title: The Luck of Barry Lyndon

text: After several months have passed, a stranger travelling under Austrian protection arrives in Berlin. Redmond is asked to spy on the stranger, an older man called Chevalier de Balibari (sc. Ballybarry). He immediately realises that this is his uncle, the adventurer who disappeared many years ago. The uncle arranges to smuggle his nephew out of Prussia, and this is soon done. The two Irishmen and an accomplice wander around Europe, gambling and spending as they go.


title: The Luck of Barry Lyndon

text: Eventually, the Barrys end up in a Rhineland Duchy, where they win considerable sums of money, and Redmond cleverly sets up a plan to marry a young countess of some means. Again, fortune turns against him, and a series of circumstances undermines his complex plan. (The story of the unhappy Princess Olivia was based on a scandalous account of Duchess Augusta of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel by Étienne-Léon de Lamothe-Langon.) Uncle and nephew are forced to leave Germany—both unmarried.


title: The Luck of Barry Lyndon

text: While staying in France, Redmond comes into the acquaintance of the Countess of Lyndon, an extraordinarily wealthy noblewoman married to a much older man in poor health. He has some success in seducing the lady, but her husband clings to life. Eventually, she goes back to England. Redmond is upset, but bides his time; upon hearing that the husband has died the following year, he moves.


title: The Luck of Barry Lyndon

text: Through a series of adventures, Redmond eventually bullies and seduces the Countess of Lyndon, who marries him under duress. After the wedding, he moves into Hackton Castle, which he has completely remodelled at great expense. Redmond admits several times in the course of his narrative that he has no control over a budget, and spends his new bride's birthright money freely. He looks after a few childhood benefactors in Ireland, his cousin Ulick (who had often stood up for him as a boy), and makes himself over into the most fashionable man in the district.


title: The Luck of Barry Lyndon

text: As the American War of Independence breaks out, Barry Lyndon (as he now calls himself) raises a company of soldiers to be sent to America. He also defeats his wife's cousins to win a seat in Parliament. However, his good fortunes ebb again: his stepson, Lord Bullingdon, goes off to the American war, and Barry is accused of trying to get the lad killed in battle. Then his own child—Bryan—dies in a tragic horse-riding accident; this, combined with Barry's profligate spending practices, leads to his ruin.


title: The Luck of Barry Lyndon

text: As the "memoir" ends, (Redmond) Barry Lyndon is separated from his wife and placed in the Fleet Prison; a small stipend allows him to live in moderate luxury, and his elderly mother lodges close by to tend to him. He spends the rest of his life in prison, until he dies of alcoholism-related illness.


title: The Luck of Barry Lyndon

text: Stanley Kubrick adapted the novel into the film "Barry Lyndon", released in 1975. Unlike in the novel, the film is not narrated by the titular character.


title: The Luck of Barry Lyndon

text: Irish playwright Don McCamphill produced a similar two-hour radio dramatization for the BBC in 2003. McCamphill's follows the book more closely than Kubrick's, but is more condensed.


title: Kim Stanley

text: Kim Stanley (born Patricia Kimberley Reid; February 11, 1925 – August 20, 2001) was an American actress, primarily in television and theatre, but with occasional film performances.


title: Kim Stanley

text: She began her acting career in theatre, and subsequently attended the Actors Studio in New York City, New York. She received the 1952 Theatre World Award for her role in "The Chase" (1952), and starred in the Broadway productions of "Picnic" (1953) and "Bus Stop" (1955). Stanley was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play for her roles in "A Touch of the Poet" (1959) and "A Far Country" (1962).


title: Kim Stanley

text: In the 1950s Stanley was a prolific performer in television; she later progressed to film, with a well-received performance in "The Goddess" (1959). She was the narrator of "To Kill a Mockingbird" (1962), and starred in "Séance on a Wet Afternoon" (1964), for which she won the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress. She was less active during the remainder of her career; two of her later film successes were as the mother of Frances Farmer in "Frances" (1982), for which she received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, and as Pancho Barnes in "The Right Stuff" (1983). Stanley received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress – Miniseries or a Movie for her performance as Big Mama in a television adaptation of "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" in 1985. That same year, she was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame.


title: Kim Stanley

text: Stanley was born in Tularosa, New Mexico, the daughter of Ann ("née" Miller), an interior decorator, and J. T. Reid, a professor of philosophy and education at the University of New Mexico, located in Albuquerque. Her father was of Irish or Scottish descent, born and raised in Texas, where he met her mother (who was of German and English ancestry). She had three older brothers (Howard Clinton Reid, a psychiatrist; Kenneth Reid, killed in pilot training during World War II; and Justin Truman Reid, a lawyer); and a half-sister (Carol Ann Reid). She was a drama major at the University of New Mexico, and later studied at the Pasadena Playhouse and adopted her maternal grandmother's surname as her stage name.


title: Kim Stanley

text: Stanley was a successful Broadway actress with only a few film roles. She was singled out by "The New York Times" critic Brooks Atkinson for her early work. She eventually attended the Actors Studio, studying under Elia Kazan, Lee Strasberg, and Vivian Nathan. She received the 1952 Theatre World Award for her performance as Anna Reeves in "The Chase", and starred in such Broadway hits as "Picnic" (1953), playing Millie Owens and "Bus Stop" (1955), playing Cherie.


title: Kim Stanley

text: She was nominated for the 1959 Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play for "A Touch of the Poet" and the 1962 Tony for Best Actress in a Play for her portrayal of Elizabeth von Ritter in Henry Denker's "A Far Country". Stanley also portrayed Maggie "The Cat" in "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" in the original London production of the play. In 1965, she played Masha in the London run of an Actors Studio production of Anton Chekhov's play "The Three Sisters". After a savaging of the production by local critics, she made good on her promise to never act on stage again.


title: Kim Stanley

text: Stanley was a leading lady of live television drama, which flourished in New York City during the 1950s. On October 17, 1950, she starred in "The Vanishing Lady" on "The Trap". Her other starring roles included Wilma, a star-struck 15-year-old girl from the U.S. Gulf Coast of Texas in Horton Foote's "A Young Lady of Property", which aired on "The Philco-Goodyear Television Playhouse" on April 5, 1953.


title: Kim Stanley

text: Her first film was "The Goddess" (1958), playing a tragic movie star. She starred in "Séance on a Wet Afternoon" (1964), winning both the National Board of Review Award for Best Actress and the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress, and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress and the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role.


title: Kim Stanley

text: A filmed version of Strasberg-directed "Three Sisters" (1966) opened with Stanley reprising the role of Masha, and is the only time one can see her perform in a film alongside Geraldine Page, Sandy Dennis, Shelley Winters and other well-known names of the Actors Studio. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture for her performance as Frances Farmer's possessive mother in "Frances" (1982). She also played Pancho Barnes in "The Right Stuff" (1983). Stanley was the uncredited narrator in the drama film "To Kill a Mockingbird" (1962). As the narrator, she represents the character Jean Louise Finch ("Scout") as an adult. Mary Badham portrays Scout as a child in the film.


title: Kim Stanley

text: She received an Emmy Award for Outstanding Single Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role for her appearance in the episode, "A Cardinal Act of Mercy" (1963), of the television series, "Ben Casey" (1961–1966), and an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or a Special for her appearance in the 1984 television adaptation of Tennessee Williams's Southern melodrama "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof", this time as Big Mama.


title: Kim Stanley

text: Stanley did not act during her later years, preferring the role of teacher in New York City, Los Angeles, and later Santa Fe, New Mexico, where she died.


title: Kim Stanley

text: Stanley was married four times: to Bruce Hall (1945–1946), Curt Conway (1949–1956), Alfred Ryder (1958–1964), and Joseph Siegel (1964–1967). All four marriages ended in divorce.


title: Kim Stanley

text: She had three children: one by Curt Conway; one by Brooks Clift (brother of Montgomery Clift), while she was married to Conway; and one by Alfred Ryder (Laurie). During her marriage to Ryder, Stanley converted to Judaism.


title: Kim Stanley

text: Stanley died of uterine cancer at a nursing home in Santa Fe at the age of 76. She was survived by her brother Justin, her three children, and several nephews and nieces. A biography, "Female Brando: the Legend of Kim Stanley" (2006), by Jon Krampner, was published by Back Stage Books, a division of Watson-Guptill.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: A Chinese radical () or indexing component is a graphical component of a Chinese character under which the character is traditionally listed in a Chinese dictionary. This component is often a semantic indicator similar to a morpheme, though sometimes it may be a phonetic component or even an artificially extracted portion of the character. In some cases the original semantic or phonological connection has become obscure, owing to changes in character meaning or pronunciation over time.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: The English term "radical" is based on an analogy between the structure of characters and inflection of words in European languages. Radicals are also sometimes called "classifiers", but this name is more commonly applied to grammatical classifiers (measure words).


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: In the earliest Chinese dictionaries, such as the "Erya" (3rd century BC), characters were grouped together in broad semantic categories.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: Because the vast majority of characters are phono-semantic compounds (), combining a semantic component with a phonetic component, each semantic component tended to recur within a particular section of the dictionary. In the 2nd century AD, the Han dynasty scholar Xu Shen organized his etymological dictionary "Shuowen Jiezi" by selecting 540 recurring graphic elements he called "bù" (部 , "categories"). Most were common semantic components, but they also included shared graphic elements such as a dot or horizontal stroke. Some were even artificially extracted groups of strokes, termed "glyphs" by Serruys (1984, p. 657), which never had an independent existence other than being listed in "Shuowen". Each character was listed under only one element, which is then referred to as the radical for that character. For example, characters containing 女 "nǚ" "female" or 木 "mù" "tree, wood" are often grouped together in the sections for those radicals.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: Mei Yingzuo's 1615 dictionary "Zihui" made two further innovations. He reduced the list of radicals to 214, and arranged characters under each radical in increasing order of the number of additional strokes – the "radical-and-stroke-count" method still used in the vast majority of present-day Chinese dictionaries. These innovations were also adopted by the more famous "Kangxi Dictionary" of 1716. Thus the standard 214 radicals introduced in the "Zihui" are usually known as the Kangxi radicals. These were first called "bùshǒu" (部首, literally "section header") in the "Kangxi Dictionary". Although there is some variation in such lists – depending primarily on what secondary radicals are also indexed – these canonical 214 radicals of the "Kangxi Dictionary" still serve as the basis for most modern Chinese dictionaries. Some of the graphically similar radicals are combined in many dictionaries, such as 月 "yuè" "moon" and the 月 form (⺼) of 肉 "ròu", "meat, flesh".


