title: Vasant Panchami

text: In the Punjab region, Basant is celebrated as a seasonal festival by all faiths and is known as the Basant Festival of Kites. Children buy "dor" (thread) and "guddi" or "patang" (kites) for the sport. The people of the Punjab wear yellow clothes and eat yellow rice to emulate the yellow mustard ("sarson") flower fields, or play by flying kites. According to Desai (2010), the tradition of flying kites on various festivals is also found in northern and western Indian states: Hindus in Rajasthan and especially in Gujarat associate kite flying with the period prior to Uttarayan; in Mathura (Uttar Pradesh), kites are flown on Dussehra; in Bengal kite flying takes place on Viskwakarma Puja in September. The sport is also found in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and parts of south India.


title: Vasant Panchami

text: On Bali and among Indonesian Hindus, Hari Raya Saraswati (the festival's local name) is celebrated with prayers in family compounds, educational institutions, and public venues from morning to noon. Teachers and students wear brightly coloured clothes instead of their usual uniforms, and children bring traditional cakes and fruit to school for offerings in a temple.


title: Vasant Panchami

text: Namdhari Sikhs have historically celebrated Basant Panchami to mark the beginning of spring. Other Sikhs treat it as a spring festival, and joyfully celebrate it by wearing yellow colored clothes, emulating the bright yellow mustard flowers in the fields.


title: Vasant Panchami

text: Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the founder of the Sikh Empire, encouraged the celebration of Basant Panchami as a social event in the Gurdwaras. In 1825 CE he gave 2,000 rupees to the Harmandir Sahib Gurdwara in Amritsar to distribute food. He held an annual Basant fair and sponsored kite flying as a regular feature of the fairs. Maharaja Ranjit Singh and his queen Moran would dress in yellow and fly kites on Basant Panchami. Maharaja Ranjit Singh would also hold a darbar or court in Lahore on Basant Panchami which lasted ten days when soldiers would dress in yellow and show their military prowess.


title: Vasant Panchami

text: In the Malwa region, the festival of Basant Panchami is celebrated with wearing of yellow dress and kite flying. In Kapurthala and Hoshiarpur, a Basant Panchami fair is held. People attend the fair wearing yellow clothes, turbans or accessories. Sikhs also remember the martyrdom of the child Haqiqat Rai on Basant Panchmi, who was arrested by the Muslim ruler Khan Zakariya Khan after being falsely accused of insulting Islam. Rai was given the choice of converting to Islam or death and, having refused conversion, was executed on the Basant Panchami of 1741 in Lahore, Pakistan.


title: Vasant Panchami

text: Nihangs go to Patiala on Basant Panchami and dress in Pink and Yellow on the month of Vaisakh (not only Basant Panchami day).


title: Vasant Panchami

text: Kite flying in Lahore goes back centuries. After creation of Pakistan it evolved into a highly competitive sport which is not limited to "basant" only. There are regional teams, competitions, and trophies. Kite And string making is an industry all over central Punjab providing livelihood to thousands.


title: Vasant Panchami

text: Given the shared history and culture in the Indian subcontinent, the Punjabi Muslims in and around Lahore also celebrate kite flying as a sport in Pakistan from home rooftops during the Basant season.


title: Vasant Panchami

text: According to Lochan Singh Buxi, Basant Panchmi is a Hindu festival adopted by some Indian Muslim Sufis in the 12th century to mark the grave of the Muslim Sufi saint dargah of Nizamuddin Aulia in Delhi and ever since, has been observed by the Chishti order. According to local Sufi traditions, the poet Amir Khusrau saw Hindu women carry yellow flowers to a temple on Basant and they were dressed in yellow, and he adopted their culture to give some happiness to Nizamuddin Aulia because his nephew died few days ago and he was not recovering from grief, one the Chishti order of Sufi Indian Muslims continue to practice.


title: Vasant Panchami

text: Vasant Panchami has been a historic occasion of dispute at the archaeological site of Bhojshala (Dhar, Madhya Pradesh) with evidence of an early Saraswati temple (locally called Waghdevi). On the site of Bhojshala is a later era Kamal-Maula mosque, which Muslims use for Friday prayers. The Archeological Survey of India (ASI) has provided annual guidelines, when the Vasant Panchami festival falls on a Friday, announcing hours when Hindus can worship at Bhojshala on Vasant Panchami, and when Muslims can. However, in past years, the Muslim community scheduled earlier has refused to vacate the premises, leading to riots and disorder such as in the 1980s and 1990s.


title: Whole wheat bread

text: Whole wheat bread or wholemeal bread is a type of bread made using flour that is partly or entirely milled from whole or almost-whole wheat grains, see whole-wheat flour and whole grain. It is one kind of brown bread. Synonyms or near-synonyms for whole-wheat bread outside the United States (e.g., the UK) are whole grain bread or wholemeal bread. Some regions of the US simply called the bread wheat bread, a comparison to "white bread". Some varieties of whole-wheat bread are traditionally coated with whole or cracked grains of wheat, though this is mostly decorative compared to the nutritional value of a good quality loaf itself.


title: Whole wheat bread

text: "Meal" in the sense of "flour" is derived from Old English "melu" and is cognate with modern English "mill", and with Dutch "meel" (flour), German "Mehl" (flour) and Old Norse "mjǫl" (flour).


title: Whole wheat bread

text: The exact composition of products legally marketable as "whole wheat bread" varies from country to country and even within one country. In some cases, the bread is made with whole-grain flour that contains all of the component parts of the grain in the same ratios as they occur in nature, whereas in other cases the bread may include only representative amounts of bran or wheat germ. In Canada, for example, a proportion of the wheat germ may be removed from the flour to reduce the risk of rancidity, but the term "whole-wheat bread" is still used. The common term for whole-wheat bread in Canada is "brown bread".


title: Whole wheat bread

text: The term "wheat bread" is sometimes used as a marketing tactic to give the impression of a product being whole-wheat bread, but this is at best an ambiguous term and potentially deceptive because most white bread is made from wheat flour, and thus could legitimately be called "wheat bread". The majority of what is marketed in the USA under the name "wheat bread" has very little whole grain content, and is made primarily of white flour, with caramel coloring added to them to give an illusion of a higher whole wheat content.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Peter Thomas Taylor (2 July 1928 – 4 October 1990) was an English football player and manager. A goalkeeper with a modest playing career, he went on to work in management alongside Brian Clough at Derby County and Nottingham Forest, winning the Football League with both clubs and the European Cup twice with Nottingham Forest.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: He joined Coventry City in 1945 and spent the 1953–54 season as Coventry's first choice goalkeeper, but was otherwise mostly used a reserve player. He was sold on to Middlesbrough for £3,500 in 1955, and kept goal for the Second Division club for four full seasons after being promoted to the first team in the 1956–57 campaign. He lost his first team place in 1960, and in June 1961 joined Port Vale for a £750 fee. He took a free transfer to non-league Burton Albion in May 1962, where he ended his playing career. Throughout his playing career he built for his future management career by learning from Coventry manager Harry Storer and building a close relationship with Middlesbrough striker Brian Clough, six years his junior.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: He was appointed as manager of Burton Albion in October 1962 after impressing the chairman with his knowledge of the game. He built a strong team and led the club to victory in the Southern League Cup in 1964. In 1965, Clough appointed him as his assistant at Hartlepools United, and Taylor helped Clough to rebuild the playing squad. The pair moved on to Derby County in May 1967, taking the club to the Second Division title in 1968–69, then the First Division title in 1971–72, and the semi-finals of the European Cup in 1973. The duo resigned in October 1973 after their strained relationship with the club's board of directors became unworkable. Clough and Taylor moved on to Brighton & Hove Albion in November 1973, and Taylor stayed on as manager after Clough left Brighton in July 1974.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: In July 1976, Taylor left Brighton to work alongside Clough at Nottingham Forest. Repeating their achievement at Derby by winning promotion into the top-flight in 1976–77 and then winning the league title in 1977–78, they then surpassed their previous accomplishments by winning the European Cup in 1979 and 1980. Forest also lifted the Anglo-Scottish Cup, the FA Charity Shield, the European Super Cup, and twice won the League Cup. Taylor retired in May 1982, but returned to the game in November 1982 to manage Derby County. He retired for the second and final time in April 1984.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Following a dispute over a player transfer in May 1983 he and Clough had not been on speaking terms and Taylor's sudden death in October 1990 robbed Clough of the chance of reconciliation, something he greatly regretted. In April 2009, a statue of Clough and Taylor was commissioned at Derby's Pride Park Stadium, and in October 2015 Nottingham Forest's main stand at the City Ground was renamed the Peter Taylor Stand.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Peter Taylor was born on 2 July 1928, one of eight children brought up in the Meadows, Nottingham, to Tom and Jenny Taylor, an engineer and housewife respectively. He met his future wife Lily Thorpe at the age of 14, who persuaded him to play for her father's team, local non-league side Christchurch. He later moved on to play for Mapperley Methodists, before he was spotted by Nottingham Forest, and signed to their youth team, the Forest Colts. He made his first team debut for the club as an amateur in a wartime fixture against local rivals Notts County at Meadow Lane in 1944, at the age of 16.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: He signed with Coventry City on his 17th birthday, though was initially only a part-time player as his father insisted that he also complete an apprenticeship in bricklaying. Under the stewardship of Harry Storer, Coventry finished seventh in the Second Division in 1950–51, and Taylor made his debut in the Football League on the final day of the season, breaking Alf Wood's run of 261 consecutive first team appearances. The "Birmingham Sports Argus" described how "if Peter's role [back-up goalkeeper to Wood] has denied him the glamour of a glorious achievement in action, he has his share of personal glamour. He's a tall fair-haired good looker, and so comely, that he was described as the film star of Highfield Road. Is single too." Taylor did not stay single for long however, and married Lily Thorpe in June 1951.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Coventry were relegated in 1951–52, with Taylor having made 29 appearances. Coventry finished sixth in the Third Division South in 1952–53, with Taylor only appearing eight times. It proved to be Storer's final season as manager, and Taylor later cited Storer as his managerial mentor, and would go on to quote Storer numerous times throughout his career. Taylor played 42 games as Coventry posted a 14th-place finish under Jack Fairbrother in 1953–54, then played ten matches as they finished ninth in 1954–55. Taylor decided to leave the club after losing his first team place to future Coventry City Hall of Famer and England international Reg Matthews.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Taylor was sold to Middlesbrough in the summer of 1955 for £3,500 by new Coventry manager Jesse Carver, following an assessment of the playing staff by Carver and new coach George Raynor. It was at Middlesbrough that Taylor first met his future managerial partner Brian Clough, who was then fourth-choice striker at Ayresome Park. Taylor spotted Clough's potential and helped him to achieve a place in the first team. Taylor initially contacted Storer, now manager of Derby County, to try and get him to sign Clough, but Storer had told him he had spent the club's budget on signing Martin McDonnell and Paddy Ryan. Manager Bob Dennison led "Boro" to 14th in the Second Division in 1955–56, seeing both Clough and Taylor only as "useful reserves". The pair spent their spare time coaching schoolboys to boost their wages and to gain experience. Clough went on to become the club's star striker with 197 goals in 213 league games, and though Taylor would also break into the first team after replacing Rolando Ugolini, he later said he was only ever an "average goalkeeper".


