title: North–South divide in England

text: There is also a perceived cultural divide in England between the north and the south. The "It's Grim Up North" BBC television series and subsequent book attempted to tease out some of these divisions. While those in the north complained of having fewer cultural opportunities, the book also provided a view of southern life as faceless and bland.


title: North–South divide in England

text: When the commercial broadcaster Granada Television began transmission in 1956, it was primarily based in Manchester. Granada's strapline before both networked and regional programming was originally "From The North, Granada Presents...". A large arrow pointing Upward (North) was part of this caption. Granada Television's 1960s updated arrow (a G with an upwards arrow) was prominent on local idents and production endcaps until Granada's identity was divided between the ITV Granada and Granada Productions (later ITV Studios) brands as part of the creation of ITV plc in 2004.


title: North–South divide in England

text: Counterbalancing the image of the rich South/poor North divide are television programmes like "Cold Feet", which feature Yuppie-esque, rich or upper-class Northerners, a deviation from the stereotypical North. Meanwhile, "Only Fools and Horses" is based around working-class life in Peckham.


title: North–South divide in England

text: Statistics suggest that the consumption of fast-food appears to be higher in the North of England, with the UK's fourteen "fattest cities" to the north or west of the dividing lines detailed above.


title: North–South divide in England

text: In 2013, two articles in "The Economist" argued that the divide between the left-leaning North and the right-leaning South could not be explained by economic fortunes alone. For example, the affluent suburban constituency of Wirral South was held by Labour, whereas deprived seaside towns in Thanet were represented by the Conservatives. One of the articles compared England's North–South divide to the divide between Northern and Southern Italy. It argued that Italy had a stronger economic divide, whereas England had a stronger divide in voter behaviour. The latter divide has been made starker by the first past the post voting system, which has caused Labour's representation in the South and (until the 2019 general election) the Conservatives' representation in the North to both be far weaker than their actual levels of support.


title: North–South divide in England

text: The journalist Kelvin MacKenzie suggested in 2012 that the South of England needed a political party to campaign for its interests, including "home rule" for the region. "City A.M." editor Allister Heath had made a similar suggestion in April 2012, and opined that increased powers for the London region might be obtained when the constitutional status of Scotland is debated.


title: North–South divide in England

text: The north–south divide has also been observed in the Brexit referendum of 2016, with the North leaning Brexit and the South being less supportive with strong support for remaining in the European Union seen in London and the South East.


title: North–South divide in England

text: Although younger generations may be less likely to use speech that is specific to a particular town, there is still a clear difference between north and south; young Northerners are more resistant to sounding as if they are Southern than sounding as if they are from a different Northern town.


title: North–South divide in England

text: The division is sometimes used for comedy, but has its serious side as well. The London media are sometimes claimed to look down upon those with northern English accents. For example, Ken Livingstone (a Londoner) suggested that the press's unsympathetic treatment of John Prescott was partly because he is one to "speak like ordinary people".


title: North–South divide in England

text: Some linguistic research has concluded that many people in the North of England have a dislike of the vowel in BATH words. AF Gupta wrote, "Many of the northerners were noticeably hostile to , describing it as 'comical', 'snobbish', 'pompous' or even 'for morons'." On the subject, K. M. Petyt wrote that several respondents "positively said that they did not prefer the long-vowel form or that they really detested it or even that it was incorrect" Mark Newbrook has assigned this phenomenon the name "conscious rejection", and has cited the BATH vowel as "the main instance of conscious rejection of RP" in his research in the West Wirral.


title: North–South divide in England

text: Within the Church of England, there is the Province of York in the North and the Province of Canterbury in the Midlands and the South. While this has a separation of sorts, it is not a North–South divide, as the Midlands is included. The North was also a stronghold of religious Nonconformism during its industrial heyday.


title: North–South divide in England

text: In the 18th century people in the North were also much more likely than those in the South to remain Catholic. Data from 1715 to 1720 shows that the most Catholic counties were all in the North, and the least Catholic counties were all in the South. With the exception of the southern county of Sussex, which had a higher proportion of Catholics, all intermediate counties were in the Midlands, and, except for Sussex, a line from the River Severn to the Wash marked a divide between more Catholic and less Catholic counties.


title: North–South divide in England

text: Industrial decline is most usually given as an explanation for the north–south divide. During the Industrial Revolution, many northern cities underwent a process of intense industrialisation, as raw materials such as coal and iron ore could be found in these areas. This led to comparatively high wealth; Shaw, Greater Manchester reportedly had the highest concentration of millionaires in the country at the time. It also led to heavy reliance on a few key industries and, as heavy industry began to leave the UK for developing countries under the 'New international division of Labour', these areas declined rapidly. Events like the UK miners' strike (1984–85) polarised public opinion and led to an increase in the divide.


title: North–South divide in England

text: Potential historical reasons for the divide include the influence of Scandinavian rule in the latter centuries of the first millennium CE, with much of the cultural differences of the north–south divide coinciding with the borders of the Danelaw. The Economist proposed in a 2017 article that the origins of the north–south divide could be traced back to the Norman Conquest, and the Harrying of the North in which William the Conqueror laid waste to many towns and estates in the North. This significantly reduced the wealth of the northern half of the country, laying the foundations for centuries of economic disadvantage.


title: North–South divide in England

text: The North Midlands are sometimes seen as part of the north, with Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, Rutland, Staffordshire, Shropshire and Northern Warwickshire having northern culture and accents. Many Midlands towns and cities appear, at least historically, to have more in common with their northern counterparts than with those in the south. This is mainly because they have a history of concentrated industrialisation and post-industrial economic depression, especially in the West Midlands metropolitan county and Stoke-on-Trent (and the Potteries). The film "Once Upon a Time in the Midlands" (2004), starring Ricky Tomlinson, was made very-much in the character of the straight-talking and dry humoured northern comedies. The non-industrialised service centre and county towns and cities of southern England are perceived to be dominated by London and exist essentially to service the capital.


title: North–South divide in England

text: However, during the 1930s while the North suffered badly from the Great Depression, the Midlands shared the fortunes of the South as these two areas of the country both prospered, with a booming Midlands motor car industry matching the Southern growth in the manufacture of electrical goods. This not only placed the Midlands socially on the same side as the South during a crucial defining period in Northern working class cultural identity, but also has had still-visible matching effects on the landscape of both Midlands and South, as both experienced a property boom in the middle years of the decade. resulted in the proliferation of the 1930s-style semi-detached houses in Midland areas such as Birmingham's south suburbs to match a similar manifestation in areas of the South such as West London.


title: North–South divide in England

text: As in the North, many Midlands towns and cities have experienced redevelopment, including a second Birmingham Bullring complex which replaced a postwar development, including a branch of the upmarket Selfridges department store, and The Mailbox redevelopment which houses a branch of Harvey Nichols. Solihull metropolitan borough is one of the most affluent in the country.


title: North–South divide in England

text: Many Northern post-industrial cities and towns are now experiencing a renaissance. Examples include Manchester, Kingston upon Hull, Leeds, Liverpool, Newcastle upon Tyne, Sheffield and the English Midlands cities of Birmingham, Coventry, Derby and Nottingham.


title: North–South divide in England

text: Manchester, as well as being home to much of ITV's TV output, has also benefited from the decentralisation of many BBC departments that produce TV & radio from London to Salford Quays in Greater Manchester. Manchester has now become the de facto digital hub city outside London for the UK, between 2012 & 2017 private equity investment in Manchester tech companies showed the fastest pace of growth in both volume and deal values in the EU – higher growth than the big hitters like London, Berlin, Paris and Stockholm. By 2018 there were an estimated 82,300 people working in digital in the Manchester city region – the largest cluster outside London & the city's stated ambition is to be recognised as one of Europe's top five digital cities by 2020. This cluster is reflected not only in BBC digital output but also the setup of the non-London UK-base for tech giants like Microsoft, Google & the open secret of around 1000 Amazon employees setting up near Piccadilly. Similarly, the recent decision from Channel 4 to open its new Headquarter offices outside of London resulted in bids from various cities across the country, with Leeds prevailing as the destination for the move.


title: North–South divide in England

text: The Bank of England retain their only offices outside London in Leeds, which as well as strong big data & medical software specialisms, also hosts BT and Royal Mail's secondary communication centres for the UK. A strong gaming industry in Leeds has produced global titles such as "Grand Theft Auto" and "L.A. Noire". Typically Southern upmarket department stores and shops have located new stores in the north; these include Harvey Nichols (opening first in Leeds, then Manchester, followed by Birmingham) and Selfridges in the Trafford Centre in 1998, Manchester in 2002 and Birmingham in 2003. Exclusive shopping destinations such as Leeds' Victoria Quarter have led to the city being dubbed 'The Knightsbridge of the North'.


