title: Celebrity (album)

text: In the US, "Celebrity" debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200. Although it did not sell as many copies as "No Strings Attached", "Celebrity", selling 1,879,955 copies, had the second-best debut week sales at the time since Nielsen SoundScan had begun monitoring record retailers in 1991. "Billboard" said the album's failure to match the first-week sales of its predecessor was due to the 2001 US economy's weaker state in comparison with the previous year, as well as the first decline in album sales in more than a decade. On August 22, 2001, "Celebrity" was certified quintuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of 5,000,000 units in the US. It became the third best-selling album of 2001, selling 4.42 million copies. Sales of the album were marginally lower than those of Shaggy's "Hot Shot" by 86,000 copies, which only beat it in the cassette format; "Hot Shot" sold 304,000 tapes while "Celebrity" only sold 92,000 tapes. "Celebrity" was ranked at number nine on the "Billboard" 200 year-end chart for 2001. As of March 2015, the album had sold 5,002,000 copies in the US according to Nielsen Music. It has sold an additional 826,000 units at the BMG Music Club, as of February 2003.


title: Celebrity (album)

text: "Celebrity" debuted at number one in Canada on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 71,254 copies, which was the biggest first-week album sales of 2001. It was certified double platinum by Music Canada (MC) for selling over 200,000 units in the country on November 7, 2001. In the United Kingdom, the album sold 13,000 units in its debut week, entering at number 12 on the UK Albums Chart. "Celebrity" was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for selling over 100,000 copies in the UK on May 17, 2002. Several European companies reported slow album sales, including Fnac in France and Spain, "WOM" in Germany, and Ricordi in Italy. The album sold 20,000 units in the first week in Japan, where it peaked at number 11 on the Oricon Albums Chart. "Celebrity" peaked at number 10 on Australia's ARIA Albums chart, and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for selling over 35,000 units in the country. In 2001 "Celebrity" was the ninth best-selling album globally, selling 6.5 million copies.


title: Celebrity (album)

text: At the end of the Celebrity Tour in May 2002, NSYNC went on hiatus to take time off from touring and recording and to accommodate for Timberlake's desire to record a solo album. Although the hiatus was originally planned to be temporary with the band intending on recording a fourth album once Timberlake released the album, they never returned to record together in the studio.


title: Celebrity (album)

text: "Celebrity" is retrospectively seen as "a logical swan song" for NSYNC because it came after the record-breaking commercial success of "No Strings Attached" and before the band's eventual dissolution. Music critics observed that the album was the basis for Timberlake's solo career, as the album's singles consisted of only songs Timberlake co-wrote, in addition to album promotion that centered around Timberlake. Hugar compared "Celebrity" to Zayn Malik's and Harry Styles' desires for solo stardom after One Direction's hiatus, concluding that it is "a reminder that boy bands are rarely built to last". NPR's Maria Sherman stated the album shifted the band further towards the R&B genre and "firmly established Timberlake as the bandleader and pushed Chasez's powerful pop vocals to the periphery". Andrew Unterberger of "Billboard" acknowledged that "Celebrity" contained sounds which "pushes pop music into the future".


title: Celebrity (album)

text: Track listing and credits adapted from the album's liner notes. All lead vocals provided by Justin Timberlake and JC Chasez.


title: Resonator

text: A resonator is a device or system that exhibits resonance or resonant behavior. That is, it naturally oscillates with greater amplitude at some frequencies, called resonant frequencies, than at other frequencies. The oscillations in a resonator can be either electromagnetic or mechanical (including acoustic). Resonators are used to either generate waves of specific frequencies or to select specific frequencies from a signal. Musical instruments use acoustic resonators that produce sound waves of specific tones. Another example is quartz crystals used in electronic devices such as radio transmitters and quartz watches to produce oscillations of very precise frequency.


title: Resonator

text: A cavity resonator is one in which waves exist in a hollow space inside the device. In electronics and radio, microwave cavities consisting of hollow metal boxes are used in microwave transmitters, receivers and test equipment to control frequency, in place of the tuned circuits which are used at lower frequencies. Acoustic cavity resonators, in which sound is produced by air vibrating in a cavity with one opening, are known as Helmholtz resonators.


title: Resonator

text: A physical system can have as many resonant frequencies as it has degrees of freedom; each degree of freedom can vibrate as a harmonic oscillator. Systems with one degree of freedom, such as a mass on a spring, pendulums, balance wheels, and LC tuned circuits have one resonant frequency. Systems with two degrees of freedom, such as coupled pendulums and resonant transformers can have two resonant frequencies. A crystal lattice composed of "N" atoms bound together can have "N" resonant frequencies. As the number of coupled harmonic oscillators grows, the time it takes to transfer energy from one to the next becomes significant. The vibrations in them begin to travel through the coupled harmonic oscillators in waves, from one oscillator to the next.


title: Resonator

text: The term "resonator" is most often used for a homogeneous object in which vibrations travel as waves, at an approximately constant velocity, bouncing back and forth between the sides of the resonator. The material of the resonator, through which the waves flow, can be viewed as being made of millions of coupled moving parts (such as atoms). Therefore, they can have millions of resonant frequencies, although only a few may be used in practical resonators. The oppositely moving waves interfere with each other, and at its resonant frequencies reinforce each other to create a pattern of standing waves in the resonator. If the distance between the sides is formula_1, the length of a round trip is formula_2. To cause resonance, the phase of a sinusoidal wave after a round trip must be equal to the initial phase so the waves self-reinforce. The condition for resonance in a resonator is that the round trip distance, formula_2, is equal to an integer number of wavelengths formula_4 of the wave:


title: Resonator

text: So the resonant frequencies of resonators, called normal modes, are equally spaced multiples (harmonics) of a lowest frequency called the fundamental frequency. The above analysis assumes the medium inside the resonator is homogeneous, so the waves travel at a constant speed, and that the shape of the resonator is rectilinear. If the resonator is inhomogeneous or has a nonrectilinear shape, like a circular drumhead or a cylindrical microwave cavity, the resonant frequencies may not occur at equally spaced multiples of the fundamental frequency. They are then called overtones instead of harmonics. There may be several such series of resonant frequencies in a single resonator, corresponding to different modes of vibration.


title: Resonator

text: An electrical circuit composed of discrete components can act as a resonator when both an inductor and capacitor are included. Oscillations are limited by the inclusion of resistance, either via a specific resistor component, or due to resistance of the inductor windings. Such resonant circuits are also called RLC circuits after the circuit symbols for the components.


title: Resonator

text: A distributed-parameter resonator has capacitance, inductance, and resistance that cannot be isolated into separate lumped capacitors, inductors, or resistors. An example of this, much used in filtering, is the helical resonator.


title: Resonator

text: An inductor consisting of a coil of wire, is self-resonant at a certain frequency due to the parasitic capacitance between its turns. This is often an unwanted effect that can cause parasitic oscillations in RF circuits. The self-resonance of inductors is used in a few circuits, such as the Tesla coil.


title: Resonator

text: A "cavity resonator" is a hollow closed conductor such as a metal box or a cavity within a metal block, containing electromagnetic waves (radio waves) reflecting back and forth between the cavity's walls. When a source of radio waves at one of the cavity's resonant frequencies is applied, the oppositely-moving waves form standing waves, and the cavity stores electromagnetic energy.


title: Resonator

text: Since the cavity's lowest resonant frequency, the fundamental frequency, is that at which the width of the cavity is equal to a half-wavelength (λ/2), cavity resonators are only used at microwave frequencies and above, where wavelengths are short enough that the cavity is conveniently small in size.


title: Resonator

text: Due to the low resistance of their conductive walls, cavity resonators have very high Q factors; that is their bandwidth, the range of frequencies around the resonant frequency at which they will resonate, is very narrow. Thus they can act as narrow bandpass filters. Cavity resonators are widely used as the frequency determining element in microwave oscillators. Their resonant frequency can be tuned by moving one of the walls of the cavity in or out, changing its size.


title: Resonator

text: The cavity magnetron is a vacuum tube with a filament in the center of an evacuated, lobed, circular cavity resonator. A perpendicular magnetic field is imposed by a permanent magnet. The magnetic field causes the electrons, attracted to the (relatively) positive outer part of the chamber, to spiral outward in a circular path rather than moving directly to this anode. Spaced about the rim of the chamber are cylindrical cavities. The cavities are open along their length and so they connect with the common cavity space. As electrons sweep past these openings they induce a resonant high frequency radio field in the cavity, which in turn causes the electrons to bunch into groups. A portion of this field is extracted with a short antenna that is connected to a waveguide (a metal tube usually of rectangular cross section). The waveguide directs the extracted RF energy to the load, which may be a cooking chamber in a microwave oven or a high gain antenna in the case of radar.


title: Resonator

text: The klystron, tube waveguide, is a beam tube including at least two apertured cavity resonators. The beam of charged particles passes through the apertures of the resonators, often tunable wave reflection grids, in succession. A collector electrode is provided to intercept the beam after passing through the resonators. The first resonator causes bunching of the particles passing through it. The bunched particles travel in a field-free region where further bunching occurs, then the bunched particles enter the second resonator giving up their energy to excite it into oscillations. It is a particle accelerator that works in conjunction with a specifically tuned cavity by the configuration of the structures.


title: Resonator

text: The reflex klystron is a klystron utilizing only a single apertured cavity resonator through which the beam of charged particles passes, first in one direction. A repeller electrode is provided to repel (or redirect) the beam after passage through the resonator back through the resonator in the other direction and in proper phase to reinforce the oscillations set up in the resonator.


title: Resonator

text: On the beamline of an accelerator system, there are specific sections that are cavity resonators for radio frequency (RF) radiation. The (charged) particles that are to be accelerated pass through these cavities in such a way that the microwave electric field transfers energy to the particles, thus increasing their kinetic energy and thus accelerating them.


title: Resonator

text: Several large accelerator facilities employ superconducting niobium cavities for improved performance compared to metallic (copper) cavities.


title: Resonator

text: The loop-gap resonator (LGR) is made by cutting a narrow slit along the length of a conducting tube. The slit has an effective capacitance and the bore of the resonator has an effective inductance. Therefore, the LGR can be modeled as an RLC circuit and has a resonant frequency that is typically between 200 MHz and 2 GHz. In the absence of radiation losses, the effective resistance of the LGR is determined by the resistivity and electromagnetic skin depth of the conductor used to make the resonator.


