title: Economics of fascism

text: In 1929, Italy was hit hard by the Great Depression. The Italian economy, having just emerged from a period of monetary stabilization, was not ready for this shock and prices fell and production slowed. Unemployment rose from 300,787 in 1929 to 1,018,953 in 1933. Trying to handle the crisis, the Fascist government nationalized the holdings of large banks which had accrued significant industrial securities. The government also issued new securities to provide a source of credit for the banks and began enlisting the help of various cartels ("consorzi") that had been created by Italian business leaders since 1922. The government offered recognition and support to these organizations in exchange for promises that they would manipulate prices in accordance with government priorities.


title: Economics of fascism

text: A number of mixed entities were formed, called "instituti" or "enti nazionali", whose purpose it was to bring together representatives of the government and of the major businesses. These representatives discussed economic policy and manipulated prices and wages so as to satisfy both the wishes of the government and the wishes of business. The government considered this arrangement to be a success and Italian Fascists soon began to pride themselves on this outcome, saying they had survived the Great Depression without infringing on private property. In 1934, the Fascist Minister of Agriculture said: "While nearly everywhere else private property was bearing the major burdens and suffering from the hardest blows of the depression, in Italy, thanks to the actions of this Fascist government, private property not only has been saved, but has also been strengthened".


title: Economics of fascism

text: This economic model based on a partnership between government and business was soon extended to the political sphere in what came to be known as corporatism. From 1934 onwards, believing that Italy could have avoided the Great Depression if it had not been linked to international markets, Mussolini insisted that autarky should be one of the primary goals of his government's economic policy. To this end, the Fascists began to impose significant tariffs and other trade barriers. In 1934, Mussolini boasted that three-quarters of Italian businesses "is in the hands of the state".


title: Economics of fascism

text: Various banking and industrial companies were financially supported by the state. One of Mussolini's first acts was indeed to fund the metallurgical trust Ansaldo to the height of 400 million Liras. Following the deflation crisis which started in 1926, banks such as the Banco di Roma, the Banco di Napoli or the Banco di Sicilia were also assisted by the state. In 1933, Mussolini created the Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale (IRI) with the special aim of rescuing floundering companies. By 1939, the IRI controlled 20% of the Italian industry through government-linked companies (GLCs), including 75% of pig iron production and 90% of the shipbuilding industry.


title: Economics of fascism

text: Mussolini also adopted a Keynesian policy of government spending on public works to stimulate the economy. Between 1929 and 1934, public works spending tripled to overtake defense spending as the largest item of government expenditure. At this time, Mussolini said about Keynes that "despite the latter's prominent position as a Liberal", his work may be considered a "useful introduction to fascist economics". Italian Fascists also expressed great interest in the works of neoclassical economist Vilfredo Pareto. Pareto had argued that democracy was an illusion and that a ruling class always emerged and enriched itself. For him, the key question was how actively the rulers ruled and for this reason he called for a drastic reduction of the state and welcomed Mussolini's rule as a transition to this minimal state so as to liberate the "pure" economic forces. Fascist intellectuals were determined to foster economic development in order for the economy to "attain its productive maximum". They believed that their historic responsibility was to "develop to its ultimate conclusion the creative elements that remain alive in capitalism".


title: Economics of fascism

text: Italian Fascists and their precursors had always been focused on the need to bring about a more productive society through the economic collaboration of the classes, opposing class struggle. They believed in the critical importance of economic productivity as a revolutionary force and they were "productivists, rather than distributionists". Nevertheless, the Fascist government also made efforts to appear concerned with the real interests of its subjects in order to create a "consensual, charismatic regime" and to render the masses of the peninsula governable. Fascist ideologues argued that the discontent of the lower classes represented a potential threat to the "well-being, the internal security, the power and the existence of the state" and therefore measures had to be taken to alleviate this discontent. They also argued that a "minimal concern for the well-being of the labor force" served the national interest, by improving productive potential. For these reasons, the government pursued a complex social welfare and assistance program, which "compared favorably with the more advanced European nations" despite the lower level of industrial development on the Italian peninsula.


title: Economics of fascism

text: In 1935, following the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, the League of Nations imposed trade sanctions on Italy. This forced Italy to achieve autarky immediately and strengthened Mussolini's belief that economic self-sufficiency was vital to national security. The sanctions did not have their intended effects because the Italian government had already begun restricting trade and preparing for autarky. In particular, Italy imposed a severe ban on most imports and the government sought to persuade consumers to buy Italian-made products. For instance, it launched the slogan "Preferite il Prodotto Italiano" ("Buy Italian produce"). In May 1935, the government compelled individuals and businesses to turn over all foreign issued securities to the Bank of Italy (Banca d'Italia). On 15 July 1936, the economic sanctions on Italy were lifted, but the Fascists continued to insist on economic isolation.


title: Economics of fascism

text: Throughout the 1930s, the Italian economy maintained the corporatist model that had been established during the Great Depression. At the same time, Mussolini had also growing ambitions of extending Italy's foreign influence through both diplomacy and military intervention. After the invasion of Ethiopia, Italy began supplying both troops and equipment to the Spanish nationalists under General Francisco Franco, who were fighting in the Spanish Civil War against a leftist government. These foreign interventions required increased military spending and the Italian economy became increasingly subordinated to the needs of its armed forces. By 1939, Italy had the highest percentage of state-owned enterprises after the Soviet Union.


title: Economics of fascism

text: Finally, Italy's involvement in World War II as a member of the Axis powers required the establishment of a war economy. This put severe strain on the corporatist model since the war quickly started going badly for Italy and it became difficult for the government to persuade business leaders to finance what they saw as a military disaster. The Allied invasion of Italy in 1943 caused the Italian political structure and the economy to rapidly collapse. On the other hand, the Allies and the Germans took over the administration of the areas of Italy under their control. By the end of the war, the Italian economy had been all but destroyed—per capita income in 1944 was at its lowest point since the beginning of the 20th century.


title: Economics of fascism

text: Adolf Hitler regarded economic issues as relatively unimportant. In 1922, Hitler proclaimed that "world history teaches us that no people has become great through its economy but that a people can very well perish thereby" and later concluded that "the economy is something of secondary importance". Hitler and the Nazis held a very strong idealist conception of history, which held that human events are guided by small numbers of exceptional individuals following a higher ideal. They believed that all economic concerns, being purely material, were unworthy of their consideration. Hitler went as far as to blame all previous German governments since Bismarck of having "subjugated the nation to materialism" by relying more on peaceful economic development instead of expansion through war.


title: Economics of fascism

text: For these reasons, the Nazis never had a clearly defined economic programme. The original "Twenty-Five Point Programme" of the party, adopted in 1920, listed several economic demands, but the degree to which the Nazis supported this programme in later years has been questioned. Several attempts were made in the 1920s to change some of the program or replace it entirely. For instance, Gottfried Feder proposed a new 39-point program (1924) that kept some of the old planks, replaced others and added many completely new ones. Hitler refused to allow any discussion of the party programme after 1925, ostensibly on the grounds that no discussion was necessary because the programme was "inviolable" and did not need any changes. At the same time, Hitler also never voiced public support for the programme and many historians argue that he was in fact privately opposed to it. Hitler did not mention any of the planks of the programme in his book "Mein Kampf" and only talked about it in passing as "the so-called programme of the movement".


title: Economics of fascism

text: Hitler called his political party "National Socialist", but he was clear to point out that his interpretation of socialism "has nothing to do with Marxian Socialism", saying that "Marxism is anti-property; true Socialism is not". At a later time, Hitler said: "Socialism! That is an unfortunate word altogether. [...] What does socialism really mean? If people have something to eat and their pleasures, then they have their socialism". He also expressed a wish that he had called his party "social revolutionary" instead.


title: Economics of fascism

text: Hitler made very different statements about his economic views on different occasions and at one point was quoted as saying: "I had only to develop logically what social democracy failed. [...] National Socialism is what Marxism might have been if it could have broken its absurd ties with a democratic order. [...] Why need we trouble to socialize banks and factories? We socialize human beings". At another point, Hitler said in private that "I absolutely insist on protecting private property. [...] In this sense, we must encourage private initiative". On yet another occasion, he qualified that statement by saying that the government should have the power to regulate the use of private property for the good of the nation. In spite of this, he later asserted: "It is my firm conviction that property rights [...] must be unconditionally respected. Any tampering with them would eliminate one of the most vital incentives to human activity and would jeopardize future endeavor". Hitler clearly believed that the lack of a precise economic programme was one of the Nazi Party's strengths, saying: "The basic feature of our economic theory is that we have no theory at all".


title: Economics of fascism

text: Hitler's political beliefs drew heavily upon social Darwinism—the view that natural selection applies as much to human society as it does to biological organisms. Hitler believed that history was shaped by a violent struggle between nations and races; and that a nation needed to be united under a strong, centralized state led by an heroic leader in order to succeed in this struggle and that individuals within a nation battled with each other for survival; and that such ruthless competition was good for the health of the nation because it promoted "superior individuals" to higher positions in society.


title: Economics of fascism

text: Before World War II, the Nazis placed non-Nazi Party professionals in charge of economic policy. Hitler appointed Hjalmar Schacht, a former member of the German Democratic Party, as Chairman of the Reichsbank in 1933 and minister of economics in 1934. At first, Schacht continued the economic policies introduced by the government of Kurt von Schleicher in 1932 to combat the effects of the Great Depression. These policies were mostly Keynesian, relying on large public works programs supported by deficit spending—such as the construction of the Autobahn—to stimulate the economy and reduce unemployment (which stood at 30% in early 1933). There was a major reduction in unemployment over the following years, while price controls prevented the recurrence of inflation.


title: Economics of fascism

text: After his rise to power, Hitler took a pragmatic position on economics, accepting private property and allowing capitalist private enterprises to exist so long as they adhered to the goals of the Nazi state, but not tolerating enterprises that he saw as being opposed to the national interest.