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: After the writing system reform in Mainland China, the traditional set of Kangxi Radicals became unsuitable for indexing Simplified Chinese characters. In 1983, the Committee for Reforming the Chinese Written Language and the State Administration of Publication of China published "The Table of Unified Indexing Chinese Character Components (Draft)" (). In 2009, the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China and the State Language Work Committee issued "The Table of Indexing Chinese Character Components" (GF 0011-2009 ), which includes 201 principal indexing components and 100 associated indexing components (In China's normative documents, "radical" is defined as any component or "piānpáng" of Chinese characters, while is translated as "indexing component".).


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: Radicals may appear in any position in a character. For example, 女 appears on the left side in the characters 姐, 媽, 她, 好 and 姓, but it appears at the bottom in 妾. However, there are two radicals that have the shape 阝, but are indexed as different radicals depending on where they appear. When used with the abbreviated radical form of 邑 "yì" "city" it gives 都 "dū" "metropolis", also read as "dōu" "all-city" it appears on the right, but when used with the abbreviated radical form of 阜 "fù" "mound, hill" (as in 陸 "lù" "land") it appears on the left. However, there are regularities in the positioning next to ("within") most characters, depending on function: semantic components tend to appear on the top or on the left side of the character; similarly, phonetic components tend to appear on the right side of the character or at its bottom. These are loose rules, though, and exceptions are plenty. Sometimes, the radical may span more than one side, as in 園 = 囗 "enclosure" + 袁, or 街 = 行 "go, movement" + 圭. More complicated combinations exist, such as 勝 = 力 "strength" + 朕—the radical is in the lower-right quadrant.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: Many character components (including radicals) are distorted or changed to fit into a block with others. They may be narrowed, shortened, or may have different shapes entirely. Changes in shape, rather than simple distortion, may result in fewer pen strokes. In some cases, combinations may have alternates. The shape of the component can depend on its placement with other elements in the character.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: Over 80% of Chinese characters are phono-semantic compounds (): a semantic component gives a broad category of meaning – the phonetic component suggests the sound. Usually, the radical is the semantic component.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: Thus, although some authors use the term "radical" for semantic components (義符 "yìfú"), others distinguish the latter as "determinatives" or "significs" or by some other term.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: Many radicals are merely artificial extractions of portions of characters, some of which further truncated or changed when applied (such as 亅 "jué" or "juě" in 了 "liǎo"), as explained by Serruys (1984), who therefore prefers the term "glyph" extraction rather than graphic extraction. This is even truer of modern dictionaries, which cut radicals to less than half the number in "Shuowen", at which point it becomes impossible to have enough to cover a semantic element of every character. A sample of the "Far Eastern Chinese English Dictionary" of mere artificial extraction of a stroke from sub-entries:


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: In some cases, chosen radicals used phonetically coincidentally are in keeping, in step, semantically.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: The character simplification adopted in the People's Republic of China and elsewhere has modified a number of components, including those used as radicals. This has created a number of new radical forms. For instance, in traditional writing, the character 金 "jīn" is written 釒(that is, with the same number of strokes, and only a minor variation) as a radical, but in simplified characters is written 钅 as a radical. That means, simplified writing has created a significant difference not present in traditional writing. A character using this radical is "yín" "silver"; traditionally: 銀, simplified: 银.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: Many dictionaries support using radical classification to index and lookup characters, although many present-day dictionaries supplement it with other methods as well. For example, modern dictionaries in PRC usually use the Pinyin transcription of a character to perform character lookup. Following the "section-header-and-stroke-count" method of Mei Yingzuo, characters are listed by their radical and then ordered by the number of strokes needed to write them.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: For example, consider the character 信 xìn, meaning "truth", "faith", "sincerity", and "trust". Its radical is 亻 rén "human" (a compressed form of 人) and there are seven additional strokes in the remaining portion (言 "yán", "speech"). To look up this character in a dictionary, one finds the radical for "human" in the part of dictionary that indexes radicals. The various radicals will be organized by the number of strokes they themselves contain. 人 and its compressed version 亻 contain only two strokes, so it will be near the beginning of the list. Locating it, one can see the page for the index on that radical, and one then normally passes through the lists of characters with one additional stroke, two additional strokes, etc. until one reaches the entries with seven additional strokes. If the chosen radical matches the radical used by the dictionary compiler (which can be difficult to guarantee for more complicated characters), and if both the user and the dictionary compiler count strokes the same way (also often a problem with characters that the user is unfamiliar with), the entry will be in that list, and will appear next to an entry number or a page number where the full dictionary entry for that character can be found.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: As a rule of thumb, components at the left or top of the character, or elements which surround the rest of the character, are the ones most likely to be used as radical. For example, 信 is typically indexed under the left-side component 人 instead of the right-side 言; and 套 is typically indexed under the top 大 instead of the bottom 長. There are, however, idiosyncratic differences between dictionaries, and except for simple cases, the same character cannot be assumed to be indexed the same way in two different dictionaries.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: In order to further ease dictionary lookup, dictionaries sometimes list radicals both under the number of strokes used to write their canonical form and under the number of strokes used to write their variant forms. For example, 心 can be listed as a four-stroke radical but might also be listed as a three-stroke radical because it is usually written as 忄 when it forms a part of another character. This means that the dictionary user need not know that the two are etymologically identical.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: It is sometimes possible to find a single character indexed under multiple radicals. For example, many dictionaries list 義 under either 羊 or 戈 (the radical of its lower part 我). Furthermore, with digital dictionaries, it is now possible to search for characters by cross-reference. Using this "multi-component method" a relatively new development enabled by computing technology, the user can select "all" of a character's components from a table and the computer will present a list of matching characters. This eliminates the guesswork of choosing the correct radical and calculating the correct stroke count, and cuts down searching time significantly. One can query for characters containing both 羊 and 戈, and get back only five characters (羢, 義, 儀, 羬 and 羲) to search through. The Academia Sinica's 漢字構形資料庫 Chinese character structure database also works this way, returning only seven characters in this instance. Harbaugh's Chinese Characters dictionary similarly allows searches based on any component. Some modern computer dictionaries allow the user to draw characters with a mouse, stylus or finger, ideally tolerating a degree of imperfection, thus eliminating the problem of radical identification altogether.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: Though radicals are widely accepted as a method to categorize Chinese characters and to locate a certain character in a dictionary, there is no universal agreement about either the exact number of radicals, or the set of radicals. This is because radicals are merely arbitrarily chosen categories for lexicographical purposes.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: The 214 Kangxi radicals act as a de facto standard, which may not be duplicated exactly in every Chinese dictionary, but which few dictionary compilers can afford to completely ignore. They serve as the basis for many computer encoding systems. Specifically, the Unicode standard's radical-stroke charts are based on the Kangxi radicals or radicals.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: The count of commonly used radicals in modern abridged dictionaries is often less than 214. The "Oxford Concise English–Chinese Dictionary" (), for example, has 188. A few dictionaries also introduce new radicals based on the principles first used by Xu Shen, treating groups of radicals that are used together in many different characters as a kind of radical.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: In modern practice, radicals are primarily used as lexicographic tools and as learning aids when writing characters. They have become increasingly disconnected from meaning, etymology and phonetics.


title: Radical (Chinese characters)

text: Some of the radicals used in Chinese dictionaries, even in the era of Kangxi, were not standalone current-usage characters; they indexed unique characters that lacked more obvious qualifiers. The radical 鬯 ("chàng" "sacrificial wine") indexes only a few characters. Modern dictionaries tend to eliminate these when it is possible to find some more widely used graphic element under which a character can be categorized. Some do indexing under more than one radical and/or set of key elements to make it easier to find characters.


title: Rubina Bajwa

text: Rubina Bajwa is a Canadian actress and sister of Neeru Bajwa who works in Punjabi films. She started her career in 2017 in her sisters film "Sargi," for which she was awarded the Debut Female Actress Award in 2018 during the PTC Punjabi Film Awards.


title: Rubina Bajwa

text: Bajwa started her career in the 2017 Punjabi film "Sargi", promoted and directed by her sister Neeru Bajwa. She then appeared in "Laavaan Phere" along with Roshan Prince in 2018, which received moderate success at the box office and had received mixed reviews by critics.


title: Rubina Bajwa

text: In 2019, Bajwa also appeared in Laiye Je Yaarian with Harish Verma and also in the film Munda Hi Chahida. She also had a role in "Gidarh Singhi".


title: Rubina Bajwa

text: Bajwa will be sharing the screen with her sister, Neeru Bajwa in the upcoming movie, "Beautiful Billo" which is also produced by Neeru's production company and has roles in "Teri Meri Gal Ban Gayi", directed by Priti Sapru.


title: Rubina Bajwa

text: Bajwa was born in a Punjabi family in Vancouver, British Columbia to Jaswant Bajwa and Surinder Bajwa. She grew up in Vancouver and later came to India to shadow her sister Neeru Bajwa within the Punjabi cinema industry.


title: Rubina Bajwa

text: Since 2019, Bajwa has been dating Gurbaksh Chahal. In July 2022 the couple announced their engagement and their plans to be married in October.


title: Binge (streaming service)

text: Binge is a video streaming subscription service available in Australia, owned by Streamotion (a wholly owned subsidiary of Foxtel). The service offers on demand and live entertainment, lifestyle, reality and movie programming.