title: Resonator

text: One key advantage of the LGR is that, at its resonant frequency, its dimensions are small compared to the free-space wavelength of the electromagnetic fields. Therefore, it is possible to use LGRs to construct a compact and high-Q resonator that operates at relatively low frequencies where cavity resonators would be impractically large.


title: Resonator

text: If a piece of material with large dielectric constant is surrounded by a material with much lower dielectric constant, then this abrupt change in dielectric constant can cause confinement of an electromagnetic wave, which leads to a resonator that acts similarly to a cavity resonator.


title: Resonator

text: Transmission lines are structures that allow broadband transmission of electromagnetic waves, e.g. at radio or microwave frequencies. Abrupt change of impedance (e.g. open or short) in a transmission line causes reflection of the transmitted signal. Two such reflectors on a transmission line evoke standing waves between them and thus act as a one-dimensional resonator, with the resonance frequencies determined by their distance and the effective dielectric constant of the transmission line. A common form is the resonant stub, a length of transmission line terminated in either a short circuit or open circuit, connected in series or parallel with a main transmission line.


title: Resonator

text: Planar transmission-line resonators are commonly employed for coplanar, stripline, and microstrip transmission lines. Such planar transmission-line resonators can be very compact in size and are widely used elements in microwave circuitry. In cryogenic solid-state research, superconducting transmission-line resonators contribute to solid-state spectroscopy and quantum information science.


title: Resonator

text: In a laser, light is amplified in a cavity resonator that is usually composed of two or more mirrors. Thus an "optical cavity", also known as a resonator, is a cavity with walls that reflect electromagnetic waves (i.e. light). This allows standing wave modes to exist with little loss.


title: Resonator

text: Mechanical resonators are used in electronic circuits to generate signals of a precise frequency. For example, piezoelectric resonators, commonly made from quartz, are used as frequency references. Common designs consist of electrodes attached to a piece of quartz, in the shape of a rectangular plate for high frequency applications, or in the shape of a tuning fork for low frequency applications. The high dimensional stability and low temperature coefficient of quartz helps keeps resonant frequency constant. In addition, the quartz's piezoelectric property converts the mechanical vibrations into an oscillating voltage, which is picked up by the attached electrodes. These crystal oscillators are used in quartz clocks and watches, to create the clock signal that runs computers, and to stabilize the output signal from radio transmitters. Mechanical resonators can also be used to induce a standing wave in other media. For example, a multiple degree of freedom system can be created by imposing a base excitation on a cantilever beam. In this case the standing wave is imposed on the beam. This type of system can be used as a sensor to track changes in frequency or phase of the resonance of the fiber. One application is as a measurement device for dimensional metrology.


title: Resonator

text: The most familiar examples of acoustic resonators are in musical instruments. Every musical instrument has resonators. Some generate the sound directly, such as the wooden bars in a xylophone, the head of a drum, the strings in stringed instruments, and the pipes in an organ. Some modify the sound by enhancing particular frequencies, such as the sound box of a guitar or violin. Organ pipes, the bodies of woodwinds, and the sound boxes of stringed instruments are examples of acoustic cavity resonators.


title: Resonator

text: The exhaust pipes in automobile exhaust systems are designed as acoustic resonators that work with the muffler to reduce noise, by making sound waves "cancel each other out". The "exhaust note" is an important feature for some vehicle owners, so both the original manufacturers and the after-market suppliers use the resonator to enhance the sound. In "tuned exhaust" systems designed for performance, the resonance of the exhaust pipes can also be used to remove combustion products from the combustion chamber at a particular engine speed or range of speeds.


title: Resonator

text: In many keyboard percussion instruments, below the centre of each note is a tube, which is an acoustic cavity resonator. The length of the tube varies according to the pitch of the note, with higher notes having shorter resonators. The tube is open at the top end and closed at the bottom end, creating a column of air that resonates when the note is struck. This adds depth and volume to the note. In string instruments, the body of the instrument is a resonator. The tremolo effect of a vibraphone is achieved via a mechanism that opens and shuts the resonators.


title: Resonator

text: String instruments such as the bluegrass banjo may also have resonators. Many five-string banjos have removable resonators, so players can use the instrument with a resonator in bluegrass style, or without it in folk music style. The term "resonator", used by itself, may also refer to the resonator guitar.


title: Resonator

text: The modern ten-string guitar, invented by Narciso Yepes, adds four sympathetic string resonators to the traditional classical guitar. By tuning these resonators in a very specific way (C, B♭, A♭, G♭) and making use of their strongest partials (corresponding to the octaves and fifths of the strings' fundamental tones), the bass strings of the guitar now resonate equally with any of the 12 tones of the chromatic octave. The guitar resonator is a device for driving guitar string harmonics by an electromagnetic field. This resonance effect is caused by a feedback loop and is applied to drive the fundamental tones, octaves, 5th, 3rd to an infinite sustain.


title: Women-are-wonderful effect

text: The women-are-wonderful effect is the phenomenon found in psychological and sociological research which suggests that people associate more positive attributes with women compared to men. This bias reflects an emotional bias toward women as a general case.


title: Women-are-wonderful effect

text: The phrase was coined by Alice Eagly and Antonio Mladinic in 1994 after finding that both male and female participants tend to assign positive traits to women, with female participants showing a far more pronounced bias. Positive traits were assigned to men by participants of both genders, but to a far lesser degree.


title: Women-are-wonderful effect

text: The authors supposed that the positive general evaluation of women might derive from the association between women and nurturing characteristics. This bias has been cited as an example of benevolent sexism.


title: Women-are-wonderful effect

text: The term was coined by researchers Alice Eagly and Antonio Mladinic in a 1994 paper, where they had questioned the widely-held view that there was prejudice against women. They observed that much of the research had been inconclusive in showing a bias. They had found a positive bias towards women in their 1989 and 1991 studies, which involved questionnaires given to students in the United States.


title: Women-are-wonderful effect

text: In 1989, 203 psychology students of Purdue University were given questionnaires in groups of 20 and asked to assess subjects of both genders, which showed a more favourable attitude to women and female stereotypes.


title: Women-are-wonderful effect

text: In 1991, 324 psychology students of Purdue University were given questionnaires in groups of 20 and asked to assess subjects of both genders. They evaluated the social categories of men and women, relating the traits and expectations of each gender through interviews, emotion-associations and free-response measures. Women were rated higher in attitudes and beliefs but not emotions.


title: Women-are-wonderful effect

text: Rudman and Goodwin conducted research on gender bias that measured gender preferences without directly asking the participants. Subjects at Purdue and Rutgers participated in computerized tasks that measured automatic attitudes based on how quickly a person categorizes pleasant and unpleasant attributes with each gender. Such a task was done to discover whether people associate pleasant words (good, happy, and sunshine) with women, and unpleasant words (bad, trouble, and pain) with men.


title: Women-are-wonderful effect

text: This research found that while both women and men have more favorable views of women, women's in-group biases were 4.5 times stronger than those of men. And only women (not men) showed cognitive balance among in-group bias, identity, and self-esteem, revealing that men lack a mechanism that bolsters automatic preference for their own gender.


title: Women-are-wonderful effect

text: Other experiments in this study found people showed automatic preference for their mothers over their fathers, or associated the male gender with violence or aggression. Rudman and Goodwin's suggested that maternal bonding and male intimidation influences gender attitudes.


title: Women-are-wonderful effect

text: Another experiment in the study found adults' attitudes were measured based on their reactions to categories associated with sexual relations. It revealed that among men who engaged more in sexual activity, the more positive their attitude towards sex, the larger their bias towards women. A greater interest in and liking of sex may promote automatic preference for the out-group of women among men, although both women and men with sexual experience expressed greater liking for the opposite gender.


title: Women-are-wonderful effect

text: One study found that the effect is mediated by increased gender equality. The mediation comes not from differences in attitudes towards women, but in attitudes towards men. In more egalitarian societies, people have more positive attitudes towards men than in less egalitarian societies.


title: Women-are-wonderful effect

text: Some authors have claimed the "Women are wonderful" effect is applicable when women follow traditional gender roles such as child nurturing and stay-at-home housewife. However, other authors have cited studies indicating that the women-are-wonderful effect is still applicable even when women are in nontraditional gender roles, and the original study discovering the women-are-wonderful effect found no such ambivalence.


title: Latin trap

text: Latin trap is a subgenre of trap music that originated in Puerto Rico. A direct descendant of southern hip hop, and influenced by reggaeton, it gained popularity after 2007, and has since spread throughout Latin America. "The trap" is slang for a place where drugs are sold. Latin trap is similar to mainstream trap with lyrics about life on "la calle" (the street), drugs, sex and violence, without censorship.


title: Latin trap

text: Latin trap is a subgenre of Latin hip hop, taking influence from Southern hip hop as well as Puerto Rican genres like reggaeton and dembow. Vocals include a bend of rapping and singing using synthesizers and voice distorted autotune, often in Spanish, while still maintaining the trap style sonic circuitry. The lyrics in Latin trap are often about street life, violence, sex, drugs, and people who live on the other side of the law and are proud of it.


title: Latin trap

text: Latin trap originated in Puerto Rico and gained popularity throughout Latin America. The exact date of origin is unknown and has been widely debated. Puerto Rican reggaeton and Latin trap singer Ozuna states that it originated in 2007 with the song "El Pistolón", performed by Arcángel & De La Ghetto, Yaga & Mackie, and Jowell & Randy (the former two were duo at the time). De La Ghetto on the other hand, states that he has been performing Latin trap since around 2005 or 2006, and that people thought "he was crazy". Reggaeton artists at this time wanted to introduce elements of American hip hop and R&B to a Spanish audience.


title: Latin trap

text: Latin trap began to gain prominence around 2014 when artists such as Alvaro Diaz, Myke Towers and Fuete Billete, the first Puerto Rican artists using early Latin trap beats to rap, began posting their songs through social media platforms. This new sound eventually gained popularity in Puerto Rico, and many Latin trap hits emerged, such as Anuel AA’s “47 Remix” Bryant Myers' "Esclava Remix", Farruko's "Ella y Yo", and De La Ghetto's "La Ocasión", the latter to which Ozuna and Anuel AA credits with expanding Latin trap internationally.