title: Economics of fascism

text: The Nazis outlawed independent trade unions and banned strikes, creating the German Labour Front (DAF), which became one of the largest organizations in Germany, comprising over 35,000 full-time employees by 1939. They also directed Schacht to place more emphasis on military production and rearmament. After the Nazi takeover in 1933, Germany slowly began to recover from the Great Depression. Several economists, such as Michał Kalecki, have seen the German recovery as an example of military Keynesianism. However, others have noted that the bulk of the German military buildup occurred after 1936 when the economic recovery was well underway.


title: Economics of fascism

text: In the 1930s, Nazi Germany transferred many companies and services from state ownership into the private sector, while other Western capitalist countries were moving in the opposite direction and strove for increased state ownership of industry. In most cases, this was a return to the private sector of firms which had been taken into state ownership by the democratic government of the Weimar Republic as a result of the Great Depression. The firms returned to private ownership by the Nazi government "belonged to a wide range of sectors: steel, mining, banking, local public utilities, shipyards, ship-lines, railways, etc." and in addition some public services began to be provided by semi-private entities that were connected to the Nazi Party rather than the German state. There were two primary reasons for the Nazi privatization policy. First, especially in the early years of the Nazi regime, it was used as a way to build good relations between the government and business interests. Second, the Nazi government greatly increased public expenditure, especially on military re-armament and infrastructure projects. Existing sources of revenue were not sufficient to cover the new expenses, so the government was forced to sell assets in order to gain funds.


title: Economics of fascism

text: In June 1933, the Reinhardt Program was introduced. It was an extensive infrastructure development project that combined indirect incentives, such as tax reductions, with direct public investment in waterways, railroads and highways. The Reinhardt Program was followed by other similar initiatives, with the result that between 1933 and 1936 the German construction industry was greatly expanded. In 1933, only 666,000 Germans worked in construction and by 1936 the number had increased to 2,000,000. In particular, road construction was expanding at a very rapid pace. This was part of Hitler's war preparations as Germany needed a state-of-the-art highway system in order to be able to move troops and materials quickly. As a side effect, cars and other forms of motorized transport became increasingly attractive to the population, therefore the German car industry also experienced a boom in the 1930s.


title: Economics of fascism

text: While the ideology of the Nazi Party was founded on the principle of inequality between races and advocated a war of racial conquest, it also promised social welfare and other benefits for racially pure, able-bodied Germans who supported its aims. As such, the Nazi German government established an agency called the Nationalsozialistische Volkswohlfahrt (NSV, National Socialist People's Welfare) to achieve its goal of racially directed social welfare. Hitler instructed NSV chairman Erich Hilgenfeldt to "see to the disbanding of all private welfare institutions", in an effort to direct who was to receive social benefits. Under this selective welfare structure, Nazi administrators were able to mount an effort towards the "cleansing of their cities of 'asocials'", who were deemed unworthy of receiving assistance for various reasons. Underlining the importance of nationality and race, Joseph Goebbels, the Nazi propaganda minister, claimed in 1944: "We and we alone [the Nazis] have the best social welfare measures. Everything is done for the nation".


title: Economics of fascism

text: In 1936, military spending in Germany exceeded 10% of GNP (higher than any other European country at the time). Military investment also exceeded civilian investment from 1936 onwards. Armaments dominated government expenditures on goods and services. That year also represented a turning point for German trade policy as world prices for raw materials (which constituted the bulk of German imports) were on the rise. At the same time, world prices for manufactured goods (Germany's chief exports) were falling. The result was that Germany found it increasingly difficult to maintain a balance of payments. A large trade deficit seemed almost inevitable, but Hitler found this prospect unacceptable. Thus Germany, following Italy's lead, began to move away from partially free trade in the direction of economic self-sufficiency.


title: Economics of fascism

text: Unlike Italy, Germany did not strive to achieve full autarky, even though in May 1933 Hitler's regime had defaulted unilaterally on Germany's foreign debt along with a decree for sweeping capital controls that made it difficult to engage in foreign trade. Hitler was aware of the fact that Germany lacked reserves of raw materials and full autarky was therefore impossible, thus he chose a different approach. The Nazi government tried to limit the number of its trade partners and—when possible—only trade with countries within the German sphere of influence. A number of bilateral trade agreements were signed between Germany and other European countries (mostly countries located in Southern and South-Eastern Europe) during the 1930s. The German government strongly encouraged trade with these countries but strongly discouraged trade with any others.


title: Economics of fascism

text: By the late 1930s, the aims of German trade policy were to use economic and political power to make the countries of Southern Europe and the Balkans dependent on Germany. The German economy would draw its raw materials from that region and the countries in question would receive German manufactured goods in exchange. Already in 1938, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Greece transacted 50% of all their foreign trade with Germany. Throughout the 1930s, German businesses were encouraged to form cartels, monopolies and oligopolies, whose interests were then protected by the state. In his book, "Big Business in the Third Reich", Arthur Schweitzer states:


title: Economics of fascism

text: In the same book, Schweitzer details the triangular power structure that existed between the Nazi Party, big business and the generals in 1936. Within a few years of Hitler's accession, "middle-class socialism" had been defeated, collective bargaining had been banned and unions had been outlawed—large companies were favored over small businesses. Shortly after Hitler became chancellor, Germany refused to pay its reparation payments as was mandated in the Versailles Treaty. It also diverted large sums of money to rearmament, which violated that treaty. This had the support of the generals and the business community since their profits were guaranteed on these orders. Big business developed an increasingly close partnership with the Nazi government as it became increasingly organized.


title: Economics of fascism

text: Under Hjalmar Schacht, a policy was introduced whereby certain nations who traded with Germany (such as the United States) had to deal with special banks. Foreign currency was deposited in these institutions and Americans were paid for their goods (especially raw materials) in "scrips" that could only be redeemed for German goods in kind. These scrips soon declined in value as they were not truly fungible and many were used by travellers to Germany in the mid-1930s. Schacht was able to build up foreign currency reserves for later use.


title: Economics of fascism

text: Initially, the outbreak of World War II did not bring about any large changes in the German economy. Germany had spent six years preparing for war and a large portion of the economy was already devoted to military production. Unlike most other governments, the Nazis did not increase direct taxes by any significant amount in order to fund the war. The top income tax rate in 1941 was 13.7% in Germany as opposed to 23.7% in Great Britain.


title: Economics of fascism

text: During the war, as Germany acquired new territories (either by direct annexation or by installing puppet governments in defeated countries), these new territories were forced to sell raw materials and agricultural products to German buyers at extremely low prices. Hitler's policy of "Lebensraum" ("living space") strongly emphasized the conquest of new lands in the East and the exploitation of these lands to provide cheap goods to Germany. However, in practice the intensity of the fighting on the Eastern Front and the Soviet scorched earth policy meant that the Germans found little they could use. On the other hand, a large quantity of goods flowed into Germany from conquered lands in the West. For example, two-thirds of all French trains in 1941 were used to carry goods to Germany. Norway lost 20% of its national income in 1940 and 40% in 1943.


title: Economics of fascism

text: From 1939 to 1941, when the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was in effect, there was trade between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union provided raw materials and Germany provided finished industrial goods. In the first year, Nazi Germany received "one million tons of cereals, half a million tons of wheat, 900,000 tons of oil, 100,000 tons of cotton, 500,000 tons of phosphates" and at least one million tons of soybeans. Some of the Nazi–Soviet trade included machine tools for manufacturing munitions, the cruiser "Luetzow", "plans of the "Bismarck", heavy naval guns and other gear and some thirty of Germany's latest warplanes, including the Messerschmitt fighters 109 and 110 and the Ju-88 dive bombers". In addition, the Soviets received diesel engines, generators, turbines, locomotives and "samples of German artillery, tanks, explosives, chemical-warfare equipment". This trade ended abruptly in June 1941, when Germany invaded the Soviet Union.


title: Economics of fascism

text: Even before the war, Nazi Germany maintained a supply of slave labour. This practice started from the early days of labour camps of "undesirables" (), such as the homeless, homosexual and criminals as well as political dissidents, communists, Jews and anyone that the regime wanted out of the way. As the war progressed, the use of slave labour experienced massive growth. Prisoners of war and civilian "undesirables" were brought in from occupied territories. Hundreds of thousands of Poles, Jews, Slavs and other conquered peoples were used as slave labourers by German corporations such as Thyssen, Krupp, IG Farben and even Fordwerke—a subsidiary of the Ford Motor Company. By 1944, slave labour made up one quarter of Germany's entire work force and the majority of German factories had a contingent of prisoners. The Nazis also had plans for the deportation and enslavement of Britain's adult male population in the event of a successful invasion.


title: Economics of fascism

text: The proportion of military spending in the German economy began growing rapidly after 1942 as the Nazi government was forced to dedicate more and more of the country's economic resources to fighting a losing war, therefore civilian factories were converted to military use and placed under military administration. By late 1944, almost the entire German economy was dedicated to military production. At the same time, Allied bombings were destroying German factories and cities at a rapid pace, leading to the final collapse of the German war economy in 1945.


title: Economics of fascism

text: Francisco Franco, dictator of Spain from the Spanish Civil War in the 1930s until his death in 1975, based his economic policies on the theories of national syndicalism as expounded by the Falange (Spanish for "phalanx"), the Spanish Fascist party founded in 1933 by José Antonio Primo de Rivera which was one of Franco's chief supporters during his bid for power.


title: Economics of fascism

text: During and after the Spanish Civil War, Franco and the Falange created a corporative system based on the Italian model. An economic system was implemented according to the wishes of the corporations, which also set prices and wages. Combined with autarky and in the absence of Marshall Plan aid after World War II, Spain's post-war economic growth stagnated. The Spanish corporative system was less successful than the Italian experience. At one point, the Spanish farmers' corporation created a massive bread shortage by setting the price too low. As a result, bread production was abandoned in favour of other, more profitable goods. Although the aim of this policy was to make bread accessible to the poorest among the population, the opposite occurred and a black market emerged.


title: Economics of fascism

text: As in Italy, wages were set by the state in negotiations between officially recognized workers' syndicates and employers' organizations, with the state as mediator. During the Second Spanish Republic, workers' groups had aligned with the anarchists, communists or other Republican forces. However, Franco's regime tended to favour the interests of large capitalist businesses despite its proclaimed syndicalist rhetoric. In response, workers (often anarchists) created illegal syndicates and organized strikes, which usually were repressed brutally by Franco's police state.