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: In June 1961, Port Vale manager Norman Low paid Middlesbrough £750 for Taylor's services. Largely unneeded at Vale Park, Ken Hancock being a virtual ever-present from 1960 to 1964, his only appearance was in a 2–1 Third Division defeat at Bradford Park Avenue on 3 February 1962. He left on a free transfer for Burton Albion in May 1962, where he began his management career.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: In October 1962, Taylor was offered the manager's job at Burton Albion after impressing chairman Trevor Grantham with his knowledge and theories on the game. In summer 1963 he oversaw a complete overhaul of the playing staff, only retaining four players, and completely rebuilt the squad. He signed strikers Richie Barker and Stan Round, who would score a combined 308 goals for the club, and remain the club's two highest goalscorers (as of 2021). He survived calls for his resignation after a defeat to Kidderminster Harriers in the FA Cup and went on to create one of the most successful sides in Burton's history, beating Weymouth to win the Southern League Cup in 1964. In 1965, he walked out on a newly signed £34 a week three-year contract at Burton to become Clough's assistant manager at Hartlepools United on wages of £24 a week. He later admitted the decision, which he took against the advice of his friends and family, was "against all logic". His successor, Alex Tait, led Burton to promotion out of the Southern League Division One in 1965–66.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Before their arrival, Hartlepools had been forced to apply for re-election to the Football League five times in the previous six years, and Taylor stated that the squad were all free transfer signings and some of the players struggled with "drink, debt or abandoned wives". The two gradually turned around the club's fortunes, and started by painting Victoria Park. Taylor had little chance to show his skills in the transfer market as the club only had £7,500 to spend, £4,000 of which went on centre-half Johnny Gill. Other signings included two of Taylor's former players at Burton, defender Tony Parry and goalkeeper Les Green; Parry would go on to win the club's Player of the Year award. The pair went on to lead the club to an eighth-place finish in the Fourth Division in 1966–67 after replacing most of the playing staff, an improvement on 1965–66 when the pair had only managed an 18th-place finish. On 15 November 1966, the then chairman, Ernest Ord, who was known for playing mind games with managers, sacked Taylor saying he couldn't afford to pay him anymore. Clough refused to accept it so Ord sacked him as well. However, there was a boardroom coup where they refused to ratify the two sackings and which instead saw Ord ousted as chairman. Both Clough and Taylor were reinstated. Clough had initially wanted to quit the club numerous times due to interference from Ord, but Taylor insisted that they stay as they could not walk out on their first job in management. After Ord resigned as chairman Clough wanted to remain at Hartlepools, but Taylor persuaded him to take the offer to manage Derby.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: In May 1967, Clough and Taylor left Hartlepools to join Derby County after being recommended to the club by Len Shackleton. At Derby, Taylor and Clough proceeded to re-build the side, with Taylor instrumental in signing players such as Dave Mackay and Roy McFarland. Future England centre-half McFarland, who he described as an "uncut diamond" from the Third Division, was his first signing for a fee of £24,000. Other signings he initiated included winger John McGovern (whom the pair had signed at Hartlepools and would follow Clough on to Leeds and Nottingham) and full-back John Robson. After the 1967–68 season had finished with the club fifth from bottom in the Second Division, Clough and Taylor had released 16 players and numerous more staff members, including "a tea lady who laughed after a bad defeat".


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Derby were promoted to the First Division in 1968–69, prompting chairman Sydney Bradley to state that "Brian and Peter built an ocean liner out of a shipwreck". Derby finished fourth in 1969–70, and then strengthened again from a player Taylor had scouted, signing midfielder Archie Gemmill from Preston North End for £64,000. Most signings involved scouting from Taylor, with the only two transfers he had played no part in being Clough's former Sunderland teammates Colin Todd and John O'Hare. Following a ninth-place finish in 1970–71, Derby went on to win the League Championship in 1971–72 – the first in the club's history. Clough and Taylor continued to strengthen the club in the transfer market however, with Taylor noting that "a manager should always be looking for signs of disintegration in a winning side and then sell the players responsible before their deterioration is noticed by possible buyers".


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Derby reached the semi-finals of the European Cup the following season, controversially losing to Juventus; Taylor had spotted Juventus player Helmut Haller talking with referee Gerhard Schulenberg at half-time and described how a "squad of heavies" restrained him after he attempted to overhear the pair's conversation. Clough went on to call the Italian team "cheating bastards". On 15 October 1973, both he and Clough resigned, partially after a dispute with the Derby board over Taylor's crucial but largely undefined role, although numerous reasons were behind Clough and Taylor's resignation. Taylor in particular had been frustrated by what he felt was a lack of support from the club's directors over the pair's transfer policy. The pair had come close to leaving Derby earlier, turning down offers to manage Coventry City and the Greece national team. Fans protested against the board following their resignation, and the players also demanded they be reinstated, but chairman Sam Longson's relationship with Clough and Taylor was irreparable.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Clough was appointed as manager at Third Division Brighton & Hove Albion on 1 November 1973, with Taylor joining as his assistant. Just after the pair were appointed, the team lost 4–0 at home to Walton & Hersham in an FA Cup replay and then 8–2 at home to Bristol Rovers on 1 December. Brighton finished 19th in the final table in the 1973–74 season, narrowly avoiding relegation to the Fourth Division, and the pair began to rebuild the team by signing Peter Grummitt, Andy Rollings, Ian Mellor, Steve Govier, and Ken Goodeve; Taylor felt that Clough never settled at Brighton however, and spent too much time away on media commitments. Clough left for Leeds United in July 1974, but Taylor refused to go with Clough as he felt Brighton and club chairman Mike Bamber had treated them well, and so the partnership ended after nine years as Taylor stayed at the Goldstone Ground as sole manager. He went on to sign striker Peter Ward and midfielder Brian Horton, but admitted that both he and Clough were much more effective as a duo; he felt that he had struggled to make the good players he signed play to their full potential whilst feeling that Clough had bought and sold poorly as Leeds manager. He stayed on at the South coast club for a further two seasons, guiding the team to a fourth-place finish in 1975–76, missing promotion by two points. His successor, Alan Mullery, managed to lead the team Taylor left behind to promotion in 1976–77 and then into the top-flight in 1978–79.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: On 16 July 1976, Taylor resigned as Brighton manager and joined once again with Clough, who had by this time moved on to Nottingham Forest after a 44-day tenure as manager of Leeds United. After assessing the players Taylor told Clough "that was a feat by you to finish eighth in the Second Division because some of them are only Third Division players". He then berated John Robertson for allowing himself to become overweight and disillusioned, and got Robertson on a diet and training regime that would help him to become a top international. He also spotted Tony Woodcock playing for the reserves and converted him from an unwanted midfielder into a striker who would win 42 caps for England. In September 1976, he bought striker Peter Withe for £43,000, and sold him on to Newcastle United for £250,000 two years later. Withe was replaced in the starting eleven by Garry Birtles, who Taylor had scouted playing for non-league Long Eaton United; Birtles would also go on to represent England. The first trophy of the Clough and Taylor reign was the 1976–77 Anglo-Scottish Cup. Forest beat Orient 5–1 on aggregate in the two-legged final played in December 1976. Clough valued winning a derided trophy as the club's first silverware since 1959, saying: "Those who said it was a nothing trophy were absolutely crackers. We'd won something, and it made all the difference."