title: Latin trap

text: A Spanish version of "Panda" was released by Almighty on the Miami-based label Carbon Fiber Music. The single reached #36 on Hot Latin Songs and #23 on Latin Rhythm Airplay. Borrowing the original version's beat, it features Farruko, owner of said label, while a subsequent remix adds Daddy Yankee and Cosculluela. Additionally, Anuel AA released a scathing diss track towards Almighty, entitled "RIP Panda", after being taken down from the remix.


title: Latin trap

text: In July 2017, "The Fader" wrote: "Rappers and reggaetoneros from Puerto Rico have taken elements of trap – the lurching bass lines, jittering 808s and the eyes-half-closed vibe – and infused them into banger after banger." In an August 2017 article for "Billboard"'s series, "A Brief History Of", they enlisted some of the key artists of Latin trap, including Ozuna, De La Ghetto, Bad Bunny, Farruko and Messiah- to narrate a brief history on the genre. Elias Leight of "Rolling Stone" noted: "[Jorge] Fonseca featured Puerto Rican artists like Anuel AA, Bryant Myers and Noriel on the compilation "Trap Capos: Season 1", which became the first "Latin trap" LP to reach number one on "Billboard"'s Latin Rhythm Albums chart."


title: Latin trap

text: Many other reggaeton and Latin trap artists contributed to the popularity of Latin trap, such as Bad Bunny who led an explosion to the popularity of the genre. Bad Bunny produced several songs that made it into "Billboard"s Hot Latin Songs chart and has multiple collaborations with popular American artists such as Nicki Minaj, Travis Scott, and Cardi B. He shortly became the face of Latin trap's sudden rise in popularity. Through collaborations with other artists, such as his appearance in Becky G's "Mayores", Bad Bunny was among the first Latin trap artists to ever rap on the radio. His appearance on the radio has led to an increased recognition of Latin trap in the United States. His debut album "X 100pre" was released in December 2018 and was awarded with a Latin Grammy for Best Urban Music Album.


title: Latin trap

text: In April 2018, the song "Te Boté", a mix of Latin trap and reggaeton, was released by Nio Garcia, Casper Magico, Darell, Ozuna, Bad Bunny and Nicky Jam. It became the first song with Latin trap elements in it to reach number one on the "Billboard" Hot Latin Songs chart. It currently has over 1.8 billion views on YouTube.


title: Latin trap

text: In 2018, Cardi B's hit single "I Like It" featuring Bad Bunny and J Balvin became the first Latin trap song to reach number one on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart.


title: Latin trap

text: J Balvin and Bad Bunny appear at the 2020 Super Bowl Halftime Show performing latin trap songs for the first time in history.


title: Latin trap

text: Bad Bunny is the most influential latin trap artist being named one of Time’s 100 Most Influential People of 2021. Bad Bunny is currently at his peak being named spotifies most streamed artist of 2021 and 2022. On May 6, 2022 Bad Bunny released his album Un Verano Sin Ti reaching the milestone of most-streamed artist globally in one day, with 183 million streams.


title: Latin trap

text: Latin trap's inability to be played on the radio stems from the profanity and lasciviousness of the lyrics. The song "Cuatro Babys" by Maluma has received much controversy over its lyrics as they arguably appear to suggest direct violence towards women. A petition was posted on Change.org demanding for the removal of the song from digital platforms. Despite this controversy, the popularity of "Cuatro Babys" has only risen with the song having gone quadruple Platinum. Because of this, Latin trap has had a large, but primarily underground, following.


title: Latin trap

text: On September 15, 2018, Anuel AA released a diss track aimed at fellow rapper Cosculluela. The track was widely criticized due to its foul language and offensive remarks about homosexuality and HIV patients. Due to the public backlash, Gazmey's concert at the Coliseo de Puerto Rico venue scheduled for October 12 of that year was canceled by his production staff and main producer Paco López. Gazmey later issued an apology for the song.


title: Latin trap

text: On September 15, 2021, Colombian artist J Balvin released his track "Perra" along with music video featuring Dominican artist Tokischa. On October 17, 2021 the music video was taken down from YouTube due to the controversy that followed it. Many called the video sexist and mysoginistc due to the visuals with showed J Balvin walking two Black women on leashes, a group of Black people made to look like dogs and Tokischa on all fours inside a doghouse being feed chicken and cereal in a dog bowl. On October 11, 2021 Colombia’s vice president, Marta Lucía Ramírez, called the visuals sexist, racist, and misogynistic in an open letter. On October 24, 2021 Balvin apologized to the black community and anyone who might have felt offended in a series of instagram posts.


title: Tracy Posner

text: Tracy Posner Ward (born January 16, 1962) is an American businesswomen, animal rights activist and former actress, with her husband, actor Burt Ward. She is a daughter of the late American businessman, corporate raider and philanthropist Victor Posner and his second wife Sari Posner. In 1983, she was appointed as a vice president, assistant treasurer and assistant secretary to several corporations to include Wilson Brothers, NVF company, Southeastern Public Service Authority and Birdsboro Corporation. In 1993, while still active in her father's many companies, Posner Ward was described as "one of the world's wealthiest women".


title: Tracy Posner

text: In 1994, Tracy Posner Ward and her husband, actor Burt Ward, founded Gentle Giants Rescue and Adoptions, a giant-breed dog rescue organization. The Wards operate a communal home for dogs, where they nurse 45–50 dogs at a time back to health, then put them up for adoption at their home and facility in Norco, California. The city of Norco limits nonprofit animal rescue organizations to 55 animals on premises at a time.


title: Tracy Posner

text: In August 1984, Posner Ward represented her father, Victor Posner, who was unable to attend the renaming of a street in his name by Hermitage, Pennsylvania. Speaking to the assembled guests and reporters, Posner Ward apologized for her father's inability to attend by saying, "My father planned to come up to the last minute; I hope you realize how hard he tried to make it. He is truly honored by this decision." She declined to speak about her father's legal case in Florida.


title: Tracy Posner

text: In 1994, Posner Ward sued her half brother Steven Posner, claiming he let one of her smaller trust funds, worth $2 million, dwindle to $100,000 with undocumented loans and other transactions of little or no value. In the lawsuit initiated by Tracy Ward, she alleged in Dade Circuit Court that the trust should have passed to her at age 21 and been kept secret until 1993. Posner Ward was involved in lawsuits until April 2015 which entangled the estate of her late father, industrialist Victor Posner, who changed his will shortly before he died in 2002, and removed his children and grandchildren as heirs to his estate. A lawsuit by Troy Posner, not including Tracy, was eventually settled for $14 million.


title: Tracy Posner

text: Posner appeared in three films with her husband, Burt Ward. She also appeared in a small role in the 2001 film "What's the Worst That Could Happen?"


title: Azulejo

text: Azulejo (, ; from the Arabic "al-zillīj", ) is a form of Spanish and Portuguese painted tin-glazed ceramic tilework. "Azulejos" are found on the interior and exterior of churches, palaces, ordinary houses, schools, and nowadays, restaurants, bars and even railways or subway stations. They are an ornamental art form, but also had a specific functional capacity like temperature control in homes.


title: Azulejo

text: There is also a tradition of their production in former Spanish and Portuguese colonies in North America, South America, the Philippines, Goa (India), Lusophone Africa, East Timor, and Macau (China). "Azulejos" constitute a major aspect of Spanish architecture and Portuguese architecture to this day and are fixtures of buildings across Spain and Portugal and its former territories. Many azulejos chronicle major historical and cultural aspects of Spanish and Portuguese history.


title: Azulejo

text: The word "azulejo" (as well as the Ligurian "laggion") is derived from the Arabic ("al-zillīj"): zellij, meaning "polished stone" because the original idea was to imitate the Byzantine and Roman mosaics. This origin shows the unmistakable Arab influences in many tiles: interlocking curvilinear, geometric or floral motifs. The craft of "zellige" is still in use in the Arab world in two main traditions the "Egyptian Zalij" and the "Moroccan Zellige", the latter being the most famous.


title: Azulejo

text: The Spanish city of Seville became the major centre of the Hispano-Moresque tile industry. The earliest "azulejos" in the 13th century were "alicatados" (panels of tile-mosaic). Tiles were glazed in a single colour, cut into geometric shapes, and assembled to form geometric patterns. Many examples can be admired in the Alhambra of Granada. The old techniques of "cuerda seca" ('dry string') and "cuenca" developed in Seville in the 15th century


title: Azulejo

text: These techniques were introduced into Portugal by King Manuel I after a visit to Seville in 1503. They were applied on walls and used for paving floors, such as can be seen in several rooms, and especially the Arab Room of the Sintra National Palace (including the famous "cuenca" tiles with the armillary sphere, symbol of king Manuel I). The Portuguese adopted the Moorish tradition of "horror vacui" ('fear of empty spaces') and covered the walls completely with "azulejos".


title: Azulejo

text: Potters from Italy came into Seville in the early 16th century and established workshops there. They brought with them the "maiolica" techniques which allowed the artists to represent a much larger number of figurative themes in their compositions. The first Italian potter to move into Spain was Francisco Niculoso who settled in Seville in 1498. Examples of his work can still be admired "in situ" in the Alcazar of Seville. Under the influence of the Renaissance style introduced by Italians artists, most azulejos were polychrome tile panels depicting allegorical or mythological scenes, scenes from the lives of saints or the Bible, or hunting scenes. Mannerism and the grotesque style, with its bizarre representations, had much influence on azulejos.


title: Azulejo

text: Until the mid-16th century the Portuguese continued to rely on foreign imports, mostly from Spain, such as the "Annunciation" by Francisco Niculoso in Évora, but also on a smaller scale from Antwerp (Flanders), such as the two panels by Jan Bogaerts in the Paço Ducal of Vila Viçosa (Alentejo). One of the early Portuguese masters of the 16th century was Marçal de Matos, to whom "Susanna and the Elders" (1565), in Quinta da Bacalhoa, Azeitão, is attributed, as well as the "Adoration of the Shepherds" (in the National Museum of Azulejos in Lisbon). The "Miracle of St. Roque" (in the Church of S. Roque, Lisbon) is the first dated Portuguese "azulejo" composition (1584). It is the work of Francisco de Matos, probably the nephew and pupil of Marçal de Matos. Both drew their inspiration from Renaissance and Mannerist paintings and engravings from Italy and Flanders. A fine collection of 16th-century azulejos ("azulejos Hispano-mouriscos") can be found in the Museu da Rainha D. Leonor in Beja, Portugal (the former "Convento da Conceição").