title: Economics of fascism

text: In 1954, Franco abandoned the corporative system in favour of free market reforms implemented by economic technocrats. Many of these technocrats were members of Opus Dei, a Roman Catholic lay group to which Franco had given powerful positions within the Ministry of Finance and Economics. The reforms of the 1950s were a huge success and Spain experienced a period of rapid economic growth known as the "Spanish Miracle", continuing until Franco's death in 1975. During this period, tourism became an important part of the Spanish economy. Although the corporatist organs and rhetoric from the earlier years of the Franco regime were maintained, they now played a secondary role. Spain's economy was further liberalized by the Spanish transition to democracy following Franco's death.


title: Economics of fascism

text: During Franco's rule, Spanish law discriminated strongly against married women. Without her husband's approval, referred to as the "permiso marital", a wife was prohibited from almost all economic activities, including employment, ownership of property or even travel away from home. The law also provided for less stringent definitions of such crimes as adultery and desertion for husbands than it did for wives. Significant reforms of this system began shortly before Franco's death and continued at a rapid pace over the following years. The "permiso marital" was abolished in 1975, laws against adultery were cancelled in 1978 and divorce was legalized in 1981. During the same year, the parts of the civil code that dealt with family finances were also reformed.


title: XY problem

text: The XY problem is a communication problem encountered in help desk, technical support, software engineering, or customer service situations where the question is about an end user's attempted solution ("Y") rather than the root problem itself ("X").


title: XY problem

text: The XY problem obscures the real issues and may even introduce secondary problems that lead to miscommunication, resource mismanagement, and sub-par solutions. The solution for the support personnel is to ask probing questions as to why the information is needed in order to identify the root problem "X" and redirect the end user away from an unproductive path of inquiry.


title: XY problem

text: The term "XY problem" was implicitly coined by Eric S. Raymond in "How To Ask Questions The Smart Way" when he wrote "How can I use X to do Y?" in the "Questions Not To Ask" section (note that in this original version "X" and "Y" are swapped):


title: XY problem

text: A: If what you want is to do Y, you should ask that question without pre-supposing the use of a method that may not be appropriate. Questions of this form often indicate a person who is not merely ignorant about X, but confused about what problem Y they are solving and too fixated on the details of their particular situation.


title: XY problem

text: The concept of the problem itself, however, was known long before it received this name. In operations research scholar Gene Woolsey's 1980 text "Applied Management Science: A Quick and Dirty Approach", he described an example of the XY problem thus: When management received complaints about having to wait too long for elevators, they researched elevator protocols in order to reduce wait times, but Woolsey realized that the actual problem was that "people were complaining"—installing large mirrors in the lobby gave people something to do and complaints went down drastically.


title: XY problem

text: Often, end users end up in XY problems when posing a question that does not directly address the desired outcome that originally motivated the question. Examples from software engineering include:


title: Park (Korean surname)

text: Park or Bak (, ), is the third-most-common surname in Korea, traditionally traced back to 1st century King Hyeokgeose Park () and theoretically inclusive of all of his descendants. "Park" or "Bak" is usually assumed to come from the Korean noun "Bak" (), meaning "gourd". As of the South Korean census of 2015, there were 4,192,074 people with the name in South Korea, or roughly 8.4% of the population.


title: Park (Korean surname)

text: All the Park clans in Korea trace their ancestry back to the first king of Silla, Hyeokgeose. According to a legend, the leaders of the six clans of the Jinhan confederacy were gathering on a hilltop to choose a king, when they looked down and saw lightning strike at the foot of the Yangsan mountain and a white horse bow at the same place. When they went there to check, they found a red egg, which hatched a baby boy. They bathed the boy in the nearby stream and he was emitting bright light and the sun and the moon rose at the same time, indicating the divine birth of the child. Thus the child was named Hyeokgeose, meaning "ruling with a bright light" and his clan name became Bak or "gourd" after the round shape of the egg he hatched from. At age 13 he was given the title geoseogan (거서간), the equivalent of "king" at the time. The birth legends of early Korean kings were necessary to validate the "divine" nature of their rule.


title: Park (Korean surname)

text: As with other Korean surnames, different lineages, known as bon-gwan or clans, are inherited from a father by his children. These designate the region of Korea or paternal ancestor, from which they claim to originate. Out of the kings of Silla, ten had the Park surname. During the rule of King Pasa (80–112), the Park clans became divided and during the reign of King Gyeongmyeong (917–924) they became even more fractured, creating several lineages. This is when the nine Park clans named after the nine sons of Gyeongmyeong came into existence.


title: Park (Korean surname)

text: 70–80% of the current bearers of the surname belong to the Miryang Bak clan. In 2015, there were 314 Bak clans in South Korea, with about 4.19 million people altogether.


title: Park (Korean surname)

text: The clans which produced the most number of notable people in Korean history are collectively called the "8 Parks", these are: the Miryang Park clan (밀양박씨), the Bannam Park clan (반남박씨), the Goryeong Park clan (고령박씨), the Hamyang Park clan (함양박씨), the Juksan Park clan (죽산박씨), the Suncheon Park clan (순천박씨), the Muan Park clan (무안박씨) and the Chungju Park clan (충주박씨).


title: Park (Korean surname)

text: Traditionally, a man and a woman in the same clan could not marry, so the combination of the bon-gwan and the family name of a husband had to differ from those of his wife. Until 1997, this was also the law, but this was ruled unconstitutional.


title: Park (Korean surname)

text: King Hyeokgeose was said to have founded the Korean kingdom of Silla at the age of thirteen in 57 BC. Bak was one of three houses of the Korean kingdom of Silla. Among the houses of Bak, Gim, and Seok, princes rotated on the throne of Silla. According to historical records, all three houses have been recorded as having worshipped the founding father, Bak Hyeokgeose as their ancestral shrine. For example, the 4th king Talhae of Silla, the 9th king Beolhyu of Silla, the 10th king Naehae of Silla, the 11th king Jobun of Silla, the 12th king Cheomhae of Silla, the 14th King Yurye of Silla and the 15th king Girim of Silla were house of Seok, but according to the Samguk sagi Silla bongi, all of them worshipped Bak Hyeokgeose as their progenitor. In addition, the 13th king Michu of Silla, the 16th king Heulhae of Silla, the 17th king Naemul of Silla, the 18th king Silseong of Silla, the 19th king Nulji of Silla, the 20th king Jabi of Silla, the 21st king Soji of Silla, the 22nd king Jijeung of Silla, the 40th king Aejang of Silla, the 41st king Heondeok of Silla and the 42nd king Heungdeok of Silla are descendants of Gim Al-ji, but according to the Samguk sagi Silla bongi, all of them worshipped Bak Hyeokgeose as their progenitor. In addition, according to Samguk sagi, the Shrine Shingung(神宮) was founded in the birthplace of the progenitor Bak Hyeokgeose(朴赫居世) and every king has been recorded as paying their respects at this shrine. All of these historical records imply that the three lineages of Bak, Seok, and Gim worshipped Bak Hyeokgeose as their founding ancestor.


title: Park (Korean surname)

text: When Seonggols have died out followed by two consecutive queens, Kim Chun-Chu from Jingol began to monopolize the throne, which lasts 258 years. However, even during this period, the Kims did not fully occupy the throne. In the later period of Silla, the Bak clan from Jingol succeed in restoring the throne. During the last century of the dynasty, the Bak clan from Jingol regained the ruling house position in 728 years. However, the Bak dynasty was cut off when Gyeongae of Silla was forced to commit suicide by Gyeon Hwon of the Hubaekje Kingdom. The reign of the Bak clan lasted only 15 years. After that, Gim Bu became the last king of Silla, but soon surrendered to the Wang Geon of Goryeo and Silla finally collapsed in 992 years.


title: Park (Korean surname)

text: During the Unified Silla the Miryang Bak Clan, along with Gimhae Gim clan became the most prominent of the aristocracy, based on the bone rank system. Within the bone rank system, the two clans of Gimhae Gims and Miryang Baks were considered the most Jingol, or "True Bone". As Seong gol, or Divine bones died out through intermarriage, these two clans became the dominant noble houses on the peninsula following the conquest of rival dynasties.


title: Park (Korean surname)

text: After the fall of Silla, it continued as a major noble house of Goryeo. During the Goryeo dynasty, many of the people who passed the highest-level state examination, which was implemented to recruit ranking officials during the Goryeo dynasty, were Parks. The first General to defeat the Mongols in world history was General Park Seo, who commanded the successful defense of the fortress of Guju in 1231 against the forces led by Mongol General Sartaq.


title: Park (Korean surname)

text: During Joseon dynasty, Parks continued to thrive as one of the main Yangban households. With the Gabo Reform of 1894, when the caste system was abolished, some peasants adopted the surname of Park, bloating the population of the Park family. Simultaneously with the abolition of the Gwageo national service examination, the Yangban system came to an end. During the Japanese Occupation Period, three of the ten admitted into were of the Park Clan.


title: Park (Korean surname)

text: According to Kojiki, Nihon Shoki and 播磨国風土記, one of Bak Princes, recorded in various names as , , , , and migrated to Japan in 27 BC and 糸井氏 clan, Miyake clan, 橘守氏 clan, 但馬氏 clan, 絲井氏 clan and Tajimamori are recorded as descendants of Amenohiboko.


title: Park (Korean surname)

text: The following is a list of notable people of the past with the Korean family name Park/Bak. People should only be included in this list if they have their own Wikipedia articles or if they are discussed in a non-trivial fashion in Wikipedia articles on notable groups or events with which they are associated.


title: TLC discography

text: American R&B group TLC has released five studio albums, 13 compilation albums, six video albums, 25 singles (including four as a featured artist), 11 promotional singles, and 24 music videos.


title: TLC discography

text: They have attained four number-one singles on the US "Billboard" Hot 100: "Creep", "Waterfalls", "No Scrubs" and "Unpretty". The group have certified shipping of 23 million albums (including one certified diamond) and 11 million singles. In 2008, the group was inducted into the All Time Hot 100 Artist Hall of Fame by "Billboard" magazine at 56th place.


title: TLC discography

text: They have sold over 65 million records worldwide, and is considered one of the best-selling girl groups of all time (second to the Spice Girls).


title: TLC discography

text: Their second studio album, "CrazySexyCool", has sold 15 million copies worldwide, and is recognized as the best-selling album of all time by a girl group in the United States.