title: North–South divide in England

text: Bradford based supermarket Morrisons, which mainly operated in the North of England acquired 479 stores when it bought Safeway in 2004, the majority of these new supermarkets were in the south of England. Other Northern founded supermarkets such as Asda, Co-op Food and Marks & Spencer are also popular in the south of England.


title: North–South divide in England

text: Writer and DJ Stuart Maconie argues that "there is no south of England... There's a bottom half of England... but there isn't a south in the same way that there's a north". He goes on to state that "there's no conception of the south comparable to the north. Good or bad, 'the north' means something to all English people wherever they hail from... [to southerners] it means desolation, arctic temperatures, mushy peas, a cultural wasteland with limited shopping opportunities and populated by aggressive trolls. To northerners it means home, truth, beauty, valour, romance, warm and characterful people, real beer and decent chip shops. And in this we are undoubtedly biased, of course". This suggests that all people in England have biased views regarding the north–south divide. Maconie says regarding on where the North starts that "Crewe is surely the gateway to the North", suggesting that Crewe is the most southern part of the north of England.


title: 1991–92 NBA season

text: The 1991–92 NBA season was the 46th season of the National Basketball Association. The season ended with the Chicago Bulls winning their second straight NBA Championship, beating the Portland Trail Blazers 4 games to 2 in the NBA Finals. This would be Larry Bird's final season in the NBA.


title: 1991–92 NBA season

text: Teams in bold advanced to the next round. The numbers to the left of each team indicate the team's seeding in its conference, and the numbers to the right indicate the number of games the team won in that round. The division champions are marked by an asterisk. Home court advantage does not necessarily belong to the higher-seeded team, but instead the team with the better regular season record; teams enjoying the home advantage are shown in italics.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Crimes against the Polish nation committed by Nazi Germany and Axis collaborationist forces during the invasion of Poland, along with auxiliary battalions during the subsequent occupation of Poland in World War II, consisted of the murder of millions of ethnic Poles and the systematic extermination of Jewish Poles. These mass murders were enacted by the Nazis with further plans that were justified by their racial theories, which regarded Poles and other Slavs, as well as Jews, as racially inferior "Untermenschen".


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: By 1942, the Nazis were implementing their plan to murder every Jew in German-occupied Europe, and had also developed plans to eliminate the Polish people through mass murder, ethnic cleansing, enslavement and extermination through labor, and assimilation into German identity of a small minority of Poles deemed "racially valuable". During World War II, the Germans not only murdered millions of Poles, but ethnically cleansed millions more through forced deportation to make room for German settlers (see and ). These actions claimed the lives of 2.7 to 3 million Polish Jews and 1.8 to 2.77 million ethnic Poles, according to Poland's Institute of National Remembrance, which had been established in Warsaw in 1998. These extremely large death tolls, and the absence of substantial non-Jewish civilian deaths in other occupied European countries such as Denmark and France, have lead some like Timothy Snyder to characterize Germany's policies against the Poles as genocidal.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: The genocidal policies of the German government's colonization plan, , were the blueprint for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed against the Polish nation from 1939 to 1945. The Nazi master plan entailed the expulsion and mass extermination of some 85 percent (over 20 million) of ethnic Poles in Poland, the remaining 15 percent to be turned into slave labor. In 2000, by an act of the Polish Parliament, dissemination of knowledge on World War II crimes in Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union was entrusted to the Institute of National Remembrance.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: From the start of the war against Poland, Germany intended to realize Adolf Hitler's plan, set out in his book , to acquire "living space" () in the east for massive settlement of German colonists. Hitler's plan combined classic imperialism with Nazi racial theories. In the Obersalzberg Speech delivered on 22 August 1939, just before the invasion of Poland, Hitler gave explicit permission to his commanders to murder "without pity or mercy, all men, women, and children of Polish descent or language."


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Ethnic cleansing was to be conducted systematically against the Polish people. On 7 September 1939, Reinhard Heydrich stated that all Polish nobles, clergy, and Jews were to be murdered. On 12 September, Wilhelm Keitel added Poland's intelligentsia to the list. On 15 March 1940, SS chief Heinrich Himmler stated: "All Polish specialists will be exploited in our military-industrial complex. Later, all Poles will disappear from this world. It is imperative that the great German volk consider the elimination of all Polish people as its chief task." At the end of 1940, Hitler confirmed the plan to liquidate "all leading elements in Poland".


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: After Germany lost the war, the International Military Tribunal at the Nuremberg Trials and Poland's Supreme National Tribunal concluded that the aim of Nazi German policies in Poland – the extermination of Poles and Jews – had "all the characteristics of genocide in the biological meaning of this term."


