title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: Puerto Ricans, on average, have genetic contributions from Europeans, North Africans, West Africans, and Native Americans. The island has a higher degree of tri-hybrid admixture than most countries in Latin America. A recent study of DNA in a census-based sample of 642 Puerto Rican individuals, demonstrated that almost all modern Puerto Ricans are admixed descendants of the three ancestral populations (Taínos, Europeans, and Africans). The study shows that the average Puerto Rican on the Eastern region is 54.7% European, 31.8% African, and 13.5% Native American, while the average Puerto Rican on the Western Region is 68.5% European, 15.9% African, and 15.6% Native American. The highest indigenous ancestry recorded in the study was nearly 40%.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: Puerto Rican culture is a blend of Spanish, Taíno and West African cultures, with recent influences from the United States and neighboring Latin American and Caribbean countries. Due to Puerto Rico's status as a US territory, people in Puerto Rico have the most exposure to US culture and Puerto Ricans in the mainland United States tend to be the most "American-ized" of all major Latino groups. Though, 1st-generation Puerto Rico-born migrants tend to be more traditional, while people born in the US mainland of Puerto Rican ancestry tend to merge traditional Puerto Rican culture with mainland American culture.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: The Puerto Rican variant of Spanish is mainly derived from the Spanish spoken in southern Spain and the Canary Islands. It also has noticeable influences from numerous languages, including Taíno and various West African languages. It is very similar to other Caribbean Spanish variants.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: About 83% of Puerto Ricans living in the United States ages 5 and older speak English proficiently, of whom 53% are bilingual in Spanish and English, and another 30% speak only English fluently with little proficiency in Spanish. The other 17% speak only Spanish fluently and report speaking English "less than very well" with little proficiency in English, compared to 34% of Latinos overall who report doing so.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: According to a 2014 poll, 20% of Puerto Ricans living in the mainland United States speak Spanish at home, and 78% chose to answer the poll in English instead of Spanish, significantly more than other Latino groups polled.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: Many first- and second- generation Puerto Ricans living in New York speak "Nuyorican English", a mix of local New York English with Puerto Rican Spanish influences, while many Puerto Ricans living in other US cities speak with a similar English accent. More Americanized Puerto Ricans speak the local English accent with little to no Spanish traces, sounding similar to other local groups including Black Americans or assimilated Italian Americans.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: The vast majority of Puerto Ricans in the United States are adherents of Christianity. Though, Catholics are the largest in number, there are also significant numbers of followers of numerous Protestant denominations. Protestants make up a larger proportion of the Stateside Puerto Rican population then they do of the population of Puerto Rico. Some Puerto Rican Catholics also cohesively practice Santería, a Yoruba-Catholic syncretic mix. Smaller portions of the population are non-religious. A very small number of assimilated stateside Puerto Ricans practice other religions, particularly in the inner city neighborhoods of Philadelphia and New York.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: The most popular sports among stateside Puerto Ricans are Baseball and Boxing, with sports like American football and Basketball also having a strong following. Roberto Clemente and Hector Camacho are some Puerto Rican sports legends. Some stateside Puerto Ricans who recently emerged as pro athletes include Carmelo Anthony and Victor Cruz.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: Salsa, Reggaeton, Bachata, Merengue, Latin Pop and Latin Trap are the most popular music genres amongst many Stateside Puerto Ricans. However much older Puerto Ricans who were raised on the stateside since childhood, instead of coming at a later age usually prefer Latin Freestyle and/or Hip-Hop, usually that of the 1980s and 1990s. Other musical genres such as Pop, Rock, Hip-Hop, R&B, Reggae, Dance, House, Techno, Bolero, Ballads, and Heavy Metal are popular within many Puerto Ricans who mainly use English as their first language. Bomba, Plena, and Jibaro also have a big music population and community amongst many Stateside Puerto Ricans and can mostly be played during celebrations, especially during Christmas. New York Puerto Ricans helped form many genres including Boogaloo and Salsa in the 1960s and 1970s and Hip Hop, Latin house and Latin Freestyle in the 1980s, usually with the help of other ethnic groups. Some stateside Puerto Ricans who emerged as popular musicians include Marc Anthony, Jennifer Lopez and Big Pun.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: Puerto Ricans have a 38.5% intermarriage rate, the highest amongst Latino groups in the United States. Puerto Rican intermarriage and procreation rates are highest with Dominican Americans, another Caribbean Latino group with very similar culture, high US population numbers, and that usually live in the same neighborhoods. There are also relatively high rates with other groups such as African Americans, Jewish Americans, Italian Americans, Mexican Americans, Cuban Americans, Trinidadian Americans, Haitian Americans and Jamaican Americans.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: Numerous Puerto Ricans born and raised in the United States made notable cultural contributions in government, military, television, music, sports, art, law enforcement, modeling, education, journalism, religion, science, among other areas. Conversely, cultural ties between New York and Puerto Rico are strong. In September 2017, following the immense destruction wrought upon Puerto Rico by Hurricane Maria, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo led an aid delegation to San Juan, including engineers from the New York Power Authority to help restore Puerto Rico's electrical grid; subsequently, on the one-year anniversary of the storm, in September 2018, Governor Cuomo announced plans for the official New York State memorial to honor the victims of Hurricane Maria, to be built in Battery Park City, Manhattan, citing the deep cultural connections shared between New Yorkers and Puerto Ricans. The Hurricane Maria Memorial was unveiled on March 26, 2021 in lower Manhattan.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: The stateside Puerto Rican community has usually been characterized as being largely poor and part of the urban underclass in the United States. Studies and reports over the last fifty years or so have documented the high poverty status of this community. However, the picture at the start of the 21st century also reveals significant socioeconomic progress and a community with a growing economic clout. Middle-class neighborhoods predominately populated by Puerto Ricans are mostly found throughout Central Florida, including Orlando, Tampa and their suburbs. Significant numbers of middle-class Puerto Ricans can also be found in the Philadelphia metropolitan area, in upper North Philadelphia, particularly around the Olney-Juniata-Lawncrest area and in Camden County, New Jersey outside the city of Camden, and in the New York City metropolitan area, particularly in the eastern portion of the Bronx and Westchester County, as well as many suburbs of Miami and Boston and throughout New Jersey and southern New England. Smaller, more scattered numbers of well-off Puerto Ricans can be seen throughout the United States, in both traditional Puerto Rican settlements in the Northeast and Midwest, and in progressive sunbelt cities of the South and West.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: The combined income for stateside Puerto Ricans is a significant share of the large and growing Latino market in the United States and has been attracting increased attention from the media and the corporate sector. In the last decade or so, major corporations have discovered the so-called "urban markets" of blacks and Latinos that had been neglected for so long. This has spawned a cottage industry of marketing firms, consultants and publications that specialize in the Latino market.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: One important question this raises is the degree to which stateside Puerto Ricans contribute economically to Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Planning Board estimated that remittances totaled $66 million in 1963.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: The full extent of the stateside Puerto Rican community's contributions to the economy of Puerto Rico is not known, but it is clearly significant. The role of remittances and investments by Latino immigrants to their home countries has reached a level that it has received much attention in the last few years, as countries like Mexico develop strategies to better leverage these large sums of money from their diasporas in their economic development planning.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: The income disparity between the stateside community and those living on the island is not as great as those of other Latin-American countries, and the direct connection between second-generation Puerto Ricans and their relatives is not as conducive to direct monetary support. Many Puerto Ricans still living in Puerto Rico also remit to family members who are living stateside.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: The average income in 2002 of stateside Puerto Rican men was $36,572, while women earned an average $30,613, 83.7 percent that of the men. Compared to all Latino groups, whites, and Asians, stateside Puerto Rican women came closer to achieving parity in income to the men of their own racial-ethnic group. In addition, stateside Puerto Rican women had incomes that were 82.3 percent that of white women, while stateside Puerto Rican men had incomes that were only 64.0 percent that of white men.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: Stateside Puerto Rican women were closer to income parity with white women than were women who were Dominicans (58.7 percent), Central and South Americans (68.4 percent), but they were below Cubans (86.2 percent), "other Latinos" (87.2 percent), blacks (83.7 percent) and Asians (107.7 percent).


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: Stateside Puerto Rican men were in a weaker position in comparison with men from other racial-ethnic groups. They were closer to income parity to white men than men who were Dominicans (62.3 percent) and Central and South Americans (58.3 percent). Although very close to income parity with blacks (65.5 percent), stateside Puerto Rican men fell below Mexicans (68.3 percent), Cubans (75.9 percent), other Latinos (75.1 percent) and Asians (100.7 percent).