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: Black Messiah is the third studio album by American singer, songwriter, and multi-instrumentalist D'Angelo, credited to D'Angelo and the Vanguard. It was released on December 15, 2014, through RCA Records, bringing an end to D'Angelo's 14-year hiatus following his 2000 album "Voodoo". The album was produced and mostly written by D'Angelo, who collaborated with musicians including percussionist Questlove, bassist Pino Palladino, guitarist Isaiah Sharkey, and horn player Roy Hargrove. He pursued an entirely analog and murky funk sound for the record, lending it comparisons to the 1971 Sly & the Family Stone album "There's a Riot Goin' On".


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: "Black Messiah" was among 2014's most highly anticipated albums and was released to critical acclaim, later being ranked as one of the year's best albums. The album debuted at number five on the US "Billboard" charts and number one on the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, selling over 117,000 units in its first week. "Black Messiah" was promoted with the release of the single "Really Love" and a tour called The Second Coming.


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: D'Angelo released his critically acclaimed album "Voodoo" in 2000. Towards the end of his worldwide tour in support of the album that same year, D'Angelo's personal issues towards performing had worsened. He became more conscious of and uncomfortable with his status as a sex symbol, and after the tour D'Angelo returned to his home in Richmond, Virginia, disappearing from the public eye. Following the suicide of his close friend, MTV-affiliate Fred Jordan, in April 2001, he started to develop an alcohol addiction. As his alcoholism escalated, plans for a live album and a Soultronics studio effort, both originally set for after the tour, were scrapped, and impatient Virgin executives cut off funding for the expected 2004 solo album.


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: By 2005, D'Angelo's girlfriend had left him, his attorney had become displeased with him, and most of his family was out of touch with him. He also parted ways with manager Dominique Trenier and tour manager Alan Leeds. After a car accident and an arrest on DUI and marijuana possession charges, D'Angelo left Virgin Records in 2005 and checked into the Crossroads Centre rehabilitation clinic in Antigua. In 2005, his recording contract was acquired by J Records, following rumors of D'Angelo signing to Bad Boy Records. Despite no solo output, D'Angelo collaborated with some R&B and hip hop artists during his period between albums, appearing on other albums such as J Dilla's "The Shining" (2006), Snoop Dogg's "Tha Blue Carpet Treatment" (2006), Common's "Finding Forever" (2007), and Q-Tip's "The Renaissance" (2008).


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: D'Angelo's subsequent solo work was extensively delayed. Production for a full-length follow-up to "Voodoo" was stagnant, as he was working on and off mostly by himself during 2002. D'Angelo attempted to play every instrument for the project, striving for complete creative control similar to that of Prince. Russell Elevado described the resulting material as "Parliament/Funkadelic meets the Beatles meets Prince, and the whole time there's this Jimi Hendrix energy." However, those who previewed its songs found it to be unfinished. In the years that followed, D'Angelo's personal problems worsened, descending to drug and alcohol addiction. In January 2005 he was arrested and charged with possession of marijuana and cocaine. Various mugshots began circulating around the time, showing the singer looking overweight and unhealthy, in stark contrast to the muscular D'Angelo seen in promotion for "Voodoo". In September 2005, a week after being sentenced on the drug charges, he was involved in a car accident, and was rumoured to be critically injured. However, a week after the crash a statement was issued by D'Angelo's attorney saying he was fine.


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: No more was revealed on the new album until 2007, when Questlove, D'Angelo's drummer and producer, leaked an unfinished track on Triple J Radio in Australia. Entitled "Really Love", the track was an acoustic flavored jam with a laid back swing feel. The leak apparently soured relations between the two.


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: In 2009, D'Angelo's then-new manager Lindsay Guion, revealed plans for a new album, including collaborations with artists including Prince, Kanye West, Busta Rhymes, and John Mayer, and a summer tour, saying "He's able to smile again and he's ready to connect [with fans], he's coming back. And he looks great, by the way." As with the previous year, no tour or album materialized.


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: In early February 2010, a new track called "1000 Deaths" appeared on the Internet, but was swiftly removed due to a copyright claim by Michael Archer, D'Angelo's legal name. The song seemed unfinished, and it is unclear how recent the material actually is, as the same song was mentioned in the same interview (see above) with Russell Elevado, in 2007. Around the same time, an article began to circulate on the Internet, which seemed to be an apparent review of "James River", with detailed descriptions of individual songs, track listing, and segments of lyrics. This caused much discussion regarding the authenticity of the article, or whether it was an elaborate hoax.


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: In January 2011, Russell Elevado updated the status of the album development on his website and said, "Pino Palladino and James Gadson have joined D'Angelo [...] in New York City to finish cutting tracks for the upcoming album (yes, 'THE' upcoming album!). We are officially making our way to finishing this record! I don't need to tell everyone that this will be an amazing album. D'Angelo fans will be extremely happy to know, the wait will be over soon and it will surely be a future classic..." Russell Elevado updated the status of the album again on his own website. "Since my last post I have continued sessions with D'Angelo. We've just finished up 5months of recording. D has been doing vocals and guitars and we've had Pino Palladino back in for some more bass tracks. Also ?uestlove came in to jam with D and Pino. They've finally reunited after 7or 8years (lost track how long really). We're taking a few months break while I take care of some other projects that have been on the back burner."


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: In December 2011 Questlove said the album was 97% done and that D'Angelo was "finishing his lyrics now". He went on to compare the album to a "black version of "Smile"at best, it will go down in the "Smile"/"There's a Riot Goin' On"/Miles Davis' "On the Corner" category. That's what I'm hoping for. There's stuff on there I was amazed at, like new music patches I've never heard before. I'd ask him, 'What kind of keyboard is that?' I thought it was some old vintage thing. But he builds his own patches. One song we worked on called 'Charade' has this trombone patch that he re-EQ'd and then put through an envelope filter and then added a vibraphone noise on top and made a whole new patch out of it. He's the only person I know that takes a Herbie Hancock approach, or Malcolm Cecil and Robert Margouleff—the two musician/engineers who programmed all of Stevie Wonder's genius-period stuff—approach. That's the last time I ever heard of somebody building patches. We'll see if history is kind to it." In 2012, D'Angelo returned to performing live with his Occupy Music Tour and prepared his third studio album, whose recording had D'Angelo return to Electric Lady Studios. Recording of the album was finished at the MSR, Sear Sound, Avatar, and Quad Recording studios in New York City, The Plant and Henson Recording studios in Los Angeles, and Hydra SF in an unknown location.


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: In late November 2011, D'Angelo announced a series of 2012 European tour dates. The tour kicked off January 26 in Stockholm, Sweden with its final show on February 10. The tour featured a selection of hits from his two previous albums and songs from his upcoming album, which was close to completion. He premièred four new songs: "Sugah Daddy", "Ain't That Easy", "Another Life" and "The Charade" which were well received. On September 1, 2012, D'Angelo performed at Jay-Z's Made in America Festival where he again performed the new songs, "The Charade" and "Sugah Daddy".


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: D'Angelo originally wanted to release "Black Messiah" in 2015, but the controversial decisions in the Ferguson and Eric Garner cases inspired him to release it earlier. On December 12, 2014, Kevin Liles, D'Angelo's manager, shared a 15-second teaser of the album on YouTube. Two days later, the track "Sugah Daddy", which had been part of D'Angelo's set list since 2012, premiered at 3am EST and 1,000 downloads were available on Red Bull's 20 Before 15 website. After an exclusive listening party in New York, "Black Messiah" was released digitally on December 15 through iTunes, Google Play Music, and Spotify. The album's unexpected release was compared to Beyoncé's self-titled release in 2013. On January 13, 2015, "Really Love" was released to urban adult contemporary radio in the US.


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: In its first week of release, "Black Messiah" debuted at number five on the "Billboard" 200 and sold 117,000 copies in the United States. In its second week, the album dropped to number twenty five on the chart and sold another 40,254 copies. In the United Kingdom, it debuted at number 47 on the UK Albums Chart with first-week sales of 7,423 copies.


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: D'Angelo supported "Black Messiah" with a tour called "The Second Coming". His band, The Vanguard, comprised drummer Chris Dave, bassist Pino Palladino, guitarists Jesse Johnson and Isaiah Sharkey, vocalist Kendra Foster and keyboardist Cleo "Pookie" Sample. The European leg commenced in Zurich on February 11, 2015, and concluded in Brussels on March 7. "Betray My Heart" was released to urban adult contemporary radio in the US as the album's second single.


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: "Black Messiah" was met with widespread critical acclaim. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 95, based on 30 reviews. Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 9.1 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus.


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: In a rave review for "Rolling Stone", Rob Sheffield hailed the record as an "avant-soul dream palace" and a "warm, expansive masterpiece", while Greg Kot of the "Chicago Tribune" said it delves into unrefined funk and weighty themes without sounding overproduced. "NME" magazine's Angus Batey appraised it as one of the year's best albums and a richly detailed, enduring record that "repays a decade and a half's faith and patience". "Slant Magazine"s Sam C. Mac said D'Angelo combined funk, R&B, and rock with emotionally varied, socially relevant lyrics on an album "ever-worked, ever-tweaked, and perfected (in its distinctively imperfect way), but and raw like little else". The same publication's Jesse Cataldo called it "a stunning collection of majestically constructed prog-soul". In "The Guardian", journalist Paul Lester deemed "Black Messiah" to be as much a socially conscious work as "a restatement of faith in the principles and sounds of the pre-digital era of black music", while Priya Elan of "Mojo" praised it as "a beaming, single-minded statement of spiritual rebirth and political reckoning" that finds D'Angelo appropriately political amid the 2014 Ferguson unrest. Will Hodgkinson, the chief critic for "The Times", claimed he has revived soul music's "testifying spirit" with an album that addresses the African-American experience at a time when there has been no "musical response to the killing of unarmed black men by American policemen this year".