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Less than a year before the outbreak of war, on 1 October 1938, the German Army rolled into the Sudetenland in accordance with the Munich Agreement. The operation was completed by 10 October. Two weeks later, on 24 October 1938, Ribbentrop summoned Polish ambassador to Berchtesgaden and presented him with Hitler's "Gesamtlösung" regarding the Polish Corridor and the Free City of Danzig. Ambassador Lipski refused. Three days later, the first mass deportation of Polish nationals from Nazi Germany began. It was the eviction of Jews who settled in Germany with Polish passports. On 9–10 November 1938, the "Kristallnacht" attack was carried out by the SA paramilitary forces; thousands of Jews holding Polish citizenship were rounded up and sent via rail to the Polish border and to the Nazi concentration camps. The round-up included 2,000 ethnic Poles living and working there.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Also, before the invasion of Poland, the Nazis prepared a detailed list identifying more than 61,000 Polish targets (mostly civilian) by name, with the help of the German minority living in the Second Polish Republic. The list was printed secretly as the called "Sonderfahndungsbuch Polen" (Special Prosecution Book–Poland), and composed only of names and birthdates. It included politicians, scholars, actors, intelligentsia, doctors, lawyers, nobility, priests, officers and numerous othersas the means at the disposal of the SS paramilitary death squads aided by "Selbstschutz" executioners. The first "Einsatzgruppen" of World War II were formed by the SS in the course of the invasion. They were deployed behind the front lines to murder groups of people considered, by virtue of their social status, to be capable of abetting resistance efforts against the Germans. The most widely used lie justifying indiscriminate murders by the mobile death squads was (always the same) made-up claim of purported attack on German forces.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: In total, about 150,000 to 200,000 Poles died during the one-month September Campaign of 1939, characterized by the indiscriminate and often deliberate targeting of civilian population by the invading forces. Over 100,000 Poles died in the "Luftwaffe"s terror bombing operations, like those at Wieluń. Massive air raids were conducted on towns which had no military infrastructure. The town of Frampol, near Lublin, was heavily bombed on 13 September as a test subject for Luftwaffe bombing technique; chosen because of its grid street plan and an easily recognisable central town-hall. Frampol was hit by 70 tonnes of munitions, which destroyed up to 90% of buildings and killed half of its inhabitants. Columns of fleeing refugees were systematically attacked by the German fighter and dive-bomber aircraft.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Amongst the Polish cities and towns bombed at the beginning of war were: Brodnica, Bydgoszcz, Chełm, Ciechanów, Częstochowa, Grodno, Grudziądz, Gdynia, Janów, Jasło, Katowice, Kielce, Kowel, Kraków, Kutno, Lublin, Lwów, Olkusz, Piotrków, Płock, Płońsk, Poznań, Puck, Radom, Radomsko, Sulejów, Warsaw, Wieluń, Wilno, and Zamość. Over 156 towns and villages were attacked by the "Luftwaffe". Warsaw suffered particularly severely with a combination of aerial bombardment and artillery fire reducing large parts of the historic centre to rubble, with more than 60,000 casualties.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: In the first three months of war, from the fall of 1939 until the spring of 1940, some 60,000 former government officials, military officers in reserve, landowners, clergy, and members of the Polish intelligentsia were executed region by region in the so-called "Intelligenzaktion", including over 1,000 POWs. Summary executions of Poles were conducted by all German forces without exception including, "Wehrmacht", Gestapo, the SS and "Selbstschutz" in violation of international agreements. The mass murders were a part of the secretive Operation Tannenberg, an early measure of the "Generalplan Ost" settler colonization. Polish Christians as well as Jews were either murdered and buried in hastily dug mass graves or sent to prisons and German concentration camps. "Whatever we find in the shape of an upper class in Poland will be liquidated," Hitler had ordered. In the "Intelligenzaktion Pommern", a regional action in Pomeranian Voivodeship 23,000 Poles were killed. It was continued by the German AB-Aktion operation in Poland in the mid-1940s. The "AB-Aktion" saw the massacre of Lwów professors and the executions of about 1,700 Poles in the Palmiry forest. Several thousand civilian victims were executed or imprisoned. The "Einsatzgruppen" were also responsible for the indiscriminate murder of Jews and Poles during the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Communities were collectively punished for the purported Polish counter-attacks against the invading German troops. Mass executions of hostages were conducted almost every day during the "Wehrmacht" advance across Poland. The locations, dates and numbers include: Starogard (2 September), 190 Poles, 40 of them Jews; Swiekatowo (3 September), 26 Poles; Wieruszów (3 September), 20 Poles all Jews. On 4 September 1939 the 42nd Infantry Regiment (46th Infantry Division) committed the Częstochowa massacre with 1,140 citizens or more (150 of them Jews) murdered in wild shooting actions in several city locations. In Imielin (4–5 September), 28 Poles were murdered; in Kajetanowice (5 September), 72 civilians were massacred in revenge for two German horses killed by German friendly fire; Trzebinia (5 September), 97 Polish citizens; Piotrków (5 September), Jewish section of the city was set on fire; Będzin (8 September), two hundred civilians burned to death; about 300 were shot to death in Turek (9 September) Klecko (9–10 September), three hundred citizens executed; Mszadla (10 September), 153 Poles; Gmina Besko (11 September), 21 Poles; Kowalewice (11 September), 23 Poles; Pilica (12 September); 36 Poles, 32 of them Jewish; Olszewo (13 September), 13 people (half of the village) from Olszewo and 10 from nearby Pietkowo including women and children stabbed by bayonets, shot, blown up by grenades, and burned alive in a barn; Mielec (13 September), 55 Jews burned to death; Piątek (13 September), 50 Poles, seven of them Jews. On 14–15 September about 900 Polish Jews in parallel shooting actions in Przemyśl and in Medyka. Roughly at the same time, in Solec (14 September), 44 Poles killed; soon thereafter in Chojnice, 40 Polish citizens; Gmina Klecko, 23 Poles; Bądków, 22 Poles; Dynów, two hundred Polish Jews. Public executions continued well beyond September, including in municipalities such as Wieruszów County, Gmina Besko, Gmina Gidle, Gmina Klecko, Gmina Ryczywół, and Gmina Siennica, among others.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: In and around Bydgoszcz, about 10,000 Polish civilians were murdered in the first four months of the occupation ("see" Bloody Sunday, and the Valley of Death). German Army and "Selbstschutz" paramilitary units composed of ethnic German "Volksdeutsche" also participated.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: The Nazis took hostages by the thousands at the time of the invasion and throughout their occupation of Poland. Hostages were selected from among the most prominent citizens of occupied cities and villages: priests, professors, doctors, lawyers, as well as leaders of economic and social organizations and the trade unions. Often, however, they were chosen at random from all segments of society and for every German killed a group of between 50 and 100 Polish civilians were executed. About 20,000 villagers, some of whom were burned alive, were murdered in large-scale punitive operations targeting rural settlements suspected of aiding the resistance or hiding Jews and other fugitives. Seventy-five villages were razed in these operations. Poland was the only country in occupied Europe where the penalty for hiding a Jew was death for everyone living in the house; other laws were similarly ruthless.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Germany planned to completely remove the indigenous population of Poland beginning with the newly created "Reichsgau Wartheland" territory in 1939. According to the "Lebensraum" aim and ideology, formerly Polish lands were to be taken over by the German military and civilian settlers including Eastern European "Volksdeutsche". The "Germanizing" of occupied territories by the Reich was repeatedly condemned by Nuremberg Tribunal which stated that the practice of expelling civilians was "not only in defiance of well-established rules of international law, but in complete disregard of the elementary dictates of humanity." During the occupation of Poland, the number of Poles evicted by the German authorities from their homes is estimated at 2,478,000. Up to 928,000 Poles were ethnically cleansed to make way for the foreign colonists.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: The number of displaced Polish nationals in four years of German occupation included: from Warthegau region 630,000 Poles; from Silesia 81,000; from Pomerania 124,000; from Bezirk Białystok 28,000; and from Ciechanów district 25,000 Poles and Jews. In the so-called "wild expulsions" from Pomerelia, some 30,000 to 40,000 Polish people were evicted, and from General Government (to German "reservations") some 171,000 Poles and Jews. To create new colonial latifundia, 42% of annexed farms were demolished. Some Poles were sent to perform slave labor in the Reich. Additional 500,000 ethnic Poles were deported from Warsaw after the Warsaw uprising on top of 180,000 civilian casualties.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: The expulsions were carried out so abruptly that the ethnic Germans resettled from Eastern Galicia, Volhynia and Romanian Bukovina were taking over Polish homes with half-eaten meals on tables and unmade beds where small children had been sleeping at the time of expulsions. Members of Hitler Youth and the League of German Girls were assigned the task of overseeing evictions to ensure that the Poles left behind most of their belongings for the use of the settlers. Himmler promised to eventually deport all Poles to Russia. He envisioned their ultimate end by exposure, malnutrition and overwork possibly in the Pripet Marshes where all Poles were to die during the cultivation of the marshy swamps. Plans for the mass transportation and possible creation of slave labor camps for up to 20 million Poles were also made.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: The best example of Polish resistance, not aimed at hurting the Germans or achieving political aims but at protecting the Poles, was the Zamość Uprising. It was a rare situation where the politically anticommunist Home Army, politically neutral Peasants' Battalions, communist People's Guard, and Soviet Partisans all worked together to protect the Poles from German abuses, mainly forced expulsion, and from mass murder carried out by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army on Polish people. The Uprising greatly slowed the German expulsion of Poles and the area's colonization with Germans. The Germans went so far as to create a buffer zone of villages populated by ethnic Ukrainians friendly to the Germans. The Polish peasants were reluctant to join the armed resistance, but were forced to protect themselves.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Almost immediately following the invasion, both Germany and the Soviet Union began setting up camps in occupied Poland, which included POW camps for some 230,672 Polish soldiers captured during the September campaign of 1939. Within a short period of time, the German zone of partitioned Poland became a virtual prison-island with more than 430 complexes of state organized terror. It is estimated that some 5 million Polish citizens went through them while serving the . The Occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union began in September 1939.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: The majority of 50,000 Poles imprisoned at Mauthausen-Gusen were mostly murdered in Gusen; 150,000 at Auschwitz, 20,000 at Sachsenhausen, 40,000 at Gross-Rosen; 17,000 at Neuengamme and 10,000 at Dachau. About 17,000 Polish women were murdered at Ravensbrück. A major concentration camp complex at Stutthof (east of Gdańsk), was launched no later than 2 September 1939 and existed until the end of the war with 39 subcamps. It is estimated that 65,000 Poles were murdered there. The total number of Polish nationals who were murdered in the camps, prisons and places of detention inside and outside Poland exceeds 1,286,000. There were special camps for children such as the Potulice concentration camp, the "Kinder-KZ Litzmannstadt" for Polish boys, and the forced-labour camp for Polish girls at Dzierżązna (Dzierzazna).