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: Stateside Puerto Ricans, along with other US Latinos, have experienced the long-term problem of a high school dropout rate that has resulted in relatively low educational attainment.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: According to the Pew Hispanic Center, while in Puerto Rico more than 20% of Latinos have a bachelor's degree, only 16% of stateside Puerto Ricans did as of March 2012.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: According to U.S. Census figures, the Puerto Rican population has one of the highest poverty and incarceration rates among all ethnic groups in the United States. The Puerto Rican community is also one of the most segregated ethnic groups in the country. The stateside Puerto Rican community has partnered with the African American community, particularly in cities such as New York and Philadelphia to combat racism and disenfranchisement of the mid to late 20th century in their communities as a unified force. Though often perceived as largely poor, there is evidence of growing economic clout, as stated earlier.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: The Puerto Rican community has organized itself to represent its interests in stateside political institutions for close to a century. In New York City, Puerto Ricans first began running for public office in the 1920s. In 1937, they elected their first government representative, Oscar Garcia Rivera, to the New York State Assembly. In Massachusetts, Puerto Rican Nelson Merced became the first Latino elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives, and the first Latino to hold statewide office in the commonwealth.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: There are three Puerto Rican members of the United States House of Representatives: Democrats Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez of New York, Ritchie Torres of New York and Nydia Velázquez of New York, complementing the one Resident Commissioner elected to that body from Puerto Rico. Puerto Ricans have also been elected as mayors in three major cities: Miami, Hartford and Camden.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: Luis A. Quintana, born in Añasco, Puerto Rico, was sworn in as the first Latino mayor of Newark, New Jersey in November 2013, assuming the unexpired term of Cory Booker, who vacated the position to become a U.S. Senator from New Jersey.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: On June 26, 2018, Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, a Puerto Rican millennial, won the Democratic primary in New York's 14th congressional district covering parts of The Bronx and Queens in New York City, defeating the incumbent, Democratic Caucus Chair Joe Crowley, in what has been described as the biggest upset victory in the 2018 midterm election season. Ocasio-Cortez is a member of the Democratic Socialists of America and has been endorsed by various politically progressive organizations and individuals. She is the youngest woman ever elected to Congress.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: There are various ways in which stateside Puerto Ricans have exercised their influence. These include protests, campaign contributions and lobbying and voting. Compared to the United States, voter participation by Puerto Ricans in Puerto Rico is very large. However, many see a paradox in that this high level of voting is not echoed stateside. There, Puerto Ricans have had persistently low voter registration and turnout rates, despite the relative success they have had in electing their own to significant public offices throughout the United States.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: To address this problem, the government of Puerto Rico has, since the late 1980s, launched two major voter registration campaigns to increase the level of voter participation of stateside Puerto Rican. While Puerto Ricans have traditionally been concentrated in the Northeast, coordinated Latino voter registration organizations such as the Southwest Voter Registration Education Project and the United States Hispanic Leadership Institute (based in the Midwest), have not concentrated in this region and have focused on the Mexican-American voter. The government of Puerto Rico has sought to fill this vacuum to insure that stateside Puerto Rican interests are well represented in the electoral process, recognizing that the increased political influence of stateside Puerto Ricans also benefits the island.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: This low level of electoral participation is in sharp contrast with voting levels in Puerto Rico, which are much higher than that not only of this community, but also the United States as a whole.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: The reasons for the differences in Puerto Rican voter participation have been an object of much discussion, but relatively little scholarly research.


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: When the relationship of various factors to the turnout rates of stateside Puerto Ricans in 2000 is examined, socioeconomic status emerges as a clear factor. For example, according to the Census:


title: Stateside Puerto Ricans

text: There were a number of other socio-demographic characteristics where turnout differences also existed, such as:


title: Differential of a function

text: In calculus, the differential represents the principal part of the change in a function "y" = "f"("x") with respect to changes in the independent variable. The differential "dy" is defined by


title: Differential of a function

text: where formula_2 is the derivative of "f" with respect to "x", and "dx" is an additional real variable (so that "dy" is a function of "x" and "dx"). The notation is such that the equation


title: Differential of a function

text: holds, where the derivative is represented in the Leibniz notation "dy"/"dx", and this is consistent with regarding the derivative as the quotient of the differentials. One also writes


title: Differential of a function

text: The precise meaning of the variables "dy" and "dx" depends on the context of the application and the required level of mathematical rigor. The domain of these variables may take on a particular geometrical significance if the differential is regarded as a particular differential form, or analytical significance if the differential is regarded as a linear approximation to the increment of a function. Traditionally, the variables "dx" and "dy" are considered to be very small (infinitesimal), and this interpretation is made rigorous in non-standard analysis.


title: Differential of a function

text: The differential was first introduced via an intuitive or heuristic definition by Isaac Newton and furthered by Gottfried Leibniz, who thought of the differential "dy" as an infinitely small (or infinitesimal) change in the value "y" of the function, corresponding to an infinitely small change "dx" in the function's argument "x". For that reason, the instantaneous rate of change of "y" with respect to "x", which is the value of the derivative of the function, is denoted by the fraction


title: Differential of a function

text: in what is called the Leibniz notation for derivatives. The quotient "dy"/"dx" is not infinitely small; rather it is a real number.


title: Differential of a function

text: The use of infinitesimals in this form was widely criticized, for instance by the famous pamphlet The Analyst by Bishop Berkeley. Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1823) defined the differential without appeal to the atomism of Leibniz's infinitesimals. Instead, Cauchy, following d'Alembert, inverted the logical order of Leibniz and his successors: the derivative itself became the fundamental object, defined as a limit of difference quotients, and the differentials were then defined in terms of it. That is, one was free to "define" the differential "dy" by an expression


title: Differential of a function

text: in which "dy" and "dx" are simply new variables taking finite real values, not fixed infinitesimals as they had been for Leibniz.


title: Differential of a function

text: According to , Cauchy's approach was a significant logical improvement over the infinitesimal approach of Leibniz because, instead of invoking the metaphysical notion of infinitesimals, the quantities "dy" and "dx" could now be manipulated in exactly the same manner as any other real quantities


title: Differential of a function

text: in a meaningful way. Cauchy's overall conceptual approach to differentials remains the standard one in modern analytical treatments, although the final word on rigor, a fully modern notion of the limit, was ultimately due to Karl Weierstrass.


title: Differential of a function

text: In physical treatments, such as those applied to the theory of thermodynamics, the infinitesimal view still prevails. reconcile the physical use of infinitesimal differentials with the mathematical impossibility of them as follows. The differentials represent finite non-zero values that are smaller than the degree of accuracy required for the particular purpose for which they are intended. Thus "physical infinitesimals" need not appeal to a corresponding mathematical infinitesimal in order to have a precise sense.


title: Differential of a function

text: Following twentieth-century developments in mathematical analysis and differential geometry, it became clear that the notion of the differential of a function could be extended in a variety of ways. In real analysis, it is more desirable to deal directly with the differential as the principal part of the increment of a function. This leads directly to the notion that the differential of a function at a point is a linear functional of an increment Δ"x". This approach allows the differential (as a linear map) to be developed for a variety of more sophisticated spaces, ultimately giving rise to such notions as the Fréchet or Gateaux derivative. Likewise, in differential geometry, the differential of a function at a point is a linear function of a tangent vector (an "infinitely small displacement"), which exhibits it as a kind of one-form: the exterior derivative of the function. In non-standard calculus, differentials are regarded as infinitesimals, which can themselves be put on a rigorous footing (see differential (infinitesimal)).


title: Differential of a function

text: The differential is defined in modern treatments of differential calculus as follows. The differential of a function "f"("x") of a single real variable "x" is the function "df" of two independent real variables "x" and Δ"x" given by


title: Differential of a function

text: One or both of the arguments may be suppressed, i.e., one may see "df"("x") or simply "df". If "y" = "f"("x"), the differential may also be written as "dy". Since "dx"("x", Δ"x") = Δ"x", it is conventional to write "dx" = Δ"x" so that the following equality holds:


title: Differential of a function

text: This notion of differential is broadly applicable when a linear approximation to a function is sought, in which the value of the increment Δ"x" is small enough. More precisely, if "f" is a differentiable function at "x", then the difference in "y"-values


title: Differential of a function

text: where the error ε in the approximation satisfies "ε"/Δ"x" → 0 as Δ"x" → 0. In other words, one has the approximate identity


title: Differential of a function

text: in which the error can be made as small as desired relative to Δ"x" by constraining Δ"x" to be sufficiently small; that is to say,


title: Differential of a function

text: as Δ"x" → 0. For this reason, the differential of a function is known as the principal (linear) part in the increment of a function: the differential is a linear function of the increment Δ"x", and although the error ε may be nonlinear, it tends to zero rapidly as Δ"x" tends to zero.


title: Differential of a function

text: the partial differential of "y" with respect to any one of the variables "x" is the principal part of the change in "y" resulting from a change "dx" in that one variable. The partial differential is therefore


title: Differential of a function

text: involving the partial derivative of "y" with respect to "x". The sum of the partial differentials with respect to all of the independent variables is the total differential


title: Differential of a function

text: which is the principal part of the change in "y" resulting from changes in the independent variables "x".


title: Differential of a function

text: More precisely, in the context of multivariable calculus, following , if "f" is a differentiable function, then by the definition of differentiability, the increment


title: Differential of a function

text: where the error terms ε tend to zero as the increments Δ"x" jointly tend to zero. The total differential is then rigorously defined as


title: Differential of a function

text: in which the total error can be made as small as desired relative to formula_21 by confining attention to sufficiently small increments.


title: Differential of a function

text: In measurement, the total differential is used in estimating the error Δ"f" of a function "f" based on the errors Δ"x", Δ"y", ... of the parameters "x", "y", …. Assuming that the interval is short enough for the change to be approximately linear:


title: Differential of a function

text: This is because the derivative "f" with respect to the particular parameter "x" gives the sensitivity of the function "f" to a change in "x", in particular the error Δ"x". As they are assumed to be independent, the analysis describes the worst-case scenario. The absolute values of the component errors are used, because after simple computation, the derivative may have a negative sign. From this principle the error rules of summation, multiplication etc. are derived, e.g.:


title: Differential of a function

text: That is to say, in multiplication, the total relative error is the sum of the relative errors of the parameters.


title: Differential of a function

text: To illustrate how this depends on the function considered, consider the case where the function is instead. Then, it can be computed that the error estimate is


title: Differential of a function

text: with an extra " factor not found in the case of a simple product. This additional factor tends to make the error smaller, as is not as large as a bare "b".