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: Many critics compared "Black Messiah" to Sly and the Family Stone's 1971 funk album "There's a Riot Goin' On". According to Jon Pareles in "The New York Times", it recalled that particular album because of the heavily multitracked vocals, the unpredictable flow of the music, and its roots in funk, rock, jazz, and gospel traditions, all the while highlighting D'Angelo's own musicianship "with all its glorious eccentricities". Somewhat less impressed, Andy Gill of "The Independent" said "Black Messiah" shared the "enervating confusion" of "There's a Riot Goin' On", and that it was better at contextualizing questions of individual and political freedom than actually answering them. In Robert Christgau's opinion, other critics had exaggerated just "how profoundly D'Angelo articulates his racial awareness and romantic struggle". In his own appraisal, published on "Cuepoint", "Black Messiah"s achievement lay instead in the unique, dense jazz-funk highlighted by Palladino and Questlove, who he felt were as musically intuitive and virtuosic as "anyone in the pop sphere".


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: At the end of 2014, "Black Messiah" appeared on a number of critics' top-ten lists of the year's best albums. It was ranked first by Chris Richard of "The Washington Post", eighth best by Sheffield from "Rolling Stone", seventh best by "Pitchfork", and seventeenth best by Christgau in his top-albums list for "The Barnes & Noble Review". It was also named the best album of the year in the Pazz & Jop, an annual poll of more than six hundred American critics and music journalists published by "The Village Voice".


title: Black Messiah (album)

text: In February 2016, "Black Messiah" won a Grammy Award in the category of Grammy Award for Best R&B Album at the 58th Grammy Awards. Along with Solange Knowles' "A Seat at the Table" (2016), "Black Messiah" was later cited by Clayton Purdom of "The A.V. Club" as "the best neo-soul album this decade". In 2019, it was ranked 49th on "The Guardian"s 100 Best Albums of the 21st Century list. That same year, "Stereogum" placed the album at number 70 on its list of "The 100 Best Albums Of The 2010s". In 2020, "Rolling Stone" ranked the album at number 395 on their updated list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.


title: Nadiad

text: Nadiad is a city in the state of Gujarat, India and the administrative centre of the Kheda district. The city is managed by the Nadiad Municipality. It is known for the Santram Mandir, the Mai Mandir, the historic Swaminarayan temple built in 1824, and the Anand and Hari Om Ashram. Nadiad is also where Shrimad Rajchandra composed Shri Atmasiddhi Shatra, a 142 verse spiritual treatise in 1895. Nadiad is located away from Gandhinagar, the capital of Gujarat. It has a major railway junction and is a main station on the Ahmedabad-Mumbai route. It is the birthplace of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the first Deputy Prime Minister of India. Nadiad Municipality was Founded in 1866.


title: Nadiad

text: Nadiad usually has mild winters and very hot summers, with an average of from to , and an average rainfall from to .


title: Nadiad

text: Santram Mandir is located in the center of the town. It is known for its charity work. This old temple is visited by people on the day of full moon. Marida Darwaja and Amdavadi Darwaja are also nearby.


title: Nadiad

text: Shri Atmasiddhishastra Rachnabhoomi is a beautiful memorial that stands at the sanctified site of the creation of Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra in Nadiad. This is where Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra, a magnum opus of spirituality was composed by Shrimad Rajchandra, a great saint, poet and philosopher in 1895.


title: Nadiad

text: Shrimad Rajchandra composed the poetic version of the 6 fundamental truths of the Soul (which he had originally penned in a letter to Lallujiswami in 1893) called Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra in simple language, which could be easily understood and memorized.When Shrimad Rajchandra was in Nadiad, Ambalalbhai had remained at his service throughout the trip. Once Shrimadji came back from a walk around the lake (which has now been transformed into the Jalmandir), he called for Ambalalbhai to bring a lantern and then he started writing Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra.


title: Nadiad

text: When the composition of 142 verses was finished in little over 90 minutes, it was handed over to Ambalalbhai with the instructions to prepare four copies and to send them to three other people and one for himself. One was for Saubhagyabhai, one for Ambalalbhai, one for Lallujiswami and one for Maneklal Ghelabhai Zaveri.


title: Nadiad

text: Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra Rachnabhoomi has been restored by Shrimad Rajchandra Mission Dharampur using the original brick wall to preserve the holy vibrations and stay true to the era. Life-sized statues of Shrimadji and Ambalalbhai have been placed in the room, in the same stance as when the scripture was penned. Shrimad Rajchandra Mission Dharampur also beautified the lake and consecrated a five-foot three-inch idol of Shrimad Rajchandra in the centre. A walking track has been constructed around the lake for the community and visitors which provides a peaceful ambience to contemplate on the self.


title: Nadiad

text: Nadiad is Well Connected With Railway and Road Transport. Nadiad Junction railway station is Major Railway Station in Kheda District and Indian Railways's "A" Category Railway Station Located in Ahmedabad-Mumbai Main Line. Nadiad has two extra lines. One goes to Modasa and other one goes to Petlad. Nadiad Junction railway station has four platforms. Indian Railway is going to extend Modasa Line to Shamlaji. Nadiad has a major bus stand. Nadiad is Zonal Division in Charotar Region. Anand, Mahemdavad, Kapadvanj, Dakor, Mahudha, Borsad, Khambhat bus depot's Are Under Nadiad Division. Nadiad Division is Called by Amul. Nadiad is well connected to Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Gandhinagar, Surat, Rajkot by bus. Other interstate services are operated by Nadiad Division from Nadiad. Nearest airport is Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport located in Ahmedabad and it is 65 km away from Nadiad.


title: Nadiad

text: As per provisional reports of Census India, population of Nadiad in 2011 is 218,095; of which male and female are 112,311 and 105,784 respectively. Although Nadiad city has population of 218,095; its urban / metropolitan population is 225,071 of which 115,903 are males and 109,168 are females.


title: Tum Mile

text: Tum Mile (transl. I met you) is a 2009 Indian Hindi-language romantic disaster film directed by Kunal Deshmukh, with story concept by Vishesh Bhatt. The film stars Emraan Hashmi and Soha Ali Khan in lead roles. It is a love story set against the backdrop of the infamous July 2005 Mumbai floods. The film was released on 13 November 2009.


title: Tum Mile

text: The movie is in clips of Past and Present. Akshay Malvade who is an artist and a character designer in present departures on a flight. He is boarding from London. Suddenly he sees Sanjana Singhania who is sitting just opposite Akshay, and next to business man number 23. They both see each other. Akshay and Sanjana remember a series of flashbacks. Akshay was a struggling artist who was in Cape Town. He sees Sanjana first time at that point. Then while Sanjana tries to take out her car she accidentally bumps Akshay's car and leaves a note on it. Akshay and his friend Vicky go to her house and while coming back they have a lot of fun. The next day Akshay and Sanjana go to a party and kiss. They discover their love. Sanjana breaks up with her fiancé and confesses her feelings to Akshay. Akshay and Sanjana settle down. As Akshay is an artist and not employed his business is not improving. He also has an ego fight with a distributor. As Akshay doesn't have any money he gets frustrated and takes it out on Sanjana. Sanjana has been working for quite a while. After some time Akshay gets a job in Sydney. As Sanjana can not leave her job and Akshay is interested in the offer they have a fight and break up. Back in the present when they remember these memories the situation is worst in Mumbai. The heavy rains have flooded the city (Indicating the Maharashtra floods of 2005). Many are trying to survive. While their adventure for survival continues Vicky is electrocuted as he falls in water with a cable carrying an electric current. After spending time together they realise that their break-up 6 years back was just a break for them as their destiny is to be united.


title: Tum Mile

text: "Tum Mile" opened to mixed to positive reviews, with most major critics agreeing it to be a passable movie. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave it a rating of 3/5 and said, ""Tum Mile" caters to the youth mainly. At the box-office, the Vishesh Films - Emraan Hashmi combo has cultivated a strong fan-base over the years and coupled with good music, which is also very popular, the film should find itself in the comfortable zone".


title: Tum Mile

text: According to Box Office India, "Tum Mile" was a flop, grossing only 13.46 crores on a budget of 22 crore, just short of its budget.


title: Tum Mile

text: The soundtrack was released on 16 September. The songs were composed by Pritam with lyrics by Sayeed Quadri and Kumaar.


title: Japonisme

text: Japonisme is a French term that refers to the popularity and influence of Japanese art and design among a number of Western European artists in the nineteenth century following the forced reopening of foreign trade with Japan in 1858. Japonisme was first described by French art critic and collector Philippe Burty in 1872.


title: Japonisme

text: While the effects of the trend were likely most pronounced in the visual arts, they extended to architecture, landscaping and gardening, and clothing. Even the performing arts were affected; Gilbert & Sullivan's "The Mikado" is perhaps the best example.


title: Japonisme

text: From the 1860s, "ukiyo-e," Japanese woodblock prints, became a source of inspiration for many Western artists. These prints were created for the commercial market in Japan. Although a percentage of prints were brought to the West through Dutch trade merchants, it was not until the 1860s that ukiyo-e prints gained popularity in Europe. Western artists were intrigued by the original use of color and composition. Ukiyo-e prints featured dramatic foreshortening and asymmetrical compositions.


title: Japonisme

text: Japanese decorative arts, including ceramics, enamels, metalwork, and lacquerware, were as influential in the West as the graphic arts. During the Meiji era (1868–1912), Japanese pottery was exported around the world. From a long history of making weapons for samurai, Japanese metalworkers had achieved an expressive range of colours by combining and finishing metal alloys. Japanese cloissoné enamel reached its "golden age" from 1890 to 1910, producing items more advanced than ever before. These items were widely visible in nineteenth-century Europe: a succession of world's fairs displayed Japanese decorative art to millions, and it was picked up by galleries and fashionable stores. Writings by critics, collectors, and artists expressed considerable excitement about this "new" art. Collectors including Siegfried Bing and Christopher Dresser displayed and wrote about these works. Thus Japanese styles and themes reappeared in the work of Western artists and craftsmen.