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Auschwitz became the main concentration camp for Poles on 14 June 1940. By March 1941, 10,900 prisoners were registered at the camp, most of them Gentile Poles. In September 1941, 200 ailing Polish prisoners along with 650 Soviet POWs, were murdered in the first gassing experiments with Zyklon-B. Beginning in 1942, Auschwitz's prisoner population became much more diverse, as Jews and other "enemies of the state" from all over German-occupied Europe were deported to the expanding camp. Franciszek Piper, the chief historian of Auschwitz, estimates that 140,000 to 150,000 ethnic Poles were brought to that camp between 1940 and 1945, and that 70,000 to 75,000 were murdered there as victims of executions, human experimentation, forced starvation and disease.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Instances of pseudo medical experiments occurred. For example, 74 young Polish women were subjected to medical experiments on bone and muscle transplantation, nerve regeneration and wound infection in the Ravensbrück concentration camp. Sulfanilamide experiments were conducted on Polish Catholic priests in Dachau. More than 300 Polish priests were murdered in experiments or by torture.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Already in 1939, the Germans divided all Poles along the ethnic lines. As part of the expulsion and slave labor program, Jews were singled out and separated from the rest of civilian population in the newly established ghettos. In smaller towns, ghettos served as staging points for mass deportations, while in the urban centers they became instruments of "slow, passive murder" with rampant hunger and dead bodies littering the streets. The ghettos did not correspond to traditional Jewish neighborhoods. The ethnic Poles and members of other groups were ordered to take up residence elsewhere.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest ghetto in all of Nazi occupied Europe, with over 400,000 Jews crammed into an area of , or 7.2 persons per room. The Łódź Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000 inmates. By the end of 1941, most of about 3.5 million Polish Jews were already ghettoized, even though the Germans knew that the system was unsustainable; most inmates had no chance of earning their own keep, and no savings left to pay the "SS" for any further basic food deliveries.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: In October 1939, the Nazis passed a decree on forced labour for Jews over the age of 12 and Poles over the age of 14 living in the General Government. Between 1939 and 1945, some 3 million Polish citizens were transported to the "Reich" for slave labor, many of them teenage boys and girls. Although Germany also used forced laborers from Western Europe, Poles and other Eastern Europeans viewed as racially inferior were subjected to intensified discriminatory measures. Polish laborers were compelled to work longer hours for lower than the regular symbolic pay of Western Europeans. They were forced to wear identifying purple tags with "P"s sewn to their clothing, subjected to a curfew, and banned from public transportation. While the treatment of factory workers or farm hands often varied depending on the individual employer, in many cities Poles were forced to live in segregated barracks behind barbed wire. Social relations with Germans outside work were forbidden, and sexual relations ("racial defilement") were considered a capital crime punishable by death. During the war, hundreds of Polish men were executed for their relations with German women. Historian Jan Gross estimated "no more than 15 per cent" of all the Poles who went to Germany did so voluntarily.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Mass rapes were committed against Polish women and girls including during punitive executions of Polish citizens, before shooting of the women. Additionally, large numbers of Polish women were routinely captured with the aim of forcing them into serving in German military brothels. Mass raids were conducted by the Nazis in many Polish cities with the express aim of capturing young women, later forced to work in brothels attended by German soldiers and officers. Girls as young as 15 years old, who were ostensibly classified as "suitable for agricultural work in Germany", were sexually exploited by German soldiers at their places of destination.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: In "Reichsgau Wartheland" territories of occupied Greater Poland, the Nazi goal was a complete Germanization of the land: i.e. the assimilation politically, culturally, socially and economically into the German Reich. This did not mean the old style Germanization of the inhabitantsby teaching them the language and culturebut rather, the flooding of the "Reichsgau" with assumed "pure" Germans aided only by the fraction of those living there previously, most of whom were not ethnically German. In order to meet the imaginary targets, "Gauleiter" Albert Forster, in charge of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, had decided that the whole segments of Polish population are in fact ethnic German, whilst expelling others. This decision led to some two-thirds of the ethnic Polish population of the "Gau" being defined as "Germans" for the first time in their lives.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: German Nazis closed elementary schools where Polish was the language of instruction. Streets and cities were renamed (Łódź became "Litzmannstadt", etc.). Tens of thousands of Polish enterprises, from large industrial firms to small shops, were seized from their owners. In October 1939, the Nazi propaganda stated Poles, Jews, and Gypsies were subhumans. Signs posted in front of those establishments warned: ""Entrance forbidden for Poles, Jews, and dogs."" The Nazi regime was less stringent in their treatment of the Kashubians in the "Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia". Everywhere, however, many thousands of people were forced to sign the "Deutsche Volksliste", a racial documentation which the Nazis used to identify and give priority to people of German heritage in occupied countries.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: At least 200,000 children in occupied Poland were kidnapped by the Nazis to be subjected to forcible germanization ("Ausländerkinder-Pflegestätte"). These children were screened for "racially valuable traits" and sent to special homes to be Germanized. After racial tests, those deemed suitable, were then placed for adoption if the Germanization was effective, while children who failed the tests were mass murdered in medical experiments, concentration camps or sent to slave labor. After the war, many of the kidnapped children found by Allied forces had been utterly convinced that they were German.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Children of forced workers were brutally mistreated in Nazi birthing centres for foreign workers, where thousands of them were murdered outright or through calculated neglect. Many of the mothers who were unable to return to work after giving birth were murdered. A camp for children and teenagers, Polen-Jugendverwahrlager der Sicherheitspolizei in Litzmannstadt, ran from 1943 to 1944 in Łódz, with a sub-camp for girls in Dzierżązna, Łódź Voivodeship.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: As part of the Nazi plan to destroy Poland, the Germans engaged in cultural genocide in which they looted and then destroyed libraries, museums, scientific institutes and laboratories as well as national monuments and historic treasures. They closed down all universities, high schools, and engaged in systematic murder of Polish scholars, teachers and priests. Millions of books were burned, including an estimated 80% of all school libraries, and three-quarters of all scientific libraries. Polish children were forbidden from acquiring education beyond the elementary level with the aim that the new generation of Polish leaders could not arise in the future. According to a May 1940 memo from Heinrich Himmler: "The sole goal of this schooling is to teach them simple arithmetic, nothing above the number 500; writing one's name; and the doctrine that it is divine law to obey the Germans. I do not think that reading is desirable." By 1941, the number of children attending elementary school in the General Government was half of the pre-war number. The Poles responded with Tajne Nauczanie, the "Secret Teaching" a campaign of underground education.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Ethnic Poles in Poland were targeted by the "łapanka" policy which German forces utilized to indiscriminately round up civilians off the street. In Warsaw, between 1942 and 1944, there were approximately 400 daily victims of "łapanka". It is estimated that tens of thousands of these victims were murdered in mass executions, including an estimated 37,000 people at the Pawiak prison complex run by the Gestapo, and thousands of others murdered in the ruins of the Warsaw Ghetto.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: In July 1939, a Nazi secret program called Action T4 was implemented whose purpose was to effect the extermination of psychiatric patients. During the German invasion of Poland, the program was put into practice on a massive scale in the occupied Polish territories. Typically, all patients, accompanied by soldiers from special "SS" detachments, were transported by trucks to the extermination sites. The first actions of this type took place at a large psychiatric hospital in Kocborowo on 22 September 1939 (Gdańsk region), as well as in Gniezno and in Kościan.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: The total number of psychiatric patients murdered by the Nazis in occupied Poland between 1939 and 1945 is estimated to be more than 16,000. An additional 10,000 patients were murdered by starvation. Approximately 100 of the 243 members of the Polish Psychiatric Association met the same fate as their patients.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Execution of patients by firing squad and by revolver included 400 patients of a psychiatric hospital in Chełm on 1 February 1940 and from Owińska. In Pomerania, they were transported to a military fortress in Poznań and gassed with carbon monoxide in the bunkers of Fort VII, including children as well as women whom the authorities classified as Polish prostitutes. Other Owińska hospital patients were gassed in sealed trucks using exhaust fumes. The same method was utilized in the Kochanówka hospital near Łódz, where 840 persons were murdered in 1940, totalling 1,126 victims in 286 clinics.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: This was the first "successful" test of the mass murder of Poles using gas. This technique was later perfected on many other psychiatric patients in Poland and in Germany; starting in 1941, the technique was widely employed in the extermination camps. Nazi gas vans were also first used in 1940 to murder mentally ill Polish children.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: In 1943, the SS and Police Leader in Poland, Wilhelm Koppe, ordered more than 30,000 Polish patients with tuberculosis to be exterminated as the so-called "health hazard" to the General Government. They were murdered mostly at the Chełmno extermination camp.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Sir Ian Kershaw wrote that, in Hitler's scheme for the Germanization of Central and Eastern Europe, there would be no place for the Christian Churches.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Historically, the church had been a leading force in Polish nationalism against foreign domination, thus the Nazis targeted clergy, monks and nuns in their terror campaigns—both for their resistance activity and their cultural importance. Of the brief period of military control from 1 September 193925 October 1939, Davies wrote: "according to one source, 714 mass executions were carried out, and 6,376 people, mainly Catholics, were shot. Other put the death toll in one town alone at 20,000. It was a taste of things to come." According to the "Encyclopædia Britannica", 1,811 Polish priests were murdered in Nazi concentration camps.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Nazi policy towards the Church was at its most severe in the territories it annexed to Greater Germany, where the Nazis set about systematically dismantling the Church – arresting its leaders, exiling its clergymen, closing its churches, monasteries and convents. Many clergymen were murdered.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: The Catholic Church was suppressed in the annexed territory of "Reichsgau Wartheland" more harshly than elsewhere. In the Wartheland, regional leader Arthur Greiser, with the encouragement of Reinhard Heydrich and Martin Bormann, launched a severe attack on the Catholic Church. Its properties and funds were confiscated, and lay organisations shut down. Evans wrote that "Numerous clergy, monks, diocesan administrators and officials of the Church were arrested, deported to the General Government, taken off to a concentration camp in the Reich, or simply shot. Altogether some 1,700 Polish priests ended up at Dachau: half of them did not survive their imprisonment." Greiser's administrative chief August Jager had earlier led the effort at Nazification of the Evangelical Church in Prussia. In Poland, he earned the nickname ""Kirchen-Jager"" (Church-Hunter) for the vehemence of his hostility to the Church.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: "By the end of 1941", wrote Evans, "the Polish Catholic Church had been effectively outlawed in the Wartheland. It was more or less Germanized in the other occupied territories, despite an encyclical issued by the Pope as early as 27 October 1939 protesting against this persecution." The Germans also closed seminaries and convents persecuting monks and nuns throughout Poland. In Pomerania, all but 20 of the 650 priests were shot or sent to concentration camps. Between 1939 and 1945, 2,935 members of the Polish clergy (18%) were murdered in concentration camps. In the city of Włocławek, 49% of its Catholic priests were murdered; in Chełmno, 48%. One hundred and eight of them are regarded as blessed martyrs. Among them, Maximilian Kolbe, who volunteered to die at Auschwitz in place of a stranger, was in 1982 canonized as a saint.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: The Holocaust in German-occupied Poland involved the implementation of German Nazi policy of systematic and mostly successful murder of the indigenous Polish Jewish population, whom the Nazis regarded as "subhuman" ("Untermenschen"). Between the 1939 invasion of Poland, and the end of World War II, over 90% of Polish Jewry was murdered. Six extermination camps (Auschwitz, Belzec, Chełmno, Majdanek, Sobibor and Treblinka) were established in which the mass murder of millions of Polish Jews and various other groups, was carried out between 1942 and 1944. The camps were designed and operated by Nazi Germans and there were no Polish guards at any of them. Of Poland's prewar Jewish population of 3.5 million, only about 50,000–120,000 Jews survived the war.