title: Differential of a function

text: When the independent variable "x" itself is permitted to depend on other variables, then the expression becomes more complicated, as it must include also higher order differentials in "x" itself. Thus, for instance,


title: Differential of a function

text: Similar considerations apply to defining higher order differentials of functions of several variables. For example, if "f" is a function of two variables "x" and "y", then


title: Differential of a function

text: where formula_28 is a binomial coefficient. In more variables, an analogous expression holds, but with an appropriate multinomial expansion rather than binomial expansion.


title: Differential of a function

text: Higher order differentials in several variables also become more complicated when the independent variables are themselves allowed to depend on other variables. For instance, for a function "f" of "x" and "y" which are allowed to depend on auxiliary variables, one has


title: Differential of a function

text: Because of this notational infelicity, the use of higher order differentials was roundly criticized by , who concluded:


title: Differential of a function

text: That is: "Finally, what is meant, or represented, by the equality [...]? In my opinion, nothing at all." In spite of this skepticism, higher order differentials did emerge as an important tool in analysis.


title: Differential of a function

text: In these contexts, the "n"th order differential of the function "f" applied to an increment Δ"x" is defined by


title: Differential of a function

text: This definition makes sense as well if "f" is a function of several variables (for simplicity taken here as a vector argument). Then the "n"th differential defined in this way is a homogeneous function of degree "n" in the vector increment Δ"x". Furthermore, the Taylor series of "f" at the point "x" is given by


title: Differential of a function

text: A number of properties of the differential follow in a straightforward manner from the corresponding properties of the derivative, partial derivative, and total derivative. These include:


title: Differential of a function

text: An operation "d" with these two properties is known in abstract algebra as a derivation. They imply the Power rule


title: Differential of a function

text: A consistent notion of differential can be developed for a function between two Euclidean spaces. Let x,Δx ∈ R be a pair of Euclidean vectors. The increment in the function "f" is


title: Differential of a function

text: in which the vector ε → 0 as Δx → 0, then "f" is by definition differentiable at the point x. The matrix "A" is sometimes known as the Jacobian matrix, and the linear transformation that associates to the increment Δx ∈ R the vector "A"Δx ∈ R is, in this general setting, known as the differential "df"("x") of "f" at the point "x". This is precisely the Fréchet derivative, and the same construction can be made to work for a function between any Banach spaces.


title: Differential of a function

text: Another fruitful point of view is to define the differential directly as a kind of directional derivative:


title: Differential of a function

text: which is the approach already taken for defining higher order differentials (and is most nearly the definition set forth by Cauchy). If "t" represents time and x position, then h represents a velocity instead of a displacement as we have heretofore regarded it. This yields yet another refinement of the notion of differential: that it should be a linear function of a kinematic velocity. The set of all velocities through a given point of space is known as the tangent space, and so "df" gives a linear function on the tangent space: a differential form. With this interpretation, the differential of "f" is known as the exterior derivative, and has broad application in differential geometry because the notion of velocities and the tangent space makes sense on any differentiable manifold. If, in addition, the output value of "f" also represents a position (in a Euclidean space), then a dimensional analysis confirms that the output value of "df" must be a velocity. If one treats the differential in this manner, then it is known as the pushforward since it "pushes" velocities from a source space into velocities in a target space.


title: Differential of a function

text: Although the notion of having an infinitesimal increment "dx" is not well-defined in modern mathematical analysis, a variety of techniques exist for defining the infinitesimal differential so that the differential of a function can be handled in a manner that does not clash with the Leibniz notation. These include:


title: Differential of a function

text: Differentials may be effectively used in numerical analysis to study the propagation of experimental errors in a calculation, and thus the overall numerical stability of a problem . Suppose that the variable "x" represents the outcome of an experiment and "y" is the result of a numerical computation applied to "x". The question is to what extent errors in the measurement of "x" influence the outcome of the computation of "y". If the "x" is known to within Δ"x" of its true value, then Taylor's theorem gives the following estimate on the error Δ"y" in the computation of "y":


title: Differential of a function

text: where for some . If Δ"x" is small, then the second order term is negligible, so that Δ"y" is, for practical purposes, well-approximated by .


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: The Hunchback of Notre Dame is a 1939 American romantic drama film starring Charles Laughton and Maureen O'Hara. Directed by William Dieterle and produced by Pandro S. Berman, the film is based on Victor Hugo's 1831 novel.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: In Paris during the late Middle Ages, Louis XI, the King of France, and his Chief Justice of Paris, Jehan Frollo, visit a printing shop. Frollo is determined to do everything in his power to protect Paris from anything he sees as evil, including the printing press and gypsies. That day is Paris' annual celebration, the Feast of Fools. Pierre Gringoire, a poor street poet, does a play in front of an audience until it is interrupted by Clopin, the King of the Beggars. Esmeralda, a young gypsy girl, is seen dancing in front of an audience of people. Quasimodo, the hunchback and bell ringer of Notre Dame Cathedral, is crowned the King of Fools until Frollo catches up to him and takes him back to the church.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: Esmeralda is caught by a guard and seeks safety in Notre Dame. She prays to the Virgin Mary to help her fellow gypsies only to be confronted by Frollo, who accuses her of being a heathen. Frollo then takes her up to the bell tower where they encounter Quasimodo. As she runs away from the hunchback, Frollo commands Quasimodo to chase after her and kidnap her. Gringoire witnesses all this, and calls out to Captain Phoebus and his guards, who capture Quasimodo just in time and save Esmeralda. Quasimodo is sentenced to be lashed in the square and publicly humiliated afterwards. He asks the Parisian townspeople for water, which Esmeralda gives him.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: Later that night, Frollo shows up to a party where Esmeralda is performing and confesses his lust for her. Afterwards, Frollo catches her and Phoebus sharing a moment in the garden. Frollo kills Phoebus out of jealousy and sentences Esmeralda to death for the crime, saying that she has "bewitched" him. Just as she is about to be hanged, Quasimodo saves her by taking her to the cathedral and claiming the right of sanctuary.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: When Gringoire and Clopin realize that the nobles are planning to revoke Notre Dame's right of sanctuary, they both try different methods in order to save Esmeralda from hanging: Gringoire writes a pamphlet, and Clopin leads the beggars to storm the cathedral. At the Palace of Justice, Louis realizes that the pamphlet is creating public opinion, which can influence kings to make decisions. The Archbishop arrives to inform Louis of Notre Dame's attack and that Esmeralda is innocent, Louis demands to know who the real murderer is, upon which Frollo confesses his crime and walks away, leaving Louis shocked. Louis orders Olivier to arrest Frollo and then talks to Gringoire after reading his pamphlet. Quasimodo and the guards of Paris fight off Clopin and the beggars. Frollo attempts to kill Quasimodo with a dagger, but Quasimodo stops him and throws Frollo off the cathedral top, sending him down to his death.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: Later that morning, King Louis pardons Esmeralda and the other Romani. She leaves the public square with her true love Gringoire and a huge cheering crowd. Quasimodo sees all this from high on the cathedral and asks a gargoyle, "Why was I not made of stone, like thee?"