title: Japonisme

text: During the most of the Edo period (1603–1867), Japan was in a time of seclusion and only one international port remained active. Tokugawa Iemitsu ordered that an island, Dejima, be built off the shores of Nagasaki from which Japan could receive imports. The Dutch were the only Westerners able to engage in trade with the Japanese, yet this small amount of contact still allowed for Japanese art to influence the West. Every year the Dutch arrived in Japan with fleets of ships filled with Western goods for trade. The cargo included many Dutch treatises on painting and a number of Dutch prints. Shiba Kōkan (1747–1818) was one of the Japanese artists that studied the imports. Kōkan created one of the first etchings in Japan which was a technique he had learned from one of the imported treatises. Kōkan combined the technique of linear perspective, which he learned from a treatise, with his own ukiyo-e styled paintings.


title: Japonisme

text: The primary Japanese exports were initially silver, which was prohibited after 1668, and gold, mostly in the form of oval coins, which was prohibited after 1763, and later copper in the form of copper bars. Japanese exports eventually decreased and shifted to craftwork such as ceramics, hand fans, paper, furniture, swords, armors, mother-of-pearl objects, folding screens, and lacquerware, which were already being exported.


title: Japonisme

text: During the era of seclusion, Japanese goods remained a luxury sought after by European elites. The production of Japanese porcelain increased in the seventeenth century, after Korean potters were brought to the Kyushu area. The immigrants, their descendants, and Japanese counterparts unearthed kaolin clay mines and began to make high quality pottery. The blend of traditions evolved into a distinct Japanese industry with styles such as Imari ware and Kakiemon. They would later influence European and Chinese potters. The exporting of porcelain was further boosted by the effects of the Ming-Qing transition, which immobilized the center of Chinese porcelain production in Jingdezhen for several decades. Japanese potters filled the void making porcelain for European tastes. Porcelain and lacquered objects became the main exports from Japan to Europe. An extravagant way to display porcelain in a home was to create a porcelain room with shelves placed throughout to show off the exotic wares, but the ownership of a few pieces was possible for a wide and increasing social range of the middle class. Marie Antoinette and Maria Theresa are known collectors of Japanese lacquerware, and their collections are often exhibited in the Louvre and the Palace of Versailles. The European imitation of Asian lacquerwork is referred to as Japanning.


title: Japonisme

text: During the Kaei era (1848–1854), after more than 200 years of seclusion, foreign merchant ships of various nationalities began to visit Japan. Following the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan ended a long period of national isolation and became open to imports from the West, including photography and printing techniques. With this new opening in trade, Japanese art and artifacts began to appear in small curiosity shops in Paris and London. Japonisme began as a craze for collecting Japanese art, particularly ukiyo-e. Some of the first samples of ukiyo-e were seen in Paris.


title: Japonisme

text: During this time, European artists were seeking alternatives to the strict European academic methodologies. Around 1856, the French artist Félix Bracquemond encountered a copy of the sketch book "Hokusai Manga" at the workshop of his printer, Auguste Delâtre. In the years following this discovery, there was an increase of interest in Japanese prints. They were sold in curiosity shops, tea warehouses, and larger shops. Shops such as "La Porte Chinoise" specialized in the sale of Japanese and Chinese imports. "La Porte Chinoise," in particular, attracted artists James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Édouard Manet, and Edgar Degas who drew inspiration from the prints. It and other shops organized gatherings which facilitated the spread of information regarding Japanese art and techniques.


title: Japonisme

text: Ukiyo-e prints were one of the main Japanese influences on Western art. Western artists were inspired by different uses of compositional space, flattening of planes, and abstract approaches to color. An emphasis on diagonals, asymmetry, and negative space can be seen in the works of Western artists who were influenced by this style.


title: Japonisme

text: Vincent van Gogh's interest in Japanese prints began when he discovered illustrations by Félix Régamey featured in "The Illustrated London News" and "Le Monde Illustré." Régamey created woodblock prints, followed Japanese techniques, and often depicted scenes of Japanese life. Van Gogh used Régamey as a reliable source for the artistic practices and everyday scenes of Japanese life. Beginning in 1885, Van Gogh switched from collecting magazine illustrations, such as Régamey, to collecting ukiyo-e prints which could be bought in small Parisian shops. He shared these prints with his contemporaries and organized a Japanese print exhibition in Paris in 1887.


title: Japonisme

text: Van Gogh's "Portrait of Père Tanguy" (1887) is a portrait of his color merchant, Julien Tanguy. Van Gogh created two versions of this portrait. Both versions feature backdrops of Japanese prints by identifiable artists like Hiroshige and Kunisada. Inspired by Japanese woodblock prints and their colorful palettes, Van Gogh incorporated a similar vibrancy into his own works. He filled the portrait of Tanguy with vibrant colors as he believed that buyers were no longer interested in grey-toned Dutch paintings and that paintings with many colors would be considered modern and desirable.


title: Japonisme

text: The Belgian painter Alfred Stevens was one of the earliest collectors and enthusiast of Japanese art in Paris. Objects from Stevens' studio illustrate his fascination with Japanese and exotic knick-knacks and furniture. Stevens was close with Manet and to James McNeill Whistler, with whom he shared this interest early on. Many of his contemporaries were similarly enthused, especially after the 1862 International Exhibition in London and the International Exposition of 1867 in Paris, where Japanese art and objects appeared for the first time.


title: Japonisme

text: From the mid-1860's, Japonisme became a fundamental element in many of Stevens' paintings. One of his most famous Japonisme-influenced works is "La parisienne japonaise" (1872). He realized several portraits of young women dressed in kimono, and Japanese elements feature in many other paintings of his, such as the early "La Dame en Rose" (1866), which combines a view of a fashionably dressed woman in an interior with a detailed examination of Japanese objects, and "The Psyché" (1871), wherein on a chair there sit Japanese prints, indicating his artistic passion.


title: Japonisme

text: In the 1860s, Edgar Degas began to collect Japanese prints from "La Porte Chinoise" and other small print shops in Paris. His contemporaries had begun to collect prints as well, which gave him a wide array of sources for inspiration. Among prints shown to Degas was a copy of Hokusai's "Manga", which Bracquemond had purchased after seeing it in Delâtre's workshop. The estimated date of Degas' adoption of japonismes into his prints is 1875, and it can be seen in his choice to divide individual scenes by placing barriers vertically, diagonally, and horizontally.


title: Japonisme

text: Similar to many Japanese artists, Degas' prints focus on women and their daily routines. The atypical positioning of his female figures and the dedication to reality in his prints aligned him with Japanese printmakers such as Hokusai, Utamaro, and Sukenobu. In Degas' print "Mary Cassatt at the Louvre: The Etruscan Gallery" (1879–80), the artist uses of two figures, one seated and one standing, which is a common composition in Japanese prints. Degas also continued to use lines to create depth and separate space within the scene. His most clear appropriation is of the woman leaning on a closed umbrella, which is borrowed directly from Hokusai's "Manga".


title: Japonisme

text: Japanese art was exhibited in Britain beginning in the early 1850s. These exhibitions featured various Japanese objects, including maps, letters, textiles, and objects from everyday life. These exhibitions served as a source of national pride for Britain and served to create a separate Japanese identity apart from the generalized "Orient" cultural identity.


title: Japonisme

text: James Abbott McNeill Whistler was an American artist who worked primarily in Britain. During the late 19th century, Whistler began to reject the Realist style of painting that his contemporaries favored. Instead, he found simplicity and technicality in the Japanese aesthetic. Rather than copying specific artists and artworks, Whistler was influenced by general Japanese methods of articulation and composition, which he integrated into his works.


title: Japonisme

text: The first popular stagings of Asia were depictions of Japan from England. The comic opera "Kosiki" (originally titled "The Mikado" but renamed after protest from Japan) was written in 1876. In 1885, Gilbert and Sullivan, apparently less concerned about Japanese perceptions, premiered their "Mikado". This comic opera enjoyed immense popularity throughout Europe where seventeen companies performed it 9,000 times within two years of its premiere. Translated into German in 1887, The Mikado remained the most popular drama in Germany throughout the 1890s. In the wake of this popularity, comedies set in Asia and featuring comic Asian figures appeared in rapid succession, both in comic opera and drama.


title: Japonisme

text: The successor to The Mikado as Europe's most popular Japan drama, Sidney Jones' opera The Geisha (1896) added the title character to the stock characters representing Japan, the figure of the geisha belongs to the "objects " which in and of themselves meant Japan in Germany and throughout the West. The period from 1904 to 1918 saw a European boom in geisha dramas. The most famous of these was, of course, Puccini's opera "Madama Butterfly". In 1900, Puccini saw a staging of David Belasco's play of the same name and reportedly found it so moving that he wept. The popularity of the opera brought on a slew of Madame Something or Others, including Madames Cherry, Espirit, Flott, Flirt, Wig-Wag, Leichtsinn, and Tip Top, all of whom appeared around 1904 and disappeared relatively quickly. They were not without lasting effect, however, and the geisha had established herself among the scrolls, jade, and images of Mount Fuji that signified Japan to the West. Much as this human figure of the geisha was reduced to the level of other objects signifying Japan in the drama, Japanese performers in Germany served German play wrights in their quest to renew the German drama. Just as ukiyo-e had proven useful in France, severed from any understanding of Japan, the troupes of Japanese actors and dancers that toured Europe provided materials for "a new way of dramatizing" on stage. Ironically, the popularity and influence of these Japanese dramas had a great deal to do with the westernization of the Japanese theater in general and of the pieces performed in Europe in particular.