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: During the suppression of the 1944 Uprising in Warsaw, German forces committed many atrocities against Polish civilians, following the order by Hitler to level the city. The most notorious massacre took place in Wola where, at the beginning of August 1944, between 40 and 50,000 civilians (men, women, and children) were shot, sexually assaulted and tortured by the "Einsatzkommando" of the "Sicherheitspolizei" under Heinz Reinefarth's command and the amnestied German criminals from "Dirlewanger". Other similar massacres took place in the areas of Śródmieście (City Centre), Stare Miasto (Old Town) and Marymont districts. In Ochota, an orgy of civilian killings, rape and looting was carried out by Russian collaborators of RONA. After the fall of Stare Miasto, during the beginning of September, 7,000 seriously wounded hospital patients were executed or burnt alive, often with the medical staff caring for them. Similar atrocities took place later in the Czerniaków district and after the fall of Powiśle and Mokotów districts.<ref name="Nowak/Kuzniak"></ref>


title: Nazi crimes against the Polish nation

text: Until the end of September 1944, Polish resistance fighters were not considered by Germans as combatants; thus, when captured, they were summarily executed. One hundred sixty-five thousand surviving civilians were sent to labour camps, and 50,000 were shipped to concentration camps, while the ruined city was systematically demolished. Neither Reinefarth nor Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski were ever tried for their crimes committed during the suppression of the uprising. (The Polish request for extradition of amnestied Wilhelm Koppe from Germany was also refused.)


title: Zutomayo

text: , stylized as ZUTOMAYO, is a Japanese rock group that debuted in 2018. Secretive by nature, the group has never released a full member list, crediting different people for music, arrangements, and music video production each time. The only member reoccurring in all of the group's output is the vocalist, an unidentified woman named .


title: Zutomayo

text: Despite the little information released, the group is commercially successful. Zutomayo's three EP's have reached 8th, 1st, and 2nd on the Oricon Albums Chart, respectively. The group was also invited to perform at the 2019 Fuji Rock Festival a year after their debut.


title: Zutomayo

text: Aside from ACA-Ne, the vocalist, it is unclear how many people are in the band. ACA-Ne has never revealed her face, and the band have performed behind a translucent screen during concerts, including at the 2019 Fuji Rock Festival. Many have pointed to Zutomayo's secrecy regarding its members contributing towards its popularity. In more recent performances however, other members of the band have been less secretive, choosing to show their faces.


title: Zutomayo

text: Zutomayo typically produces rock music, often featuring intricate, funk-inspired basslines. ACA-Ne's voice has been described as "energetic", "expressive", and "delicate".


title: Zutomayo

text: The group debuted with the release of their first song, , via YouTube on June 4, 2018. The song became an immediate hit, garnering 200,000 views within the first week. Additionally, after being released on streaming platforms on August 30, the song became the most streamed song in Japan that week. Following the song's release, Zutomayo held their first concert at Daikanyama Loop in Tokyo. Attendees were handed opaque glasses and reported that the entire venue was dark for the concert's duration. The group would continue to conceal their identities in future concerts.


title: Zutomayo

text: Zutomayo released two more singles digitally before releasing their first EP, , on November 14 through EMI Records. The EP reached 8th on the Oricon Albums Chart and was nominated in the 19th CD Shop Awards. On June 5, 2019, a second EP was released titled , which topped the Oricon chart. The group's first full-length album, , was released on October 30 of the same year. The song "Darken" was used in the live-action film "The Night Beyond the Tricornered Window", and "Hypersomnia" is also featured in the film. The group released on February 10, 2021, featuring songs "One's Mind", "Can't Be Right", "STUDY ME", "Hunch Gray", "Have a", "Engine Oil", "Darken", "Milabo", "Loneliness", "Crop", "Hypersomnia", "Fastening", and "Inner Heart".


title: Zutomayo

text: As of February 2022, Zutomayo has released four EPs and two full-length albums. Some songs contained in these albums were released digitally before the album's release.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: The Eddystone Lighthouse is a lighthouse that is located on the dangerous Eddystone Rocks, south of Rame Head in Cornwall, England. The rocks are submerged below the surface of the sea and are composed of Precambrian gneiss.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: The current structure is the fourth to be built on the site. The first lighthouse (Winstanley's) was swept away in a powerful storm, killing its architect and five other men in the process. The second (Rudyard's) stood for fifty years before it burned down. The third (Smeaton's) is renowned because of its influence on lighthouse design and its importance in the development of concrete for building; its upper portions were re-erected in Plymouth as a monument. The first lighthouse, completed in 1699, was the world's first open ocean lighthouse, although the Cordouan Lighthouse off the western French coast preceded it as the first offshore lighthouse.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: The Eddystone Rocks are an extensive reef approximately 12 miles (19 km) SSW off Plymouth Sound, one of the most important naval harbours of England, and midway between Lizard Point, Cornwall and Start Point. They are submerged at high spring tides and were so feared by mariners entering the English Channel that they often hugged the coast of France to avoid the danger, which thus resulted not only in shipwrecks locally, but on the rocks of the north coast of France and the Channel Islands. Given the difficulty of gaining a foothold on the rocks particularly in the predominant swell it was a long time before anyone attempted to place any warning on them.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: The first lighthouse on Eddystone Rocks was an octagonal wooden structure built by Henry Winstanley. The lighthouse was also the first recorded instance of an offshore lighthouse. Construction started in 1696 and the light was lit on 14 November 1698. During construction, a French privateer took Winstanley prisoner and destroyed the work done so far on the foundations, causing Louis XIV to order Winstanley's release with the words "France is at war with England, not with humanity".


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: The lighthouse survived its first winter but was in need of repair, and was subsequently changed to a dodecagonal (12 sided) stone clad exterior on a timber-framed construction with an octagonal top section as can be seen in the later drawings or paintings. The octagonal top section (or 'lantern') was high and in diameter, its eight windows each made up of 36 individual glass panes. It was lit by '60 candles at a time, besides a great hanging lamp'.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: Winstanley's tower lasted until the great storm of 1703 erased almost all trace on . Winstanley was on the lighthouse, completing additions to the structure. No trace was found of him, or of the other five men in the lighthouse.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: The cost of construction and five years' maintenance totalled £7,814 7"s."6"d", during which time dues totalling £4,721 19"s."3"d" had been collected at one penny per ton from passing vessels.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: Following the destruction of the first lighthouse, Captain John Lovett acquired the lease of the rock, and by Act of Parliament was allowed to charge passing ships a toll of one penny per ton. He commissioned John Rudyard (or Rudyerd) to design the new lighthouse.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: Rudyard's lighthouse, in contrast to its predecessor, was a smooth conical tower, shaped 'so as to offer the least possible resistance to wind and wave'. It was built on a base of solid wood, formed from layers of timber beams, laid horizontally on seven flat steps which had been cut into the upper face of the sloping rock. On top of this base rose several courses of stone, interspersed with further layers of wood, which was designed to serve as ballast for the tower. This substructure rose to a height of , on top of which were raised four storeys of timber. The entire structure was sheathed in vertical wooden planks and anchored to the reef using 36 wrought iron bolts, forged to fit deep dovetailed holes which had been cut in the reef. The vertical planks were installed by two master-shipwrights from Woolwich Dockyard and were caulked like those of a ship. The tower was topped with an octagonal lantern, which brought it to a total height of . A light was first shone from the tower on and the work was completed in 1709. The light was provided by 24 candles. Rudyard's lighthouse proved more durable than its predecessor, surviving and serving its purpose on the reef for nearly 50 years.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: In 1715 Captain Lovett died and his lease was purchased by Robert Weston, Esq., in company with two others (one of whom was Rudyard).