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: In 1932, it was reported by "The Hollywood Reporter" that Universal announced that it would remake the 1923 "Hunchback of Notre Dame" film with John Huston writing a script and that Boris Karloff would play Quasimodo.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: Irving Thalberg, who was an uncredited producer in the 1923 film, considered remaking the film in 1934 and even discussed the idea with Charles Laughton. Two years later, Universal regained interest in a remake, with a fan poll being instrumental in influencing the studio to make the film. Ronald Colman, Paul Muni, Fredric March, Lionel Barrymore and Peter Lorre were the choices in the poll and in the end, Universal decided to go with Lorre, even as far as negotiating with the actor to star in the film, but the project never materialized.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: A year later, Carl Laemmle, Jr. persuaded Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer to buy the property from Universal as a star-vehicle for Muni. Metro refused and sold the rights to RKO, with Pandro S. Berman producing and William Dieterle directing.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: For this production, RKO Radio Pictures built on their movie ranch a massive medieval city of Paris and Notre Dame Cathedral in the San Fernando Valley. This was one of the largest and most extravagant sets ever constructed.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: Screenwriter Sonya Levien, who was entrusted to translate Hugo's novel into this film, made the story relevant to the events of the time the film was made: she made the obvious parallel between Paris' persecution of the gypsies and Germany's treatment of the Jews prior to World War II.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: After hearing the news that RKO was going to remake the 1923 film, Lon Chaney, Jr. sought to play the role of Quasimodo and screen-tested for the studio. While the studio felt that Chaney gave excellent performances in his numerous screen tests, other actors would be more suitable for the part, Orson Welles being one of the many considered. Laughton was set to star as Quasimodo, but RKO offered Chaney the role when it seemed like the British actor would be unable to work in America due to troubles with the IRS. Laughton managed to overcome his problems and got the part.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: Pleased with her work on Alfred Hitchcock's "Jamaica Inn", Laughton brought a then 18-year old Maureen O'Hara to Hollywood to play Esmeralda. This marked O'Hara's American screen debut. According to actress Kathryn Adams, she was supposed to play Esmeralda, but lost the role to O'Hara when Laughton cabled from Ireland to Hollywood that he was "bringing Esmeralda". Adams played a companion of Fleur as compensation for losing the role.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: Dieterle wanted Claude Rains to play Frollo, but before he agreed to play the part, he had an unexpected encounter with Laughton on the Universal lot in which Laughton was very condescending. Rains, who had mentored Laughton and John Gielgud at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts, later remarked that their encounter at the lot was the end of their relationship and refused to play the role, which would be played by Cedric Hardwicke.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: With a budget of $1.8 million, "Hunchback" proved to be one of the most expensive movies ever made by the studio. It was shot at the RKO Encino Ranch, with the interiors of the bell tower being shot at the Mudd Hall of Philosophy at the University of Southern California.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: The sets of Paris and the Notre Dame Cathedral were constructed by Van Nest Polglase at the cost of $250,000 (about $4,974,622 in 2021 dollars), while Darrell Silvera worked as set decorator. Walter Plunkett oversaw the costume design and Joseph H. August served as cinematographer, this film being the first of his three collaborations with Dieterle.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: Filming proved to be difficult for the cast and crew due to the hot temperatures, particularly for Laughton, who had to act with a lot of makeup. In her autobiography, O'Hara recalls one day arriving on the set and finding chimpanzees, baboons and gorillas. Dieterle wanted monks to be on the set but his assistant mistakenly thought he wanted monkeys because of his poor English and thick German accent.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: Makeup artist Perc Westmore was loaned by Warner Bros. to RKO for the production. Westmore and Laughton did not get along. Though Westmore wanted to use sponge rubber to make a light appliance for Laughton to wear, Laughton wanted a heavy one to help him stay in character. Laughton was offended when Westmore suggested he try acting like the hump was heavy and was rude and dismissive to Westmore throughout filming. Near the end of the shoot, Westmore called his younger brother to the studio, where he witnessed Westmore, while strapping on the hump, spray Laughton in the face with a seltzer bottle full of quinine water and then kick him in the posterior. Westmore told Laughton, "That's for all the grief you gave me" and added that his brother was a witness and would deny anything Laughton said about the incident.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: When Poland was invaded by Nazi Germany on September 1, most of the cast and crew was in a state of fear of what was going to happen. Laughton lightened the mood by reciting the Gettysburg Address (that he had recited in "Ruggles of Red Gap"). Another incident of emotional filming was the filming of the scene where Quasimodo rings the bells in the tower of the cathedral for Esmeralda. Feeling in pain because his native Britain had declared war on Germany, Laughton rang the bells over and over again until he fell down from exhaustion, overwhelming the crew with emotion.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: The characters of Claude Frollo and Jehan Frollo are changed from the novel, as was done in the 1923 film. Such changes were made because the filmmakers were concerned that portraying the priest as a villain would violate the policy of the Hays Production Code. In the novel, Claude is depicted as the villainous and 36-year-old Archdeacon of Notre Dame; in the film, he is the good character and much older in age. His younger brother, Jehan, is a teenage and drunken student as well as a juvenile delinquent in the novel; in the film, he is a middle-aged villain who is also Paris' chief justice and a close advisor to King Louis XI.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 93% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 14 reviews, with an average rating of 8.65/10. "Variety" called the film a "super thriller-chiller" but found that the elaborate sets tended to overwhelm the story, particularly in the first half. "Harrison's Reports" wrote, "Very good! Audiences should be thrilled anew by this lavish remake of Victor Hugo's famous novel." "Film Daily" called it "compelling, dynamic entertainment." John Mosher of "The New Yorker" wrote that Laughton "achieves something like a tour de force. The lines themselves (such modernisms as 'to buy protection'), along with a perfunctory plot arrangement, are among the weak features of the film, which otherwise is a vivid pictorial drama of fifteenth-century Paris." E. H. Harvey of "The Harvard Crimson" said that the film "in all is more than entertaining." He said that "the mediocre effects offer a forceful contrast to the great moments" in the film. However, Frank S. Nugent of "The New York Times" wrote a mostly negative review of the film, finding it "little more" than "a freak show". Though he acknowledged it was "handsome enough of production and its cast is expert," he called it "almost unrelievedly brutal and without the saving grace of unreality which makes Frankenstein's horrors a little comic."


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: The movie was very popular, earning $1,549,000 in the United States and Canada and $1,646,000 elsewhere, but because of its cost only made a profit of $100,000.


title: The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)

text: "The Hunchback of Notre Dame" was released on DVD in Region 1 on September 21, 2001 by Image Entertainment. It was issued on Blu-ray in Region A by Warner Home Video on June 9, 2015.


title: Prairie School

text: Prairie School is a late 19th- and early 20th-century architectural style, most common in the Midwestern United States. The style is usually marked by horizontal lines, flat or hipped roofs with broad overhanging eaves, windows grouped in horizontal bands, integration with the landscape, solid construction, craftsmanship, and discipline in the use of ornament. Horizontal lines were thought to evoke and relate to the wide, flat, treeless expanses of America's native prairie landscape.


title: Prairie School

text: The Prairie School was an attempt at developing an indigenous North American style of architecture in sympathys with the ideals and design aesthetics of the Arts and Crafts Movement, with which it shared an embrace of handcrafting and craftsman guilds as an antidote to the dehumanizing effects of mass production.


title: Prairie School

text: The Prairie School developed in sympathy with the ideals and design aesthetics of the Arts and Crafts Movement begun in the late 19th century in England by John Ruskin, William Morris, and others. Along with the kindred American Craftsman movement it shared an embrace of handcrafting and craftsman guilds as a reaction against the new assembly line mass production manufacturing techniques, which was felt to create inferior products and dehumanize workers.


title: Prairie School

text: The Prairie School was also an attempt at developing an indigenous North American style of architecture that did not share design elements and aesthetic vocabulary with earlier styles of European classical architecture. Many talented and ambitious young architects had been attracted by building opportunities stemming from the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. The World's Columbian Exposition (Chicago World's Fair) of 1893 was supposed to be a heralding of the city of Chicago's rebirth. But many of the young Midwestern architects of what would become the Prairie School were offended by the Greek and Roman classicism of nearly every building erected for the fair. In reaction, they sought to create new work in and around Chicago that would display a uniquely modern and authentically American style, which came to be called Prairie.


title: Prairie School

text: The designation Prairie is due to the dominant horizontality of the majority of Prairie style buildings, which echoes the wide, flat, treeless expanses of the mid-Western United States. The most famous proponent of the style, Frank Lloyd Wright, promoted an idea of "organic architecture" (p. 53), the primary tenet of which was that a structure should look as if it naturally grew from the site. In the words of Wright, buildings that appeared as if they were "married to the ground." (p. 53) Wright also felt that a horizontal orientation was a distinctly American design motif, in that the younger country had much more open, undeveloped land than found in most older and highly urbanized European nations.


title: Prairie School

text: The Prairie School is mostly associated with a generation of architects employed or influenced by Frank Lloyd Wright or Louis Sullivan, though usually not including Sullivan himself. While the style originated in Chicago, some Prairie School architects spread its influence well beyond the Midwest. A partial list of Prairie School architects includes:


title: Prairie School

text: Prairie School houses are characterized by open floor plans, horizontal lines, and indigenous materials. These were related to the American Arts and Crafts movement and its emphasis on hand craftsmanship, simplicity, and function. Both were alternatives to the then-dominant Classical Revival Style of Greek forms with occasional Roman influences. Some firms, such as Purcell & Elmslie, which accepted the honest presence of machine worked surfaces, consciously rejected the term "Arts and Crafts" for their work. The Prairie School was also heavily influenced by the Idealistic Romantics who believed better homes would create better people, and the Transcendentalist philosophy of Ralph Waldo Emerson. In turn, Prairie School architects influenced subsequent architectural idioms, particularly the less is more ethos of Minimalists and form following function in Bauhaus, itself a mixture of De Stijl grid-based design and Constructist emphasis on the structure itself and its building materials.


title: Prairie School

text: Architectural historians have debated the reasons why the Prairie School went out of favor by the mid-1920s. In her autobiography, Prairie School architect Marion Mahony suggests:


title: Prairie School

text: The enthusiastic and able young men as proved in their later work were doubtless as influential in the office later as were these early ones but Wright's early concentration on publicity and his claims that everybody was his disciple had a deadening influence on the Chicago group and only after a quarter of a century do we find creative architecture conspicuously evident in the United States.


title: Prairie School

text: An example of Prairie School architecture is the aptly named "The Prairie School", a private day school in Racine, Wisconsin, designed by Taliesin Associates (an architectural firm originated by Wright), and located almost adjacent to Wright's Wingspread Conference Center. Mahony's and Griffin's work in Australia and India, notably the collection of homes at "Castlecrag", New South Wales, are fine examples of how the Prairie School spread far from its Chicago roots. Isabel Roberts' Veterans' Memorial Library in St. Cloud, Florida, is another. The House at 8 Berkley Drive at Lockport, New York was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2009.


title: Prairie School

text: The Oak Circle Historic District is a historic district in Wilmette, Illinois, United States. It primarily consists of fifteen single-family homes representative of the Prairie School and Craftsman styles of architecture constructed between 1917 and 1929. The Oak Circle Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places on June 21, 2001; it was the first historic district to be designated in Wilmette.


title: Prairie School

text: The Rock Crest–Rock Glen Historic District is a nationally recognized historic district located in Mason City, Iowa. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. All of the buildings are houses designed in the Prairie School style, and are a part of a planned development. Mason City is also home to The Historic Park Inn Hotel and City National Bank—two adjacent commercial buildings designed in the Prairie School style. Completed in 1910, the Historic Park Inn Hotel is the last remaining Frank Lloyd Wright-designed hotel in the world, of the six for which he was the architect of record. The Dr. G.C. Stockman House is another example of Frank Lloyd Wright's Prairie School style found in Mason City, Iowa. Built in 1908, the Stockman House was the first Wright-designed Prairie School-style house in Iowa. Today, the house functions as a museum welcoming visitors and architectural enthusiasts from all around the world.