title: Binge (streaming service)

text: In August 2018 it was reported Foxtel were expected to announce an entertainment subscription video on demand (SVOD) service. The service, internally codenamed Project Jupiter, aimed to combat the building competition from streaming services such as Netflix, Stan, and Amazon Prime Video. This new service would complement Foxtel's sports SVOD service which had been given the go-ahead (later launched as Kayo Sports) as well as offer an alternative to traditional satellite and cable Foxtel services.


title: Binge (streaming service)

text: In October 2018, it was reported that Project Jupiter would launch in the first half of 2019 to coincide with the final season of "Game of Thrones". In March 2019 it was reported Foxtel had green-lit Project Jupiter, however, it would not launch in early 2019 as previously reported. In September 2019 it was reported Foxtel had assembled a staff of 40 ahead of the launch who were located within the same facility as sister-company Kayo Sports. It was also noted the service's code name had changed from "Project Jupiter" to "Project Ares".


title: Binge (streaming service)

text: On 23 May 2020 it was announced the new service would be called Binge. It officially launched on 25 May 2020.


title: Binge (streaming service)

text: At launch Binge was reported to offer over 10,000 hours of entertainment, lifestyle, reality and movie content without advertisements, which was expected to expand to 20,000 hours of content within 12 months.


title: Binge (streaming service)

text: Binge's content is drawn primarily from output deals with Foxtel. Not all content available on Foxtel may be available on Binge due to competing agreements with other distributors (including other Australian TV channels) and/or streaming services in Australia.


title: Binge (streaming service)

text: Ahead of Binge's launch, Foxtel and Binge acquired Australian rights to HBO Max original programmes distributed by Warner Bros. Television Studios. In September 2022, Foxtel announced that WWE Network content would move exclusively to Binge in January 2023.


title: Binge (streaming service)

text: "Binge" has access to some of Foxtel movie output deals for movies including Australian cinema, Hollywood blockbusters, British films, independent film and other global releases. "Binge" may or may not share a same day release with Foxtel's Foxtel Movies release depending on the title and the output deal with its distributor. Some blockbusters like Universal Pictures’ "Fast & Furious" franchise had an exclusive window on Foxtel's Movies Package before being made available to "Binge" and other Foxtel on demand subscribes.


title: Binge (streaming service)

text: Binge also carries a lineup of 25 live linear television networks from Foxtel and other broadcasters;


title: Binge (streaming service)

text: As of May 25, 2020, Binge offers three tiers of monthly subscriptions defined by the number of simultaneous streams allowed – 1, 2, or 4 – and the quality of the streamed content from Standard Definition to High Definition. The subscriptions range from $10 to $18.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: Walter Max Ulyate Sisulu (18 May 1912 – 5 May 2003) was a South African anti-apartheid activist and member of the African National Congress (ANC). Between terms as ANC Secretary-General (1949–1954) and ANC Deputy President (1991–1994), he was incarcerated on Robben Island, where he served more than 25 years' imprisonment for his activism. He is known for his close partnership with Oliver Tambo and Nelson Mandela, with whom he played a key role in organising the 1952 Defiance Campaign and the establishment of the ANC Youth League and Umkhonto we Sizwe. He was also on the Central Committee of the South African Communist Party.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: Sisulu was born in 1912 in Ngcobo in the Union of South Africa, part of what is now the Eastern Cape province (then the Transkei). Not unusual for his generation in South Africa, he was not certain of his birthday, but celebrated it on 18 May. His mother, Alice Mase Sisulu, was a Xhosa domestic worker and his father, Albert Victor Dickinson, was a white civil servant and magistrate. Dickinson did not play a part in his son's upbringing: Sisulu reportedly met him only once, in the 1940s, before he died in the 1970s. Sisulu and his sister, Rosabella, were raised by his mother's family, who were descended from the Thembu clan. He was close with his uncle, Dyantyi Hlakula, who was passionate about Xhosa culture and who oversaw his initiation. Although he was technically of mixed race, Sisulu identified strongly as black and as Xhosa.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: In his mid-teens, Sisulu left school – an Anglican mission school – to find work. In Johannesburg, he worked a range of jobs, including as a bank teller, gold miner, domestic worker, and baker. He was fired from the bakery for trying to organise his co-workers.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: He founded Sitha Investments in 1939. It was situated at Barclay Arcade between West Street and Commissioner Street in the business district of Johannesburg. Its objective was to help black and Indian people buy houses. During its operations, Sitha was the only black-owned real estate agency in South Africa.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: In 1940, Sisulu joined the African National Congress (ANC), which had been founded in the year of his birth. The following year, Nelson Mandela moved to Johannesburg and was introduced to Sisulu, who by then was well connected among the city<nowiki>'s activist class. Sisulu later said, "</nowiki>I had no hesitation, the moment I met him, that this is the man I need" – the man, that is, "for leading the African people". Sisulu encouraged Mandela to join the ANC, occasionally contributed to his law school tuition, and introduced him to his first wife, Evelyn Mase, who was Sisulu's maternal relative.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: In 1943, together with Mandela and Oliver Tambo, he joined the ANC Youth League, founded by Anton Lembede, of which he was initially the treasurer. He later distanced himself from Lembede after Lembede, who died in 1947, had ridiculed his parentage.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: The Youth League's drive for a more militant posture was given further fuel in 1948, when the National Party (NP) won national elections on a platform of legislating apartheid. In December 1949, at the ANC's 38th National Conference, the Youth League leadership carried out a "remarkable putsch", which successfully installed several younger and more militant members onto the party's National Executive Committee – including Sisulu, who was elected ANC Secretary-General. The League also tabled a broad Programme of Action, which was notable for its explicit emphasis on African nationalism and mass mobilisation techniques. The culmination of this new strategy was the 1952 Defiance Campaign of passive resistance. Sisulu was on the planning council for the campaign and was arrested for his participation. In December, he and other organisers, including ANC President James Moroka, were found guilty of "statutory communism" under the remarkably broad Suppression of Communism Act, but had their sentences – nine months' imprisonment with hard labour – suspended for two years.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: Sisulu, along with several others, formed part of an ANC delegation to the 1953 World Democratic Youth meeting in Bucharest, Romania; before returning to South Africa, the group also travelled to Warsaw, Poland, to London, to Israel, and to the People's Republic of China, where Sisulu was part of a meeting with the Chinese Communist Party leadership. In 1955, Sisulu, Mandela, and Ahmed Kathrada watched the Congress of the People gathering – which adopted the Freedom Charter – from a nearby rooftop, unable to attend the meeting because of the banning orders against them. By this time, Sisulu was active not only in the ANC but also, covertly, in the South African Communist Party (SACP).


title: Walter Sisulu

text: Paul Landau, a historian of the ANC, has argued that Sisulu and Mandela were the crucial forces, both intellectually and practically, behind the ANC's "turn to violence" (that is, to armed struggle against the government) at the turn of the decade. When Umkhonto we Sizwe was established in 1961, Sisulu served on its High Command.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: After 1952, he was jailed seven times in the next ten years, including five months in 1960, and was held under house arrest in 1962. At the Treason Trial (1956–1961), he was eventually sentenced to six years, but was released on bail pending his appeal.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: He went underground in 1963, resulting in his wife, Albertina Sisulu, becoming the first woman to be arrested under the so-called 90 Day Act, the General Laws Amendment Act of 1963, which allowed the state to detain suspects for up to 90 days without charging them.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: He was caught at Rivonia on 11 July, along with Govan Mbeki, Ahmed Kathrada and 14 others. At the conclusion of the Rivonia Trial, Sisulu was sentenced to life imprisonment on 12 June 1964. Part of his testimony during the trial included the commitment:I wish to make this solemn vow in full appreciation of the consequences it entails. As long as I enjoy the confidence of my people, and as long as there is a spark of life and energy in me, I shall fight with courage and determination for the abolition of discriminatory laws and for the freedom of all South Africans irrespective of colour or creed.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: With other senior ANC figures, Sisulu served the majority of his sentence on Robben Island, though he was later transferred to Pollsmoor Prison. His wife, Albertina Sisulu, was frequently under banning orders – the first from 1964 to 1969 – which prevented her from travelling to Cape Town to visit him.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: As part of the prelude to the negotiations to end apartheid, Sisulu and other Rivonia Trial defendants were released from prison on 15 October 1989; Sisulu was 77. His return to Soweto was greeted with celebrations in the street, and he told media of his long detention, "It was not possible to despair because the spirit of the people outside was too great". In 1990, he formed part of the ANC delegation to the negotiations with the government which resulted in the Groote Schuur Minute. In July 1991, at the ANC's first national conference since its unbanning the year before, Sisulu was elected ANC Deputy President. It was believed that he had been convinced to accept the job in order to prevent a disruptive power struggle between a younger generation of activists – such as Cyril Ramaphosa, Thabo Mbeki, and Chris Hani – vying for the deputy presidency.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: In 1994, the ANC won a majority in South Africa's first democratic elections and formed a government headed by Mandela, but Sisulu, weakened by age and his long imprisonment, declined to serve in public office. At the ANC's 49th National Conference in December that year, he also declined to run for re-election to the party's leadership. After his retirement, he and his family continued to live in Soweto, where they had lived before the Rivonia Trial.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: Sisulu died at his home in Soweto on the evening of 5 May 2003, just shy of his 91st birthday, in the presence of his wife. He was given a "special official funeral" on 17 May 2003. Among the tributes he received after his death, Mandela – joking that both he and Sisulu "had long passed the age when either of us would protest against the brevity of life" – said:Our paths first intersected in 1941. During the past 62 years our lives have been intertwined. We shared the joy of living, and the pain. Together we shared ideas, forged common commitments. We walked side by side through the valley of death, nursing each other's bruises, holding each other up when our steps faltered. Together we savoured the taste of freedom. From the moment when we first met he has been my friend, my brother, my keeper, my comrade.After Mandela's death in 2013, Mac Maharaj – who had been on Robben Island with both men and later became a cabinet minister – told the media that he had had Sisulu and Mandela write obituaries for each other before 2003, and had kept both.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: His admirers, including Mandela, frequently noted his humility. Those imprisoned with him on Robben Island remarked upon his unflappable calm and patience – as Mandela put it in his autobiography, "He was often silent when others were shouting." After his release from prison, according to the "Los Angeles Times", Sisulu "was always a voice for moderation, preaching the importance of a national reconciliation". Upon his death, Kathrada told the "New York Times:"I've always said that one can't speak of Mandela without speaking of Sisulu. They complement each other... Mandela was highly respected, highly admired. But I would not be able to say he was as loved as Sisulu was. You know that difference between a father and a leader? That was the big difference between them.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: In 1944, Sisulu married Albertina, a nurse, whom he had met in 1942 in Johannesburg; Mandela was his best man at their wedding. At the ceremony, Lembede warned Albertina that, "You are marrying a man who is already married to the nation"; Sisulu later recalled, "Even when I married my wife, I told her it was useless buying new furniture. I was going to be in jail." While he was in prison, Albertina became a very important anti-apartheid activist in her own right, with leadership roles in the United Democratic Front and Federation of South African Women. In 1982, Ruth First paid tribute to their marriage at an ANC celebration for Walter (in absentia) on his birthday, saying, "His capacity to lead and her political strength are... the product of a good marriage, a good political marriage, but a good marriage, one that is based on genuine equality and on shared commitment." Both were born into Christian families, but, asked in 1992 whether they practiced their religion, Albertina replied, "There’s no time, my dear".