title: Azulejo

text: In the late 16th century, "checkered" azulejos were used as decoration for large surfaces, such as in churches and monasteries. Diagonally placed plain white tiles were surrounded by blue square ones and narrow border tiles.


title: Azulejo

text: Shortly afterwards, these plain white tiles were replaced by polychrome tiles ("enxaquetado rico") often giving a complex framework such as in the Igreja de Santa Maria de Marvila in Santarém, Portugal with one of the most outstanding tile-based interior decorations in Portugal.


title: Azulejo

text: When the diagonal tiles were replaced by a repetitive pattern of horizontal polychrome tiles, one could obtain a new design with different motifs, interlacing Mannerist drawings with representations of roses and camellias (sometimes roses and garlands). An inset votive usually depicts a scene from the life of Christ or a saint. These carpet compositions ("azulejo de tapete"), as they were called, elaborately framed with friezes and borders, were produced in great numbers during the 17th century. The best examples are to be found in the Igreja do Salvador, Évora, Igreja de S. Quintino, Obral de Monte Agraço, Igreja de S. Vicente, Cuba (Portugal) and the university chapel in Coimbra.


title: Azulejo

text: The use of "azulejos" for the decoration of antependia (front of an altar), imitating precious altar cloths, is typical for Portugal. The panel may be in one piece, or composed of two or three sections. They were used in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Some antependia of the 17th century imitate oriental fabrics (calico, chintz). The golden fringes of the altar cloth were imitated by yellow motifs on the painted border tiles. Excellent examples can be found in the Hospital de Santa Marta, Lisbon, or in the and the Convento de Santa Cruz do Buçaco.


title: Azulejo

text: During the same period another motif in friezes was introduced: floral vases flanked by birds, dolphins or putti, the so-called "albarradas". They were probably inspired by Flemish paintings of flower vases, such as by Jan Brueghel the Elder. These were still free-standing in the 17th century, but they would be used in repetitive modules in the 18th century.


title: Azulejo

text: Another type of azulejo composition, called "aves e ramagens" ('birds and branches'), came into vogue between 1650 and 1680. They were influenced by the representations on printed textiles that were imported from India: Hindu symbols, flowers, animals and birds.


title: Azulejo

text: In the second half of the 17th century, the Spanish artist Gabriel del Barco y Minusca introduced into Portugal the blue-and-white tiles from Delft in the Netherlands. The workshops of Jan van Oort and Willem van der Kloet in Amsterdam created large tile panels with historical scenes for their rich Portuguese clients, such as for the Palace of the Marqueses da Fronteira in Benfica, Lisbon. But when King Peter II stopped all imports of "azulejos" between 1687 and 1698, the workshop of Gabriel del Barco took over the production. The last major production from Holland was delivered in 1715. Soon large, home-made blue-and-white figurative tiles, designed by academically trained Portuguese artists, became the dominant fashion, superseding the former taste for repeated patterns and abstract decoration.


title: Azulejo

text: The late 17th and early 18th centuries became the 'Golden Age of the Azulejo', the so-called Cycle of the Masters ("Ciclo dos Mestres"). Mass production was started not just because of a greater internal demand, but also because of large orders came in from the Portuguese colony of Brazil. Large one-off orders were replaced by the less expensive use of repetitive tile patterns. Churches, monasteries, palaces and even houses were covered inside and outside with "azulejos", many with exuberant Baroque elements.


title: Azulejo

text: The most prominent master-designers in these early years of the 18th century were: António Pereira (artist), Manuel dos Santos, the workshop of António de Oliveira Bernardes and his son Policarpo de Oliveira Bernardes; the Master PMP (only known by his monogram) and his collaborators Teotónio dos Santos and Valentim de Almeida; Bartolomeu Antunes and his pupil Nicolau de Freitas. As their production coincided with the reign of King João V (1706–1750), the style of this period is also called the Joanine style.


title: Azulejo

text: During this same period appear the first 'invitation figures' ("figura de convite"), invented by the Master PMP and produced in the 18th and 19th centuries. These are cut-out panels of "azulejos" with life-size figures (footmen, halberdiers, noblemen or elegantly dressed ladies), usually placed in entrances of palaces (see Palácio da Mitra), patios and stair landings. Their purpose was to welcome visitors. They can only be found in Portugal.


title: Azulejo

text: In the 1740s the taste of Portuguese society changed from the monumental narrative panels to smaller and more delicately executed panels in Rococo style. These panels depict gallant and pastoral themes as they occur in the works of the French painter Antoine Watteau. Fine examples are the façade and the gardens of the Palace of the Dukes de Mesquitela in Carnide (Lisbon) and the "" in the Queluz National Palace. The mass-produced tiles acquired a more stereotypic design with predominant polychrome irregular shell motifs.


title: Azulejo

text: The reconstruction of Lisbon after the great earthquake of 1755 gave rise to a more utilitarian role for decoration with "azulejos". This bare and functional style would become known as the Pombaline style, named after the Marquis of Pombal, who was put in charge of rebuilding the country. Small devotional "azulejo" panels started to appear on buildings as protection against future disasters.


title: Azulejo

text: In Mexico, a large producer of Talavera—a Mexican maiolica, there are several instances of the use of azulejos on buildings and mansions. One particular mansion, the Casa de los Azulejos in Mexico City, was built in 1737 for the Count and Countess of El Valle de Orizaba. Ceramic making traditions were imported to Mexico in the early 16th century and have flourished.


title: Azulejo

text: As a reaction, simpler and more delicate Neoclassical designs started to appear with more subdued colours. These themes were introduced in Portugal by the engravings of Robert and James Adams. The "Real Fábrica de Louça do Rato", with the master-designer Sebastião Inácio de Almeida and the painter Francisco de Paula e Oliveira, became in this period an important manufacturer of the characteristic so-called "Rato"-tiles. Another important tile painter in this period was Francisco Jorge da Costa.


title: Azulejo

text: With great Portuguese influence, the city of São Luís, in Maranhão, in Brazil, preserves the largest urban agglomeration of azulejos from the 18th and 19th centuries, throughout Latin America. In 1997, the Historic Center of São Luís was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. São Luís is also known as "Cidade dos Azulejos".


title: Azulejo

text: In the first half of the 19th century, there was a stagnation in the production of decorative tiles, owing first to the incursion of the Napoleonic army and later to social and economic changes. When around 1840 immigrant Brazilians started an industrialized production in Porto, the Portuguese took over the Brazilian fashion of decorating the façades of their houses with "azulejos". While these factories produces high-relief tiles in one or two colours, the Lisbon factories started using another method: the transfer-print method on blue-and-white or polychrome "azulejos". In the last decades of the 19th century, the Lisbon factories started to use another type of transfer-printing: using creamware blanks.


title: Azulejo

text: While these industrialized methods produced simple, stylized designs, the art of hand-painting tiles was not dead, as applied by Manuel Joaquim de Jesus and especially Luís Ferreira. Luis Ferreira was the director of the Lisbon factory Viúva Lamego and covered the whole façade of this factory with allegorical scenes. He produced panels, known as "Ferreira das Tabuletas", with flower vases, trees, and allegorical figures, applying the trompe-l'œil technique. These hand-painted panels are fine examples of the eclectic Romantic culture of the late 19th century.


title: Azulejo

text: Mid-19th century, in England, in addition to encaustic tiles and mosaics, the Mintons factory also produced azulejos.


title: Azulejo

text: At the start of the 20th century, Art Nouveau azulejos started to appear from artists such as Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro, Júlio César da Silva and José António Jorge Pinto. In 1885 Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro founded a ceramics factory in Caldas da Rainha, where he created many of the pottery designs for which this city is known. In this factory he has his own a museum São Rafael devoted to his fantastically imaginative work, especially the decorative plates and his satirical stone figures, such as the "Zé Povinho" (a representation of the worrying common man).


title: Azulejo

text: Around the 1930s, Art Deco-azulejos made their appearance with their principal artist António Costa. The monumental decorations, consisting of 20,000 azulejos, in the vestibule of the São Bento railway station in Porto, created by Jorge Colaço, show in its historical themes the narrative style of the romantic 'picture-postcard'. This one of the most notable creations with "azulejos" of the 20th century. The façades of the churches of Santo Ildefonso and Congregados equally attest to the artistic mastery of Jorge Colaço. Other artists from this period include Mário Branco and Silvestre Silvestri, who decorated in 1912 the lateral façade of the Carmo Church, and Eduardo Leite for his work on the Almas Chapel (imitating the style of the 18th century), both in Porto.


title: Azulejo

text: 20th-century artists include Jorge Barradas, Carlos Botelho, Jorge Martins, Sá Nogueira, Menez and Paula Rego. Maria Keil designed the large abstract panels in the initial nineteen stations of the Lisbon Underground (between 1957 and 1972). Through these works she became a driving force in the revival and the updating of the art of the "azulejo", which had gone in some decline. Her decorations of the station "Intendente" is considered a masterpiece of contemporary tile art.


title: Azulejo

text: The Museu Nacional do Azulejo in Lisbon houses the largest collection of Portuguese tiles in the world.


title: Azulejo

text: Initially, painter Maria Keil (1914–2012), wife of metro system architect Francisco Keil do Amaral (1910–1975) created the works for the Metro stations.


title: Azulejo

text: A new expansion, completed in 1988, featured works by more contemporary Portuguese artists: Rolando de Sá Nogueira in Laranjeiras, Júlio Pomar in Alto dos Moinhos, Manuel Cargaleiro in Colégio Militar/Luz, and Maria Helena Vieira da Silva in Cidade Universitária. Following on from this, many artists have been commissioned to decorate new and refurbished stations.


title: Azulejo

text: Tiles are vulnerable to vandalism, neglect and theft due to their prevalence and relative ease of access in historic and often decaying buildings across Portugal. In Lisbon, tiles can sometimes be found for sale in street fairs and the black market, despite recent efforts to raise awareness among buyers, that are mainly foreign tourists. Since 2013 it is forbidden to demolish buildings with tile-covered façades. The highest number of thefts occurs in the capital, Lisbon, and authorities estimate that 25% of artistic tiles in that city was lost between 1980 and 2000.