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Within a year of Taylor's arrival, Forest were promoted to the First Division after securing third automatic promotion place in 1976–77. Taylor and Clough then decided to replace goalkeeper John Middleton with Peter Shilton, whom they purchased for £270,000; Taylor reasoned: "Shilton wins you matches." After spending some time secretly following Kenny Burns he came to the conclusion that Burns's reputation as a hard drinker and gambler was exaggerated and he sanctioned a £145,000 move for the player, who would become FWA Footballer of the Year in 1977–78 after being converted from centre-forward to a sweeper role. Clough and Taylor were appointed joint-managers of the England youth team in December 1977, but the pair resigned after less than a year in charge as Forest's success meant they struggled to make time to also coach the England players.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: In their first season back in the top division, Forest won the Championship by a seven-point margin ahead of runners-up Liverpool, conceding just 24 goals in 42 league games. They won the League Cup with a 1–0 win over Liverpool in the final replay, despite Shilton, David Needham and Archie Gemmill all being ineligible to play as they were cup-tied. In February 1979, Taylor authorised the English game's first £1 million transfer, when Forest purchased Trevor Francis from Birmingham City. Taylor later reported that Clough had been holding out for a fee of £925,000 until Taylor rang Birmingham to confirm the deal at £1 million, before ringing Clough to say "We've got Francis, I've just paid their price"; Clough replied simply by saying "Good", and then put down the phone.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Forest started the 1978–79 season by beating Ipswich Town 5–0 for a Charity Shield record win. On 9 December 1978, Liverpool ended Forest's 42 match unbeaten league run dating back to the November the year before. The unbeaten run was the equivalent of a whole season surpassing the previous record of 35 games held by Burnley in 1920/21. At the end of the season Forest won the European Cup with a 1–0 victory over Malmö FF at the Olympiastadion. They also won the League Cup again after beating Southampton 3–2; Taylor led the team out at Wembley as Clough felt it was Taylor's turn – they always wanted to lead their team out together but were always denied permission by Football League chairman Alan Hardaker. After this success Forest bought Asa Hartford and Frank Gray, though Hartford was sold on after two months after Taylor realised his limited passing range did not fit Forest's style of play. Forest were denied a third consecutive League Cup win in 1980 after a defeat in the final by Wolverhampton Wanderers.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: The European Cup was retained in 1980, this time against Kevin Keegan's Hamburger SV at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium. Clough and Taylor then began the process of breaking up the championship winning team, selling off Martin O'Neill, Ian Bowyer, Garry Birtles, and Larry Lloyd; as a new team was built based around youngsters such as Gary Mills, Stuart Gray, Colin Walsh, and Bryn Gunn. New signings included striker Ian Wallace and Switzerland international Raimondo Ponte. Taylor retired in May 1982 after Forest finished 12th in the league, with recent signings Justin Fashanu and Raimondo Ponte proving to be unsuccessful. Clough would stay at Forest for another 11 seasons, but without Taylor would only add two League Cups and two Full Members Cups to the club's trophy cabinet, and would struggle against alcoholism.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Taylor took over as manager of Derby County in November 1982, to the great surprise of most people in the game. He brought in Roy McFarland as his assistant, and signed Archie Gemmill and Bobby Davison. At the time Derby were going through serious financial problems and were bottom of the table, but he steered them to a mid-table position by the end of the season with a 15-match unbeaten run. In the third round of the FA Cup on 8 January 1983 they knocked out Clough's Forest team with a 2–0 win at the Baseball Ground. They reached the Fifth Round, where they were knocked out by Manchester United.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: However, the following season saw the team struggle again, and Taylor resigned in early April 1984 with the club third from bottom of the Second Division, before Derby went on to be relegated. However, the team did manage to reach the quarter-finals of the FA Cup, and the revenue obtained from the cup run helped to keep the club afloat.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Clough was quoted as saying "I'm not equipped to manage successfully without Peter Taylor. I am the shop window and he is the goods in the back." The two worked as a pair by complementing each other's strengths, as Clough had a forceful personality and was adept at motivating players, whilst Taylor was more reserved, though he had an ability to spot talented players. Former Hartlepools player Cliff Wright described the pair as "good cop, bad cop. Cloughie would knock you to the ground, verbally at least, and Pete would pick you up and put you back together." As the bigger personality and the man with the title of manager, Clough garnered much greater publicity than Taylor, which caused Taylor to grumble that "I sometimes wonder why he never says to Bell's whisky, for instance, when they're handing out Manager of the Month awards, 'You'll have to present an extra gallon bottle. There are two of us." On a personal level they were very close, and often finished each other's sentences.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Though Taylor's friendship and partnership with Clough had been strong, their relationship had sometimes become strained on occasion. While at Derby in 1971, Taylor was riled when he learned that Clough had failed to disclose to him that he had received a pay rise of £5,000 from chairman Sam Longson. He was also annoyed that Clough was often away earning extra money from media work while he was left to do a larger share of the work with the players. The relationship worsened in the autumn of 1980 when Taylor published "With Clough, by Taylor", an autobiography which was largely based on Taylor's work with Clough. Taylor had not told Clough that he was writing the book and did not give him a share of the proceeds. In February 1972 Taylor was approached by and received an offer from Frank O'Farrell to be his number two at Manchester United but the United board rejected the offer because of apparent fear from Busby about Clough mountaining a campaign against the club in the media.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Although they initially parted on good terms when Taylor retired in May 1982, and spent time together that summer in Cala Millor the relationship was severely strained when Taylor became manager of Derby County in November 1982, and finally damaged permanently after a dispute over the transfer in May 1983 of John Robertson from Forest to Derby, where Taylor was now managing. Clough was apparently angered that Taylor did not inform him about the deal. Clough attacked Taylor in a tabloid article on 3 July 1983 as being a "rattlesnake", "a snake-in-the-grass" and said that "We pass each other on the A52 going to work on most days of the week. But if his car broke down and I saw him thumbing a lift, I wouldn't pick him up, I'd run him over". The two men would never speak to one another again. Shortly before his death, he did scouting work for Leicester City.


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: On 4 October 1990, Peter Taylor died suddenly of pulmonary fibrosis while on holiday in Costa De Los Pinos, Mallorca, at the age of 62. When told of Taylor's death by Ron Fenton, Clough apparently did not speak and put the phone down on him. He also, while very upset, made a phone call to the Taylor family. Clough, along with the rest of his family, attended the funeral 12 days later at St Peter's Church, Widmerpool as did around 250 people, including Colin Todd, Roy McFarland, Larry Lloyd, Alan Durban, Frank Clark, David Pleat, Jimmy Sirrell, Kevin Hector, Peter Withe and Archie Gemmill. Clough dedicated his 1994 autobiography to Taylor saying "To Peter. Still miss you badly. You once said: 'When you get shot of me there won't be as much laughter in your life'. You were right."


title: Peter Taylor (footballer, born 1928)

text: Clough paid tribute to Taylor when he was awarded the freedom of the city of Nottingham in March 1993, saying that "I have only one regret today, and that is that me mate isn't here with me". Taylor was portrayed by Timothy Spall in "The Damned United", a film released in 2009 based on Clough's ill-fated spell at Leeds United. In August 2010, Derby County unveiled a statue of Clough and Taylor at Pride Park Stadium. In September 2015, Nottingham Forest announced that the Main Stand at the City Ground would be renamed the Peter Taylor Stand as part of the club's 150th anniversary celebrations.


title: Process engineering

text: Process engineering is the understanding and application of the fundamental principles and laws of nature that allow humans to transform raw material and energy into products that are useful to society, at an industrial level. By taking advantage of the driving forces of nature such as pressure, temperature and concentration gradients, as well as the law of conservation of mass, process engineers can develop methods to synthesize and purify large quantities of desired chemical products. Process engineering focuses on the design, operation, control, optimization and intensification of chemical, physical, and biological processes. Process engineering encompasses a vast range of industries, such as agriculture, automotive, biotechnical, chemical, food, material development, mining, nuclear, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and software development. The application of systematic computer-based methods to process engineering is "process systems engineering".


title: Process engineering

text: Process engineering involves the utilization of multiple tools and methods. Depending on the exact nature of the system, processes need to be simulated and modeled using mathematics and computer science. Processes where phase change and phase equilibria are relevant require analysis using the principles and laws of thermodynamics to quantify changes in energy and efficiency. In contrast, processes that focus on the flow of material and energy as they approach equilibria are best analyzed using the disciplines of fluid mechanics and transport phenomena. Disciplines within the field of mechanics need to be applied in the presence of fluids or porous and dispersed media. Materials engineering principles also need to be applied, when relevant.


title: Process engineering

text: Manufacturing in the field of process engineering involves an implementation of process synthesis steps. Regardless of the exact tools required, process engineering is then formatted through the use of a process flow diagram (PFD) where material flow paths, storage equipment (such as tanks and silos), transformations (such as distillation columns, receiver/head tanks, mixing, separations, pumping, etc.) and flowrates are specified, as well as a list of all pipes and conveyors and their contents, material properties such as density, viscosity, particle-size distribution, flowrates, pressures, temperatures, and materials of construction for the piping and unit operations.


title: Process engineering

text: The process flow diagram is then used to develop a piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) which graphically displays the actual process occurring. P&ID are meant to be more complex and specific than a PFD. They represent a less muddled approach to the design. The P&ID is then used as a basis of design for developing the "system operation guide" or "functional design specification" which outlines the operation of the process. It guides the process through operation of machinery, safety in design, programming and effective communication between engineers.


title: Process engineering

text: From the P&ID, a proposed layout (general arrangement) of the process can be shown from an overhead view (plot plan) and a side view (elevation), and other engineering disciplines are involved such as civil engineers for site work (earth moving), foundation design, concrete slab design work, structural steel to support the equipment, etc. All previous work is directed toward defining the scope of the project, then developing a cost estimate to get the design installed, and a schedule to communicate the timing needs for engineering, procurement, fabrication, installation, commissioning, startup, and ongoing production of the process.


title: Process engineering

text: Depending on needed accuracy of the cost estimate and schedule that is required, several iterations of designs are generally provided to customers or stakeholders who feed back their requirements. The process engineer incorporates these additional instructions (scope revisions) into the overall design and additional cost estimates, and schedules are developed for funding approval. Following funding approval, the project is executed via project management.


title: Process engineering

text: Various chemical techniques have been used in industrial processes since time immemorial. However, it wasn't till the advent of thermodynamics and the law of conservation of mass in the 1780s that process engineering was properly developed and implemented as its own discipline. The set of knowledge that is now known as process engineering was then forged out of trial and error throughout the industrial revolution.