title: Walter Sisulu

text: Together, the couple had five children: Max (born 1945), an ANC politician; Mlungisi, a businessman (born 1948, died 2015); Zwelakhe, a journalist (born 1950, died 2012); Lindiwe (born 1954), also an ANC politician; and Nonkululeko (born 1958). They also adopted three children: two – Beryl, a diplomat, and Gerald Lockman – are biologically the children of Walter's deceased sister; while the third, Jongumzi, is the son of Sisulu's cousin. Jongi served a five-year sentence on Robben Island for his anti-apartheid activism in the 1980s, and other family members were also periodically detained.


title: Walter Sisulu

text: In 2002, Max's wife, Elinor, published a biography of her parents-in-law, entitled "Walter and Albertina Sisulu: In Our Lifetime".


title: Walter Sisulu

text: In 1992, Sisulu was awarded Isitwalandwe Seaparankoe, the highest honour granted by the ANC, for his contribution to the liberation struggle in South Africa. The government of India awarded him Padma Vibhushan in 1998. In 2004 he was ranked 33rd on SABC 3's list of Great South Africans. The Walter Sisulu National Botanic Garden, Walter Sisulu University and Walter Sisulu Local Municipality are named after him.


title: Srivastava

text: Srivastava (; ), also spelled variously as Shrivastava, Shrivastav or Srivastav, is a common surname found amongst the Chitraguptavanshi Kayastha community of upper caste Hindus particularly in the Hindi-speaking regions of India.


title: Srivastava

text: Srivastavas are one of the twelve sub-clans of the Chitraguptvanshi Kayasthas that were traditionally involved in record-keeping, administration and military services.


title: Srivastava

text: They regard themselves as a de-facto "varna" that arose to keep records of the four "varnas" that came before them. Traditions and occupations associated with them, and their belief in the mythical roles assigned to Chitragupta, their progenitor, partly support this claim.


title: Srivastava

text: Most of the recorded history, after 10th century AD, of this clan is centred around Varanasi and present day eastern Uttar Pradesh and central India, as being influential during Ancient empires and Mughal empire in the Indian subcontinent, earning such titles as Pandit, Thakur and Lala.


title: Srivastava

text: The title "Śrīvāstava" is the shortened form of "Śrīvāstavya" and thus derived directly from the Sanskrit root words "Sri" (श्री) "God" and "vas" (वस्) "to dwell" by adding the primary suffix "tavyat" which denotes an agent and causes the lengthening of the radical vowel. While the word Sri is used in Sanskrit as honorific prefix to the names of deities " and vāstavya" means "a resident, inhabitant"; thereby the whole meaning "in whom God dwells". Note, however, that a word's meaning is derived from its use in sentence, not from its etymology.


title: Srivastava

text: According to another explanation, the name "Srivastava" originates from "Srivastu/Suvastu", the former name of the Swat River, which is said to be the place of origin of this clan.


title: Big Generator

text: Big Generator is the twelfth studio album by English progressive rock band Yes, released on 21 September 1987 by Atco Records. After touring in support of their previous album, "90125" (1983), which saw the band move from progressive rock towards a pop-oriented and commercially accessible direction, Yes started work on a follow-up in 1985 with producer Trevor Horn. It was a laborious album to make; recording began at Carimate, Italy, but internal and creative differences resulted in production to resume in London, where Horn ended his time with the band due to continuing problems. The album was completed in Los Angeles in 1987 by Trevor Rabin and producer Paul DeVilliers.


title: Big Generator

text: "Big Generator" received some mixed reviews from music critics, and the album reached number 15 on the "Billboard" 200 and number 17 on the UK Albums Chart. In April 1988, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling one million copies in the US. Like "90125", it was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. The album spawned two singles, "Love Will Find a Way" and "Rhythm of Love". Yes supported "Big Generator" with a tour of North America and Japan from November 1987 to April 1988, after which Anderson again left the group. The album was reissued in 2009 with bonus tracks.


title: Big Generator

text: In February 1985, the Yes line-up of Jon Anderson, bassist Chris Squire, keyboardist Tony Kaye, drummer Alan White, and guitarist and vocalist Trevor Rabin, ended a twelve-month world tour in support of their eleventh studio album, "90125" (1983). That album marked a considerable change in direction for the group, moving from their pioneering progressive rock sound of the 1970s towards more accessible and pop-oriented music, helped by the production of Trevor Horn and Rabin's demos, which formed most of the album. "90125" became the band's highest selling album, helped by their first and only US number one single "Owner of a Lonely Heart". The album also earned Yes's only Grammy Award, winning Best Rock Instrumental Performance for "Cinema".


title: Big Generator

text: Rehearsals began in Hollywood, California in August 1985 with Horn resuming his role as producer. Rabin felt nervous and pressured when their label, Atco Records, informed him that they wished for another hit like "Owner of a Lonely Heart", but he wanted to move from the band's past and do something different regardless of its success. Anderson, wishing to "extend the musicianship" of the band and its new music, wanted to capitalise on its now larger fanbase and attempt "more adventurous" songs for the album. Horn was not interested, however, and isolated Anderson from the writing process until songs were near complete. Anderson called it a "big mistake" as he wanted to encourage Rabin to "jump on a Stravinsky-ism" and "go crazy wild" with musical ideas. Kaye recalled that the band had no preconceived ideas, that Rabin had amassed lots of songs, many of which were already arranged and had lyrics, but did not force them upon the group because he wanted the writing to be a group effort. Kaye had little interest in songs based on improvisation.


title: Big Generator

text: The album's title derived from a quote from the band's concert film, "9012Live" (1985). During one of the colourised segments at the end of the film, one of the actors says "It's the rhythm of big generators", which stuck with the group.


title: Big Generator

text: At the beginning of the songwriting process, Rabin recalled the group used "Abbey Road" (1969) by The Beatles as a model and influence for the music on "Big Generator". He explained: "If we come up with an idea, why pressure ourselves into making it a song? Just have it there. If you can't come up with a chorus, don't throw it out because it's not a complete song and don't put a bad chorus around it". Such an approach led to the album having tracks longer than common pop songs of the time, peaking at seven minutes in length. Rabin said Kaye had a greater role on "Big Generator" than he had on "90125", but continual clashes between Kaye and Horn resulted in his keyboard parts recorded in a studio away from Horn. Despite this, Rabin still played "a lot" of keyboards on the album.


title: Big Generator

text: Kaye's main instrument on the album was the Korg DW-8000, which was able to faithfully recreate a Hammond organ and piano. He also used a Roland D-50, and a custom built Oberheim DPX-1 with hard disk capability. The group used what Kaye described as "the most sophisticated, most expensive" Synclavier system which was placed in a room of its own above the main studio. The basic keyboard parts and overdubs were recorded by feeding tracks from the main studio to the Synclavier, where Kaye would play his part, and the tracks fed back down to tape in the main studio. White was experimenting with sound designer and technologist Reek Havoc on the Dynacord ADD-One drum machine and pads.


title: Big Generator

text: At Rabin's suggestion, the band agreed to record at Lark Recording Studios, a facility situated by Castello di Carimate, a castle in Carimate, Italy. He thought that such a location would help the band bond together and bring some new ideas to the music which would create a better album as a result. Rabin first spoke of the friction between Anderson and Squire during this time three years after the album's release, which suited him as it "created a great vacuum for me to work in". Squire maintained that Rabin made the choice to record there as a step to save money and for tax purposes, and called it the wrong move, a view that Rabin denied years later and clarified that "It was never the intention to save money, although I don't want to waste money." Squire recalled more time being spent on what recording equipment to use than the music itself during the entire project, which also affected the tense situation.


title: Big Generator

text: After three months in Carimate, most of the backing tracks had been put down but progress on the album was affected by internal problems. Rabin recalled a lot of partying going on and not enough substantial work getting done, calling it "a real drug time" which affected unnamed members to focus on work. This led to Horn suggesting they halt production and resume in London. For the next several months, recording took place at SARM East, SARM West, and AIR Studios in London. However, when the move was not enough to improve internal relations and differences in the album's direction, Rabin felt it was time to relocate the recording once more, this time to Los Angeles where he had settled, when he once entered the studio by himself on a Sunday to work, and later found it the happiest time of the entire experience. While in London, Horn found himself unable to finish producing the tracks as the band could not agree and ended his association with the project, adding: "It wasn't a case of being a committee. It was just warring factions trying to kill each other". Rabin later revealed that Horn's departure was also partly due to his differences with Anderson and Kaye.