title: Prairie School

text: Interest in the ideas and designs of the Prairie School artists and architects has grown since the late 1980s, thanks in large part to celebrity collecting habits and high-profile auction results on many of the decorative designs from buildings of the era. In addition to numerous books, magazine articles, videos and merchandise promoting the movement, a number of original Prairie School building sites have become public museums, open for tours and special interactive events. Several not-for-profit organizations and on-line communities have been formed to educate people about the Prairie School movement and help preserve the designs associated with it. Some of these organizations and sites are listed in the External links section below.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Delayed puberty is when a person lacks or has incomplete development of specific sexual characteristics past the usual age of onset of puberty. The person may have no physical or hormonal signs that puberty has begun. In the United States, girls are considered to have delayed puberty if they lack breast development by age 13 or have not started menstruating by age 15. Boys are considered to have delayed puberty if they lack enlargement of the testicles by age 14. Delayed puberty affects about 2% of adolescents.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Most commonly, puberty may be delayed for several years and still occur normally, in which case it is considered constitutional delay of growth and puberty, a common variation of healthy physical development. Delay of puberty may also occur due to various causes such as malnutrition, various systemic diseases, or defects of the reproductive system (hypogonadism) or the body's responsiveness to sex hormones.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Initial workup for delayed puberty not due to a chronic condition involves measuring serum FSH, LH, testosterone/estradiol, as well as bone age radiography. If it becomes clear that there is a permanent defect of the reproductive system, treatment usually involves replacement of the appropriate hormones (testosterone/dihydrotestosterone for boys, estradiol and progesterone for girls).


title: Delayed puberty

text: Puberty is considered delayed when the child has not begun puberty when two standard deviations or about 95% of children from similar backgrounds have.


title: Delayed puberty

text: In North American girls, puberty is considered delayed when breast development has not begun by age 13, when they have not started menstruating by age 15, and when there is no increased growth rate. Furthermore, slowed progression through the Tanner scale or lack of menarche within 3 years of breast development may also be considered delayed puberty.


title: Delayed puberty

text: In the United States, the age of onset of puberty in girls depends heavily on their racial background. Delayed puberty means the lack of breast development by age 12.8 years for White girls, and by age 12.4 years for Black girls. The lack of menstruation by age 15 in any ethnic background is considered delayed.


title: Delayed puberty

text: In North American boys, puberty is considered delayed when the testes remain less than 2.5 cm in diameter or less than 4 mL in volume by the age of 14. Delayed puberty is more common in males.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Although absence of pubic and/or axillary hair is common in children with delayed puberty, the presence of sexual hair is due to adrenal sex hormone secretion unrelated to the sex hormones produced by the ovaries or testes.


title: Delayed puberty

text: The age of onset of puberty is dependent on genetics, general health, socioeconomic status, and environmental exposures. Children residing closer to the equator, at lower altitudes, in cities and other urban areas generally begin the process of puberty earlier than their counterparts. Mildly obese to morbidly obese children are also more likely to begin puberty earlier than children of normal weight. Variation in genes related to obesity such as FTO or NEGRI have been associated with earlier onset of puberty. Children whose parents started puberty at an earlier age were also more likely to experience it themselves, especially in women where onset of menstruation correlated well between mothers and daughters and between sisters.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Children who are healthy but have a slower rate of physical development than average have a constitutional delay with a subsequent delay in puberty. It is the most common cause of delayed puberty in girls (30%) and even more so in boys (65%). It is commonly inherited with as much as 80% of the variation in the age of onset of puberty due to genetic factors. These children have a history of shorter stature than their age-matched peers throughout childhood, but their height is appropriate for bone age, meaning that they have delayed skeletal maturation with potential for future growth.


title: Delayed puberty

text: It is often difficult to establish if it is a true constitutional delay of growth and puberty or if there is an underlying pathology because lab tests are not always discriminatory. In absence of any other symptoms, short stature, delayed growth in height and weight, and/or delayed puberty may be the only clinical manifestations of certain chronic diseases including coeliac disease.


title: Delayed puberty

text: When underweight or sickly children present with pubertal delay, it is warranted to search for illnesses that cause a temporary and reversible delay in puberty. Chronic conditions such as sickle cell disease and thalassemia, cystic fibrosis, HIV/AIDS, hypothyroidism, chronic kidney disease, and chronic gastroenteric disorders (such as coeliac disease and inflammatory bowel disease) cause a delayed activation of the hypothalamic region of the brain to send signals to start puberty.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Childhood cancer survivors can also present with delayed puberty secondary to their cancer treatments, especially males. The type of treatment, amount of exposure/dosage of drugs, and age during treatment determine the level by which the gonads are affected with younger patients at a lower risk of negative reproductive effects.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Excessive physical exercise and physical stress, especially in athletes can also delay pubertal onset. Eating disorders such as bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa can also impair puberty due to undernutrition.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Carbohydrate-restricted diets for weight loss has also been shown to decrease the stimulation of insulin which in turn does not stimulate kisspeptin neurons vital in the release of puberty-starting hormones. This shows that carbohydrate restricted children and children with diabetes mellitus type 1 can have delayed puberty.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Primary failure of the ovaries or testes (gonads) will cause delayed puberty due to the lack of hormonal response by the final receptors of the HPG axis. In this scenario, the brain sends a lot of hormonal signals (high gonadotropin), but the gonads are unable to respond to said signals causing hypergonadotropic hypogonadism. Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism can be caused by congenital defects or acquired defects.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Congenital diseases include untreated cryptorchidism where the testicles fail to descend from the abdomen. Other congenital disorders are genetic in nature. In males, there can be deformities in the seminiferous tubule as in Klinefelter syndrome (most common cause in males), defects in the production of testicular steroids, receptor mutations preventing testicular hormones from working, chromosomal abnormalities such as Noonan syndrome, or problems with the cells making up the testes. Females can also have chromosomal abnormalities such as Turner syndrome (most common cause in girls), XX gonadal dysgenesis, and XY gonadal dysgenesis, problems in the ovarian hormone synthesis pathway such as aromatase deficiency or congenital anatomical deformities such as Müllerian agenesis.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Acquired diseases include mumps orchitis, Coxsackievirus B infection, irradiation, chemotherapy, or trauma; all problems causing the gonads to fail.


title: Delayed puberty

text: The hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis can also be affected at the level of the brain. The brain does not send its hormonal signals to the gonads (low gonadotropins) causing the gonads to never be activated in the first-place resulting in hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. The HPG axis can be altered in two places, at the hypothalamic or at the pituitary level. CNS disorders such as childhood brain tumors ("e.g." craniopharyngioma, prolactinoma, germinoma, glioma) can disrupt the communication between the hypothalamus and the pituitary. Pituitary tumors, especially prolactinomas, can increase the level of dopamine causing an inhibiting effect to the HPG axis. Hypothalamic disorders include Prader-Willi syndrome and Kallmann syndrome, but the most common cause of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism is a functional deficiency in the hormone regulator produced by the hypothalamus, the gonadotropin-releasing hormone or GnRH.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Pediatric endocrinologists are the physicians with the most training and experience evaluating delayed puberty. A complete medical history, review of systems, growth pattern, and physical examination as well as laboratory testing and imaging will reveal most of the systemic diseases and conditions capable of arresting development or delaying puberty, as well as providing clues to some of the recognizable syndromes affecting the reproductive system.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Timely medical assessment is a necessity since as many as half of girls with delayed puberty have an underlying pathology.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Children with constitutional delay are reported to be shorter than their peers, lacking a growth spurt, and having an overall smaller build. Their growth has begun to slow down years before the expected growth spurt secondary to puberty, which helps differentiate a constitutional delay from an HPG-axis related disorder. A complete family history with the ages at which parents hit the pubertal milestones can also provide a reference point for the expected age of puberty. Growth measurement parameters in children with suspected constitutional delay include a height, a weight, the rate of growth, and the calculated mid-parental height which represents the expected adult height for the child.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Diet and physical activity habits, as well as history of previous serious illnesses and medication history can provide clues as to the cause of delayed puberty. Delayed growth and puberty can be the first signs of severe chronic illnesses such as metabolic disorders including inflammatory bowel disease and hypothyroidism. Symptoms such as fatigue, pain, and abnormal stooling pattern are suggestive of an underlying chronic condition. Low BMI can lead a physician to diagnose an eating disorder, undernutrition, child abuse, or chronic gastrointestinal disorders.


title: Delayed puberty

text: A eunuchoid body shape where the arm span exceeds the height by more than 5 cm suggests a delay in growth plate closure secondary to hypogonadism. Turner syndrome has unique diagnostic features including a webbed neck, short stature, shield chest, and low hairline. Klinefelter syndrome presents with tall stature as well as small, firm testes.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Lacking the sense of smell (anosmia) along with delayed puberty are strong clinical indications for Kallmann syndrome. Deficiencies in GnRH, the signalling hormone produced by the hypothalamus, can cause congenital malformations including cleft lip and scoliosis. The presence of neurological symptoms including headaches and visual disturbances suggest a brain disorder such as a brain tumor causing hypopituitarism. The presence of neurological symptoms in addition to lactation are signs of high prolactin levels and could indicate either a drug side effect or a prolactinoma.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Since bone maturation is a good indicator of overall physical maturation, an x-ray of the left hand and wrist to assess bone age usually reveals whether the child has reached a stage of physical maturation at which puberty should be occurring. X-ray displaying a bone age <11 years in girls or <13 years in boys (despite a higher chronological age) is most often consistent with constitutional delay of puberty. An MRI of the brain should be considered if neurological symptoms are present in addition to delayed puberty, two findings suspicious for pituitary or hypothalamic tumors. An MRI can also confirm the diagnosis of Kallmann syndrome due to the absence or abnormal development of the olfactory tract. However, in the absence of clear neurological symptoms, an MRI may not be the most cost-effective option. A pelvic ultrasound can detect anatomical abnormalities including undescended testes and müllerian agenesis.