title: Process engineering

text: The term "process", as it relates to industry and production, dates back to the 18th century. During this time period, demands for various products began to drastically increase, and process engineers were required to optimize the process in which these products were created.


title: Process engineering

text: By 1980, the concept of process engineering emerged from the fact that chemical engineering techniques and practices were being used in a variety of industries. By this time, process engineering had been defined as "the set of knowledge necessary to design, analyze, develop, construct, and operate, in an optimal way, the processes in which the material changes". By the end of the 20th century, process engineering had expanded from chemical engineering-based technologies to other applications, including metallurgical engineering, agricultural engineering, and product engineering.


title: Down to Earth (2001 film)

text: Down to Earth is a 2001 American fantasy comedy film directed by Chris and Paul Weitz and written by Chris Rock, Lance Crouther, Ali LeRoi and Louis C.K. It is the third film based on Harry Segall's stageplay "Heaven Can Wait", preceded by "Here Comes Mr. Jordan" (1941) and "Heaven Can Wait" (1978). The film stars Chris Rock as Lance Barton, a comedian who is killed before his time on Earth is through. He is given another chance to continue his life, but in the body of a rich middle-aged white man.


title: Down to Earth (2001 film)

text: Lance Barton is a struggling comedian who is quite funny and confident in his personality, but is unable to bring his talent across in front of an audience. After being booed off stage one night, he hears about an opportunity from his manager, Whitney Daniels at the Apollo Theater, which is having a farewell show due to its imminent closing. He is hoping to get a chance to prove himself in front of a real audience, when on his way home riding a bike, Lance is distracted by Sontee Jenkins. He is hit by a truck and is instantly killed.


title: Down to Earth (2001 film)

text: Lance is brought up to Heaven, where he meets the angels, King and Keyes, who reveal that Lance has been taken before his time, and though his body had been destroyed by the truck, they can help Lance return to Earth. After sorting through many bodies, they find Charles Wellington III, an extremely rich businessman freshly drowned in his tub by his wife and assistant, Winston Sklar. Lance is reluctant until he discovers that Sontee, the woman he saw before his death, is protesting Charles by handcuffing herself to a coffee table in his penthouse, demanding Charles' presence. Seeing this as a chance to get to know her, Lance makes a deal with King to temporarily lend Charles' body until a more suitable body is found. Soon after, Charles returns from death, but with the witty soul of Lance inside him. Everyone except for the angels and him sees him as the middle-aged, rich, white Charles.


title: Down to Earth (2001 film)

text: Although Charles was unpopular in the past, the public and those closest to Charles start to notice a change in his personality. He transforms from a snobbish billionaire to a philanthropist, including giving the maid Wanda a raise. Despite recent events, Lance continues to follow his comedy dreams through Charles, contacting his old manager Whitney and convincing him that he is Lance reincarnated. Through many humorous moments and issues, he gets Sontee to fall in love with him.


title: Down to Earth (2001 film)

text: All too soon, Charles is murdered by a hired assassin. Fulfilling the deal Lance and King set up earlier, King and Keyes then send Lance to return yet again to Earth as Joe Guy, a great comedian and more acceptable candidate, who will die in a car accident. Joe returns from this accident unscathed, now with Lance's soul.


title: Down to Earth (2001 film)

text: After pulling off a successful performance at the Apollo and reconnecting with Whitney, King and Keyes inform Lance that after their current conversation, he will not remember them or his past lives, but his personality will remain. After they leave, he reconnects with Whitney again, and proceeds to get Sontee to fall in love with him again, after meeting her in the theater for the first time as Joe Guy.


title: Down to Earth (2001 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a score of 20% based on reviews from 96 critics, with the consensus: "A toned down Chris Rock fails to bring a limp script to life as the movie moves from one gag to the next." At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film received an average score of 34 based on 28 reviews, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: Down to Earth (2001 film)

text: The film grossed $64.2 million in the United States, plus $7 million outside the US, for a combined gross of $71.2 million.


title: Down to Earth (2001 film)

text: A soundtrack containing hip hop and R&B music was released on 20 February 2001 by Sony Music Entertainment. It peaked at 71 on the "Billboard" 200 and 64 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.


title: China proper

text: China proper, Inner China, or the Eighteen Provinces is a term used by some Western writers in reference to the "core" regions of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China. This term is used to express a distinction between the "core" regions populated by the dominant Han population and the "frontier" regions of China, sometimes known as "Outer China". There is no fixed extent for China proper, as many administrative, cultural, and linguistic shifts have occurred in Chinese history. One definition refers to the original area of Chinese civilization, the Central Plain (in the North China Plain); another to the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. There is no direct translation for "China proper" in the Chinese language due to differences in terminology used by the Qing to refer to the regions. The expression is controversial among scholars, particularly in China, due to issues pertaining to territorial integrity.


title: China proper

text: Outer China usually includes the geographical regions of Dzungaria, Tarim Basin, Gobi Desert, Tibetan Plateau, Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau, and Manchuria.


title: China proper

text: It is not clear when the concept of "China proper" in the Western world appeared. However, it is plausible that historians during the age of empires and the fast-changing borders in the eighteenth century, applied it to distinguish the 18 provinces in China's interior from its frontier territories. This would also apply to Great Britain proper versus the British Empire, which would encompass vast lands overseas. The same would apply to France proper in contrast to the French Empire of the time, which Napoleon managed to expand all the way to Moscow.


title: China proper

text: According to Harry Harding, the concept can date back to 1827. But as early as in 1795, William Winterbotham adopted this concept in his book. When describing the Chinese Empire under the Qing dynasty, Winterbotham divided it into three parts: China proper, Chinese Tartary, and the states tributary to China. He adopted the opinions of Du Halde and Grosier and suspected that the name of "China" came from Qin dynasty. He then said: "China, properly so called... comprehends from north to south eighteen degrees; its extent from east to west being somewhat less..."


title: China proper

text: However, to introduce China proper, Winterbotham still used the outdated 15-province system of the Ming dynasty, which the Qing dynasty maintained until 1662. Although Ming dynasty also had 15 basic local divisions, Winterbotham uses the name of Kiang-nan (, Jiāngnán) province, which had been called South Zhili (, Nán-Zhílì) during the Ming dynasty and was renamed to Kiang-nan (i.e., Jiangnan) in 1645, the second year after the Qing dynasty replaces the Ming dynasty. This 15-province system was gradually replaced by the 18-province system between 1662 and 1667. Using the 15-province system and the name of Kiang-nan Province indicates that the concept of China proper probably had appeared between 1645 and 1662 and this concept may reflect the idea that identifies China as the territory of the former Ming dynasty after the Ming–Qing transition.


title: China proper

text: The concept of "China proper" also appeared before this 1795 book. It can be found in "The Gentleman's Magazine", published in 1790, and "The Monthly Review", published in 1749. In the nineteenth century, the term "China proper" was sometimes used by Chinese officials when they were communicating in foreign languages. For instance, the Qing ambassador to Britain Zeng Jize used it in an English language article, which he published in 1887.


title: China proper

text: Dulimbai Gurun is the Manchu name for China (, Zhongguo; "Middle Kingdom"). After conquering the Ming, the Qing identified their state as "China" (Zhongguo), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in the Manchu language. The Qing emperors equated the lands of the Qing state (including both "China proper" and present day Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, Tibet and other areas) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multiethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han-populated areas in "China proper", proclaiming that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", using "China" to refer to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" (, Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all Han, Manchu, and Mongol subjects of the Qing.


title: China proper

text: When the Qing conquered Dzungaria in 1759, they proclaimed that the new land was absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu language memorial. The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han peoples like the Manchus, Mongols, Uighurs and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han people, into "one family" united under the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" () or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" (, "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples. A Manchu language version of a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called people from the Qing as "people of the Central Kingdom (Dulimbai Gurun)"


title: China proper

text: In the Manchu official Tulisen's Manchu language account of his meeting with the Torghut Mongol leader Ayuki Khan, it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians, the "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun; , Zhongguo) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus.


title: China proper

text: While the Qing dynasty used China (Zhongguo) to describe non-Han areas, some Han scholar-officials opposed the Qing emperor's use of Zhongguo to refer to non-Han areas, using instead Zhongguo to mark a distinction between the culturally Han areas and the territories newly acquired by the Qing empire. In the early 19th century, Wei Yuan’s "Shengwuji" (Military History of the Qing Dynasty) calls the inner Asian polities "guo", while the seventeen provinces of the traditional heartland, that is, "China proper", and three eastern provinces of Manchuria are called ""Zhongguo"". Some Ming loyalists of Han ethnicity refused to use Zhongguo to refer to areas outside the borders of the Ming Empire such as Outer Mongolia, in effect refusing to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Qing dynasty.


title: China proper

text: The Qing dynasty referred to the Han-inhabited 18 provinces as "nèidì shíbā shěng" (), which meant the "interior region eighteen provinces", or abbreviated it as "nèidì" (), "interior region" and also as "jùnxiàn" (), while they referred to the non-Han areas of China such as the Northeast, Outer Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet as "wàifān" () which means "outer feudatories" or "outer vassals", or as "fānbù" (, "feudatory region"). These wàifān were fully subject to and governed by the Qing government and were considered part of China (Zhongguo), unlike wàiguó (, "outer/foreign countries") like Korea, Vietnam, the Ryukyus and Japan, who paid tribute to Qing China or were vassal states of China but were not part of China.