title: Big Generator

text: Having failed to finish the album in London, Rabin returned home to Los Angeles and completed it at Southcombe, Westlake, and Sunset Sound Studios with producer and engineer Paul DeVilliers, who was their sound engineer on the "90125" tour. Rabin also worked at his 24-track facility at his home in the Hollywood Hills, which inspired him to work on all future musical projects in the studio, which he later named The Jacaranda Room. Rabin estimated the album cost $2 million to make.


title: Big Generator

text: The idea behind "Rhythm of Love" is, according to Rabin, "just sex". By the time of the recording, he felt Yes had pushed away from the cosmic-inspired lyrics that the group were known for in the 1970s with "Owner of a Lonely Heart", and thought a sex lyric would be a "nice little tease". Anderson claimed the group were strong for its chorus, but he felt unsure and needed the lyrics "fashioned" and changed some words.


title: Big Generator

text: "Big Generator" is one of the album's three tracks credited to the whole group. It developed from a riff by Squire and Rabin, originating from a specific tuning Squire had on his 5-string bass which helped to create the song, which involved contributions from White on the drums. In its early development, White felt the song needed some "Yes stamps" incorporated into the arrangement, and instructed the group to play a section and not listen to his playing. "I just stopped and started ... like the drummer fell off his stool and then got back on trying to catch up the beat. Playing very slowly and then faster ... and then I was back in time". Once he was, "I reversed the beat around backwards so I came in with the bass drum on two and four instead of one and three".


title: Big Generator

text: "Shoot High Aim Low", the second group track, was one of the songs recorded in Carimate, and features reverb that was captured naturally around the castle's acoustics, rather than reverb added electronically in the studio. White came up with the chords while he was playing in the studio with the drum box. When Rabin arrived at the studio, he told White to continue playing the beat while he started singing a melody that was used in the song. It features Anderson as "the guy in the helicopter going in at ninety miles an hour and I'm going to blow everybody up", yet has Rabin's backing vocals sing a love lyric that involves a couple enjoying their company in a car. He summarised the song's message as "To live beyond war". Rabin later called the song his favourite on "Big Generator".


title: Big Generator

text: Rabin called "Almost Like Love" a track that did not quite work in the end and wished it was not included on the album. He disagreed with the addition of a horn section, comparing it to soul music and "Sussudio" by Phil Collins. Squire was particularly into the song's riff, yet Rabin felt the song around it was substandard, like "polishing a vase while the building was falling down".


title: Big Generator

text: "Love Will Find a Way" is solely credited to Rabin. He had originally worked on the music and lyrics with singer-songwriter Stevie Nicks and was close to recording it with her, but White heard the song and suggested Yes record it for "Big Generator". Rabin was a fan of the song's title lyric, and particularly enjoyed conducting the orchestral arrangement at the beginning. However, he found that some fans thought the song was too far from what Yes music stood for.


title: Big Generator

text: Rabin enjoyed working on the production and arrangement for "Final Eyes", but deemed it a particularly difficult song to make, owing to its many changes in mood and style, yet he liked the acoustic guitar with Anderson's vocals. He said parts of the song make him cringe, because it sounds too much like Journey which he felt did not suit Yes.


title: Big Generator

text: "I'm Running" is the last of three group-written tracks, and was recorded at SARM Studios in London. When a take had been put down, Rabin recalled, White's drum tracks were deemed unusable, leaving him to re-record his parts "note for note". Rabin took a riff that Squire had come up with, which made Squire uncomfortable, but developed a guitar part that had a Latin flavour. He was not completely happy with the song, but thought its strange quality made him like it.


title: Big Generator

text: "Holy Lamb (Song for Harmonic Convergence)" is an Anderson song and deals with Harmonic Convergence, one of the world's first synchronised meditation events that occurred in August 1987 that raised awareness of a specific alignment of the planets at that time. Anderson had met some spiritual people during a visit to Las Vegas several years prior to writing it, and told him that he would be singing about it. Rabin later wished to have improved the song by adding an opening and closing section to the track, similar to what Yes had did with "Soon", the final section of "The Gates of Delirium".


title: Big Generator

text: "Jon Anderson had an idea for that sleeve, which was basically a drawing of a scroll," designer Garry Mouat (who had worked on "90125") told "Classic Rock". "It was like something you may have done at school. I remember saying, 'I like where you're coming from, but how about another idea?' The band were all looking out of the windows, avoiding eye contact and leaving me to pay lip service to Jon."


title: Big Generator

text: Released on 21 September 1987, "Big Generator" peaked at number 15 on the "Billboard" 200 during its 30 weeks on the chart, and number 17 on the UK Albums Chart. On 8 December 1987, it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling 500,000 copies in the US. On 29 April 1988, it was certified platinum for selling one million copies. Like "90125", the album earned Yes a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal.


title: Big Generator

text: Two singles were released from the album. "Love Will Find a Way", the first, reached number one on the "Billboard" Mainstream Rock chart and number 30 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The second, "Rhythm of Love", peaked at number 40 on the latter chart.


title: Big Generator

text: "Big Generator" was remastered in 2009 by Japanese engineer Isao Kikuchi and released in Japan by Warner Music Japan as part of a series of Yes reissues on Super High Material CD. This mastering was also included in the compilation box set "The Studio Albums 1969–1987" (2013).


title: Big Generator

text: Yes supported "Big Generator" with a tour of North America and Japan from November 1987 to April 1988. The band adopted a low-key approach for the 1987 dates as they had spent so much time in studio and wanted to start touring and try out their new material. In early 1988, six shows were cancelled after Rabin collapsed backstage following a concert in Tampa, Florida due to exhaustion from performing with the flu and a fever.


title: Big Generator

text: Following their appearance at the Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary concert in May 1988, Anderson left the group and formed Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe, which reduced Yes to a four-piece.


title: Jon Landau

text: Jon Landau (born May 14, 1947) is an American music critic, manager, and record producer. He has worked with Bruce Springsteen in all three capacities. He is the head of the nominating committee for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and received that institution's Ahmet Ertegun Award for Lifetime Achievement in 2020.


title: Jon Landau

text: Born in New York City, Landau grew up in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn and then in Queens before his family moved to the Boston suburb of Lexington, Massachusetts when he was 12. He attended Lexington High School and then Brandeis University, where he earned a degree in history with honors.


title: Jon Landau

text: Aligning himself with the growing underground culture of late-1960s Boston, Landau carved out a niche while writing for the music magazine "Crawdaddy". A failed performer yet a passionate, devoted fan, Landau championed the straightforward rock and roll that he loved, and wrote scathing reviews of what he saw as the overblown, pretentious San Francisco scene.


title: Jon Landau

text: As a critic, Landau wrote for "Rolling Stone" from its first issue and for other publications. In Volume 1, Number 1 of "Rolling Stone", published on November 9, 1967, Landau compared Jimi Hendrix and his debut album, "Are You Experienced", to Eric Clapton and Cream's debut album, "Fresh Cream" (both released months before, and both Hendrix and Cream having made huge American splashes as live performers that summer). The next few issues saw Landau staking out more traditional R&B and soul territory with profiles of Aretha Franklin, and Sam and Dave, plus a posthumous Otis Redding appreciation.


title: Jon Landau

text: Landau's 1974 article in "The Real Paper", wherein he claimed, "I saw rock and roll future and its name is Bruce Springsteen," is credited by Nick Hornby and others with fostering Springsteen's popularity. Landau was then hired by Springsteen, and is cited as co-producer on Springsteen studio records from 1975's "Born to Run" through 1992's "Human Touch" and "Lucky Town". Landau is considered to have influenced Springsteen artistically as well as professionally.


title: Jon Landau

text: Other artists that Landau has managed or produced include MC5, Livingston Taylor, Jackson Browne, Natalie Merchant, Alejandro Escovedo, Train, and Shania Twain.


title: Jon Landau

text: Landau has been responsible for the liner notes for "The Atlantic Albums Collection" by Aretha Franklin (2015), "Soul Manifesto: 1964-1970" by Otis Redding (2015), and "The Complete Atlantic Albums Collection" by Wilson Pickett (2017).


title: Jon Landau

text: Landau was once married to "The New York Times" film critic (and later book reviewer) Janet Maslin. He later married Barbara Downey, a former "Rolling Stone" editor. They have two children, Kate, also an artist manager, and Charles. Landau and his wife own an art collection that includes work by Titian, Tintoretto, Tiepolo, Donatello, Ghiberti, Géricault, Delacroix, and Corot. He also owns one of the largest private collections of Courbet. With the exception of his family and his work, the collection, featuring Italian painting and sculpture of the 13th through 17th centuries and mid-19th-century French romantic realist painting, is reportedly Jon’s greatest interest in life.


title: Jon Landau

text: In 2011, Landau had a growth in his brain surgically removed. The surgery resulted in the loss of sight in one eye.


title: Small beer

text: Small beer (also known as small ale or table beer) is a lager or ale that contains a lower amount of alcohol by volume than most others, usually between 0.5% and 2.8%. Sometimes unfiltered and porridge-like, it was a favoured drink in Medieval Europe and colonial North America compared with more expensive beer containing higher levels of alcohol. Small beer was also produced in households for consumption by children and by servants.


title: Small beer

text: At mealtimes in the Middle Ages, persons of all ages drank small beer, particularly while eating a meal at the table. Table beer was around this time typically less than 1% alcohol by volume (ABV).


title: Small beer

text: It was common for workers who engaged in laborious tasks to drink more than ten imperial pints (5.7 litres) of small beer a day to quench their thirst. Small beer was also consumed for its nutrition content. It might contain traces of wheat or bread suspended within it.


title: Small beer

text: In 17th century England, it was an excise class which was determined by its wholesale price. Between the years 1782 and 1802, table beer was said to define that which cost between six and eleven shillings per barrel and the tax on this class was around three shillings. Cheaper beer was considered "small beer" while the more expensive brands were classed as strong (big) beer. The differences between small beer and table beer were removed in 1802 because there was much fraudulent mixing of the types.