title: Delayed puberty

text: The first step in evaluating children with delayed puberty involves differentiating between the different causes of delayed puberty. Constitutional delay can be evaluated with a thorough history, physical, and bone age. Malnutrition and chronic diseases can be diagnosed through history and disease-specific testing. Screening studies include a complete blood count, an erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and thyroid studies. Hypogonadism can be differentiated between hyper- and hypo-gonadotropic hypogonadism by measuring serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) (gonadotropins to measure pituitary output), and estradiol in girls (to measure gonadal output). By the age of 10–12, children with failure of the ovaries or testes will have high LH and FSH because the brain is attempting to jump-start puberty, but the gonads are not responsive to these signals.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Stimulating the body by administering an artificial version of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH, the hypothalamic hormone) can differentiate between constitutional delay of puberty and a GnRH deficiency in boys, although no studies have been done in girls to prove this. It is often sufficient to simply measure the baseline gonadotrophin levels to differentiate between the two.


title: Delayed puberty

text: In girls with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, a serum prolactin level is measured to identify if they have the pituitary tumor prolactinoma. High levels of prolactin would warrant further testing with MRI imaging, except if drugs inducing the production of prolactin can be identified. If the child has any neurological symptoms, it is highly recommended that the physician obtains a head MRI to detect possible brain lesions.


title: Delayed puberty

text: In girls with hypergonadotropic hypogonadism, a karyotype can identify chromosomal abnormalities, the most common of which is Turner syndrome. In boys, a karyotype is indicated if the child may have a congenital gonadal defect such as Klinefelter syndrome. In children with a normal karyotype, defects in the synthesis of the adrenal steroid sex hormones can be identified by measuring 17-hydroxylase, an important enzyme involved in the production of sex hormones.


title: Delayed puberty

text: The goals of short-term hormone therapy are to induce the beginning of sexual development and induce a growth spurt, but should be limited to children with severe distress or anxiety secondary to their delayed puberty. Bone age must be monitored frequently to prevent precocious closure of the bone plates, thereby stunting growth.


title: Delayed puberty

text: If a child is healthy with a constitutional delay of growth and puberty, reassurance and prediction based on the bone age can be provided. No other intervention is usually necessary, but repeat evaluation by measuring serum testosterone or estrogen is recommended. Furthermore, the diagnosis of hypogonadism can be excluded once the adolescent has started puberty by age 16–18.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Boys aged >14 years old whose growth is severely stunted or are experiencing severe distress secondary to their lack of puberty can be started on testosterone to increase their height. Testosterone treatment can also be used to stimulate sexual development, but it can close bone plates prematurely stopping growth altogether if not carefully administered. Another therapeutic option is the use of aromatase inhibitors to inhibit the conversion of androgens to estrogens as estrogens are responsible for stopping bone growth plate development and thus growth. However, due to side effects, therapy with testosterone alone is most often used. Overall, neither growth hormone nor aromatase inhibitors are recommended for constitutional delay to increase growth.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Overall, studies have shown no significant difference in final adult height between adolescents treated with sex steroids and those who were only observed with no treatment.


title: Delayed puberty

text: If the delay is due to systemic disease or malnutrition, the therapeutic intervention is likely to focus direction on those conditions. In patients with coeliac disease, an early diagnosis and the establishment of a gluten-free diet prevents long-term complications and allows restoration of normal maturation. Thyroid hormone therapy will be necessary in the case of hypothyroidism.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Whereas children with constitutional delay will have normal levels of sex hormones post-puberty, gonadotropin deficiency or hypogonadism may require lifelong sex steroid replacement.


title: Delayed puberty

text: In girls with primary ovarian failure, estrogen should be started when puberty is supposed to start. Progestins are usually added after there is acceptable breast development, about 12 to 24 months after starting estrogen, as starting treatment with progestin too early can negatively affect breast growth. After acceptable breast growth, administering estrogen and progestin in a cyclical manner can help establish regular menses once puberty is started. The goal is to complete sexual maturation over 2 to 3 years. Once sexual maturation has been achieved, a trial period with no hormonal therapy can determine whether or not the child will require life-long treatment. Girls with congenital GnRH deficiency require enough sex hormone supplementation to maintain body levels in the expected pubertal levels necessary to induce ovulation, especially when fertility is a concern.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Pulsatile GnRH, weekly multi-LH, or hCG and FSH can be used to induce fertility in adulthood for both males and females.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Boys aged >12 years old with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism are most often treated with short-term testosterone while males with testicular failure will be on life-long testosterone. Choice of formulation (topical vs injection) is dependent on the child's and family's preference as well as on how well they tolerate side effects. Although testosterone therapy alone will result in the start of puberty, to increase fertility potential, they may need pulsatile GnRH or hCG with rFSH. hCG can be used by itself in boys with spontaneous onset of puberty from non-permanent forms of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and rFSH can be added in cases of low sperm count after 6 to 12 months of treatment.


title: Delayed puberty

text: If puberty has not started after 1 year of treatment, then permanent hypogonadotropic hypogonadism should be considered.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Girls with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism are started on the same sex steroid therapy as their counterparts with a constitutional delay, however doses are gradually increased to reach full adult replacement levels. Dosage of estrogen is titrated based on the woman's ability to have withdrawal bleeds and to maintain appropriate bone density. Induction of fertility must also be done through pulsatile GnRH.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Growth hormone is another option that has been described, however it should only be used in proven growth hormone deficiency such as idiopathic short stature. Children with a constitutional delay have not been shown to benefit from growth hormone therapy. Although serum growth hormone levels are low in constitutional delay of puberty, they increase after treatment with sex hormones and in those cases, growth hormone is not suggested to accelerate growth.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Subnormal vitamin A intake is one of the etiological factors in delayed pubertal maturation. Supplementation of both vitamin A and iron to normal constitutionally delayed children with subnormal vitamin A intake is as efficacious as hormonal therapy in the induction of growth and puberty.


title: Delayed puberty

text: More therapies are being developed to target the more discreet modulators of the HPG axis including kisspeptin and neurokinin B.


title: Delayed puberty

text: In cases of severe delayed puberty secondary to hypogonadism, evaluation by a psychologist or psychiatrist, as well as counseling and a supportive environment are an important supplemental therapy for the child. Transition from pediatric to adult care is also vital as many children are lost during transition of care.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Constitutional delay of growth and puberty is a variation of normal development with no long-term health consequences, however it can have lasting psychological effects. Adolescent boys with delayed puberty have a higher level of anxiety and depression relative to their peers. Children with delayed puberty also display decreased academic performance in their adolescent education, but changes in academic achievement in adulthood have not been determined.


title: Delayed puberty

text: There is conflicting evidence as to whether or not children with constitutional growth and pubertal delay reach their full height potential. The conventional teaching is that these children catch up on their growth during the pubertal growth spurt and just remain shorter before their delayed puberty starts. However, some studies show that these children fall short of their target height from about 4 to 11 cm. Factors that could affect final height include familial short stature and pre-pubertal growth development.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Pubertal delay can also affect bone mass and subsequent development of osteoporosis. Men with delayed puberty often have low to normal bone mineral density unaffected by androgen therapy. Women are more likely to have lower bone mineral density and thus an increased risk of fractures as early as even before the onset of puberty.


title: Delayed puberty

text: Furthermore, delayed puberty is correlated with a higher risk in cardiovascular and metabolic disorders in women only, but also appears to be protective for breast and endometrial in women and testicular cancer in men.


title: Saturn 3

text: Saturn 3 is a 1980 British science fiction film produced and directed by Stanley Donen, and starring Farrah Fawcett, Kirk Douglas and Harvey Keitel. The screenplay was written by Martin Amis, from a story by John Barry. Though a British production (made by Lew Grade's ITC Entertainment and shot at Shepperton Studios), the film has an American cast and director.


title: Saturn 3

text: In the distant future, an overcrowded Earth relies on research conducted by scientists in remote stations across the solar system. Contact is maintained by spaceships shuttling between the stations and large orbiting space stations. Captain James is preparing to depart from one of these stations when he is murdered by Captain Benson. Benson, who was rated "potentially unstable" on a mental exam, steals James' cargo ship and departs the station for a small, remote experimental hydroponics research station on Saturn's third moon. Arriving there, he finds the station run solely by Adam and his younger colleague and lover Alex . Adam, Alex, and their dog, Sally, enjoy their isolation far from an overcrowded and troubled Earth. Alex has spent all her life in space, and only knows Earth from what Adam has told her. It falls to Benson to more fully educate Alex as to the habits and mores of humans who live on Earth, which include drug use.


title: Saturn 3

text: Alex and Adam's idyll is broken when Benson reveals his mission is to replace at least one of the moon's scientists with a robot. The robot — named Hector — is among the first of its kind, a "Demigod Series", relying on "pure brain tissue" extracted from human fetuses and programmed using a direct link to Benson's brain. Adam tells Alex that he is the likely candidate for removal, being that he's close to "abort time" and will have to leave anyway.


title: Saturn 3

text: With Hector assembled, Benson begins preparing the robot, using the neural link implanted in his spine. Thus connected to Benson, Hector quickly learns of Benson's failure of the psychological stability test, and also of his murder of James. With little barrier between the robot's brain and Benson's, Hector is soon imprinted with Benson's homicidal nature and his lust for Alex. The robot rebels. Adam and Benson manage to disable the robot while it's recharging, and remove the brain.


title: Saturn 3

text: Believing the danger over, Adam accuses Benson of gross incompetence, ordering him to dismantle the robot and return to Earth when an eclipse ends (this eclipse also prevents communication to other stations). Unknown to Benson, Adam and Alex; Hector remains functional enough to take control of the base's older robots, using them to reassemble his body and reconnect his brain. Unaware of Hector's resurgence, Benson attempts to leave the station while dragging Alex with him. Resuscitated, Hector murders Benson before he can leave with Alex. Hector destroys Benson's spacecraft before the scientists can escape in it, trapping them all on Saturn 3, and assumes control of the station's computer.