title: China proper

text: In the early 20th century, a series of Sino-Japanese conflicts had raised Chinese people's concern for national unity, and the concept of a unified, undivided Chinese nation became more popular among Chinese scholars. On Jan 1, 1939, Gu Jiegang published his article "The term 'China proper' should be abolished immediately", which argued that the widely accepted area covered by "China proper" is not the actual territory of any of the Chinese dynasties. Gu further theorized that "", the Chinese and Japanese term equal to "China proper" at the time, actually originated from Japan and was translated into "China proper", hence the concept of "China proper" was developed by Japanese people, and it had become a tool to divide Chinese people, making way for the Japanese invasion of Mongolia, Manchuria, and other parts of China. Gu's article sparked a heated debate on the definition and origin of "Zhonghua minzu" (Chinese nation), which contributed to unifying the Chinese people in the Second Sino-Japanese War, and to an extent shaped the later established concept of Zhonghua minzu.


title: China proper

text: Today, China proper is a controversial concept in China itself, since the current official paradigm does not contrast the core and the periphery of China. There is no single widely used term corresponding to it in the Chinese language.


title: China proper

text: The separation of China into a "China proper" dominated by Han people and other states for ethnic minorities such as East Turkestan for the Uyghurs impugns on the legitimacy of China's current territorial borders, which is based on the succession of states principle. According to Sinologist Colin Mackerras, foreign governments have generally accepted Chinese claims over its ethnic minority areas, because to redefine a country's territory every time it underwent a change of regime would cause endless instability and warfare. Also, he asks, "if the boundaries of the Qing were considered illegitimate, why should it go back to the much smaller Ming in preference to the quite extensive Tang dynasty boundaries?"


title: China proper

text: There is no fixed geographical extent for China proper, as it is used to express the contrast between the core and frontier regions of China from multiple perspectives: historical, administrative, cultural, and linguistic.


title: China proper

text: One way of thinking about China proper is to refer to the long-standing territories held by dynasties of China founded by the Han people. Chinese civilization developed from a core region in the North China Plain, and expanded outwards over several millennia, conquering and assimilating surrounding peoples, or being conquered and influenced in turn. Some dynasties, such as the Han and Tang dynasties, were particularly expansionist, extending far into Inner Asia, while others, such as the Jin and Song dynasties, were forced to relinquish the North China Plain itself to rivaling regimes founded by peoples from the north.


title: China proper

text: The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox Chinese dynasty of ethnic Han origin and the second-last imperial dynasty of China. It governed fifteen administrative entities, which included thirteen provinces () and two "directly-governed" areas. After the Manchu-led Qing dynasty succeeded the Ming dynasty in China proper, the Qing court decided to continue to use the Ming administrative system to rule over former Ming lands, without applying it to other domains under Qing rule, namely Manchuria, Mongolia, Xinjiang, Taiwan and Tibet. The 15 administrative units of the Ming dynasty underwent minor reforms to become the Eighteen Provinces (, or ) of China proper under the Qing dynasty. It was these eighteen provinces that early Western sources referred to as China proper.


title: China proper

text: There are some minor differences between the extent of Ming China and the extent of the eighteen provinces of Qing China: for example, some parts of Manchuria were Ming possessions belonging to the province of Liaodong (now Liaoning); however, the Qing conquered it before entering the Central Plain and did not administer as part of a regular province of China proper. On the other hand, Taiwan was a new acquisition of the Qing dynasty, and it was placed under the administration of Fujian, one of the provinces of China proper. Eastern Kham in Greater Tibet was added to Sichuan, while much of what now constitutes northern Burma was added to Yunnan.


title: China proper

text: Near the end of the Qing dynasty, there was an effort to extend the province system of China proper to the rest of the empire. Taiwan was converted into a separate province in 1885, but was ceded to Japan in 1895. Xinjiang was reorganized into a province in 1884. Manchuria was split into the three provinces of Fengtian, Jilin and Heilongjiang in 1907. There was discussion to do the same in Tibet, Qinghai (Kokonor), Inner Mongolia, and Outer Mongolia, but these proposals were not put to practice, and these areas were outside the provincial system of China proper when the Qing dynasty fell in 1912.


title: China proper

text: Some of the revolutionaries who sought to overthrow Qing rule desired to establish a state independent of the Qing dynasty within the bounds of the Eighteen Provinces, as evinced by the Eighteen-Star Flag they used. Others favoured the replacement of the entire Qing dynasty by a new republic, as evinced by the Five-Striped Flag they used. Some revolutionaries, such as Zou Rong, used the term "Zhongguo Benbu" () which roughly identifies the Eighteen Provinces. When the Qing dynasty fell, the abdication decree of the Xuantong Emperor bequeathed all the territories of the Qing dynasty to the new Republic of China, and the latter idea was therefore adopted by the new republic as the principle of Five Races Under One Union, with Five Races referring to the Han, Manchus, Mongols, Muslims (Uyghurs, Hui etc.) and Tibetans. The Five-Striped Flag was adopted as the national flag, and the Republic of China viewed itself as a single unified state encompassing all five regions handed down by the Qing dynasty. The People's Republic of China, which was founded in 1949 and replaced the Republic of China on the Chinese mainland, has continued to claim essentially the same borders, with the only major exception being the recognition of an independent Mongolia. As a result, the concept of China proper fell out of favour in China.


title: China proper

text: The Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty still largely exist, but their boundaries have changed. Beijing and Tianjin were eventually split from Hebei (renamed from Zhili), Shanghai from Jiangsu, Chongqing from Sichuan, Ningxia autonomous region from Gansu, and Hainan from Guangdong. Guangxi is now an autonomous region. The provinces that the late Qing dynasty set up have also been kept: Xinjiang became an autonomous region under the People's Republic of China, while the three provinces of Manchuria now have somewhat different borders, with Fengtian renamed as Liaoning.


title: China proper

text: When the Qing dynasty fell, Republican Chinese control of Qing territories, including of those generally considered to be in "China proper", was tenuous, and non-existent in Tibet and Outer Mongolia since 1922, which were controlled by governments that declared independence from China. The Republic of China subdivided Inner Mongolia in its time on the mainland, although the People's Republic of China later joined Mongol-inhabited territories into a single autonomous region. The PRC joined the Qamdo area into the Tibet area (later the Tibet Autonomous Region). The Republic of China was forced to acknowledge the independence of Mongolia in 1945, but the recognition was later revoked in 1953.


title: China proper

text: China proper is often associated with the Han people, the majority ethnic group of China and with the extent of the Chinese languages, an important unifying element of the Han ethnicity.


title: China proper

text: However, Han regions in the present day do not correspond well to the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. Much of southwestern China, such as areas in the provinces of Yunnan, Guangxi, and Guizhou, was part of successive dynasties of ethnic Han origin, including the Ming dynasty and the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. However, these areas were and continue to be populated by various non-Han minority groups, such as the Zhuang, the Miao people, and the Bouyei. Conversely, Han people form the majority in most of Manchuria, much of Inner Mongolia, many areas in Xinjiang and scattered parts of Tibet today, not least due to the expansion of Han settlement encouraged by the late Qing dynasty, the Republic of China, and the People's Republic of China.


title: China proper

text: Ethnic Han is not synonymous with speakers of the Chinese language. Many non-Han ethnicities, such as the Hui and Manchu, are essentially monolingual in the Chinese language, but do not identify as ethnic Han. The Chinese language itself is also a complex entity, and should be described as a family of related languages rather than a single language if the criterion of mutual intelligibility is used to classify its subdivisions.


title: China proper

text: In polls the majority of the people of Taiwan call themselves "Taiwanese" only with the rest identifying as "Taiwanese and Chinese" or "Chinese" only. 98% of the people of Taiwan are descendants of immigrants from Mainland China since the 1600s, but the inclusion of Taiwan in the definition of China proper, is still a controversial subject. See History of Taiwan and Political status of Taiwan for more information.


title: Bradford Cox

text: Bradford James Cox (born May 15, 1982) is an American singer-songwriter and musician, best known as the lead singer and guitarist of the indie rock band Deerhunter. He also pursues a solo career under the moniker Atlas Sound.


title: Bradford Cox

text: Cox formed Deerhunter with drummer Moses Archuleta in 2001. The band has released 7 studio albums along with several singles and EPs. Atlas Sound is a name Cox has used since he was ten to refer to his own music, but his first full-length production under the name was "Let the Blind Lead Those Who Can See but Cannot Feel" (2008). Cox's method of creating music is stream of consciousness, and he does not write lyrics in advance.


title: Bradford Cox

text: Cox founded Deerhunter with bassist Paul Harper and drummer Dan Walton (who named the band) in early 2001. The band expanded after Cox met a teenage transient, Moses Archuleta, who was sleeping on the floor of Cox's friends. Archuleta initially played Ace Tone Organ and electronics. The band's first shows were experimental and based on improvisation. Cox continued recording slightly more structured material and releasing it on CD-R and cassette using the name Atlas Sound. Paul Harper moved to Ohio and was replaced by Justin Bosworth. At this point Colin Mee also joined the band on guitar. Dan Walton left and Cox suggested Archuleta move to drums. The band's live shows and recordings became more song-oriented. They recorded their debut 7" for Die Slaughterhaus. Josh Fauver joined the band in 2004 after Bosworth died in a freak skateboarding accident. This lineup recorded Deerhunter's debut LP on Atlanta label Stickfigure Records. Cox suggested Lockett Pundt, whom he befriended while attending Harrison High School in Kennesaw, Georgia, join the band on guitar so that he could concentrate on vocals and electronics. This lineup recorded their breakthrough record, 2007's "Cryptograms" until 2010's "Halcyon Digest." Colin Mee left the band after failing to show up for a North American tour. Josh Fauver subsequently left the band and was replaced by Josh McKay. The band is now a four piece consisting of Cox on guitar and vocals, Pundt on guitar and occasional vocals, McKay on bass, and Archuleta on drums.