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: On the night of 2 December 1755, the top of the lantern caught fire, probably through a spark from one of the candles used to illuminate the light, or else through a fracture in the chimney which passed through the lantern from the stove in the kitchen below. The three keepers threw water upwards from a bucket but were driven onto the rock and were rescued by boat as the tower burnt down. Keeper Henry Hall, who was 94 at the time, died several days later from ingesting molten lead from the lantern roof. A report on this case was submitted to the Royal Society by physician Edward Spry, and the piece of lead is now in the collections of the National Museums of Scotland.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: The third lighthouse to be built on the Eddystone marked a major step forward in the design of such structures.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: Following the destruction of Rudyard's tower, Robert Weston sought advice on rebuilding the lighthouse from the Earl of Macclesfield, then President of the Royal Society. He recommended mathematical instrument maker and aspiring civil engineer, John Smeaton, who was introduced to Weston in February 1756. In May, following a series of visits to the rock, Smeaton proposed that the new lighthouse should be built of stone and modelled on the shape of an oak tree. He appointed Josias Jessop to serve as his general assistant, and established a shore base for the construction works at Millbay.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: Work began on the reef in August 1756, with the gradual cutting away of recesses in the rock which were designed to dovetail in due course with the foundations of the tower. During the winter, the workers stayed ashore and were employed in dressing the stone for the lighthouse; work then resumed on the rock the following June, with the laying of the first courses of stone. The foundations and outside structure were built of local Cornish granite, while lighter Portland limestone masonry was used on the inside. As part of the construction process, Smeaton pioneered 'hydraulic lime', a concrete that cured under water, and developed a technique of securing the blocks using dovetail joints and marble dowels. Work continued over the course of the following two years, and the light was first lit on 16 October 1759.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: Smeaton's lighthouse was 59 feet (18 m) high and had a diameter at the base of 26 feet (8 m) and at the top of 17 feet (5 m). It was lit by a chandelier of 24 large tallow candles.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: In 1807 the 100-year lease on the lighthouse expired, whereupon ownership and management devolved to Trinity House. In 1810 they replaced the chandelier and candles with 24 Argand lamps and parabolic reflectors.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: In 1841 major renovations were made, under the direction of engineer Henry Norris of Messrs. Walker & Burges, including complete repointing, replacement water tanks and filling of a large cavity in the rock close to the foundations. In 1845 the lighthouse was equipped with a new second-order fixed catadioptric optic, manufactured by Henry Lepaute of Paris, with a single multi-wick oil lamp, replacing the old lamps and reflectors. This was the first time that a fully catadioptric large optic (using prisms rather than mirrors above and below the lens) had been constructed, and the first such installation in any lighthouse. A new lantern was constructed and fitted to the top of the tower in 1848, as the original had proved unsatisfactory for housing the new optic.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: From 1858 the tower's exterior was painted with broad red and white horizontal bands, so as to render it 'more distinctly visible during the day time'. In 1872 a 5 cwt fog bell was provided for the lighthouse; it was sounded 'five times in quick succession every half minute' in foggy weather. That same year an improved lamp was installed, which more than doubled the intensity of the light.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: In 1877 it was resolved to build a replacement lighthouse, following reports that erosion to the rocks under Smeaton's tower was causing it to shake from side to side whenever large waves hit. During construction of the new lighthouse, the Town Council of Plymouth petitioned for Smeaton's tower to be dismantled and rebuilt on Plymouth Hoe, in lieu of a Trinity House daymark which stood there. Trinity House consented to the removal and delivery of the lantern and the upper four rooms of the tower, the cost of labour to be borne by Plymouth Council. While the new tower was being built the old lighthouse remained operational, up until 3 February 1882 (after which a temporary fixed light was shown from the top of the new tower). When the latter was complete, Smeaton's lighthouse was decommissioned and the crane which had been used to build the new lighthouse was transferred to the task of dismantling the old. William Tregarthen Douglass supervised the operation.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: The upper part of Smeaton's lighthouse was subsequently rebuilt, as planned, on top of a replica granite frustum on Plymouth Hoe: preserved 'as a monument to Smeaton's genius, and in commemoration of one of the most successful, useful and instructive works ever accomplished in civil engineering'. The rebuilding was funded by public subscription. It remains in place today and, as 'Smeaton's Tower', is open to the public as a tourist attraction.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: The original frustum or base of the tower also survives, standing where it was built on the Eddystone rocks, from the current lighthouse. Having dismantled the upper part of the structure, Douglass infilled the old entrance way and stairwell within the frustum and fixed an iron mast to the top of the stub tower. He expressed the hope that 'the rock below will for ages endure to support this portion of Smeaton's lighthouse, which, in its thus diminished form, is still rendering important service to the mariner, in giving a distinctive character to the Eddystone by day'.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: The current, fourth lighthouse was designed by James Douglass (using Robert Stevenson's developments of Smeaton's techniques). This lighthouse is still in use.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: By July 1878 the new site, on the South Rock was being prepared during the 3½ hours between ebb and flood tide; the foundation stone was laid on 19 August the following year by The Duke of Edinburgh, Master of Trinity House. The supply ship "Hercules" was based at Oreston, now a suburb of Plymouth; stone was prepared at the Oreston yard and supplied from the works of Messrs Shearer, Smith and Co of Wadebridge. The tower, which is high, contains a total of 62,133 cubic feet of granite, weighing 4,668 tons. The last stone was laid on 1 June 1881 and the light was first lit on 18 May 1882.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: The lighthouse was topped by a larger than usual lantern storey, high and wide; the lantern was painted red. It contained a six-sided biform (i.e. two-tier) rotating optic of the first-order, high and weighing over seven tons. Each of the six sides of the optic was divided into two Fresnel lens panels, which provided the light's characteristic of two flashes every thirty seconds. The optic was manufactured by Chance Brothers of Smethwick and designed by their chief engineer John Hopkinson FRS. At the time the Eddystone's extra-tall () lenses were the largest in existence; their superior height was achieved through the use of extra-dense flint glass in the upper and lower portions of each panel.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: The light had a range of . Illumination was provided by a pair of Douglass-designed six-wick concentric oil burners (one for each tier of the optic). This was said to represent 'the first practical application of superposed lenses of the first order with oil as the illuminating material'. On clear nights, only the lamp in the lower tier of lenses was lit (producing a light of 37,000 candlepower); in poor visibility, however (judged by whether the Plymouth Breakwater light was visible), both lamps were used at full power, to provide a 159,600 candlepower light. Eighteen cisterns in the lower part of the tower were used to store up to 2,660 tons (nine months' worth) of colza oil to fuel the lamps.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: In addition to the main light a fixed white light was shone from a room on the eighth storey of the tower (using a pair of Argand lamps and reflectors) in the direction of the hazardous Hand Deeps. The lighthouse was also provided with a pair of large bells, each weighing two tons, by Gillett, Bland & Co., which were suspended from either side of the lantern gallery to serve as a fog signal; they sounded (to match the light characteristic of the lighthouse) twice every thirty seconds in foggy weather, and were struck by the same clockwork mechanism that drove the rotation of the lenses. The mechanism required winding every hour (or every forty minutes, when the bells were in use), 'the weight to be lifted being equal to one ton'; shortly after opening, the lighthouse was equipped with a 0.5 h.p. caloric engine, designed 'for relieving the keepers of the excessive strain of driving the machine when both illuminating apparatus and fog bell are in use'.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: In 1894 an explosive fog signal device was installed on the gallery of lighthouse; the fog bells were briefly retained as a standby provision, but then removed. In 1904 the lamps were replaced with incandescent oil vapour burners. Following the invention of the mercury bath system (allowing a lighthouse optic to revolve in a trough of mercury rather than on rollers) the Eddystone lens pedestal was duly upgraded and the drive mechanism replaced. Later, beginning in 1959, the light was electrified: the new light source was a 1,250W incandescent lamp, powered by a diesel generator (three of which were installed in a lower store room). In place of the old lenses a new, smaller (fourth-order) AGA 'bi-valve' optic was installed, which flashed at the faster rate of twice every ten seconds. The old optic was removed and donated to Southampton Maritime Museum (it was exhibited on the Royal Pier in the 1970s, but later removed to a council yard where it was destroyed by vandals). As part of the programme of modernisation, the lighthouse was given a 'SuperTyfon' fog signal, with compressors powered from the diesel generators.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: The lighthouse was automated in 1982, the first Trinity House 'Rock' (or offshore) lighthouse to be converted. Two years earlier the tower had been changed by construction of a helipad above the lantern, to allow maintenance crews access; the helipad has a weight limit of 3600 kg. As part of the automation of the lighthouse a new electric fog signal was installed and a metal halide discharge lamp replaced the incandescent light bulb formerly in use. The light and other systems were monitored remotely, initially by Trinity House staff at the nearby Penlee Point fog signal station. Since 1999 the lighthouse has run on solar power.