title: Japonisme

text: Invented for the Kabuki theatre in Japan in the 18th century, the revolving stage was introduced into Western theater at the Residenz theatre in Munich in 1896 under the influence of japonism fever. The Japanese influence on German drama first appeared in stage design. Karl Lautenschlager adopted the Kabuki revolving stage in 1896 and ten years later Max Reinhardt employed it in the premiere of Frühlings Erwachen by Frank Wedekind. Soon this revolving stage was a trend in Berlin. Another adaptation of the Kabuki stage popular among German directors was the Blumensteg, a jutting extension of the stage into the audience. The European acquaintance with Kabuki came either from travels in Japan or from texts, but also from Japanese troupes touring Europe. In 1893, Kawakami Otojiro and his troupe of actors arrived in Paris, returning again in 1900 and playing in Berlin in 1902. Kawakami's troop performed two pieces, Kesa and Shogun, both of which were westernized and were performed without music and with the majority of the dialogue eliminated. This being the case, these performances tended toward pantomime and dance. Dramatists and critics quickly latched on to what they saw as a “re-theatricalization of the theater.” Among the actors in these plays was Sada Yacco, first Japanese star in Europe, who influenced pioneers of modern dance such as Loie Fuller and Isadora Duncan; she performed for Queen Victoria in 1900, and enjoyed the status of a European star.


title: Japonisme

text: The aesthetic of Japanese gardens was introduced to the English-speaking world by Josiah Conder's "Landscape Gardening in Japan" (Kelly & Walsh, 1893), which sparked the first Japanese gardens in the West. A second edition was published in 1912. Conder's principles have sometimes proved hard to follow:


title: Japonisme

text: Samuel Newsom's "Japanese Garden Construction" (1939) offered Japanese aesthetics as a corrective in the construction of rock gardens, which owed their quite separate origins in the West to the mid-19th century desire to grow alpines in an approximation of Alpine scree. According to the Garden History Society, Japanese landscape gardener Seyemon Kusumoto was involved in the development of around 200 gardens in the UK. In 1937, he exhibited a rock garden at the Chelsea Flower Show, and worked on the Burngreave Estate at Bognor Regis, a Japanese garden at Cottered in Hertfordshire, and courtyards at Du Cane Court in London.


title: Japonisme

text: The impressionist painter Claude Monet modelled parts of his garden in Giverny after Japanese elements, such as the bridge over the lily pond, which he painted numerous times. In this series, by detailing just on a few select points such as the bridge or the lilies, he was influenced by traditional Japanese visual methods found in "ukiyo-e" prints, of which he had a large collection. He also planted a large number of native Japanese species to give it a more exotic feeling.


title: Japonisme

text: In the United States, the fascination with Japanese art extended to collectors and museums creating significant collections which still exist and have influenced many generations of artists. The epicenter was in Boston, likely due to Isabella Stewart Gardner, a pioneering collector of Asian art. As a result, the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston now claims to house the finest collection of Japanese art outside Japan. The Freer Gallery of Art and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery house the largest Asian art research library in the United States, where they house Japanese art together with the Japanese-influenced works of Whistler.


title: Aggregate demand

text: In macroeconomics, aggregate demand (AD) or domestic final demand (DFD) is the total demand for final goods and services in an economy at a given time. It is often called effective demand, though at other times this term is distinguished. This is the demand for the gross domestic product of a country. It specifies the amount of goods and services that will be purchased at all possible price levels. Consumer spending, investment, corporate and government expenditure, and net exports make up the aggregate demand.


title: Aggregate demand

text: The aggregate demand curve is plotted with real output on the horizontal axis and the price level on the vertical axis. While it is theorized to be downward sloping, the Sonnenschein–Mantel–Debreu results show that the slope of the curve cannot be mathematically derived from assumptions about individual rational behavior. Instead, the downward sloping aggregate demand curve is derived with the help of three macroeconomic assumptions about the functioning of markets: Pigou's wealth effect, Keynes' interest rate effect and the Mundell–Fleming exchange-rate effect. The Pigou effect states that a higher price level implies lower real wealth and therefore lower consumption spending, giving a lower quantity of goods demanded in the aggregate. The Keynes effect states that a higher price level implies a lower real money supply and therefore higher interest rates resulting from financial market equilibrium, in turn resulting in lower investment spending on new physical capital and hence a lower quantity of goods being demanded in the aggregate.


title: Aggregate demand

text: The Mundell–Fleming exchange-rate effect is an extension of the IS–LM model. Whereas the traditional IS-LM Model deals with a closed economy, Mundell–Fleming describes a small open economy. The Mundell–Fleming model portrays the short-run relationship between an economy's nominal exchange rate, interest rate, and output (in contrast to the closed-economy IS–LM model, which focuses only on the relationship between the interest rate and output).


title: Aggregate demand

text: The aggregate demand curve illustrates the relationship between two factors: the quantity of output that is demanded and the aggregate price level. Aggregate demand is expressed contingent upon a fixed level of the nominal money supply. There are many factors that can shift the AD curve. Rightward shifts result from increases in the money supply, in government expenditure, or in autonomous components of investment or consumption spending, or from decreases in taxes.


title: Aggregate demand

text: According to the aggregate demand-aggregate supply model, when aggregate demand increases, there is movement up along the aggregate supply curve, giving a higher level of prices.


title: Aggregate demand

text: John Maynard Keynes in "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money" argued during the Great Depression that the loss of output by the private sector as a result of a systemic shock (the Wall Street Crash of 1929) ought to be filled by government spending. First, he argued that with a lower ‘effective aggregate demand’, or the total amount of spending in the economy (lowered in the Crash), the private sector could subsist on a permanently reduced level of activity and involuntary unemployment, unless there were active intervention. Business lost access to capital, so it had dismissed workers. This meant workers had less to spend as consumers, consumers bought less from business, which because of additionally reduced demand, had found the need to dismiss workers. The downward spiral could only be halted and rectified by external action. Second, people with higher incomes have a lower average propensity to consume their incomes. People with lower incomes are inclined to spend their earnings immediately to buy housing, food, transport and so forth, while people with much higher incomes cannot consume everything. They save instead, which means that the velocity of money, meaning the circulation of income through different hands in the economy, is decreased. This lowered the rate of growth. Spending should therefore target public works programmes on a large enough scale to speed up growth to its previous levels.


title: Aggregate demand

text: An aggregate demand curve is the sum of individual demand curves for different sectors of the economy. The aggregate demand is usually described as a linear sum of four separable demand sources:


title: Aggregate demand

text: In sum, for a single country at a given time, aggregate demand (formula_26 or formula_27) is given by formula_28.


title: Aggregate demand

text: These macroeconomic variables are constructed from varying types of microeconomic variables from the price of each, so these variables are denominated in (real or nominal) currency terms.


title: Aggregate demand

text: Understanding of the aggregate demand curve depends on whether it is examined based on changes in demand as income changes, or as price change.


title: Aggregate demand

text: Sometimes, especially in textbooks, "aggregate demand" refers to an entire demand curve that "looks" like that in a typical Marshallian supply and demand diagram.


title: Aggregate demand

text: Thus, we could refer to an "aggregate quantity demanded" (formula_29 in real or inflation-corrected terms) at any given aggregate average price level (such as the GDP deflator), formula_30.


title: Aggregate demand

text: In these diagrams, typically the formula_31 rises as the average price level (formula_30) falls, as with the formula_27 line in the diagram. The main theoretical reason for this is that if the nominal money supply (M) is constant, a falling formula_30 implies that the real money supply (formula_35)rises, encouraging lower interest rates and higher spending. This is often called the "Keynes effect".


title: Aggregate demand

text: Carefully using ideas from the theory of supply and demand, aggregate supply can help determine the extent to which increases in aggregate demand lead to increases in real output or instead to increases in prices (inflation). In the diagram, an increase in any of the components of formula_27 (at any given formula_30) shifts the formula_27 curve to the right. This increases both the level of real production (formula_4) and the average price level (formula_30).


title: Aggregate demand

text: But different levels of economic activity imply different mixtures of output and price increases. As shown, with very low levels of real gross domestic product and thus large amounts of unemployed resources, most economists of the Keynesian school suggest that most of the change would be in the form of output and employment increases. As the economy gets close to potential output (formula_41), we would see more and more price increases rather than output increases as formula_27 increases.


title: Aggregate demand

text: Beyond formula_41, this gets more intense, so that price increases dominate. Worse, output levels greater than formula_41 cannot be sustained for long. The formula_45 is a "short-term" relationship here. If the economy persists in operating above potential, the formula_45 curve will shift to the left, making the increases in real output transitory.


title: Aggregate demand

text: At low levels of formula_4, the world is more complicated. First, most modern industrial economies experience few if any fall in prices. So the formula_45 curve is unlikely to shift down or to the right. Second, when they do suffer price cuts (as in Japan), it can lead to disastrous deflation.


title: Aggregate demand

text: A post-Keynesian theory of aggregate demand emphasizes the role of debt, which it considers a fundamental component of aggregate demand; the contribution of change in debt to aggregate demand is referred to by some as the . Aggregate demand is "spending," be it on consumption, investment, or other categories. Spending is related to income via:


title: Aggregate demand

text: In words: What you spend is what you earn, plus what you borrow. If you spend $110 and earned $100, then you must have net borrowed $10. Conversely, if you spend $90 and earn $100, then you have net savings of $10, or have reduced debt by $10, for a net change in debt of –$10.


title: Aggregate demand

text: If debt grows or shrinks slowly as a percentage of GDP, its impact on aggregate demand is small. Conversely, if debt is significant, then changes in the dynamics of debt growth can have significant impact on aggregate demand. Change in debt is tied to the "level" of debt: if the overall debt level is 10% of GDP and 1% of loans are not repaid, this impacts GDP by 1% of 10% = 0.1% of GDP, which is statistical noise. Conversely, if the debt level is 300% of GDP and 1% of loans are not repaid, this impacts GDP by 1% of 300% = 3% of GDP, which is significant: a change of this magnitude will generally cause a recession.


title: Aggregate demand

text: Similarly, changes in the repayment rate (debtors paying down their debts) impact aggregate demand in proportion to the level of debt. Thus, as the level of debt in an economy grows, the economy becomes more sensitive to debt dynamics, and credit bubbles are of macroeconomic concern. Since write-offs and savings rates both spike in recessions, both of which result in shrinkage of credit, the resulting drop in aggregate demand can worsen and perpetuate the recession in a vicious cycle.