title: Bradford Cox

text: Atlas Sound is the musical solo project of Cox, although he has used the name to represent his music since he was a child. He had access to a cassette player with two tape decks, which he used to layer guitar and drum sounds, and his own voice. In listening to some of these old tapes (of which Cox believes he has over five hundred in storage) he found "Some of it is absolutely, terrifyingly bad, but sometimes I'm just like, 'Wow, that's cool.' That's actually how some Deerhunter songs happened. 'Spring Hall Convert' [from "Cryptograms"] was like that. That was a tape I made in ninth or tenth grade." Cox writes his music stream-of-consciousness, not writing lyrics in advance, and constructing songs by adding more parts until he feels "it's getting crowded." The name of his project is derived from the brand of tape player he used, Atlas Sound.


title: Bradford Cox

text: Cox began Atlas Sound in the wake of his work with Deerhunter because "I have ideas that I can't make work with a five piece rock band...There's kind of this palette of sounds that I use that I don't necessarily get to use with Deerhunter." Because the music Deerhunter makes is a collaborative effort, Cox does not want to assert himself as its principal songwriter. "I might have an idea for a fragment of a song, but I want to leave it skeletal so the guys can fill it out. Whereas with Atlas Sound, everything is done in an hour." Cox created the music for his first record in the software Ableton Live, using an array of computer-based instruments, as well as his own live recordings.


title: Bradford Cox

text: To date, there have been four major releases by Cox as Atlas Sound: "Let the Blind Lead Those Who Can See but Cannot Feel" (2008), "Logos" (2009), a four-album set of previously unreleased songs called Bedroom Databank (2010), and finally "Parallax" in 2011. The lyrics of "Let the Blind Lead" are autobiographical in nature, reflecting life experiences of Cox. In discussing his second album, Cox characterized his first as being a "bedroom laptop type thing" and "Very introverted." In contrast, "Logos" was written in several parts of the world, and is "not about me. There are collaborations with other musicians. The lyrics are not autobiographical. The view is a lot more panoramic and less close-up. I became bored with introspection." An unfinished version of "Logos" was leaked onto the internet in August 2008, over a year before its release date. In response, Cox almost ceased production on the record, later saying "I did not react well to the leak, in retrospect. It became the kind of internet-fueled drama that I was quickly learning to despise."


title: Bradford Cox

text: In late 2010, Cox published four volumes of demos on his blog, entitled "Bedroom Databank". These demos were taken down from Mediafire by Sony, but they later apologized to Cox, stating that the files "were mistakenly removed". Atlas Sound was chosen by Animal Collective to perform at the All Tomorrow's Parties festival that they curated in May 2011.


title: Bradford Cox

text: Cox has also recorded as part of other bands, such as the short lived "Wet Dreams", an otherwise all-girl garage / noise band in which he played drums. He also recorded several tracks on the Black Lips second album "We Did Not Know the Forest Spirit Made the Flowers Grow", playing drums on the song "Notown Blues" from that album.


title: Bradford Cox

text: He also is a part of the "Avant-Garage" band Ghetto Cross, with Cole Alexander from Black Lips, Frankie Broyles, and Asha Lakra.


title: Bradford Cox

text: In November 2012, it was announced that Cox would portray Jared Leto's lover in the feature film, "Dallas Buyers Club," co-starring Matthew McConaughey and Jennifer Garner; this is Cox's film debut.


title: Bradford Cox

text: For the most part, Bradford favors vintage and modern Fender and Gibson guitars. Some of his guitars include:


title: Bradford Cox

text: When playing live with Deerhunter, Bradford previously used Univox U-1226 Head into a vintage Marshall 4x10 Cabinet. He has also used a Marshall JCM800 half-stack, and occasionally a 1970s Peavey Classic combo amplifier. He Currently uses a Fender Hot Rod DeVille 410.


title: Bradford Cox

text: Cox describes his mode of songwriting as 'automatic or stream-of-consciousness'. "Usually I go into a sort of trance and I'll have five or six songs afterwards", he said, speaking to Victoria Segal of "Q" in November 2010. "What is interesting is seeing how the band adapts them and mutates them into the final product. Lots of accidents and primitive irrational things happen. It can be difficult trying to explain the process to a producer or engineer. They generally want to help you polish things and I tend to want to sabotage that", he added.


title: Bradford Cox

text: Cox was born with the genetic disorder Marfan syndrome. As a teenager, he dropped out of high school (although later earned a GED) and his parents divorced, leaving him "to live in my childhood home alone. I literally lived in this large suburban house by myself." Cox has called his changing music taste growing up reflective of his life and mental state. Around the age of ten, Cox's disorder began to affect his body in more visible ways; this is the point at which he "first started looking awkward." With no friends, Cox became interested in how music could sound "heartbreaking or nostalgic or melancholy"; he identified with the title character of the film "Edward Scissorhands", and especially enjoyed the soundtrack, which was composed by Danny Elfman. Cox's tastes shifted to music that was more "monotonous or hypnotic", such as the Stereolab album "Transient Random-Noise Bursts with Announcements". Around twenty years of age, his life situation brought about "a period", during which he became "only interested in this certain sort of suburban psychedelic pastoral thing. It was escapism. I didn't want as much emotional manipulation. It's kind of the opposite of "Edward Scissorhands.""


title: Bradford Cox

text: Cox has described himself as gay, though he previously has stated that he leads a non-sexual/asexual lifestyle. However, in a 2011 interview with "Rolling Stone," Cox said that he no longer identifies as asexual but rather as queer: "For a long time I just said I was asexual, but now I just realized that… I'm still, I guess… I mean, I'm queer. I just sort of, don't really have a very big self-esteem, so asexuality is sort of like a comfort zone where you don't get rejected." Cox stated in an October 19, 2016, radio interview: "There's so many types of sexuality, but one that I think is overlooked is to be asexual. I am absolutely asexual. I am a virgin at 34 years old." Cox also identified as non-binary in a 2019 tweet.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: A licentiate (abbreviated Lic.) is an academic degree present in many countries, representing different educational levels.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: It may be similar to a master's degree when issued by pontifical universities and other universities in Europe, Latin America, and Syria.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: The term derives from Latin "licentia", "freedom" (from Latin "licēre", "to be allowed"), which is applied in the phrases licentia docendi (also licentia doctorandi), meaning "permission to teach", and licentia ad practicandum (also licentia practicandi), meaning "permission to practice", signifying someone who holds a certificate of competence to practise a profession.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: The Gregorian Reform of the Catholic Church led to an increased focus on the liberal arts in episcopal schools during the 11th and 12th centuries, with Pope Gregory VII ordering all bishops to make provisions for the teaching of liberal arts. Chancellors and scholasters exercised a high degree of control over who could teach within their "locus magisterii", or area of teaching authority. Throughout the 12th century, the degree of their control tightened to such an extent that they had essential monopolies over all teachers in their dioceses, and teachers were barred from acting as instructors without the explicit authorization of their scholasters. Conflicts sometimes arose between the scholasters and local independent educators who operated educational facilities without their permission, and chancellors often demanded expensive gifts before granting a license to teach. In response to these escalating abuses of power, Pope Alexander III demanded that a free "licentia docendi" should be granted to anyone deemed qualified to teach. This allowed the Church to progressively centralize its educational control, reducing the power of individual scholasters.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: Originally, for the student in the medieval university the "licentia docendi" was of a somewhat different nature than the academic degrees of bachelor, master or doctor. The latter essentially indicated the rank of seniority in the various faculties (arts, theology, law, medicine), whereas the licentia was literally the licence to teach. It was awarded not by the university but by the church, embodied in the chancellor of the diocese in which the university was located. The licentia would only be awarded however upon recommendation by the university, initially shortly before the candidate would be awarded the final degree of master or doctor, the requirements for which beyond having been awarded the licentia were only of a ceremonial nature.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: Over time however, this distinction in nature between the "licentia" on the one hand and the bachelor, master and doctor degrees on the other began to fade. In the continental European universities the "licentia" became an academic degree intermediate between the bachelor's degree on the one hand and the master's or doctor's degree on the other, in particular in the higher faculties. Moreover, the costs for obtaining the doctorate could be significant. As a result, most students not intending an academic career would forgo the doctorate, and as a result the licentiate became the common final degree.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: Notable exceptions to this development were the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and the universities modelled after them. As their locations were not the seats of bishops, the granting of the "licentia docendi" was by proxy, and its significance faded away.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In Argentina, the "Licentiate" degree (Spanish: "Licenciatura"), by which one becomes a "licenciado", is a four to six-year degree with a required final thesis defence. Upon competition of the licentiate degree the student may be eligible to apply for a postgraduate degree such as a master or doctorate.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: Currently the only institutions in Australia to grant licentiates, apart from theological colleges, are the Australian Music Examinations Board and St Cecilia School of Music, which confer licentiate diplomas. The status of this award is similar to that of an Australian diploma—currently one year of post-secondary education—and so it is a lesser award than a degree, although this award can usually take two or more years to complete due to its high standard. Similarly, for theological colleges in former times, the licentiate was a specific post graduate award, analogous to a current graduate diploma. It was used specifically because some theological colleges did not enjoy university status, and could not award degrees such as baccalaureates, masters and doctorates. Though this was never the case in Catholic Colleges where the Licentiate cannot be earned until one has completed 7 years of study (5 for the baccalaureate and 2 for the licentiate). In such an instance, it sits well above the level of graduate diploma between that of master's and doctorate.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: The Catholic Institute of Sydney is a Pontifical Faculty and as such offers the Licentiate of Sacred Theology which ranks above a master's degree and can only be earned after seven years of study (five years for the S.T.B.; two years for the S.T.L.). The licentiate is part of the three cycles of theological education in the Roman Catholic Church that was instituted in 1931: baccalaureate (STB); licentiate (STL) and doctorate (STD). It is the licentiate that licences faculty to teach in seminaries. See John Paul II's apostolic constitution, "Sapientia Christiana".