title: Azulejo

text: The main azulejo protection group in Portugal, SOS Azulejo, created in 2007 and working as a dependency of Polícia Judiciária, has identified the limitation and control of the sale of ancient tiles in those markets as their main goal. The city of Lisbon has created the 'Banco do Azulejo' ("tile bank"), which collects and stores around 30 thousand tiles from demolished or condemned buildings and from donations. Similar projects exist in the cities of Aveiro, Porto and Ovar.


title: Azulejo

text: In August 2017, a new law was put in place in order to prevent both the demolition of tile-covered buildings and renovation work that includes the removal of tiles, even if they affect only the building's interior.


title: Tupamaros

text: The Tupamaros – National Liberation Movement (, MLN-T), widely known as Tupamaros, was a Marxist-Leninist urban guerrilla group in Uruguay in the 1960s and 1970s. The MLN-T is inextricably linked to its most important leader, Raúl Sendic, and his brand of social politics. José Mujica, who later became President of Uruguay, was also a member. 300 Tupamaros died either in action or in prisons (mostly in 1972), according to officials of the group. About 3,000 Tupamaros were also imprisoned.


title: Tupamaros

text: For most of the 1900s, Uruguay was one of the most flourishing nations in Latin America. President José Batlle y Ordóñez raised Uruguay's living standard to nearly match that of European industrialized nations by creating a complex social welfare system, after the civil war that preceded his presidency. During both world wars, Uruguay was considered the "Switzerland of the Americas" as it made the majority of its profits through exporting agricultural goods. After World War II, food prices decreased in Europe and Asia, causing exports from Uruguay to decrease and resulting in lower wages for unionized workers, fewer social services, and increased national tension. The Tupamaros formed in this time of instability, as a youthful group of students and professionals. They attracted trade union members, students, and people of poor socioeconomic status from rural areas.


title: Tupamaros

text: The Tupamaro movement was named after the revolutionary Túpac Amaru II, who in 1780 led a major indigenous revolt against the Viceroyalty of Peru. Its origins lie in the union between the "Movimiento de Apoyo al Campesino" (Peasant Support Movement), members of trade unions founded by Sendic in poverty-stricken rural zones, and radicalized cells of the Socialist Party of Uruguay.


title: Tupamaros

text: The movement began by staging the robbing of banks, gun clubs and other businesses in the early 1960s, then distributing stolen food and money among the poor in Montevideo. It took as its slogan, "Words divide us; action unites us."


title: Tupamaros

text: Later on as the Tupamaros grew, they helped develop the 'Frente Amplio' political coalition, serving as the counterpart to their underground organization. The Frente Amplio combined leftist and centre-left views.


title: Tupamaros

text: At the beginning, it abstained from armed actions and violence, acting not as a guerrilla group but a political movement. In June 1968, President Jorge Pacheco, trying to suppress labour unrest, enforced a state of emergency and repealed all constitutional safeguards. The government imprisoned political dissidents, used torture during interrogations, and brutally repressed demonstrations. In 1969 they occupied the city of Pando. The Tupamaro movement engaged then in political kidnappings, "armed propaganda" and assassinations. Of particular note are the kidnapping of powerful bank manager and of the British ambassador to Uruguay, Geoffrey Jackson, as well as the assassination of Dan Mitrione, a U.S. FBI agent that was also working for the CIA (via the Agency for International Development's Office of Public Safety), who the Tupamaros learned was advising the Uruguayan police in torture and other security work.


title: Tupamaros

text: The Tupamaros peaked as a guerrilla group in 1970 and 1971. During this period they made liberal use of their "Cárcel del Pueblo" (or People's Prison) where they held those that they kidnapped and interrogated them, before making the results of these interviews public. A number of these hostages were later ransomed for considerable sums of money, including the Brazilian Consul in Montevideo, . In September 1971 over 100 imprisoned Tupamaros escaped the Punta Carretas prison by digging a hole across their cells and then a tunnel that led from the floor of one ground-level cell to the living room of a nearby home. As a result of this, the government summoned the military to prepare a counter-insurgency campaign to suppress the MLN.


title: Tupamaros

text: Nonetheless, in 1972 the group was quickly crippled by a series of events. First, it had started to engage in political violence since 1970, a choice that weakened its popular support. Second, the group responded to the assassination and/or disappearance of four Tupamaros on the part of illegal parapolice squads with a wave of high-profile assassinations that concentrated political opposition against them. Later on, the MLN directly attacked the military and killed a number of soldiers. The army's response was swift; it included the heavy use of torture and the flipping of high-ranking Tupamaros, including Héctor Amodio Pérez, towards collaborating with them.


title: Tupamaros

text: The Tupamaros collapsed in mid-1972, with the army killing many of them and capturing a majority of the rest. Shortly after defeating the MLN the military successively confronted the independence of the judiciary in October 1972, of the civilian executive branch in February 1973, and lastly the independence of the parliament in June 1973. On this latter occasion, it completed its coup d'état by deploying armored vehicles in the capital and shutting down the legislative branch by request of the Uruguayan President. Nine Tupamaros were specially chosen to remain in squalid conditions, including Sendic, Fernández Huidobro, José Mujica, Henry Engler, and Mauricio Rosencof. They remained there until the restoration of liberal democracy in Uruguay in 1985. During the intervening years, the military regime killed and "disappeared" additional numbers of people, focusing particularly on the Communist Party of Uruguay.


title: Tupamaros

text: The dictatorship in Uruguay ended in 1984 when democratic elections were held. Under Julio María Sanguinetti, the new president, amnesty was granted to the Tupamaros. The Tupamaros were released from prison after over a decade and they joined together in representing the Frente Amplio coalition party. In 2004, Tabaré Vásquez was the first to become president on the "Frente Amplio" ticket. The ceramicist and former member, Eva Díaz Torres, returned to Uruguay during this period.


title: Sonoran hot dog

text: The Sonoran hot dog is a style of hot dog that originated in Hermosillo, the capital of the Mexican state of Sonora, in the late 1980s. It is popular in Tucson, Phoenix, and elsewhere in southern Arizona. It consists of a hot dog that is wrapped in bacon and grilled, served on a bolillo-style hot dog bun, and topped with pinto beans, onions, tomatoes, and a variety of additional condiments, often including mayonnaise, mustard, and jalapeño salsa.


title: Sonoran hot dog

text: The Sonoran hot dog is prepared and sold by vendors called "dogueros" at street carts. It was estimated in 2009 that over 200 places in Tucson purveyed the Sonoran hot dog, and that Phoenix had even more.


title: 1999–2000 UEFA Cup

text: The 1999–2000 UEFA Cup season was the 29th edition of the UEFA Cup competition. The final took place at Parken Stadium in Copenhagen and was won by Galatasaray, who defeated Arsenal in the final. The game was scoreless through the first ninety minutes and stayed that way through thirty minutes of extra time. The match went on to penalty kicks in which Gheorghe Popescu scored the winning goal to win the cup. Galatasaray won the cup without losing a single game. The competition was marred by violence involving Turkish and English hooligans in the semi-finals and the final, in particular the fatal stabbings of Leeds United fans Kevin Speight and Christopher Loftus by Galatasaray fans in Istanbul.


title: 1999–2000 UEFA Cup

text: Parma were the defending champions, but were eliminated by Werder Bremen in the fourth round. They entered in the first round due to elimination in the third qualifying round of the UEFA Champions League.


title: 1999–2000 UEFA Cup

text: It was the first season of the new format UEFA Cup; it had absorbed the now defunct Cup Winners' Cup to include domestic cup winners, and now featured an additional knockout round. This was the first year when the UEFA Cup winners qualified for the UEFA Super Cup. This season's champions also qualified for the 2001 FIFA Club World Championship, which was never held. So far, Galatasaray are the only UEFA Cup winners to qualify for a Club World Cup.


title: 1999–2000 UEFA Cup

text: A total of 142 teams from 49 UEFA associations participated in the 1999–2000 UEFA Cup. Associations are allocated places according to their 1999–2000 UEFA league coefficient.


title: 1999–2000 UEFA Cup

text: A UEFA Cup place is vacated when a team qualify for both the Champions League and the UEFA Cup, or qualify for the UEFA Cup by more than one method. When a place is vacated, it is redistributed within the national association by the following rules:


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: The Hungarian minority of Romania (; ) is the largest ethnic minority in Romania, consisting of 1,227,623 people and making up 6.1% of the total population, according to the 2011 Romanian census, the second last recorded in the country's history.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: Most ethnic Hungarians of Romania live in areas that were, before the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, parts of Hungary. Encompassed in a region known as Transylvania, the most prominent of these areas is known generally as Székely Land (; ), where Hungarians comprise the majority of the population. Transylvania also includes the historic regions of Banat, Crișana and Maramureș. There are forty-one counties of Romania; Hungarians form a large majority of the population in the counties of Harghita (85.21%) and Covasna (73.74%), and a large percentage in Mureș (38.09%), Satu Mare (34.65%), Bihor (25.27%), Sălaj (23.35%), and Cluj (15.93%) counties.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: There also is a community of Hungarians living mostly in Moldavia, known as the Csángós. These live in the so-called region of Csángó Land in Moldavia but also in parts of Transylvania and in a village of Northern Dobruja known as Oituz.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: The Hungarian tribes originated in the vicinity of the Ural Mountains and arrived in the territory formed by present-day Romania during the 9th century from Etelköz or "Atelkuzu" (roughly the space occupied by the present day Southern Ukraine, the Republic of Moldova and the Romanian province of Moldavia). Due to various circumstances (see Honfoglalás), the Magyar tribes crossed the Carpathians around 895 AD and occupied the Carpathian Basin (including present-day Transylvania) without significant resistance from the local populace. The precise date of the conquest of Transylvania is not known; the earliest Magyar artifacts found in the region are dated to the first half of the 10th century.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: In 1526, at the Battle of Mohács, the forces of the Ottoman Empire annihilated the Hungarian army and in 1571 Transylvania became an autonomous state, under the Ottoman suzerainty. The Principality of Transylvania was governed by its princes and its parliament (Diet). The Transylvanian Diet consisted of three Estates (Unio Trium Nationum): the Hungarian nobility (largely ethnic Hungarian nobility and clergy); the leaders of Transylvanian Saxons-German burghers; and the free Székely Hungarians.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: With the defeat of the Ottomans at the Battle of Vienna in 1683, the Habsburg monarchy gradually began to impose their rule on the formerly autonomous Transylvania. From 1711 onward, after the conclusion of Rákóczi's War for Independence, Habsburg control over Transylvania was consolidated, and the princes of Transylvania were replaced with Habsburg imperial governors. In 1765 the "Grand Principality of Transylvania" was proclaimed, consolidating the special separate status of Transylvania within the Habsburg Empire, established by the "Diploma Leopoldinum" in 1691. The Hungarian historiography sees this as a mere formality. Within the Habsburg Empire, Transylvania was administratively part of Kingdom of Hungary.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, Transylvania became an integral part of the Kingdom of Hungary again, with Hungarian becoming the official language and Magyarization being introduced in the region not soon after.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: Following defeat in World War I, Austria-Hungary disintegrated. The ethnic Romanian elected representatives of Transylvania, Banat, Crișana and Maramureș proclaimed Union with Romania on 1 December 1918.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: With the conclusion of World War I, the Treaty of Trianon (signed on 4 June 1920) defined the new border between the states of Hungary and Romania. As a result, the more than 1.5 million Hungarian minority of Transylvania found itself becoming a minority group within Romania. Also after World War I, a group of Csángó families founded a village in Northern Dobruja known as Oituz, where Hungarians still live today.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: In August 1940, during the Second World War, the northern half of Transylvania was returned to Hungary by the second Second Vienna Award. Historian Keith Hitchins summarizes the situation created by the award: "Some 1,150,000 to 1,300,000 Romanians, or 48 per cent to over 50 per cent of the population of the ceded territory, depending upon whose statistics are used, remained north of the new frontier, while about 500,000 Hungarians (other Hungarian estimates go as high as 800,000, Romanian as low as 363,000) continued to reside in the south."