title: Small beer

text: Small beer was socially acceptable in 18th-century England because of its lower alcohol content, allowing people to drink several glasses without becoming drunk. William Hogarth's portrait "Beer Street" (1751) shows a group of happy workers going about their business after drinking table beer. It became increasingly popular during the 19th century, displacing malt liquor as the drink of choice for families and servants.


title: Small beer

text: In his "A Plan for the Conduct of Female Education, in Boarding Schools" published 1797, writer Erasmus Darwin agreed that "For the drink of the more robust children water is preferable, and for the weaker ones, small beer ...". Ruthin School's charter, signed by Elizabeth I, stipulates that small beer should be provided to all scholars, and larger educational establishments like Eton, Winchester, and Oxford University even ran their own breweries.


title: Small beer

text: To a large extent, the role of small beer as an everyday drink was gradually overtaken in the British Isles by tea, as that became cheaper from the later 18th century.


title: Small beer

text: Small beer and small ale can also refer to beers made from the second runnings from the stronger beer (e.g., Scotch ale). Such beers can be as strong as a mild ale, but it depends on the strength of the original mash. This was an economic measure in household brewing in England until the 18th century, and still produced by some homebrewers. it is now only produced commercially in small quantities in Britain, and is not widely available in pubs or shops.


title: Small beer

text: In Belgium, small or table beer is known as "bière de table" or "tafelbier" and their many varieties are still brewed. Breweries that perpetuated in this type included De Es of Schalkhoven and Gigi of Gérouville in the Province of Luxembourg. In the US, a Vienna lager was a popular table beer before prohibition. Small beers are also produced in Germany and Switzerland albeit using local brewing methods.


title: Small beer

text: In Sweden beer with an alcohol content of 2.25 per cent by volume, or less, sold as "lättöl" ("light beer"), is legally classified as a soft drink ("lättdryck"), exempt from alcohol tax and age restrictions, made by virtually all breweries, sold in all grocery stores and commonly served in company lunch canteens.


title: Kansas discography

text: The discography of Kansas, an American rock band, consists of 16 studio albums, seven live albums, nine compilation albums, and 29 singles. Formed by members Kerry Livgren, Robby Steinhardt, Dave Hope, Phil Ehart, Steve Walsh, and Rich Williams, the group signed a recording contract with Kirshner Records in 1974. That same year they released their self-titled debut album.


title: Kansas discography

text: After the release of two albums in 1975, including "Masque" (which sold half a million copies in the United States), the group released "Leftoverture" in October 1976. The album peaked at No. 5 on the "Billboard" 200 and spawned the single "Carry On Wayward Son", which reached No. 11 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, leading the album to sell over five million copies in the United States. The following year, their fifth album "Point of Know Return" was issued and certified four-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America; it spawned the Top 10 single "Dust in the Wind". After the release of a live album, the group sixth studio release "Monolith" was issued in 1979, which spawned two singles. "Audio-Visions" was released in 1980 and certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America. Their eighth studio album "Vinyl Confessions" contained the single "Play the Game Tonight", which became their first Top 20 single on the Billboard Hot 100 in four years; however, the album itself did not sell well. Eventually, after the release of a ninth studio album in 1983, the group disbanded.


title: Kansas discography

text: Kansas reformed again in 1985 and released the studio album "Power" in 1986 on MCA Records, whose single "All I Wanted" reached No. 19 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 that year. After the release of another album in 1988, the group reunited seven years later for the "Freaks of Nature" album (1995) on Intersound Records. In 1998, "Always Never the Same" was released on River North Records, followed by "Somewhere to Elsewhere" in 2000 on Magna Carta Records. Lineup changes in 2014 motivated a return to the studio which led to the release of "The Prelude Implicit" in 2016 and "The Absence of Presence" in 2020.


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: Petrodollar recycling is the international spending or investment of a country's revenues from petroleum exports ("petrodollars"). It generally refers to the phenomenon of major petroleum-exporting states, mainly the OPEC members plus Russia and Norway, earning more money from the export of crude oil than they could efficiently invest in their own economies. The resulting global interdependencies and financial flows, from oil producers back to oil consumers, can reach a scale of hundreds of billions of US dollars per year – including a wide range of transactions in a variety of currencies, some pegged to the US dollar and some not. These flows are heavily influenced by government-level decisions regarding international investment and aid, with important consequences for both global finance and petroleum politics. The phenomenon is most pronounced during periods when the price of oil is historically high.


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: The term petrodollar was coined in the early 1970s during the oil crisis, and the first major petrodollar surge (1974–1981) resulted in more financial complications than the second (2005–2014).


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: Especially during the years 1974–1981 and 2005–2014, oil exporters amassed large surpluses of "petrodollars" from historically expensive oil. (The word has been credited alternately to Egyptian-American economist Ibrahim Oweiss and to former US Secretary of Commerce Peter G. Peterson, both in 1973.) These petrodollar surpluses could be described as net US dollar-equivalents earned from the export of petroleum, in excess of the internal development needs of the exporting countries. The surpluses could not be efficiently invested in their own economies, due to small populations or being at early stages of industrialization; but the surpluses could be usefully invested in other locations, or spent on imports such as consumer products, construction supplies, and military equipment. Alternatively, global economic growth would have suffered if that money was withdrawn from the world economy, while the oil-exporting states needed to be able to invest profitably to raise their long-term standards of living.


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: While petrodollar recycling reduced the short-term recessionary impact of the 1973 oil crisis, it caused problems especially for oil-importing countries that were paying much higher prices for oil, and incurring long-term debts. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) estimated that the foreign debts of 100 oil-importing developing countries increased by 150% between 1973 and 1977, complicated further by a worldwide shift to floating exchange rates. Johan Witteveen, the Managing Director of the IMF, said in 1974: "The international monetary system is facing its most difficult period since the 1930s." The IMF administered a new lending program during 1974–1976 called the Oil Facility. Funded by oil-exporting states and other lenders, it was available to governments suffering from acute problems with their balance of trade due to the rise in oil prices, notably including Italy and the United Kingdom as well as dozens of developing countries.


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: From 1974 through 1981, the total current account surplus for all members of OPEC amounted to US$450 billion, without scaling-up for the subsequent decades of inflation. Ninety percent of this surplus was accumulated by the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf and Libya, with Iran also accumulating significant oil surpluses through 1978 before suffering the hardships of revolution, war and sanctions.


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: Large volumes of Arab petrodollars were invested directly in US Treasury securities and in other financial markets of the major industrial economies, often directed discreetly by government entities now known as sovereign wealth funds. Many billions of petrodollars were also invested through the major commercial banks of the United States, European Union, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. In fact, the process contributed to the growth of the Eurodollar market as a less-regulated rival to US monetary markets. As the recessionary condition of the world economy made investment in corporations less attractive, bankers and well-financed governments lent much of the money directly to the governments of developing countries, especially in Latin America such as Brazil and Argentina as well as other major developing countries like Turkey. The 1973 oil crisis had created a vast dollar shortage in these countries; however, they still needed to finance their imports of oil and machinery. In early 1977, when Turkey stopped heating its prime minister's office, opposition leader Suleyman Demirel famously described the shortage as: "Turkey is in need of 70 cents." As political journalist William Greider summarized the situation: "Banks collected the deposits of revenue-rich OPEC governments and lent the money to developing countries so they could avoid bankruptcy." In subsequent decades, many of these developing states found their accumulated debts to be unpayably large, concluding that it was a form of neocolonialism from which debt relief was the only escape.


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: In the 2005–2014 petrodollar surge, financial decision-makers were able to benefit somewhat from the lessons and experiences of the previous cycle. Developing economies generally stayed better balanced than they did in the 1970s; the world economy was less oil-intensive; and global inflation and interest rates were much better contained. Oil exporters opted to make most of their investments directly into a diverse array of global markets, and the recycling process was less dependent on intermediary channels such as international banks and the IMF.


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: Thanks to the historic oil price increases of 2003–2008, OPEC revenues approximated an unprecedented US$1 trillion per year in 2008 and 2011–2014. Beyond the OPEC countries, substantial surpluses also accrued to Russia and Norway, and sovereign wealth funds worldwide amassed US$7 trillion by 2014–2015. Some oil exporters were unable to reap the full benefits, as the national economies of Iran, Iraq, Libya, Nigeria and Venezuela all suffered from multi-year political obstacles associated with what economists call the "resource curse". Most of the other large exporters accumulated enough financial reserves to cushion the shock when oil prices and petrodollar surpluses fell sharply again from an oil supply glut in 2014–2017.


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: Oil-exporting countries have used part of their petrodollar surpluses to fund foreign aid programs, as a prominent example of so-called "checkbook diplomacy" or "petro-Islam". The Kuwait Fund was an early leader since 1961, and certain Arab states became some of the largest donors in the years since 1974, including through the IMF and the OPEC Fund for International Development. Oil exporters have also aided poorer countries indirectly through the personal remittances sent home by tens of millions of foreign workers in the Middle East, although their working conditions are generally harsh. Even more controversially, several oil exporters have been major financial supporters of armed groups challenging the governments of other countries.


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: High-priced oil allowed the USSR to support the struggling economies of the Soviet-led bloc during the 1974–1981 petrodollar surge, and the loss of income during the 1980s oil glut contributed to the bloc's collapse in 1989. During the 2005–2014 petrodollar surge, OPEC member Venezuela played a similar role supporting Cuba and other regional allies, before the 2014–2017 oil downturn brought Venezuela to its own economic crisis.


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: The term petrodollar warfare refers to a theory that depicts the international use of the United States dollar as the standard means of settling oil transactions as a kind of economic imperialism enforced by violent military interventions against countries like Iraq, Iran, and Venezuela, and a key hidden driver of world politics. The term was coined by William R. Clark, who has written a book with the same title. The phrase "oil currency war" is sometimes used with the same meaning. In reality, the use of dollars in international oil transactions increases overall U.S. dollar demand by only a tiny fraction, and the dollar's overall status as the major international reserve currency has relatively few tangible benefits for the United States economy as well as some drawbacks.