title: Saturn 3

text: Trapped in the control room, both Alex and Adam are surprised to see Benson's face on their monitor. The two are directed by a voice they recognize as Benson's to leave the control room, both surprised that Benson is even alive. To their shock, the two are confronted by Hector, now wearing Benson's severed head.


title: Saturn 3

text: A short time later, Alex and Adam wake in their own rooms. To her horror, Alex finds that Hector has installed a brain link at the top of Adam's spine, much like the one that Benson had, and one which will give Hector direct access to Adam's brain. Hector explains that he can 'read' but taking control of Adam 'comes later'. This causes Adam to rebel and he destroys Hector by tackling him into a waste pit, and sacrificing himself with a grenade.


title: Saturn 3

text: In the final scene, Alex is shown aboard a passenger ship returning to Earth. She declines an offer of narcotics from a stewardess, and instead looks out of a window for her first glimpse of Earth.


title: Saturn 3

text: The project was based on an idea by John Barry, one of the leading production designers of the 1970s, whose credits included "A Clockwork Orange", "Star Wars" and "Superman". He pitched it to Stanley Donen when they were making "Lucky Lady" together and Donen suggested he produce while Barry direct (Donen had no experience in science fiction prior to this).


title: Saturn 3

text: The script was written by novelist Martin Amis who did it for a fee of £30,000. According to Amis' biographer the original script "is at once heroic and pitiable, his various attempts at wit, rhetorical bravado, even elegance, being shoe-horned into a directorial enterprise as boorish as "The Vikings"."


title: Saturn 3

text: Donen was making the b-movie spoof "Movie Movie" for Lew Grade and gave Grade a copy of the script to read. Grade read it while on a plane with Farrah Fawcett. He gave the script to Fawcett who was interested, and Grade agreed to make the movie when the plane landed. Donen later said "The script wasn't thoroughly realized at the point we signed Farrah Fawcett. We had a starting date when Lord Grade got off that airplane but no script."


title: Saturn 3

text: Donen later said "I was rather surprised she said yes in the first place because in the early scripts hers wasn't that big a part."


title: Saturn 3

text: Fawcett later said the script was originally called "The Helper". "It was a very interesting story about how a robot took on the mind of the guy who created him," she said. "So, when the Harvey Keitel character would look at me, the robot he created would look, too. It was a very interesting script, so creative."


title: Saturn 3

text: The script changed once Fawcett became involved. "We went through all sorts of thoughts," said Donen. "There were times when we had a story where no one was the villain. But I think there was always an age difference between Farrah and the man with whom she was working. I think we were looking for an older rather than a younger man in every version of the story. Yet I don't feel that the script was changed to accommodate the casting of Kirk Douglas."


title: Saturn 3

text: Other people worked on the script. Amis says most of the final script was written by Frederic Raphael.


title: Saturn 3

text: The film was accused of being similar to "Alien" but Donen pointed out Barry had the idea several years before that film came out. "It's a pity we didn't get it out first. There is the similarity of the monster villain, but ours doesn't take on the guise of a monster. Ours is beautiful to look at — in a strange way. The alien was a sort of organic reptile with a steel mouth. Ours looks more human— it has legs. And we show ours."


title: Saturn 3

text: Donen said "It's probably closer to the real Frankenstein story than a Hitchcock thriller... It's meant to frighten you in an unusual way and give you a sense of relief at the way that it comes out. It's science fiction but not comic-strip...It's also a film that is both sensuous and sensual."


title: Saturn 3

text: ITC was also producing "Raise the Titanic!" at the same time. As that film went over schedule and over budget and ultimately failed at the box office, the production of "Saturn 3" was cut back.


title: Saturn 3

text: Fawcett's casting was announced in June 1978 (the press release said Donen was directing) and she was paid $750,000. The first choices for the male lead were Sean Connery and Michael Caine but they turned the part down; Kirk Douglas accepted. Harvey Keitel was cast at a fee of $90,000.


title: Saturn 3

text: Filming started in late January 1979. Donen says there were difficulties with the actors. "It was my fault, not John's," said Donen. "The truth is John had hardly ever been on a set, which I didn't realize. He was such a terrific talent but ... he knew next to nothing about staging a scene or handling actors. The film started floundering." Donen decided he had to be on set with Barry but says Barry refused and quit the project. "There was no question of his being fired," said Donen.


title: Saturn 3

text: Fawcett said when Donen started directing "this film that had been going in one direction, took off in another. Suddenly, there were hair and costume changes, and the story changed."


title: Saturn 3

text: Stanley Donen was dissatisfied with Harvey Keitel and the two men had a poor working relationship. A friend of Keitel's said the actor "hated everything and everybody on that film."


title: Saturn 3

text: The film wound up costing over $10 million. "That's a lot for a film with three characters," admitted Donen. "The robot cost a lot more than we expected. It was slower to photograph than we thought it would be. And when John couldn't finish directing the picture, that took time."


title: Saturn 3

text: The director added, "The limitations of the surroundings was another problem. It was like making a movie in a rowboat. To give the movie variety in that one complex where the characters live was very difficult."


title: Saturn 3

text: In screenwriter Martin Amis's subsequent novel "Money" the main character, John Self, is based in part on John Barry (Self's father is named Barry Self as well). The aging film star "Lorne Guyland", obsessed with his own virility, is based on Douglas. Similarly, the project that John Self attempts to complete is as wracked with disaster as was the production of "Saturn 3".


title: Saturn 3

text: Donen wanted Keitel's character to have an upper class veneer to appear more threatening. Because Keitel refused to take part in post-production looping, Keitel's voice is dubbed over by British actor Roy Dotrice who, for this performance, adopted a mid-Atlantic accent.


title: Saturn 3

text: Two scenes that had been filmed for the production were edited out, due to Lew Grade objecting to their subject matter. These were a dream sequence that involved both Adam and Alex killing Benson and a scene where Hector ripped apart Benson's dead body on a table in one of the colony's laboratories. A scene where Fawcett appeared in suspenders, which was on the original poster, is not in the final film. These cuts, among others, reduced the running time to 87 minutes.


title: Saturn 3

text: Regardless of these cuts, the film received an MPAA rating of "R", for scenes of violence and brief nudity. In the UK, the film was given a more relaxed "A" certificate by the BBFC for its theatrical release, though subsequent home video releases were given a "15" certificate.


title: Saturn 3

text: Barry went back to production design, joining the crew of "The Empire Strikes Back". During preproduction he suddenly fell ill and died of meningitis.


title: Saturn 3

text: Lew Grade pre-sold the film to NBC for $4 million, which helped minimize its losses. He wrote in his memoirs that "the effects and the performances were fine but ... the finished product parted company with my original expectations." The film was a financial disappointment and contributed to the collapse of Grade's filmmaking operations.


title: Saturn 3

text: P. J. Snyder reviewed "Saturn 3" in "Ares Magazine" #2 and commented that ""Saturn 3" is a sloppy, shoddy production, of the sort that someone out there thinks SF fans just eat up. One hopes the producers and directors working the genre will realize this audience demands more than a leggy blond being chased by a robot. They may have such limited visions, but the audience doesn't."


title: Saturn 3

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds a 23% approval rating based on 13 reviews. On Metacritic, the film holds a 9/100 based on reviews from 8 critics, indicated as "overwhelming dislike".


title: Saturn 3

text: Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film one star in his review, criticizing its screenplay for having "shockingly low" level of intelligence, citing moments disregarding the laws of physics, the love triangle between Douglas, Fawcett, and Keitel and other details.


title: Saturn 3

text: "Saturn 3" was released on VHS by CBS/Fox Video and on laserdisc by CBS/Fox Video, Magnetic Video and ITC Home Video.


title: Saturn 3

text: The film was released on DVD by Artisan Entertainment, Geneon Entertainment, and Pioneer Entertainment and again on 3 December 2013 on Blu-ray and DVD by Shout! Factory.


title: Saturn 3

text: When the film was broadcast on NBC in mid-1984, a number of scenes that had been edited out the original print had been restored: Adam offering to take Alex to Earth; Alex voicing her concern to Adam about taking Hector outside of the complex; Adam taking Hector outside in the moon buggy; Benson asking how Alex's eye was after her accident; Adam leaving Hector near the shuttle probe; Hector re-entering the colony and sabotaging the outer airlock mechanism to prevent Adam from coming back inside; an extended scene of Benson walking down a corridor; Adam trying to re-enter Saturn 3 and blowing the outer airlock door off with an explosive adhesive; an extended scene of Adam in the decontamination chamber; Alex voicing her worry that Hector might have killed Adam; Alex being dragged away by Benson and yelling at him; Adam embracing Alex and watching Hector drag away Benson's dead body; Adam holding a towel to his head after Benson had hit him with a pipe and claiming that "Hector is no humpty-dumpty"; both Adam and Alex wondering how Hector managed to reassemble itself; and finally both Adam and Alex sharing a laugh over a humorous incident while hiding in the communications room.


title: Saturn 3

text: Additional music cues were also added to scenes involving the opening credits and Benson's death; in fact, much of Elmer Bernstein's score was removed or reedited.


title: Cana

text: Cana of Galilee (; ) is the location of the Marriage at Cana, at which the miracle of turning water into wine took place in the Gospel of John.


title: Cana

text: The location is disputed, with the four primary locations being Kafr Kanna, Khirbet Qana and Reineh in Lower Galilee and Qana in Upper Galilee. The Arabic name "Qana al-Jalil" has been said to apply to a number of sites, but is of doubtful authenticity.