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: The Treaty of Paris (1947) after the end of the Second World War overturned the Vienna Award, and the territory of northern Transylvania was returned to Romania. The post-World War II borders with Hungary agreed on at the Treaty of Paris were identical with those set out in 1920.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: After the war, in 1952, a Magyar Autonomous Region was created in Romania by the communist authorities. The region was dissolved in 1968, when a new administrative organization of the country (still in effect today) replaced regions with counties. The communist authorities, and especially after Nicolae Ceaușescu's regime came to power, restarted the policy of Romanianization.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: Today, "Transylvania proper" (bright yellow on the accompanying map) is included within the Romanian counties ("județe") of Alba, Bistrița-Năsăud, Brașov, Cluj, Covasna, Harghita, Hunedoara, Mureș, Sălaj (partially) and Sibiu. In addition to "Transylvania proper", modern Transylvania includes Crișana and part of the Banat; these regions (dark yellow on the map) are in the counties of Arad, Bihor, Caraș-Severin, Maramureș, Sălaj (partially), Satu Mare, and Timiș.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: In the aftermath of the Romanian Revolution of 1989, ethnic-based political parties were constituted by both the Hungarians, who founded the Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania, and by the Romanian Transylvanians, who founded the Romanian National Unity Party. Ethnic conflicts, however, never occurred on a significant scale, even though some violent clashes, such as the Târgu Mureș events of March 1990, did take place shortly after the fall of Ceaușescu regime.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: In 1995, a basic treaty on the relations between Hungary and Romania was signed. In the treaty, Hungary renounced all territorial claims to Transylvania, and Romania reiterated its respect for the rights of its minorities. Relations between the two countries improved as first Hungary, then Romania, became EU members in the 2000s.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: The Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania (UDMR) is the major representative of Hungarians in Romania, and is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. The aim of the UDMR is to achieve local government, cultural and territorial autonomy and the right to self-determination for Hungarians. UDMR is a member of the European Democrat Union (EDU) and the European People's Party (EPP). Since 1996, the UDMR has been a member or supporter of every governmental coalition.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: Political agreements have brought the gradual implementation of Hungarian language in everyday life: Public administration Law 215/2002 stipulates "the use of national minority languages in public administration in settlements where minorities exceed 20% of the population"; minority ethnics will receive a copy of the documents in Romanian language and a translation in their language; however, official documents are preserved by the local administration in Romanian only; local administration will provide inscriptions for the names of localities and public institutions under their authority, and display public interest announcements in the native language of the citizens of the respective ethnic minority under the same 20% rule.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: Even though Romania co-signed the European laws for protecting minorities' rights, the implementation has not proved satisfactory to all members of Hungarian community. There is a movement by Hungarians both for an increase in autonomy and distinct cultural development. Initiatives proposed by various Hungarian political organizations include the creation of an "autonomous region" in the counties that form the "Szekler region" ("Székelyföld"), roughly corresponding to the territory of the former Hungarian Autonomous Province as well as the historical Szekler land that had been abolished by the Hungarian government in the second half of the 19th century, and the re-establishment of an independent state-funded Hungarian-language university.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: However, the situation of the Hungarian minority in Romania has been seen by some as a model of cultural and ethnic diversity in the Balkan area: In an address to the American people, President Clinton asked in the midst of the air war in Kosovo: "Who is going to define the future of this part the world... Slobodan Milošević, with his propaganda machine and paramilitary forces which compel people to give up their country, identity, and property, or a state like Romania which has built a democracy respecting the rights of ethnic minorities?"


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: The Székely people are Hungarians who mainly live in an area known as Székely Land ("Ținutul Secuiesc" in Romanian), and who maintain a different set of traditions and different identity from that of other Hungarians in Romania. Based on the latest Romanian statistics (2011 Romanian census, 532 people declared themself "Székelys" rather than "Hungarians.". The three counties of the unofficial Székely Land – Harghita, Covasna, and Mureș – have a combined ethnic Hungarian population of 609,033.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: The Csángós (, ) are people of Roman Catholic faith, some speaking a Hungarian dialect and some Romanian. They live mainly in the Bacău, Neamț and Iași counties, Moldavia region. Their homeland in Moldavia is known as Csángó Land. Some also live in Transylvania (around the Ghimeș-Palanca Pass and in the so-called Seven Villages) and in Oituz at Northern Dobruja. The Csango settled there between the 13th and 15th centuries and today, they are the only Hungarian-speaking ethnic group living to the east of the Carpathians.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: The ethnic background of Csango is nevertheless disputed, since, due to its active connections to the neighboring Polish kingdom and to the Papal States, the Roman Catholic faith persisted in Moldavia throughout medieval times, long after Vlachs living in other Romanian provinces, closer to the Bulgarian Empire, had been completely converted to Eastern-Rite Christianity. Some Csango claim having Hungarian ancestry while others claim Romanian ancestry. The Hungarian-speaking Csangos have been subject to some violations of basic minority rights: Hungarian-language schools have been closed down over time, their political rights have been suppressed and they have even been subject to slow, forced nationalisation by various Romanian governments over the years, because the Romanian official institutions deem Csangos as a mere Romanian population that was Magyarized in certain periods of time.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: The number of Hungarian social and cultural organizations in Romania has greatly increased after the fall of communism, with more than 300 being documented a few years ago. There are also several puppet theatres. Professional Hungarian dancing in Romania is represented by the Maros Folk Ensemble (formerly State Szekler Ensemble) in Târgu Mureș, the Hargita Ensemble, and the Pipacsok Dance Ensemble. Other amateur popular theaters are also very important in preserving the cultural traditions.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: While in the past the import of books was hindered, now there are many bookstores selling books written in Hungarian. Two public TV stations, TVR1 and TVR2, broadcast several Hungarian programs with good audiences also from Romanians. This relative scarcity is partially compensated by private Hungarian-language television and radio stations, like DUNA-TV which is targeted for the Hungarian minorities outside Hungary, particularly Transylvania. A new TV station entitled "Transylvania" is scheduled to start soon, the project is funded mostly by Hungary but also by Romania and EU and other private associations. There are currently around 60 Hungarian-language press publications receiving state support from the Romanian Government. While their numbers dropped as a consequence of economic liberalisation and competition, there are many others private funded by different Hungarian organizations. The Székely Region has many touristic facilities that attract Hungarian and other foreign tourists.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: According to Romania's minority rights law, Hungarians have the right to education in their native language, including as a medium of instruction. In localities where they make up more than 20% of the population they have the right to use their native language with local authorities.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: According to the official data of the 1992 Romanian census, 98% of the total ethnic Hungarian population over the age of 12 has had some schooling (primary, secondary or tertiary), ranking them fourth among ethnic groups in Romania and higher than the national average of 95.3%. On the other hand, the ratio of Hungarians graduating from higher education is lower than the national average. The reasons are diverse, including a lack of Hungarian-speaking lecturers, particularly in areas without a significant population of Hungarians.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: At Babeș-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca, the largest state-funded tertiary education institution in Romania, more than 30% of courses are held in the Hungarian language. There is currently a proposal by local Hungarians, supported by the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (RMDSZ), to separate the Hungarian-language department from the institution, and form a new, Hungarian-only Bolyai University. The former Bolyai University was disbanded in 1959 by Romanian Communist authorities and united with the Romanian Babeș University to form the multilingual Babeș-Bolyai University that continues to exist today.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: Other universities that offer study programs in Hungarian are the University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology of Târgu Mureș (public), Târgu Mureș University of Arts (public), Sapientia University (private) in Cluj-Napoca, Miercurea Ciuc and Târgu Mureș, Partium Christian University (private) in Oradea and Protestant Theological Institute of Cluj (private).


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: Many Hungarians living in Transylvania were disconcerted when the referendum held in Hungary in 2004 on the issue of giving dual-citizenship to ethnic Hungarians living abroad failed to receive enough electoral attendance and the vote was uncertain. Some of them complain that when they are in Hungary, they are perceived as half-Romanians, and are considered as having differences in language and behaviour. However, a large proportion of Transylvanian Hungarians currently work or study in Hungary, usually on a temporary basis. After 1996, Hungarian-Romanian economic relations boomed, and Hungary is an important investor in Transylvania, with many cross-border firms employing both Romanians and Hungarians.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: A proposal supported by the RMDSZ to grant Hungarian citizenship to Hungarians living in Romania but without meeting Hungarian-law residency requirements was narrowly defeated at a 2004 referendum in Hungary (the referendum failed only because there were not enough votes to make it valid). After the failed vote, the leaders of the Hungarian ethnic parties in the neighboring countries formed the HTMSZF organization in January 2005, as an instrument lobbying for preferential treatment in the granting of Hungarian citizenship.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: In 2010 some amendments were passed in Hungarian law facilitating an accelerated naturalization process for ethnic Hungarians living abroad; among other changes, the residency-in-Hungary requirement was waived. According to a RMDSZ poll conducted that year, over 85 percent of Romania's ethnic Hungarians were eager to apply for Hungarian citizenship. Romania's President Traian Băsescu declared in October 2010 that "We have no objections to the adoption by the Hungarian government and parliament of a law making it easier to grant Hungarian citizenship to ethnic Hungarians living abroad."