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: In August 2018, Venezuela declared that it would cease pricing its oil in US dollars and instead use Euros, Yuan and other currencies.


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: In March 2022, media reports suggested that Saudi Arabia was considering whether to price some of its oil sales to China in the Chinese Yuan rather than the US Dollar.


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: On March 23, 2022, Vladimir Putin signed an order forbidding "non-friendly" countries (including European Union countries, the United States and Japan) from buying Russian gas in any other currency besides Russian ruble (although the Russian Finance Ministry reportedly said it would also accept gold or Bitcoin).


title: Petrodollar recycling

text: These images illustrate the diversity of major petrodollar recycling activities, in roughly chronological order:


title: Liz Murray

text: Elizabeth "Liz" Murray (born ) is an American memoirist and inspirational speaker who is notable for having been accepted by Harvard University despite being homeless in her high school years. Her life story was chronicled in Lifetime's television film "" (2003). Murray's memoir "Breaking Night: A Memoir of Forgiveness, Survival, and My Journey from Homeless to Harvard," published in 2010 is a New York Times Bestseller.


title: Liz Murray

text: Elizabeth Murray was born on September 23, 1980 in the Bronx, New York to poor and drug-addicted parents, both of whom would later contract HIV. She was surrounded by drug use from an early age and lived in an unclean environment. She was often hungry and ate ice cubes because it felt like eating. When she was about 9 years old, Murray began working jobs at gas stations and supermarkets to earn money for groceries. Her parents split up in 1994 and her mother and sister moved in with her grandfather. Murray lived with her father until their neighbor called the social services, who took her in custody for her own protection for 35 days. During this time her father got evicted from their apartment. Murray, her mother and sister Lisa lived with her mother's father (Liz's and Lisa's grandfather) for a few years, but at the age of 13 Murray was put in a group home for a while.


title: Liz Murray

text: She became homeless just after she turned 15, when her mother died of AIDS in 1996 and her father moved to a homeless shelter. She wanted to turn her life around and finish her education. She found a job door-to-door soliciting donations in support of political initiatives. Murray knew her survival depended on the job, so she ended up breaking all the sales records of the company, and made more than $8000 in two months.


title: Liz Murray

text: Despite her late high school start and lack of a stable home, Murray began attending the Humanities Preparatory Academy in Chelsea, Manhattan, graduating in two years. Murray earned a 95 average and graduated at the top of a class of 158. She was awarded a scholarship by "The New York Times" for needy students and was accepted into Harvard University, matriculating in the fall semester of 2000. A story profiling the scholarship winners was published on the cover of "The New York Times"' metro section in March 1999. Readers of the story brought Murray clothing and food, and offered to do her laundry.


title: Liz Murray

text: She transferred from Harvard to Columbia University in 2003 to care for her ailing father. She earned a Bachelor of Science in psychology in June 2009. As of August 2009, she began taking graduate courses at Harvard Summer School with plans to earn a doctorate in clinical psychology and become a counselor. She has since earned a Master's degree in the Psychology of Education from Columbia University. Her older sister Lisa graduated from Purchase College in New York and is a school teacher for children with autism.


title: Liz Murray

text: Murray is the co-founder and executive director of a youth mentoring organization called "The Arthur Project," which was named in honor of her first mentor. She also works as an inspirational speaker with the Washington Speakers Bureau since 1999. Murray has been a speaker at events alongside Tony Blair, Mikhail Gorbachev and Dalai Lama. Murray made a speech at the annual conference of the Washington State Coalition for the Homeless at the Yakima Convention Center in 2007. In March 2009, she told her story to 1,400 students at Worcester Technical High School in Worcester, Massachusetts. In September 2012, she gave a TED Talk called "For the Love of Possibility" at TedxYouth @San Diego.


title: Liz Murray

text: Murray served as a co-producer in Lifetime's television film "" (2003) starring actress Thora Birch. The film chronicled Murray's life story and it received three Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including one for Outstanding Television Movie and one for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie. Murray made a brief cameo appearance in the film as a social worker. Murray's story has also been featured on ABC's "20/20" and she has appeared as a guest on "The Ricki Lake Show" and "The Oprah Winfrey Show". During her appearance on "The Oprah Winfrey Show", Murray reflected on what she learned from her parents: "They taught me that resilience is actually flexibility; it taught me that gratitude is knowing everything you have, you could just as easily not have it, and it taught me that the basis of forgiveness is often knowing that things aren’t personal and we all have limitations and people can’t give you what they don’t have."


title: Liz Murray

text: Murray's memoir "Breaking Night: A Memoir of Forgiveness, Survival, and My Journey from Homeless to Harvard" was published by Hachette Books in 2010. The book landed on The New York Times Best Seller List within a week of its release and became an international bestseller published in twelve countries, in eight languages. The book received favorable reviews from critics, with "Kirkus Review" calling it an "admirable story of a teen who overcame homelessness through sheer grit and the kindness of friends."


title: Liz Murray

text: Murray has received numerous accolades and awards, including the White House Project's Role Model Award, Oprah Winfrey’s first-ever Chutzpah Award in 2004 and Alex Award in 2011. Winfrey's Chutzpah Award is given to women, who show boldness and courage, go against the odds and have achieved greatness. In 2008, she received Appalachian Women’s Fund's Women of Vision Award. On May 19, 2013, she was awarded an honorary doctorate of public service and gave the commencement address at Merrimack College in North Andover, Massachusetts.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: Rodion Yakovlevich Malinovsky (, ; – 31 March 1967) was a Soviet military commander. He was Marshal of the Soviet Union, and Minister of Defence of the Soviet Union in the late 1950s and 1960s. During World War II, he contributed to the defeat of Nazi Germany at the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Budapest. During the post-war era, he made a pivotal contribution to the strengthening of the Soviet Union as a military superpower.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: A Ukrainian, Malinovsky was born in Odessa to a single mother (a version has Malinovsky being born after the death of his father, others simply have the father as unknown). Malinovsky's mother soon left the city for the rural areas of Southern Russia, and married. Her husband, a poverty-stricken peasant, refused to adopt her son and expelled him when Malinovsky was only 13 years old. The homeless boy survived by working as a farmhand, and eventually received shelter from his aunt's family in Odessa, where he worked as an errand boy in a general store.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: After the start of World War I in July 1914, Malinovsky, who was only 15 years old at the time (too young for military service), hid on the military train heading for the German front, but was discovered. He nevertheless convinced the commanding officers to enlist him as a volunteer, and served in a machine-gun detachment in the frontline trenches. In October 1915, as a reward for repelling a German attack, he received his first military award, the Cross of St. George of the 4th class, and was promoted to the rank of corporal. Soon afterwards, he was badly wounded and spent several months in the hospital.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: After his recovery, he was sent to France in 1916 as a member of the Western Front Russian Expeditionary Corps. Malinovsky fought in a hotly contested sector of the front near Fort Brion and was promoted to sergeant. He suffered a serious wound in his left arm, and received a decoration from the French government. After the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, the French government disbanded some Russian units, but others were transferred to a newly created unit called the Russian Legion, which was attached to the Moroccan Division. Malinovsky fought against the Germans until the end of the war. During this time, he was awarded the French Croix de guerre and promoted to senior NCO.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: He returned to Odessa in 1919, where he joined the Red Army in the Civil War against the White Army and fought with distinction in Siberia. He remained in the army after the end of the conflict, studying in the training school for the junior commanders, and rose to commander of a rifle battalion. In 1926, he became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, membership of which was a prerequisite for promotion in the military.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: In 1927, Malinovsky was sent to study at the elite Frunze Military Academy. He graduated in 1930, and during the next seven years he rose to the Chief of Staff of the 3rd Cavalry Corps, where his commander was Semyon Timoshenko (a protégé of Joseph Stalin).