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: At Belgian universities, a person titled "Licentiate" (or "Licentiaat" in Dutch or "Licencié" in French, abbreviated "lic.") holds the equivalent education of a Master's degree. A female "Licentiate" was called "Licentiate" in Dutch and "Licenciée" in French. The years spent to obtain the degree of "Licentiate" were called "Licentiaat" or "Licentie" in Dutch and "Licence" in French. It was the second level of university study, after that of "Candidate" (or in Dutch or "Candidat" in French, abbreviated "cand."). A female "Candidate" was called "Kandidate" in Dutch and "Candidate" in French. The years spent to obtain the degree of "Candidate" were called "Kandidaats" or "Kandidatuur" in Dutch and "Candidature" in French. Each of those two levels required at least two years (four semesters) of successful study. Licentiates were required to write a thesis (called "licentiaatsverhandeling" in Dutch and "mémoire de licence" in French). This "candidate-licentiate" system is now being replaced by an American-style "bachelor-master" system. "Civil engineer" (or "Burgerlijk ingenieur" in Dutch or "Ingénieur civil" in French, abbreviated "ir."), "Doctor of medicine" (or "Doctor in de geneeskunde" in Dutch or "Docteur en médecine" in French, abbreviated "dr. med.", until 1992), "Physician" (or "Arts" in Dutch or "Médecin" in French, after 1992), "Doctor of law" (or "Doctor in de rechten" in Dutch or "Docteur en droit" in French, abbreviated "dr. iur.", until 1972) and "Magister" (philosophy and theology, abbreviated "mag.") were equivalent to "Licentiate". "Baccalaureus" (philosophy and theology, abbreviated "bac.") was equivalent to "Candidate". The former titles "dr. med." and "dr. iur." are to be considered as professional doctorates, whereas the title "dr.", which is the result of third level study and research, is a higher doctorate. The Belgian "licentiate" was also equivalent to the "doctorandus" in the Netherlands. At the KU Leuven there used to be a degree "Licentiaat-doctorandus in de TEW (Toegepaste Economische Wetenschappen) en in Beleidsinformatica". Apart from the general abbreviation "lic.", more specific abbreviations, such as "LHFW" ("Licentiaat in de Handels- en Financiële Wetenschappen") and "LTH" ("Licentiaat in de Tandheelkunde") exist.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: Study for a Belgian degree is very rigorous. Students in Belgian universities usually spend more than thirty hours a week on their studies, as opposed to the average of fifteen hours at American universities. As a result of this, students in Belgium are able to complete their licentiate or master's degrees in four to five years, as opposed to the usual six at American institutions.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In Bolivia, a "Licenciatura" is a professional degree distinct from the Anglo-Saxon Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor in Science, as it requires that the student take more credits for the completion of a professional curricula than those needed in the Anglo-Saxon system. The Licenciatura allows the holder to practice his or her profession in all of Bolivia. The durational requirements to obtain a Licenciatura vary depending on the profession studied, however, most universities require the completion of the curricula within four to five years. Aside from the durational requirements, Bolivian universities also require that all candidates, at the completion of the curricula, complement their studies by writing a thesis or by sitting for an oral examination in which State and University representatives take part by testing the student's professional knowledge and skills.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In Brazil, "Licenciatura" is a professional degree distinct from the Anglo-Saxon Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science, as it requires students to take more credits for the completion of a professional "curriculum" than those needed in the Anglo-Saxon system. The Licenciatura degree allows its holder to teach disciplines both in primary and secondary education. Although durational requirements to obtain "Licenciatura" often depend on the topic studied, most universities require the completion of the curriculum within four to five years. Besides the durational requirements for academic activities, Brazilian universities may also require that degree candidates complement their studies by writing a dissertation and apply for an oral examination. This evaluation is performed by Professors and or Researchers aiming to assess the student's professional knowledge and skills.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: For instance, as defined by the Brazilian National Council of Education (Ministry of Education), a "Licenciatura" modality in Biological Sciences should include, in addition to specific topics of Biology, contents in the areas of Chemistry, Physics and Health, to attend elementary and secondary education. Pedagogical training, in addition to its specificities, should contemplate an overview of the education and the formative processes of the students. It should also emphasize the instrumentation for the teaching of Sciences at the fundamental level and for the teaching of biology at the intermediate level. In some Brazilian universities, Bachelor's degree and Licenciatura can be obtained concomitantly, by simultaneously fulfilling requirements for both the degrees (e.g. the "Bachelor's" and "Licenciatura" degrees in Biological Sciences, offered by the Pontifical Catholic University of Minas Gerais, Brazil).


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: While the term "licentiate" is not generally used by Canadian academic institutions, a Licentiate in Laws (LL.L.) is offered by some Canadian universities for the completion of studies equivalent to a Bachelor of Civil Law.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: A licentiate is also offered by the Medical Council of Canada (MCC) upon completion of a series of Medical Council of Canada Qualifying examinations for Canadian and International medical graduates. This licentiate is required to obtain an independent medical practice licence in Canada.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: Saint Paul University offers the degree of Licentiate in Philosophy by examination, which may be undertaken within ten years of receiving an MA from the Department of Philosophy at the University of Ottawa. This licentiate, a pontifical degree, qualifies graduates to teach philosophy at a seminary or college. Saint Paul University also offers a Licentiate in Canon Law that enables the recipient to practice as a canon lawyer within the Roman Catholic Church, as well as a Licentiate in Sacred Theology which is part of the baccalaureate, licentiate, and doctorate theological degree course within the Roman Catholic Church.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: Regis College, University of Toronto offers the degree of Licentiate in Sacred Theology. It is part of the cycle of baccalaureate, licentiate, doctorate in theological formation in the Roman Catholic Church. It can be earned while studying for a civil master's or doctoral degree. It probably sits in rank between the two levels. See John Paul II's apostolic constitution, "Sapientia Christiana".


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: The Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies at the University of Toronto offers a License in Mediaeval Studies (LMS) as a degree exclusively for postdoctoral students who have already completed a PhD. (The application for the LMS refers to it as a "licentiate" and not as a "license.") The degree is unusual in that licentiates from Pontifical institutions are usually a precursor to a doctorate, and not a post-doctoral achievement.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: The Royal Conservatory of Music, Toronto, offers a Licentiate Diploma (LRCM) in Piano Performance. The LRCM is the highest level of The Royal Conservatory Certificate Program. The examination is evaluated as a professional concert performance. Candidates are expected to demonstrate a masterful command of the instrument and communicate an understanding of stylistic characteristics and structural elements of each repertoire selection with interpretive insight and a mature musical personality.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In Costa Rica, a licentiate belongs to the second level of education (grade), lower than a master's degree but higher than a bachelor's degree, according to the Office for the Planning of Higher Education, part of the National Council of Rectors. Licentiate is extended to those who have fulfilled the requirements of a university program that has a minimum of 150 and a maximum of 180 course credits (public university programs usually last from four to six years of study) and a minimum duration of 10 lesson cycles of 15 weeks or its equivalent (three or four extra course semesters after the completion of the bachelor's degree).


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: Students are also required to fulfill the requirements for graduation for each institution, with usually requires writing a thesis in some universities, attending a graduation seminar, or developing a project in order to graduate, and some degrees involve the same credits as a master's degree but not the same level of rigor. This is also the degree conferred to a practicing physician. The degree is not considered terminal, and it is not sufficient to be a rector of a private university.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: The licentiate was formerly awarded in Denmark and Norway, and was roughly equal to the American PhD degree. In Denmark, it has formally been replaced by the PhD degree. The proper doctorates in Denmark are considered higher degrees than the PhD (i.e. higher doctorates).


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In the Dominican Republic, a "Licenciatura" is awarded to students after studies of four to six years. Some universities require students to write a thesis in order to graduate while others have to write a shorter, and less labor-intensive, monograph. The Licenciatura is one of the major University degree previous to doctoral studies.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In Swedish and Finnish universities, a licentiate's degree, recognised as a pre-doctoral degree, is equal to completion of the coursework and a dissertation which is formally equivalent to half of a doctoral dissertation. In Finland, the extent of licentiate degree is 120 ECTS equivalent and it requires two to three years of full-time research. Its prerequisite is a completed 4-year academic degree at advanced level, such as a Master's degree or a Magister's degree. Licentiate degree holders are officially eligible for independent scientific research in Universities, and entitled to the right to supervise master's and licentiate degree theses.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: Until the early 1970s, the degree in Sweden was equivalent to the U.S. PhD requiring four to seven years of study after the Bachelor's (or Master's) degree, and a publicly defended thesis. It was gradually substituted with the "Doctor's exam" in 1969 and was re-instituted as an intermediate level in research training in the 1980s, now requiring only two years of study after Masters graduation. The licentiate's degree is called a "filosofie licentiat" in Swedish and "filosofian lisensiaatti" in Finnish (Licentiate of Philosophy), "teologie licentiat" and "teologian lisensiaatti" (Licentiate of Theology) etc., depending on the faculty. Furthermore, the requisite degree for a physician's licence is "licentiat/lisensiaatti"; there is no master's degree. (The degree "lääketieteen tohtori", "medicine doktor", "Doctor of Medicine" is a traditional professor's degree, or a research doctorate, with licentiate as a prerequisite.)