title: Cana

text: Among Christians and other students of the New Testament, Cana is best known as the place where, according to the Fourth Gospel, Jesus performed "the first of his signs", his first public miracle, the turning of a large quantity of water into wine at a wedding feast () when the wine provided by the bridegroom had run out. Although none of the synoptic gospels record the event, mainstream Christian tradition holds that this is the first public miracle of Jesus.


title: Cana

text: The other biblical references to Cana are also in John: , which mentions that Jesus is visiting Cana when he is asked to heal the son of a royal official at Capernaum; and , where it is mentioned that Nathanael (sometimes identified with the Bartholomew included in the synoptic gospels' lists of apostles) comes from Cana.


title: Cana

text: The Book of Joshua mentions one city () and one brook (; ) named Kanah (Cana) – neither is likely to be the Cana of Galilee.


title: Cana

text: In secular history, the annals of Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III, who conquered the Galilee in a 733 BC campaign, contain a badly preserved list of cities that had been thought to mention a certain "Kana". It relates that six hundred fifty captives were taken there. However, a revised transliteration revealed the one well-preserved syllable to be "Ku", not "Ka".


title: Cana

text: Flavius Josephus mentions more than one place named Cana. In the context of the Galilee, there are two mentions in his "Life": one is a place on the road from Iulias, and the other is a place where he resided, about a day's walk from Tiberias.


title: Cana

text: There has been much speculation about where Cana might have been. In his Gospel, the author makes no claim to have been at the wedding. Many would regard the story of the wedding at Cana as of theological rather than historical or topographical significance; it is the first of the seven miraculous ""signs"" by which Jesus's divine status is attested, and around which the gospel is structured.


title: Cana

text: The consensus of modern scholarship is that the Fourth Gospel was addressed to a group of Jewish Christians, and very possibly a group living in Judea province; so it is unlikely that the evangelist would have mentioned a place that did not exist. There is a minority view that the gospel was written for a gentile audience, and those who take this view assert that the description in the passage about the marriage at Cana of "six stone water jars there for the Jewish rites of purification", which does not reflect good knowledge of the actual ritual washing habits among Jews at the time, is specifically for a gentile audience, who would not know the topography of the Holy Land. On this hypothesis, the name "Cana" might have some purely symbolic significance.


title: Cana

text: The village of Qana, about from Tyre, Lebanon, is traditionally held to be the correct site by many Christians, and is Eusebius's pick in his 4th century "Onomasticon". It is a popular tourist site commemorating the miracle.


title: Cana

text: The first time this site is associated with New Testament Cana is in a mid-17th century report to the Pope by Francesco Quaresimo, the papal emissary to Palestine, where he noted there were two possible candidates: Khirbet Qana and Kafr Kanna. According to the "Catholic Encyclopedia", a tradition dating back to the 8th century identifies Cana with the modern Arab town of Kafr Kanna, at the foot of the Nazareth range, about northeast of Nazareth.


title: Cana

text: Some scholars believe, according to archaeological evidence, that the identification of Kafr Kanna was the result of the decline of Khirbet Qana beginning in the Mamluk period. They note that it was a common practice for new and more affluent and easily accessible sites to be established in place of old ones to accommodate increases in pilgrim traffic, particularly in the late Medieval and Ottoman periods.


title: Cana

text: Karm er-Ras, the western part of Kafr Kanna, was recently excavated by Israeli archaeologist Yardenna Alexandre. The excavation revealed evidence of a substantial Roman village with a Jewish population which declined considerably in the Late Roman period, and which was finally abandoned in the Byzantine Period, explaining why the pilgrim route was shifted to Kafr Kanna. Alexandre believes the site is precisely identified by Josephus, but other scholars disagree.


title: Cana

text: Another possible candidate is the ruined village of "Khirbet Qana", meaning "the ruins of Cana." Overlooking the Beit Netofa Valley from the north, it is located about north of Kafr Kanna and has been noticed by pilgrims since the 12th century or earlier. However, this could either be an ancient retention, as Edward Robinson maintained, or may have been attached to the place in conversation with querying pilgrims.


title: Cana

text: This site is located on a limestone outcropping that rises above the floor of the Bet Netofa Valley, from Nazareth and northeast of Sepphoris in lower Galilee. It also has long been identified as the true location of New Testament Cana. Excavations by archaeologist Douglas Edwards of the University of Puget Sound and archaeologist Tom McCollough reveal architectural and numismatic remains demonstrating that the site contained a modest-sized village from the Hellenistic period onward (c. 200 BCE–650 CE), including a structure that bears similarities to Roman-period synagogues, and several "mikveh" pools for Jewish ceremonial bathing. Most importantly, they uncovered a cave complex on the south slope of the site that showed indications of use as a center for worship, including a sarcophagus lid or altar and a shelf that held two stone vessels "in situ", and space for another four vessels, suggesting that Khirbet Kana was regarded as New Testament Cana from a very early time. Remains of an Arab village and a church or monastery were also uncovered immediately south of the cave complex.


title: Cana

text: Other historical evidence from the Byzantine and Medieval periods show that Khirbet Kana was regarded as the true site of New Testament Cana from a very early period. A guidebook written by Theodosius between 517 and 527 CE titled "The Layout of the Holy Land" identifies Khirbet Kana and indicates that two of the vessels were still at the location. A pilgrim account written by Saewulf in 1101 to 1103 CE also identifies the site, as do Belard of Ascoli (c. 1155 CE) and Dominican friar Burchard of Mount Sion (1283 CE), and a map by noted cartographer Petrus Vesconte in 1321 CE. Burchard of Mount Sion describes a cave complex located there that was used as a veneration site: "the place is shown at this day where the six water pots stood, and the dining-room where the tables were placed."


title: Cana

text: Just about 1.5 miles northeast from Nazareth is the Arab town of Reineh, and on the way out of it toward Mount Tabor there is a small spring named 'Ain Kânah, which was identified by Claude Reignier Conder his "Tent Work in Palestine" (1878) as the better candidate for the location of Cana, based on etymological grounds. Some early Christian pilgrim reports mention a spring in association with the Cana of Galilee, but no excavations have been conducted there yet.


title: Theories about religions

text: Sociological and anthropological theories about religion (or theories of religion) generally attempt to explain the origin and function of religion. These theories define what they present as universal characteristics of religious belief and practice.


title: Theories about religions

text: Herodotus (484 – 425 BCE) saw the gods of Greece as the same as the gods of Egypt. Euhemerus (about 330 – 264 BCE) regarded gods as excellent historical persons whom admirers eventually came to worship.


title: Theories about religions

text: Scientific theories, inferred and tested by the comparative method, emerged after data from tribes and peoples all over the world became available in the 18th and 19th centuries. Max Müller (1823-1900) has the reputation of having founded the scientific study of religion; he advocated a comparative method that developed into comparative religion.


title: Theories about religions

text: Subsequently, Clifford Geertz (1926-2006) and others questioned the validity of abstracting a general theory of all religions.


title: Theories about religions

text: Other dichotomies according to which theories or descriptions of religions can be classified include:


title: Theories about religions

text: Early essentialists, such as Tylor and Frazer, looked for similar beliefs and practices in all societies, especially the more primitive ones, more or less regardless of time and place. They relied heavily on reports made by missionaries, discoverers, and colonial civil servants. These were all investigators who had a religious background themselves, thus they looked at religion from the inside. Typically they did not practice investigative field work, but used the accidental reports of others. This method left them open to criticism for lack of universality, which many freely admitted. The theories could be updated, however, by considering new reports, which Robert Ranulph Marett (1866-1943) did for Tylor's theory of the evolution of religion.


title: Theories about religions

text: Field workers deliberately sent out by universities and other institutions to collect specific cultural data made available a much greater database than random reports. For example, the anthropologist E. E. Evans-Pritchard (1902-1973) preferred detailed ethnographical study of tribal religion as more reliable. He criticised the work of his predecessors, Müller, Tylor, and Durkheim, as untestable speculation. He called them "armchair anthropologists".


title: Theories about religions

text: A second methodology, functionalism, seeks explanations of religion that are outside of religion; i.e., the theorists are generally (but not necessarily) atheists or agnostics themselves. As did the essentialists, the functionalists proceeded from reports to investigative studies. Their fundamental assumptions, however, are quite different; notably, they apply methodological naturalism. When explaining religion they reject divine or supernatural explanations for the status or origins of religions because they are not scientifically testable. In fact, theorists such as Marett (an Anglican) excluded scientific results altogether, defining religion as the domain of the unpredictable and unexplainable; that is, comparative religion is the rational (and scientific) study of the irrational. The dichotomy between the two classifications is not bridgeable, even though they have the same methods, because each excludes the data of the other.


title: Theories about religions

text: The functionalists and some of the later essentialists (among others E. E. Evans-Pritchard) have criticized the substantive view as neglecting social aspects of religion. Such critics go so far as to brand Tylor's and Frazer's views on the origin of religion as unverifiable speculation. The view of monotheism as more evolved than polytheism represents a mere preconception, they assert. There is evidence that monotheism is more prevalent in hunter societies than in agricultural societies. The view of a uniform progression in folkways is criticized as unverifiable, as the writer Andrew Lang (1844–1912) and E. E. Evans-Pritchard assert. The latter criticism presumes that the evolutionary views of the early cultural anthropologists envisaged a uniform cultural evolution. Another criticism supposes that Tylor and Frazer were individualists (unscientific). However, some support that supposed approach as worthwhile, among others the anthropologist Robin Horton. The dichotomy between the two fundamental presumptions - and the question of what data can be considered valid - continues.