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: After the start of the Spanish Civil War in 1936, Malinovsky volunteered to fight for the Republicans against the right-wing nationalists of General Francisco Franco and their Italian and German allies. He participated in planning and directing several main operations. In 1938, he returned to Moscow, being awarded the top Soviet decorations, the Order of Lenin and the Order of the Red Banner, in recognition of his service in Spain; he was appointed a senior lecturer at the Frunze Military Academy.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: In the spring of 1941, Timoshenko, who then served the People's Commissar for Defence, was alarmed by the massive German military buildup on the Soviet borders, as the Wehrmacht was secretly preparing for Operation Barbarossa. In order to strengthen the Red Army field command, he dispatched some of the top officers from the military academies to the field units. Malinovsky was promoted to Major General, and took command over the freshly raised 48th Rifle Corps, 9th Army in the Odessa Military District. A week prior to the start of the war, Malinovsky deployed his corps close to the Romanian border.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, with the Red Army suffering enormous defeats and losing hundreds of thousands of troops in German encirclements, Malinovsky emerged a competent general. His corps of three partly formed rifle divisions faced German Blitzkrieg along the line of the Prut River. While, as a rule, Red Army generals would lead their forces from behind the frontline, Malinovsky went to the crucial sectors of the battles to be with his soldiers and encourage them. Unable to stop the Wehrmacht, Malinovsky had to retreat along the Black Sea shore, while frustrating enemy attempts to encircle his troops. The Germans succeeded in cornering his corps in Mykolaiv, but Malinovsky breached their ring and retreated to Dnipropetrovsk.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: In August, he was promoted to Chief of Staff of the badly battered 6th Army, and soon replaced its commander. He halted the German advance in his section of the front and was promoted to Lieutenant General. After the retreat of the Red Army to the Donbas, Malinovsky commanded a joint operation of the 6th and 12th armies, managing to drive the Wehrmacht out of the region. In December 1941, Malinovsky received command of the Southern Front, consisting of three weak field armies and two division-sized cavalry corps. They were short of manpower and equipment, but Malinovsky managed to push deep into the defenses of the Germans, who, after 6 months of fighting, were suffering from fatigue and shortages as well.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: On 12 May 1942, Malinovsky and the Southwestern Front, under the overall command of Timoshenko, launched a joint attack in the Second Battle of Kharkiv pushing the Germans back . Timoshenko overestimated the Red Army's offensive capabilities and suffered a heavy defeat. Although Stalin, in spite of opposition by his top military advisers, supported the ill-fated Kharkiv attack, he became suspicious that Malinovsky had intentionally failed his troops (he feared that Malinovsky had established and kept connections with foreign interests during his World War I stay in France). In July 1942, the Southern Front was taken out of combat, its units and staff were transferred to the North Caucasian Front as a Don Operational Group under the command of Malinovsky (who also became Front's deputy commander). Stalin ordered Malinovsky to stop the intrusion of the German Army Group A towards Rostov-on-Don and the vital oilfields of Caucasus; the Germans had a sizeable technical superiority over Malinovsky, and cut through his weak defenses. As a consequence, Stavka disbanded the Don Operational Group in September.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: The Red Army was hard-pressed by Germans in the Battle of Stalingrad, and Stalin entrusted Malinovsky with the command of the hastily formed 66th Army to hold positions north-east of Stalingrad. At the same time Stalin ordered Nikita Khrushchev, who served as his top political officer in Stalingrad, to "keep an eye" on Malinovsky.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: The 66th Army had no combat experience, but this was the first time in the war Malinovsky had commanded a unit that was near full strength in both troops and equipment. In September and October 1942, he went on the offensive. His territorial gains were marginal, but he denied the Germans an opportunity to encircle Stalingrad from the north, and, slowed down, they decided to push into the city. Later that month, Stavka dispatched Malinovsky to the Voronezh Front as its deputy commander; in December 1942, he was sent back to Stalingrad. There the Red Army achieved its greatest success to that point in the war: on 22 November the Red Army fronts encircled the German Sixth Army. The German Army Group Don, commanded by Field Marshal Erich von Manstein, gathered its Panzer troops in the town of Kotelnikovo west of Stalingrad and launched a desperate counterattack to save the Sixth Army.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: Malinovsky led the powerful Soviet Second Guards Army against Hoth. In vicious fighting he forced the Germans to retreat, breached deeply echeloned and well-prepared German defenses, and destroyed the Kotelnikovo army grouping. It was the first World War II large-scale clash of armor to be lost by Germany. Malinovsky's victory sealed the fate of 250,000 German and other Axis Powers soldiers trapped in the Stalingrad pocket. Stalin promoted Malinovsky to colonel general, and awarded him with the highest Soviet decoration for outstanding generalship — the Order of Suvorov of the 1st degree.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: In February 1943, Malinovsky resumed his command of Southern Front, and in less than two weeks he expelled Manstein from Rostov-on-Don, opening the road to Ukraine to the Red Army. In March 1943, Stalin elevated him to rank of Army General and gave him command of Southwestern Front, tasked to drive German troops away from the industrially rich Donbass. Through a sudden attack in mid-October, Malinovsky managed to surprise a large German force in the region's key city of Zaporizhia and captured it. The campaign split German forces in the South and isolated German forces in Crimea from the rest of the German Eastern Front.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: On 20 October, the Southwestern Front was renamed 3rd Ukrainian Front. From December 1943 to April 1944, Malinovsky smashed the German Army Group South, and liberated much of the southern Ukraine, including Kherson, Mykolaiv and his home city of Odessa. By that time, according to Khrushchev's opinion, Stalin grew much more confident of Malinovsky's loyalty.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: In May 1944, Malinovsky was transferred to the 2nd Ukrainian Front. He expelled the Germans from the remaining Soviet territory and participated in an unsuccessful invasion of the Balkans (the first Jassy–Kishinev Offensive) together with Marshal Ivan Konev and Army General Fyodor Tolbukhin (who received Malinovsky's former command over the smaller 3rd Ukrainian Front). However, during the second Jassy–Kishinev Offensive in late August and early September 1944, Malinovsky unleashed a highly successful Soviet version of the Blitzkrieg. Together with Tolbukhin, he destroyed or captured some 215,000 German, and 200,000 Romanian troops, forcing Romania to overthrow pro-German "Conducător" Ion Antonescu, and switch from the Axis to the Allies camp ("see Romania during World War II"). A triumphant Stalin recalled Malinovsky to Moscow, and on 10 September 1944 made him Marshal of the Soviet Union. Malinovsky was also nominal head of the Allied Commission in Romania (represented by Vladislav Petrovich Vinogradov).


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: He continued his offensive drive, crossed the Southern Carpathians into Transylvania (entering Hungarian-ruled Northern Transylvania), and on 20 October 1944, captured Debrecen, defended by a large Axis force. His troops were tired after several months of combat and needed to be replenished and resupplied, but Stalin ordered Malinovsky to take the Hungarian capital Budapest, in order to open the road to Vienna and take Vienna before the Western Allies. With the help of Tolbukhin and the Romanian First and Fourth armies, Malinovsky carried out Stalin's order, and faced Adolf Hitler's determination to defend Budapest at any cost. The Germans and their Hungarian Arrow Cross Party allies tried to turn Budapest into a "German Stalingrad"; Hitler engaged the bulk of his Panzer troops (among them six Waffen SS divisions and five army Panzer divisions; one-fourth of the Wehrmacht's armor), weakening German forces fighting the Red Army in Poland and Prussia, as well as those engaging the Western Allies on the Rhine. Malinovsky's strategic and operational skills enabled him to overcome his troops' weakness and to conquer Budapest on 13 February 1945, following an exceptionally harsh battle. He captured 70,000 prisoners. Continuing his drive westward, Malinovsky routed Germans in Slovakia, liberated Bratislava, on 4 April 1945 captured Vienna, and finally, on 26 April 1945 freed Brno, second largest city in Czechoslovakia.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: These new victories established the Soviet's supremacy over the Danubian heartland of Europe. In return, Stalin rewarded him with the highest Soviet military decoration of the period, the Order of Victory. Malinovsky ended his campaign in Europe with the liberation of Brno in the Czech lands, observing a jubilant meeting of his and American advance forces.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: After the German surrender in May 1945, Malinovsky was transferred to the Russian Far East, where he was placed in command of the Transbaikal Front. In August 1945, he led his forces during the last Soviet offensive of the war under the overall command of Aleksandr Vasilevsky. Vasilevsky's forces invaded Manchuria, which was under the occupation of the 700,000 strong Japanese Kwantung Army ("see Soviet invasion of Manchuria") and crushed the Japanese in ten days. Malinovsky was awarded the Soviet Union's greatest honor, the order of a Hero of the Soviet Union.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: During the next decade Malinovsky was involved in key decisions involving Soviet strategic interests in the Far Eastern region. Initially the commander of Transbaikal-Amur Military District (1945–1947), with the start of the Cold War he was appointed the Supreme Commander of Far Eastern Forces in charge of three military districts (1947–1953). He trained and supplied North Korean People's Army and the Chinese People's Liberation Army prior to and during the Korean War (1950–1953).


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: As an expression of Malinovsky's belonging to the Soviet Party-state elite, Stalin made him a Member of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union (1946), and a candidate (non-voting) member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1952). After the end of the Korean War, Moscow disbanded Far Eastern Supreme Command. Malinovsky continued to control the major Soviet force in the region as the commander of the Far Eastern Military District.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: After Stalin's death in 1953, Khrushchev became the Soviet leader and, during the De-Stalinization process and the consolidation of his power in the Kremlin, he promoted Malinovsky to Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Ground Forces and First Deputy to Minister of Defense Marshal Georgy Zhukov (1956). To confirm Malinovsky's high status in the Soviet Party-state hierarchy, he was selected a full member of the Communist Party Central Committee. In October 1957, Khrushchev, who had grown apprehensive of Zhukov's political ambitions, ousted him and entrusted his post as minister to Malinovsky, who served in this position until his death.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: Although a personal friend of Khrushchev, Malinovsky maintained his independent position regarding military affairs. Khrushchev and several members of the Soviet military establishment were convinced that future wars would be won by nuclear missile attack. They advocated main investment to the development of the missiles and a drastic reduction of conventional forces. Malinovsky supported the adoption of strategic nuclear missiles, but saw them as a useful deterrent of war, rather than as a main weapon within it. He developed the concept of a broad based military and vigorously argued that while the nature of war had changed, the decisive factor would still be a standing army proficient in modern military technology and capable of conquering and controlling the enemy's territory. Soviet military policy during these years was a compromise between the views of Malinovsky and of Khrushchev.


title: Rodion Malinovsky

text: The Cuban Missile Crisis, which brought the world to the brink of nuclear catastrophe, alienated Malinovsky. Following the crisis, he publicly demanded in army publications for the military to be given a greater say in formulating Soviet strategic policy. The army's discontent with Khrushchev encouraged a coup within the Party, which resulted in the removal of Khrushchev from power in October 1964. The new Party leadership accepted Malinovsky's demand for an autonomous and professional military establishment, as well as his concept of balanced development of the armed forces. In a meeting in Romania in the next month, between USSR and Chinese delegations, Malinovsky worsened Sino-Soviet relations, already deeply frayed in the Sino-Soviet split. Historian Daniel Leese noted that improvement of the relations "that had seemed possible after Khrushchev's fall evaporated" as they became more elusive after an allegedly drunken Malinovsky approached Chinese Marshal He Long, member of the Chinese delegation to Moscow, and asked when China would finally eliminate Mao Zedong in the manner in which the CPSU eliminated Khrushchev, "we‘ve already got rid of Khrushchev, you should get rid of Mao Zedong." Outraged, He Long reported the incident to Premier of China Zhou Enlai, who in turn, reported the incident to Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev. China refused to accept the Soviet Union's apology.