title: Eddystone Lighthouse

text: The tower is high, and its white light flashes twice every 10 seconds. The light is visible to , and is supplemented by a foghorn of 3 blasts every 62 seconds. A subsidiary red sector light shines from a window in the tower to highlight the Hand Deeps hazard to the west-northwest. The lighthouse is now monitored and controlled from the Trinity House Operations Control Centre at Harwich in Essex.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: The Pathfinder Platoon is a pathfinder unit of the British Army, and an integral part of 16 Air Assault Brigade. The Pathfinder Platoon acts as the brigade's advance force and reconnaissance force. Its role includes locating and marking drop zones and helicopter landing zones for air landing operations. Once the main force has landed, the platoon provides tactical intelligence and offensive action roles for the brigade.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: During the Second World War small groups of parachute soldiers were formed into pathfinder units, to parachute ahead of the main force. Their tasks were to mark the drop zones (DZ) or landing zones (LZ), set up radio beacons as a guide for the aircraft carrying the main force and to clear and protect the area as the main force arrive.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: The units were formed into two companies to work with the two airborne divisions. The 21st Independent Parachute Company served with the 1st Airborne Division and the 22nd Independent Parachute Company served with the 6th Airborne Division. The 22nd Independent Parachute Company were amongst the lead elements of the 6th Airborne division's drop into Normandy as part of Operation Tonga; the 21st Independent Parachute Company took part in Operation Market Garden landing at Arnhem in September 1944. After marking the DZs and LSs The Company was trapped with the rest of the division in the Oosterbeek Perimeter.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: After the war both companies were disbanded and in 1948, the army's parachute force was reduced to the 16 Parachute Brigade. Part of this reduction saw the formation of the No. 1 Guards Independent Parachute Company which became the pathfinder unit for the newly formed brigade. The Company deployed on a wide variety of operations between 1948 and 1977. It was deployed to Borneo during the Borneo Confrontation where it was trained as a special reconnaissance unit.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: Following the 1982 Falklands War, 5 Airborne Brigade was established as a light, rapid reaction force for similar requirements. The brigade was formed from the two Parachute Regiment and one line infantry battalions and support units. The Brigade identified a requirement for an independent intelligence collection capability, deployable into a hostile or non-permissive environment ahead of the main force so in 1985 the Pathfinder Platoon was established with personnel drawn initially from the patrols platoon of each of the three Parachute Battalions. For many years it was not an officially established unit, being financed from other parts of the Brigade's budget. In 1999, 5 Airborne Brigade merged with 24 Airmobile Brigade to form the present day 16 Air Assault Brigade with the platoon remaining attached to the Brigade headquarters.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: The platoon work under the command of the Brigade Headquarters in Colchester, Essex. The Officer Commanding Pathfinder Platoon is a senior Captain or Major with an Operations Warrant Officer (OPSWO) as his second in command. The platoon operates in teams of between 4–6 men. In 2006 a new rate of Parachute Pay (High Altitude Parachute Pay) was introduced for members of the Pathfinder Platoon following the recommendations of the Armed Forces’ Pay Review Body.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: In preparation for the Selection Course, applicants would attend the a two-day Pathfinder Briefing Course (PBC) & a five-day Pathfinder Preparation Course (PFPC). The PBC is held 6 times per year, and the Pathfinder Preparation Course (PFPC) is held 2 times per year.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: This two-day briefing course, conducted in and around Merville Barracks in Colchester, held 6 times per year, spread out throughout the year, aims to prepare potential candidates for the Selection Course. It aims to give candidates an insight of service in the Pathfinders, advice and guidance on how best to prepare for the Selection Course. During this briefing course they also conduct basic fitness and navigation exercises, along with allowing candidates the opportunity to ask any questions.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: The PBC does not contain any pass/fail tests. Its aim is to prepare candidates for the Selection course. It is mandatory for anyone wishing to attend the Selection Course. However it does not commit an individual to attend the following selection course. Attendance at the PFBC is valid for 18 months.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: The Preparation Course (PFPC) is a five-day course, held 2 times per year in South Wales, that run concurrently with the Pathfinder Platoon Selection Course, which is also run 2 times per year.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: The PFPC aims to allow potential soldiers and officers the opportunity to gain insight into the Pathfinder, and to provide advice on how best to prepare for the Selection Course.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: Like the PBC, it does not contain any pass/fail tests, and like the PBC, it is mandatory for anyone wishing to attend the Selection Course. The PFPC is designed to help candidates prepare for the Selection Course, by giving advice and guidance, and the opportunity to make mistakes.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: Selection lasts for 6 weeks, held 2 times per year, the Pathfinder Platoon Selection Course (PSFC), also known as 'The Cadre' covers almost all UKSF Selection Course training grounds although it is much shorter. The Cadre consist of:


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: Also known as Live firing Phase, this phase takes place on Sennybridge Training Area (SENTA). The candidate will be trained with:


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: Candidates will be teaming up with a 4-6 men team and tasked with planning and execute a typical reconnaissance mission. Candidates will be captured and need to go through series of mock interrogations by the instructors. Candidates are tested physically and mentally (SERE training).


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: After completed the Selection Course, successful candidates would complete a short indication cadres before moving onto employment training in weapons, mobility, communications and other patrol skills. All Pathfinder qualify as high-altitude parachutist by completing a HALO/HAHO course. Pathfinders who aren't already parachute trained in basic Static line jumps would first have to complete the Basic Parachute Course, before moving onto HALO/HAHO training.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: The present day Pathfinder Platoon has taken part in operations in Yugoslavia, Sierra Leone, Macedonia, Afghanistan and Iraq.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: In June 1999, they were part of Operation Agricola in Kosovo. The platoon provided reconnaissance and the forward air control of air assets, behind enemy lines, for NATO command several days prior to the main land offensive. Once NATO forces had entered Kosovo, the platoon were re-tasked to provide a defensive screen around Pristina International Airport prior to the arrival of the Russian forces.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: Their next operation was Operation Palliser in Sierra Leone. The platoon deployed into Freetown on May 7, 2000, to assist the UNAMSIL efforts. Deployed around Lungi under the command of Sergeant Stephen Heaney, they were engaged by a Revolutionary United Front (RUF) force trying to capture the airport. The platoon, outnumbered 20 to one, fought throughout the night and repulsed the RUF, which suffered 20 dead without any loss to the platoon. For his actions during the engagement Heaney was awarded the Military Cross.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: In 2001 the Pathfinder Platoon deployed for Operation Essential Harvest in the Republic of Macedonia supporting the Special Air Service in mapping the National Liberation Army (NLA) positions.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: The platoon was deployed to the southern Afghan province of Helmand alongside the 3 Para Battle Group in 2006. The Pathfinders spent 52 days in the town of Musa Qal'eh and were engaged in fighting the Taliban for 26 of the 52 days.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: By May 19, the Pathfinders joined the Afghan National Police (ANP) in a counterattack in Taliban-held territory. From there, a US B-1 Lancer bomber and A-10's were directed by PF forward air controllers (FACs) onto Taliban positions. They were then supplemented by French Super Etendards from the Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier in the Indian Ocean. The men then set out on a four-day mission to a town in the north of Helmand province in Afghanistan ended up spending 52 days under siege by the Taliban. 25 men, who have been first into several Taliban-held areas during the British deployment in southern Afghanistan, came under such ferocious attack that they were forced to stay in Musa Qala fighting almost daily battles. The group was supposed to be reinforced by a company of 120 paratroopers but they had to be diverted to the town of Sangin when they came under heavy assault by Taliban insurgents. The platoon were finally replaced in Musa Qala when 500 British troops, in a mission codenamed Operation Snakebite broke through Taliban lines.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: In 2010 the Pathfinders deployed again to Helmand Afghanistan as the Brigade Reconnaissance Force operating throughout Helmand Province conducting reconnaissance tasks and offensive action tasks. During the course of this tour an attached soldier Pte John "Jack" Howard (3 Para) was killed in action during a strafing run from an American Close Air Support mission.


