Lake Buena Vista. Blizzard Beach and the four theme parks are within the adjacent city of Bay Lake. However, Lake Buena Vista is the mailing address for the entire Walt Disney World Resort.


title: Disney's Typhoon Lagoon

text: The water park, along with all the other Walt Disney World parks, closed in March 2020 due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The park remained closed whilst the four theme parks reopened July 11–15, 2020. Disney's Typhoon Lagoon reopened at the Walt Disney World Resort on January 2, 2022, after being closed almost two years due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was the last portion of the resort to reopen after COVID-19 related interruptions.


title: Disney's Typhoon Lagoon

text: Mount Mayday, located behind the surf pool, features "Miss Tilly" as well as many of the waterfalls and slides. It is a man-made mountain which not only provides launching areas for the water slides but also conceals the pipework.


title: Disney's Typhoon Lagoon

text: The main engineering works performed in 1988 and 1989 featured studies, design, and tests on water wave generation and propagation. As the Typhoon Lagoon was one of the first wave-makers applied to a theme park, one of its prime objectives was to produce surfable waves. Waves are generated by a 12-cell prestressed concrete tank in the background of the lagoon covered with the shipwreck scene. Computer modeling techniques were used at the time to study fluid-structure interaction, stress concentrations, and fatigue to ensure integrity and safety. Prior to its opening, the Typhoon Lagoon was tested to determine wave shape, surf-board ride duration, and the extent to which the waves give a natural feeling as they propagate and break on the artificial beach downstream.


title: Disney's Typhoon Lagoon

text: Hideaway Bay, formerly "Out of the Way Cay", is a sandy beach area located behind the dressing rooms.


title: Disney's Typhoon Lagoon

text: The largest section of the park houses the feature attraction as well as many shaded, white sandy beaches to relax and recuperate.


title: Disney's Typhoon Lagoon

text: Considered one of the most unique attractions at any Disney park, Typhoon Lagoon's Shark Reef provided guests a 5–15 minute snorkel across a manmade lagoon brimming with rays, small sharks, and tropical fish. The artificial reef consisted of a 362,000-gallon dual tank habitat separated by an overturned "sunken tanker"—a disguised underwater viewing tunnel. Without official statements from Disney Parks, analysts point to its uniquely high operating costs (animals and their care takers, water temperature regulation, water filtration, life guards, et al.) as reason for its permanent closure on October 3, 2016.


title: Disney's Typhoon Lagoon

text: Since closure, the sunken tanker has been walled off and the tank closest to the pathways has been filled in, covered with sand, and converted into a seating/lounge area. The entrance building to the attraction has been converted into a quick service bar and eatery.


title: Disney's Typhoon Lagoon

text: Continuous flowing, "lazy river" that slowly circles the entire park, passing through gentle waterfalls, lush rainforests, mist screens, and Mount Mayday itself. Riders can float on their own or in the inner tubes provided.


title: Disney's Typhoon Lagoon

text: There are 2 designated picnic areas located in the park. However, there are no restrictions as to where to have a picnic.


title: Akash Vukoti

text: Akash Vukoti is an Indian-American spelling child prodigy and TV personality from San Angelo, Texas. He was the first-ever first grader to qualify for and compete in the Scripps National Spelling Bee, and first appeared in the NBC TV show "Little Big Shots" in March 2016.