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: The Licentiate of Engineering is an intermediate postgraduate degree used only in a few countries, among them Sweden and Finland, and can be seen as an academic step halfway between a Master's and a PhD. In Swedish, it is called "Teknologie Licentiat", usually abbreviated as "Tekn. Lic.", and in Finnish, "tekniikan lisensiaatti", abbreviated as "TkL". The Licentiate of Engineering corresponds to 120 ECTS credits (80 workweeks (old credits)), or nominally two years of full-time work, whereas a PhD amounts to 240 ECTS credits (160 workweeks (old credits)), or a nominal period of four years of full-time work (one old credit equals one week of full-time studies). However, as a result of the differences in requirements and individual performance, the time to complete a Licentiate of Engineering degree varies. For the thesis, 2–3 peer-refereed articles (or an equivalent monograph) is usually required, and there is no requirement for original research "per se". In contrast, a doctoral thesis requires 4–6 articles and must demonstrate original research. The program for a licentiate degree is equivalent to a total of two years of full-time study.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In French universities, a licenciate ("licencié(e)") is the holder of a "licence" (), which is a three-year degree, roughly equivalent to a bachelor's degree. There are two kinds of licence: general and professional.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In Germany, a person titled "Lizentiat" (or "Lizentiat") holds the equivalent education of a Master's degree or Diplom. Until the 1990s, the degree was offered as a law degree at the Saarland University as a single university degree (Lic.iur.) with a duration varying between five and eight years. For political reasons, this degree was discontinued, mainly because the Staatsexamen (Law degree) became the predominant representation of the mainstream education of a lawyer. The Lizentiat is largely equivalent to the 1. Staatsexamen but, unlike the latter, is assessed by the university, not the state administration. It also allowed specialisation in areas of the law which were either not covered by other legal qualifications, e.g. ecclesiastical law etc., or not covered to the same extent. Other disciplines, such as theology or journalism (FU Berlin), used to offer a "Lizentiat" qualification instead of a PhD.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In Haiti universities, a licenciate (licencié(e)) is the holder of a licence, which is a four-year degree, equivalent to a bachelor's degree. There are two kinds of licence: general and professional.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: The general licence is a diploma issued by a university and authenticated by the national department of education. This authentication confirms the school follows and complies to the national curriculum requirements for a four-year baccalaureat (bachelor's) degree.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: The professional licence is a Certificate licence issued by a university and authenticated national Department of education after the licenciate diploma holder submits a final paper research that have been analyzed and graded by a board of professors or faculty jury member from the school.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (HKSAR) offers a Licentiate of the Medical Council of Hong Kong (LMCHK). This licentiate is required of non-locally trained doctors in order to register as a medical practitioner in Hong Kong. The LMCHK qualification forms part of the pathway towards registration to practice medicine in Hong Kong for those that graduated from medical schools outside of Hong Kong. The Licentiate Society is an independent, non-profit professional body formed to help candidates with the challenges of attaining the LMCHK.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In India, the Licentiate is a vocational qualification offered by the special vocational boards or professional bodies. These are offered after completion of school education and are somewhat less extensive than a full-fledged university degree. Issuers of the licentiate degree include but are not limited to the Insurance Institute of India, the Institute of Company Secretaries of India, the Association of Mutual Funds of India, and the Diploma Examination Board of the government of Andhra Pradesh.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: Licentiate Certified Physician and Surgeon (LCPS) was a recognized medical qualification in India before 1946, when the Bhore Committee effectively made the MBBS the sole entry point into the medical profession in India.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: As in many Latin American countries, the "licenciatura" is a general term denoting the first higher-education degree awarded at universities, varying from 3 to 5 years of study, depending on the field. It is thus an undergraduate degree, and require a licence to practice in the learned profession.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In Mexico, a distinction is made between simply passing all the required courses, just being a graduate ("graduado" or "pasante"), and actually obtaining the degree diploma ("título profesional"). Obtaining the diploma means the student completely concluded his or her studies, and has the right of using the title of "Licenciado". Statistics show that historically only about 60% of those graduating actually obtain the diploma. At the same time the diploma is awarded, a professional credential ("cédula profesional") may be obtained from the National Directorate of Professions ("Dirección General de Profesiones, DGP"), which serves as a licence to practice and as a national ID card. Some professions do not require the professional credential, but for others, like medicine, accounting, civil engineering, or social work, it is mandatory by law. The law also establishes penalties for crimes committed regarding the professional practice, including those in which an individual offers professional services without having the proper diploma or licence.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: For a number of years, presenting a thesis was the only method to obtain the diploma ("título"). Nowadays, some universities, like the National Autonomous University of Mexico, may still require the thesis, while others, like the federal institutes of technology, may forgo the thesis in exchange for demonstrating professional experience, research work, or excellent academic grades.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: By their nature, some disciplines such as nursing, medicine and law require an intense theoretical background as well as practical training, and so a first university degree in those areas may take longer to complete (up to 6 years). Even after obtaining the diploma, graduates require passing a national exam to finally be awarded the professional licence.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In Mexico, every graduate who obtained a "licenciatura" diploma is technically and legally a "licenciado" (abbreviated "Lic." before the name). However, it is mostly common to use "Lic." for graduates of the social sciences, while more specific titles and prefixes are used for other professionals such as engineer ("Ingeniero, Ing."), architect ("Arquitecto, Arq."), or biologist ("Biólogo, Biol.").


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In Mexico, the "licenciatura" qualifies the recipient to pursue a master's degree ("maestría"). In exceptional cases, the recipient may apply directly to a doctoral degree ("doctorado"), in which case the study plan integrates coursework from the master's program, and may take up to five years to complete.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: According to the Bologna process in Europe, virtually any "licenciado" has the equivalent qualifications of a 3-year bachelor's degree. The Mexican "licenciatura", however, should never be confused with a more advanced postgraduate degree, such as the Swedish "Licenciate of Technology" ("Teknologie Licentiat").


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: The Photographic Society of New Zealand awards a licentiateship, Licentiate (LPSNZ), for "proficiency of a high order in


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: camera and in processing and presenting images. This is the first of three honours available the other two being Associate (APSNZ)and Fellow (FPSNZ).


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In Nicaragua, a "Licenciatura" is awarded to students after undergraduate studies ranging between four and six years. Students are required to write a thesis if studying in the liberal arts, law or science in order to graduate. Students in engineering typically complete "modulos," which are additional post-degree requirements before graduating. Additionally, there are Nicaraguan universities that require an internship "(internado or pasantia") prior to graduation. The Licenciatura is the degree that segues candidates into both masters and/or PhD programs.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: This degree is awarded upon completion of four years of study in a specific field of study – e.g., "Licenciatura de Docencia en ingles" (Licentiate in Teaching of English), and qualifies the recipient to pursue a master's degree. In order to be able to teach at university level, the recipient of a licentiate must complete the "Posgrado de Docencia Superior" (Postgraduate of Tertiary Education), that may be obtained before or after a master's degree.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: The Bachelor of Arts and the Bachelor of Science in the Anglo-Saxon universities are awarded upon completion of studies. In Peru, "Bachiller" is also awarded automatically for having completed all the courses required for obtaining the first academic degree. In Perú, A "Bachiller" degree is the first academic degree and allows one to enroll in a master's degree course. The master's degree is the second degree and it allows you to get a Doctor's degree (equivalent to a PhD).


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: The "Licenciatura" in Peru is not considered an academic degree, but rather a "Professional Title" within a specific profession which allows you to work in positions outside academia and perform as an independent professional in the Republic of Peru. Most professions require the "Licenciatura" or "Professional Title" to be able to register with professional association or society (Colegio Profesional). To obtain a "Licenciatura" it is required to either pass an additional test or defend a thesis. Although most Bachelor courses in Peru require to complete "Thesis work" or "Thesis seminars" modules(usually developing a research project during the last two semesters of the course) to obtain the degree, it is not mandatory to defend it. To obtain a "Licenciatura" or "Título Profesional" the student is required to write a thesis (usually that developed during their bachelor course), and pass their viva voce. Alternatively, it is possible to complete a written exam and then an oral examination in front of a group of professors (who are registered in the professional college/body of that specific profession). With this last option, it is usually required to have at least one year of professional experience in the relevant field of studies. Therefore, for some professions which used to be called "carreras largas" or long careers (e.g. dentistry, law, psychology and medicine), the student requires more than five years of studies or ten semesters to become a member of a professional body.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: Nowadays, some universities do not use the word "Licenciado" or "Licenciada" as a prefix before the professional title, e.g. "Licenciado/a en Farmacia y Bioquímica" (Licentiate in Pharmacy and Biochemistry) in their certificates. Instead they use "Químico Farmacéutico", the same happens in with the other professions (i.e. Enfermero, Ingeniero, Psicólogo.) In such cases, both written titles are equivalent. The Professional Titles in Peru are equivalent to the professional degrees in the Anglo-Saxon countries, therefore if a person obtained a Master in Counselling degree in the US will need to complete the university studies in Peru in order to obtain the Licenciate or Title of Psychologist and then the Licensure at the Colegio de Psicólogos del Perú. In Perú the Professional Title of Psicólogo is similar to the Psy.D. in the Anglo-Saxon degree.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: A "licencjat" is a degree that was introduced in Poland by the tertiary education reforms. The purpose of these reforms was to bring the Polish university system into line with the Bologna system. It is typically a three- or four-year degree, equivalent to the bachelor's degree in Anglo-Saxon countries. Students completing a "licencjat" often go on to complete a "magister"'s degree.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: In theology faculties which use Vatican-regulated degrees, "licencjat" is a degree between that of master and doctor.


title: Licentiate (degree)

text: Due to the developments introduced by the Bologna Process in the mid-2000s, in Portugal the licentiate's degree ("Licenciatura") may refer to both old and new "Licenciaturas", which were awarded before and after the Bologna's reforms, respectively. The length of the old "Licenciatura" programs would range from four to six years and are now equivalent to the new Master's degrees. In the past, a master's degree would add 2 more years to the 4 to 6 years of the old undergraduate "Licenciatura" programs, thus taking 6 to 8 years of post-secondary education to obtain a master's degree. The new "Licenciatura" degrees that are now being awarded in Portugal and in almost all Europe with varying local designations, are usually three-year programs.