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: Between 2011 and 2012, 200,000 applicants took advantage of the new, accelerated naturalization process; there were another 100,000 applications pending in the summer of 2012. As of February 2013, the Hungarian government has granted citizenship to almost 400,000 Hungarians 'beyond the borders'. In April 2013, the Hungarian government announced that 280,000 of these were Romanian citizens.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: According to the 2011 census, the total population of the ethnic Hungarian community in Romania is as follows:


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: The remaining 4,973 (0.4%) ethnic Hungarians live in the other counties of Romania, where they make up less than 0.1% of the total population.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: In 2002, 46.5% of Romania's Hungarians were Reformed, 41% Roman Catholic, 4.5% Unitarian and 2% Romanian Orthodox. A further 4.7% belonged to various other Christian denominations.


title: Hungarians in Romania

text: In 2011, 45.9% of Romania's Hungarians were Reformed, 40.8% Roman Catholic, 4.5% Unitarian and 2.1% Romanian Orthodox. A further 5.8% belonged to various other Christian denominations. Around 0.25 percent of the Hungarians were atheist.


title: Color of chemicals

text: The color of chemicals is a physical property of chemicals that in most cases comes from the excitation of electrons due to an absorption of energy performed by the chemical. What is seen by the eye is not the color absorbed, but the complementary color from the removal of the absorbed wavelengths. This spectral perspective was first noted in atomic spectroscopy.


title: Color of chemicals

text: The study of chemical structure by means of energy absorption and release is generally referred to as spectroscopy.


title: Color of chemicals

text: All atoms and molecules are capable of absorbing and releasing energy in the form of photons, accompanied by a change of quantum state. The amount of energy absorbed or released is the difference between the energies of the two quantum states. There are various types of quantum state, including, for example, the rotational and vibrational states of a molecule. However the release of energy visible to the human eye, commonly referred to as visible light, spans the wavelengths approximately 380 nm to 760 nm, depending on the individual, and photons in this range usually accompany a change in atomic or molecular orbital quantum state. The perception of light is governed by three types of color receptors in the eye, which are sensitive to different ranges of wavelength within this band.


title: Color of chemicals

text: where "E" is the energy of the quantum (photon), "f" is the frequency of the light wave, "h" is Planck's constant, "λ" is the wavelength and "c" is the speed of light.


title: Color of chemicals

text: The relationships between the energies of the various quantum states are treated by atomic orbital, molecular orbital, Ligand Field Theory and Crystal Field Theory. If photons of a particular wavelength are absorbed by matter, then when we observe light reflected from or transmitted through that matter, what we see is the complementary color, made up of the other visible wavelengths remaining. For example, beta-carotene has maximum absorption at 454 nm (blue light), consequently what visible light remains appears orange .


title: Color of chemicals

text: Below is a rough table of wavelengths, colors and complementary colors. This utilizes the scientific CMY and RGB color wheels rather than the traditional RYB color wheel.


title: Color of chemicals

text: This can only be used as a very rough guide, for instance if a narrow range of wavelengths within the band 647-700 is absorbed, then the blue and green receptors will be fully stimulated, making cyan, and the red receptor will be partially stimulated, diluting the cyan to a greyish hue.


title: Color of chemicals

text: The vast majority of simple inorganic (e.g. sodium chloride) and organic compounds (e.g. ethanol) are colorless. Transition metal compounds are often colored because of transitions of electrons between d-orbitals of different energy. (see Transition metal#Colored compounds). Organic compounds tend to be colored when there is extensive conjugation, causing the energy gap between the HOMO and LUMO to decrease, bringing the absorption band from the UV to the visible region. Similarly, color is due to the energy absorbed by the compound, when an electron transitions from the HOMO to the LUMO. Lycopene is a classic example of a compound with extensive conjugation (11 conjugated double bonds), giving rise to an intense red color (lycopene is responsible for the color of tomatoes). Charge-transfer complexes tend to have very intense colors for different reasons.


title: Color of chemicals

text: It is important to note, however, that elemental colors will vary depending on what they are complexed with, often as well as their chemical state. An example with vanadium(III); VCl has a distinctive reddish hue, whilst VO appears black.


title: Color of chemicals

text: A variety of colors, often similar to the colors found in a flame test, are produced in a bead test, which is a qualitative test for determining metals. A platinum loop is moistened and dipped in a fine powder of the substance in question and borax. The loop with the adhered powders is then heated in a flame until it fuses and the color of the resulting bead observed.


title: Sonu Gowda

text: Sonu Gowda is an Indian actress who works predominantly in Kannada-language films. She made her debut in "Inthi Ninna Preethiya" and appeared in films including "Paramesha Panwala" and "Gulama". She has also starred in Tamil and a few Malayalam films where she is credited as Shruthi Ramakrishnan.


title: Sonu Gowda

text: Sonu was born to Ramakrishna, a make-up artist who has worked in the Kannada film industry. She has a sister Neha Gowda, who is a television actress known for her roles in the Telugu television drama series "Swathi Chinukulu", Kannada Soap Era Lakshmi Baramma and "Kalyana Parisu". Sonu studied at the Carmel High School, Padhmanabhanagar, Bangalore.


title: Sonu Gowda

text: Sonu is also part of WeMove Theatre, a popular Bangalore based theatre company. She played one of the heroines in the Tamil film "144" (2015).


title: Arthur Malet

text: Arthur Malet (24 September 1927 – 18 May 2013) was an English stage, film and television actor based in the United States. He was known for his films "Mary Poppins", "Halloween," "The Secret of NIMH," and "Hook". His last film was "" in which he did the voice for Mr. Ages.


title: Arthur Malet

text: Vivian Arthur Rivers Malet was born on 24 September 1927 in Lee-on-the-Solent, Hampshire, England, the son of Henry Guy Rivers Malet and Olga Muriel Balfour; a scion of the Malet baronets He emigrated to the United States in the 1950s, changed his forename to Arthur, began acting onstage, and won two Drama Desk Awards in 1957. He came to some prominence in 1960s films, often playing characters much older than his real age, such as Mr. Dawes, Jr., in Disney's "Mary Poppins" (1964), and King Eidilleg in Disney's 1985 animated film "The Black Cauldron".


title: Arthur Malet

text: He played undertaker Ted Ulam in Norman Jewison's 1967 film "In the Heat of the Night", and Joe Fenwick in a 1972 episode of "Columbo", "Dagger of the Mind". He went on to play a village elder in Mel Brooks's "Young Frankenstein" in 1974, the graveyard keeper in John Carpenter's "Halloween" in 1978, a houseman in the 1984 film "Oh God, You Devil", Tootles in 1991's "Hook", and Owen Owens in the 1992 film "Toys".


title: Arthur Malet

text: His appearances on television included episodes of "The Donna Reed Show", "The Rifleman", "Adventures in Paradise", "The Alfred Hitchcock Hour" ("The McGregor Affair"; originally aired 23 November 1964), and "Bewitched" ("The Trial and Error of Aunt Clara"; originally aired 2 February 1967), "Wonder Woman" and "Dallas". In 1965 he appeared as murder victim Ralph Day in the "Perry Mason" episode, "The Case of the Golden Venom." He played a vagrant who claimed to have stolen Aunt Bea's pin on "The Andy Griffith Show" in 1966. In 1969 Malet appeared as the Night Clerk on the TV Series "The Virginian" in the episode titled "Journey to Scathelock." In 1995, he portrayed Charles Randolph in "A Little Princess". In 1997, he did voice work in "Anastasia". He voiced the character of "Mr. Ages" in "The Secret of NIMH" in 1982 and reprised the role in "" in 1998. Malet had a regular role on the short-lived 1983 TV-series adaptation of the film "Casablanca".


title: Biblical clothing

text: The clothing of the people in biblical times was made from wool, linen, animal skins, and perhaps silk. Most events in the Hebrew Bible and New Testament take place in ancient Israel, and thus most biblical clothing is ancient Hebrew clothing. They wore underwear and cloth skirts.


title: Biblical clothing

text: Complete descriptions of the styles of dress among the people of the Bible is impossible because the material at hand is insufficient. Assyrian and Egyptian artists portrayed what is believed to be the clothing of the time, but there are few depictions of Israelite garb. One of the few available sources on Israelite clothing is the Bible.


title: Biblical clothing

text: The earliest and most basic garment was the "'ezor" ( , all pronunciations are approximate) or "ḥagor" ( ), an apron around the hips or loins, that in primitive times was made from the skins of animals.


title: Biblical clothing

text: The "'ezor" later became displaced among the Hebrews by the "kethōneth" ( , translated into Greek as "chitōn") an under-tunic, corresponding most nearly to our long shirt.


title: Biblical clothing

text: The well-off might also wear a "ṣādhı̄n" ( ) under the "kethōneth". This rather long under garment had sleeves and was of fine linen.


title: Biblical clothing

text: The "simlāh" ( ), was the heavy outer garment or shawl of various forms. It consisted of a large rectangular piece of rough, heavy woolen material, crudely sewed together so that the front was unstitched and with two openings left for the arms. Flax is another possible material.


title: Biblical clothing

text: The "me'īl" ( , translated into Greek as "stolḗ") stands for a variety of garments worn over the undergarment like a cloak (, ), but used only by men of rank or of the priestly order (, , ).


title: Biblical clothing

text: At a later period the nobles wore over the "simlāh", or in place of it, a wide, many-folded mantle of state ("adderet", or "ma'aṭafah") made of rich material (See ), imported from Babylon ().


title: Biblical clothing

text: The Torah commanded that Israelites wear tassels or fringes ("ṣiṣit", ) attached to the corners of garments (see , ). Numbers 15:39 records that the tassels were to serve as reminders to keep the Lord's commandments.