title: Aggregate demand

text: This perspective originates in, and is intimately tied to, the debt-deflation theory of Irving Fisher, and the notion of a credit bubble (credit being the flip side of debt), and has been elaborated in the Post-Keynesian school. If the overall level of debt is rising each year, then aggregate demand exceeds Income by that amount. However, if the level of debt stops rising and instead starts falling (if "the bubble bursts"), then aggregate demand falls short of income, by the amount of net savings (largely in the form of debt repayment or debt writing off, such as in bankruptcy). This causes a sudden and sustained drop in aggregate demand, and this shock is argued to be the proximate cause of a class of economic crises, properly financial crises. Indeed, a fall in the level of debt is not necessary – even a "slowing" in the rate of debt growth causes a drop in aggregate demand (relative to the higher borrowing year). These crises then end when credit starts growing again, either because most or all debts have been repaid or written off, or for other reasons as below.


title: Aggregate demand

text: From the perspective of debt, the Keynesian prescription of government deficit spending in the face of an economic crisis consists of the government net "dis"-saving (increasing its debt) to compensate for the shortfall in private debt: it replaces private debt with public debt. Other alternatives include seeking to restart the growth of private debt ("reflate the bubble"), or slow or stop its fall; and debt relief, which by lowering or eliminating debt stops credit from contracting (as it cannot fall below zero) and allows debt to either stabilize or grow – this has the further effect of redistributing wealth from creditors (who write off debts) to debtors (whose debts are relieved).


title: Aggregate demand

text: Austrian theorist Henry Hazlitt argued that aggregate demand is "a meaningless concept" in economic analysis. Friedrich Hayek, another Austrian, wrote that Keynes' study of the aggregate relations in an economy is "fallacious", arguing that recessions are caused by micro-economic factors.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: After We Collided is a 2014 young adult American romance novel written by Anna Todd under her Wattpad name Imaginator1D and published by Gallery Books, an imprint of Simon & Schuster. "After We Collided" is the second installment of the "After" novel series.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: Like its predecessor, "After We Collided" was originally released as fanfiction on Wattpad as the sequel to "After", which was titled as "After 2".


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: After Tessa found out that Hardin played with her feelings, she leaves him and focuses on school and her life. She resorted her relationship with her mother Carol and ex-boyfriend Noah. She even gets a job at VP (Vance Publishing in the first book). Life started being good for Tessa and her new colleague Trevor falls in love with her.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: Hardin, on the other hand, is furious and sad at his friends especially Molly because she destroyed his first ever relationship with a girl who liked him. He is determined to change himself. He fixes his relationship with his father Ken and accepted Landon as brother and friend.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: A few days later Tessa, Trevor, Kimberly, and Vance go to Seattle to celebrate book publishing. Tessa gets drunk and started dancing, accidentally kissing a stranger because she imagined him to be Hardin.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: The next morning, Tessa and Hardin argue about the incident the previous night. Before leaving the hotel room, Hardin tells her that he was sleeping with Molly. Tessa in rage throws objects at him.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: At work, Tessa is talking to Trevor, and he asks her if she loves Hardin. Tessa tells him, yes but they are apart because of personal issues.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: Three months after her work at VP Tessa pays a visit to her mother. Tessa tells her that she temporarily broke up with Hardin because he started having anger issues. Carol is delighted about the news, but Tessa said that she will not have any boyfriend from now on, Carol agrees and before Tessa leaves, she says to her mother that she loves her.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: Two days later while driving to work Tessa gets into a fatal car accident that knocked her unconscious, she is rushed to the hospital for treatment, but doctors couldn’t do anything, so she slipped into a coma. When Hardin hears about that from Landon, he locks himself in his room and breaks into tears, because the love of his life is lying in a hospital bed unmovable.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: A year goes by, and Tessa doesn’t get any better. The doctors are worried about her health, at that time Hardin visits her. While he was sitting in a hospital chair, he was holding her hand, reading her a book, and talking to her. In the middle of talking Tessa starts to squeeze his hand. This shocks Hardin who yelled for a doctor, when Doctor Parker asked why he is yelling? Hardin tells her that Tessa just squeezed his hand. Doctor Parker asked him what he was doing? Hardin answered that he was talking to her. Doctor Parker checks her and smiling said that Tessa is making progress because he was with her and that she loves listening to his voice.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: A week goes by, and Hardin is always on Tessa’s side to help her improve her health. One afternoon a miracle happens – Tessa finally wakes up from the coma, but she doesn’t remember the events from a year ago. She asked if Hardin is her boyfriend? Hardin's answer was no. She started crying but Hardin calmed her down. Then Tessa’s phone rang and she asked who is Trevor and why is he calling her?


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: Outside, Doctor Parker tells him sad news – they ran a test on Tessa and results came back positive, she has permanently lost her memories and has brain damage because of an accident.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: Hardin asked if she is going to remember anything? Doctor Parker said that she is going to remember him, her family, best friend, her work friend, and boss; but unfortunately, she will not remember her male colleagues and other people from the university. On the next day, Tessa is discharged from hospital, and Hardin took her to their old apartment where she is staying.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: On her workday, Trevor goes to Tessa and asks her why she didn’t answer his calls? Tessa who doesn’t remember him, stays silent. Before Trevor could do something to her, she is saved by Hardin, Vance and Kimberly. Vance fires Trevor from his office and Trevor swore revenge on Hardin. Tessa faints on the spot.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: When she wakes up, she sees that she is in the apartment and that she is wearing her night dress. She asked Hardin if he changed her clothes. Hardin’s answer is yes, then he rests with Tessa on the bed.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: On New Year's Eve they arrive at frat house party, but loud music scared Tessa; so, Hardin suggested they go somewhere calm. The two run into Zed, Steph and Tristan who knew the situation of Tessa, so they don’t pressure her to remember them. Hardin then asked if Tessa is thirsty? Tessa says yes, so he brings her a glass of water. The five of them are seated on big leather sofa in peaceful living room, but calming atmosphere is disturbed by Molly who loudly announces her arrival. Molly then sees Tessa cuddling into Hardin’s chest and that makes her jealous.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: Molly then started tormenting Tessa which put the poor girl in severe panic attack. At one point, Molly emotionally bullies Tessa, who ended up crying badly and running away. Molly laughs hysterically at the scene. Hardin is so angry that he storms out of the living room to find Tessa but before he stomps out, he yelled at Molly.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: He finds Tessa on the road, so he takes her home. They visited tattoo parlor where Hardin got new tattoo. On their way home, they run into homeless man which is Tessa’s dad Richard.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: •Tessa "Theresa" Young 19 years old girl second year of collage employee at Vance Publishing and Hardin’s ex-girlfriend.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: • Steph Jones edgy red-haired girl, Hardin’s best friend and Tessa’s ex-roommate, Tristan’s girlfriend.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: A film adaptation for "After We Collided" was announced in May 2019. Langford and Fiennes Tiffin reprised their respective roles as Tessa and Hardin, and the film was released on October 23, 2020.


title: After We Collided (novel)

text: In July 2021, it was announced that the novel series will be adapted into graphic novels by artist Pablo Andrés.


title: Lüneburg

text: Lüneburg (officially the "Hanseatic City of Lüneburg", German: "Hansestadt Lüneburg", , Low German "Lümborg", Latin "Luneburgum" or "Lunaburgum", Old High German "Luneburc", Old Saxon "Hliuni", Polabian "Glain"), also called Lunenburg ( ) in English, is a town in the German state of Lower Saxony. It is located about southeast of another Hanseatic city, Hamburg, and belongs to that city's wider metropolitan region. The capital of the district which bears its name, it is home to roughly 77,000 people. Lüneburg's urban area, which includes the surrounding communities of Adendorf, Bardowick, Barendorf and Reppenstedt, has a population of around 103,000. Lüneburg has been allowed to use the title "Hansestadt" ("Hanseatic Town") in its name since 2007, in recognition of its membership in the former Hanseatic League. Lüneburg is also home to Leuphana University.


title: Lüneburg

text: The first signs of human presence in the area of Lüneburg date back to the time of Neanderthal Man: 56 axes, estimated at 150,000 years old, were uncovered during the construction in the 1990s of the autobahn between Ochtmissen and Bardowick. The site of the discovery at Ochtmissen was probably a Neanderthal hunting location where huntsmen skinned and cut up the animals they had caught.


title: Lüneburg

text: The area was almost certainly not continuously inhabited at that time, however, due to the various glaciations that lasted for millennia. The first indication of a permanent, settled farming culture in the area was found not far from the site of the Neanderthal discovery in the river Ilmenau between Lüne and Bardowick. This was an axe that is described as a "Schuhleistenkeil" or "shoe last wedge" due to its shape. It dates to the 6th century BC and is now in the collection of the Lüneburg Museum.


title: Lüneburg

text: Since the Bronze Age, the Lüneburg hill known as the "Zeltberg" has concealed a whole range of prehistoric and early historic graves, which were laid out by people living in the area of the present-day town of Lüneburg. One of the oldest finds from this site is a so-called Unetice flanged axe ("Aunjetitzer Randleistenbeil") which dates to 1900 BC.


title: Lüneburg

text: The land within the town itself has also yielded a number of ice age urns that were already being reported in the 18th century. These discoveries are, however, like those from the Lüneburger Kalkberg — they went into the private collections of several 18th century scholars and, with a few exceptions, were lost when the scholars died.


title: Lüneburg

text: Also worth mentioning in this regard are the Lombard Urnfield graves on the Lüneburg Zeltberg and Oedeme from the first few centuries AD. In the Middle Ages, there several discoveries were made on the site of the town, for example on the site of the old village of Modestorpe not far from St. John's Church ("Johanniskirche"), at the Lambertiplatz near the saltworks and in the old Waterside Quarter.


title: Lüneburg

text: The ancient town may be that identified as Leufana or Leuphana (), a town listed in Ptolemy (2.10) in the north of Germany on the west of the Elbe.