title: Biblical clothing

text: Phylacteries or "tefillin" (Hebrew: תְּפִלִּין) are boxes containing biblical verses attached to the forehead and arm by leather straps, and were in use by New Testament times (see ).


title: Biblical clothing

text: Depictions show some Hebrews and Syrians bareheaded or wearing merely a band to hold the hair together. Hebrew people undoubtedly also wore head coverings similar to the modern keffiyeh, a large square piece of woolen cloth folded diagonally in half into a triangle. The fold is worn across the forehead, with the keffiyeh loosely draped around the back and shoulders, often held in place by a cord circlet. Men and women of the upper classes wore a kind of turban, cloth wound about the head. The shape varied greatly.


title: Biblical clothing

text: The High Priest would've worn a particular kind of priestly turban. In the Second Temple period, many Jews would've worn a sudra.


title: Biblical clothing

text: Sandals ("na'alayim") of leather were worn to protect the feet from burning sand and dampness. Sandals might also be of wood, with leather straps (, ). Sandals were not worn in the house nor in the sanctuary (see (), ). To walk about without sandals was otherwise a sign of great poverty () or of mourning (, ).


title: Biblical clothing

text: The Torah provided for specific vestments to be worn by the priests when ministering. These unique vestments prescribed for Israelite priests when approaching altars or entering sanctuaries underwrote their status as privileged intermediaries between God and humanity.


title: Biblical clothing

text: These garments are described in detail in , , and . All priests would minister barefoot in the temple.


title: Biblical clothing

text: The high priest wore eight holy garments ("bigdei kodesh"). Of these, four were of the same type worn by all priests, and four were unique to him. The unique vestments were:


title: Biblical clothing

text: The High Priest had two sets of holy garments: the "golden garments" detailed above, and a set of white "linen garments" ("bigdei ha-bad") which he wore only on the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur) ().


title: Biblical clothing

text: While a woman's garments mostly corresponded to those of men: they wore "simlāh" and "kethōneth, "they also evidently differed in some ways from those of men (see ). Women's garments were probably longer (compare , , , ), had sleeves (), presumably were brighter colors and more ornamented, and also may have been of finer material. Also worn by women was the "sadin", the finer linen underdress (see , ).


title: Biblical clothing

text: Furthermore, mention is made of the "mițpaḥath" (tichel), a kind of veil or shawl (). This was ordinarily just a woman's neckcloth. Other than the use by a bride or bride to be (), prostitutes () and possibly others (), a woman did not go veiled (, ), except for modesty (). The present custom in the Middle East to veil the face originates with Islam. According to ancient laws, it reached from the forehead, over the back of the head to the hips or lower, and was like the neckerchief of the Palestinian woman in Palestine and Israel today.


title: Biblical clothing

text: The Jews visited Egypt in the Bible from the earliest patriarchs (beginning in ), to the flight into Egypt by Joseph, Mary, and the infant Jesus (in ). The most notable example is the long stay from Joseph's (son of Jacob) being sold into slavery in , to the Exodus from Egypt in , during the Second Intermediate Period and New Kingdom. A large number of Jews (such as Jeremiah) also began permanent residence in Egypt upon the destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BC, during the Third Intermediate Period.


title: Biblical clothing

text: In Egypt, flax (linen) was the textile in almost exclusive use. The wool worn by Israelites was known, but considered impure as animal fibres were considered taboo. Wool could only be used for coats (they were forbidden in temples and sanctuaries). Egyptian fashion was created to keep cool while in the hot desert. People of lower class wore only the loincloth (or "schenti") that was common to all. Slaves often worked naked. Sandals were braided with leather or, particularly for the bureaucratic and priestly classes, papyrus. Egyptians were usually barefoot. The most common headdress was the "klafta" or nemes, a striped fabric square worn by men.


title: Biblical clothing

text: Certain clothing was common to both genders, such as the tunic and the robe. Around 1425 to 1405 BC, a light tunic or short-sleeved shirt was popular, as well as a pleated skirt. Women often wore simple sheath dresses, and female clothing remained unchanged over several millennia, save for small details. Draped clothes, with very large rolls, gave the impression of wearing several items. Clothing of the royal family, such as the crowns of the pharaohs, was well documented. The pardalide (made of a leopard skin) was traditionally used as the clothing for priests.


title: Biblical clothing

text: Wigs, common to both genders, were worn by wealthy people of society. Made from real human and horse hair, they had ornaments incorporated into them. Heads were shaved. Usually children were represented with one lock of hair remaining on the sides of their heads.


title: Biblical clothing

text: Heavy and rather voluminous jewelry was very popular, regardless of social class. It was made from turquoise, metals like gold and silver, and small beads. Both men and women adorned themselves with earrings, bracelets, rings, necklaces and neck collars that were brightly colored.


title: Biblical clothing

text: Greeks and Greek culture enters the Israelite world beginning with First Maccabees. Likewise the narrative of the New Testament (which was written in Greek) entered the Greek world beginning about .


title: Biblical clothing

text: Clothing in ancient Greece primarily consisted of the chiton, peplos, himation, and chlamys. Despite popular imagination and media depictions of all-white clothing, elaborate design and bright colors were favored.


title: Biblical clothing

text: Clothes were secured with ornamental clasps or pins and a belt, sash, or girdle might secure the waist.


title: Biblical clothing

text: The inner tunic was a peplos or chiton. The peplos was worn by women. It was usually a heavier woollen garment, more distinctively Greek, with its shoulder clasps. The upper part of the peplos was folded down to the waist to form an apoptygma. The chiton was a simple tunic garment of lighter linen, worn by both genders and all ages. Men's chitons hung to the knees, whereas women's chitons fell to their ankles. Often the chiton is shown as pleated.


title: Biblical clothing

text: The basic outer garment during winter was the himation, a larger cloak worn over the peplos or chiton. The himation has been most influential perhaps on later fashion.


title: Biblical clothing

text: During the New Testament narrative, Judea was ruled by either local client kings to the Roman Empire or as a Roman province under Roman officials.


title: Biblical clothing

text: Probably the most significant item in the ancient Roman wardrobe was the toga, a one-piece woolen garment that draped loosely around the shoulders and down the body. Togas could be wrapped in different ways, and they became larger and more voluminous over the centuries. Some innovations were purely fashionable. Because it was not easy to wear a toga without tripping over it or trailing drapery, some variations in wrapping served a practical function. Other styles were required, for instance, for covering the head during ceremonies.


title: Biblical clothing

text: Magistrates and high priests wore a special kind of toga with a reddish-purple band on the lower edge, called the "toga praetexta" as an indication of their status. The "toga candida", an especially whitened toga, was worn by political candidates. Prostitutes wore the "toga muliebris", rather than the tunics worn by most women. The "toga pulla" was dark-colored and worn for mourning, while the "toga purpurea", of purple-dyed wool, was worn in times of triumph and by the Roman emperor.


title: Biblical clothing

text: After the transition of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire in c. 44 BC, only men who were citizens of Rome wore the toga. Women, slaves, foreigners, and others who were not citizens of Rome wore tunics and were forbidden from wearing the toga. By the same token, Roman citizens were required to wear the toga when conducting official business. Over time, the toga evolved from a national to a ceremonial costume. Different types of togas indicated age, profession, and social rank.


title: Biblical clothing

text: Originally the toga was worn by all Romans; free citizens were required to wear togas. because only slaves and children wore tunics. By the 2nd century BC, however, it was worn over a tunic, and the tunic became the basic item of dress. Women wore an outer garment known as a stola, which was a long pleated dress similar to the Greek chitons.


title: Biblical clothing

text: Many other styles of clothing were worn and also are familiar in images seen in artwork from the period. Garments could be quite specialized, for instance, for warfare, specific occupations, or for sports. In ancient Rome women athletes wore leather briefs and brassiere for maximum coverage but the ability to compete.


title: Wayne Kramer (guitarist)

text: Wayne Kramer (born Wayne Kambes; April 30, 1948) is an American guitarist, singer, songwriter, producer and film and television composer.


title: Wayne Kramer (guitarist)

text: Kramer came to prominence as a teenager in 1967 as a co-founder of the Detroit rock group MC5, a group known for their powerful live performances and radical left-wing political stand. The MC5 broke up amid government harassment, poverty and drug abuse. For Kramer, this led to several fallow years as he battled drug addiction before returning to an active recording and performing schedule in the 1990s.


title: Wayne Kramer (guitarist)

text: In 1967, the MC5 were designated “House Band” at Detroit's famous Grande Ballroom and was managed by Poet, John Sinclair, a radical left-wing writer and co-founder of the White Panther Party, until 1969 when he was sentenced to nine and a half years in the Michigan Department of Corrections for giving two joints to an undercover police woman. Sinclair became a mentor to then 20 year old Kramer and introduced him to the world of free jazz, poetry and progressive political awareness. They remain close friends.


title: Wayne Kramer (guitarist)

text: The MC5 recorded three major label albums including 1969’s "Kick Out The Jams" on Elektra. 1971’s "Back in the USA" and 1972’s "High Time" both for Atlantic Records. The MC5 toured the USA extensively and ultimately faced insurmountable challenges from both being banned from the radio and government police agencies for their militant political stance. Unable to tour or sell records and after a last-ditch effort by Ronan O'Rahilly that included a move to London, England, by 1972, the original group disbanded


title: Wayne Kramer (guitarist)

text: In 1975, while working with Detroit soul great Melvin Davis in their new group “Radiation” he was convicted of, among other charges, selling drugs to undercover federal agents, and was sentenced to four years in Federal prison. While incarcerated at  F.M.C. Lexington, he befriended Red Rodney, the American jazz trumpeter who played in the Charlie Parker quintet. They studied music and played together in the prison band “Street Sounds” with Rodney becoming “my musical father” says Kramer.


title: Wayne Kramer (guitarist)

text: Upon his release from prison in 1979, Kramer began touring as a solo artist leading a succession of working trios, quartets and larger groups. He joined Was (Not Was) as their first studio and touring guitarist. Kramer plays on the album "Was (Not Was)" and the hit single "Wheel Me Out," 1983's "Born to Laugh at Tornadoes" and returns again on their 2008 release "Boo" on Ryko Records. Kramer also performed on Don Was's Orquestra Was.