title: Pathfinder Platoon

text: In 2021 Pathfinders were deployed to Kabul taking part in Operation Pitting to assist in the evacuation of British nationals as well as eligible Afghans. The Pathfinders provided security to the airfield and assisted in locating personnel unable to get to the airport. This ended the 20 years that the UK was involved militarily in Afghanistan.


title: The Five Doctors

text: The Five Doctors is a special feature-length episode of the British science fiction television series "Doctor Who", produced in celebration of the programme's 20th anniversary. It had its world premiere in the United States, on the Chicago PBS station WTTW and various other PBS member stations on 23 November 1983, the anniversary date. It was transmitted in the United Kingdom two days later.


title: The Five Doctors

text: "The Five Doctors" was written by Terrance Dicks, who had been the script editor for the entirety of the Third Doctor's era and had written for the series since the 1960s. The episode aired after the conclusion of the 20th season to celebrate the 20th anniversary. Patrick Troughton and Jon Pertwee reprised their roles as the Second and Third Doctors, respectively. Richard Hurndall portrayed the First Doctor, as the character's original actor, William Hartnell, had died since his last appearance on the show ten years previously. Since Tom Baker decided not to appear in this special to avoid being typecast, footage from the unfinished serial "Shada" was used to portray the Fourth Doctor.


title: The Five Doctors

text: An unknown entity uses the Time Scoop to bring several of the previous incarnations of the Doctor; his former companions Susan Foreman, Sarah Jane Smith, and Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart; and his enemies the Daleks, the Cybermen, a Raston Warrior Robot and a Yeti, from their respective time streams into the Death Zone on Gallifrey. The entity's attempt to grab the Fourth Doctor and Romana ends up trapping the two in the time vortex. The Fifth Doctor senses the disruption of his own timeline, and with his own companions Tegan and Turlough, travels to Gallifrey via his TARDIS, also ending up in the Death Zone, unable to travel farther with the TARDIS due to a force field projected by the Tomb of Rassilon, the tower at the centre of the Death Zone. The various Doctors lead their companions towards the Tower while avoiding the hostile forces.


title: The Five Doctors

text: At the Citadel on Gallifrey, the High Council of Time Lords have also detected the disturbance in the Doctor's timeline and the power drain from the Time Scoop, and Lord President Borusa has the Master, the Doctor's arch-nemesis, summoned to help rescue the Doctor, offering the Master a new set of regenerations and a pardon for his misdeeds if he succeeds. The Master accepts, and is given a recall device by the Castellan and a copy of the High Council's seal before he is transmatted to the Zone. The Master encounters the Third Doctor, who dismisses him and accuses him of making the seal himself, before finding the Fifth just as they are surrounded by Cybermen. The Master is knocked out by a Cyberman's gun firing, and the Doctor finds and uses the recall device to return to the Citadel. When the Master awakes, he makes a pact with the Cybermen to lead them to the Tower if they will give him his life but tricks them into falling for the Death Zone's traps. The Cybermen, too, have an ulterior motive, planning to kill the Master when he outlives his usefulness.


title: The Five Doctors

text: As the other Doctors and companions converge on the Tower, the Fifth Doctor works with the Council, discovering the recall device given to the Master included a tracking signal to lead the Cybermen to him, and foul play is suspected. The Castellan is found to possess the forbidden Black Scrolls of Rassilon, and he dies while attempting to escape an invasive mind probe. When the Doctor returns to the High Council's chamber to report, he finds Borusa missing, and soon discovers a secret room with Borusa at the controls of the Time Scoop. Borusa reveals he seeks to be the President Eternal of Gallifrey and needed the Doctors to disable the force field over the Tomb in order to gain immortality from Rassilon's Ring and rule forever. Borusa uses his headgear, the Coronet of Rassilon, to compel the Doctor to do his bidding. Meanwhile, the Master meets the First Doctor and Tegan and rids himself of the Cybermen by letting them fall victim to a giant chessboard rigged with a laser trap, before killing the Cyberleader with one of his subordinates' guns.


title: The Five Doctors

text: As Borusa expected, the other three Doctors and their companions have made it to the tomb chamber, bypassing the Yeti and Raston Warrior Robot, as well as phantoms of the Doctor's former companions Jamie McCrimmon, Zoe Heriot, Liz Shaw and Mike Yates. They ponder the meaning of writing in the tomb: "to lose is to win and he who wins shall lose". The Master arrives in the Tomb, but the Doctors' companions tie him up, with the Brigadier knocking him out for good measure. The Doctors disable the force field to summon the TARDIS, the Third Doctor using his catchphrase of "I've reversed the polarity of the neutron flow", but this action allows Borusa and the Fifth Doctor to arrive via transmat. Borusa uses the Coronet to prevent the Doctors' companions from interfering while he speaks to Rassilon. An image of Rassilon appears above the tomb and offers Borusa his ring as the key to immortality. The other Doctors try to stop Borusa, but the First Doctor tells them to hold off. Borusa dons the Ring, but then shortly disappears, becoming living stone that is part of Rassilon's tomb. The First Doctor realised what fate the tomb's writing foretold: immortality, but at a cost of perpetual incarceration.


title: The Five Doctors

text: Rassilon frees the Fourth Doctor and Romana from the time vortex and returns the Master to his own time; the Doctors immediately refuse his offer for immortality. The First, Second and Third Doctors collect their respective companions and return to their time streams as well, leaving the Fifth Doctor with Tegan and Turlough. Chancellor Flavia arrives via transmat, with the Chancellery Guard, and, after learning of Borusa's fate, declares that the Doctor is now Lord President, a position he cannot refuse. The Doctor tells Flavia to return to the Citadel as he will follow shortly, then quickly departs with his companions, as he has no intention of returning to Gallifrey any time soon. Tegan asks if he's planning to jet off across the galaxy in an old spaceship running from his people. With a grin, he replies that of course he is, as that's how his adventure started in the first place.


title: The Five Doctors

text: The working title for this story was "The Six Doctors". It would have been written by former script editor Robert Holmes and would have featured the Cybermen and their kidnapping of the five incarnations of the Doctor; in their attempt to extract Time Lord DNA to turn themselves into "Cyberlords", the twist being that the First Doctor and Susan would actually be android impostors (the former being the "Sixth Doctor" of the title) and the Second Doctor would have saved the day. However, Holmes dropped out at an early stage and another former script editor, Terrance Dicks, was brought in instead. Some elements of this plotline would be reused in Holmes' own "The Two Doctors" (1985) and in Chris Chibnall's "The Timeless Children" (2020).


title: The Five Doctors

text: The programme is officially a co-production with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, although the production team were not aware of this during production and the agreement in effect amounted to little more than a pre-production purchase pact. Nathan-Turner's first choice of director for the story was Waris Hussein, who had directed the first-ever "Doctor Who" serial, "An Unearthly Child", in 1963. However, Hussein was in America at the time and was unable to accept the offer. Nathan-Turner then asked another veteran director, Douglas Camfield, to direct but he also declined. Camfield was also very ill with heart disease, and this may have affected his decision not to direct the production. He died of a heart attack early in 1984.


title: The Five Doctors

text: The original script featured an appearance by the Autons, last seen in "Terror of the Autons" (1971). After being dropped into the Death Zone, Sarah would have been attacked by a group of them before being rescued by the Third Doctor. However, due to budgetary restrictions, the scene was dropped and replaced in the finished version. Just before she meets the Third Doctor, Sarah falls a few feet down what fans have generally considered a rather unconvincing slope. In the novelisation, Sarah actually steps off a cliff. This was what was originally intended in the script, but for budgetary reasons the sequence was changed.


title: The Five Doctors

text: Location filming took place at Cwm Bychan, Llanbedr. The Yeti costume used in the serial was last used in "The Web of Fear" in 1968. It had decayed badly in 15 years of storage, requiring dim lighting and selective camera angles during filming.


title: The Five Doctors

text: The story was prepared in two formats: the ninety-minute version and a four-part version, the latter designed for international distribution or repeat broadcasting in the ordinary series run. The episode breaks were, respectively, Sarah falling down the slope, the Cybermen placing their bomb outside the TARDIS while Susan and Turlough watch, and the Master appearing behind the First Doctor and Tegan while in the Dark Tower. This is the only programme from the classic series of "Doctor Who" for which all recorded and filmed material, including alternate and unused takes, fluffed scenes and so forth, still exists in broadcast-quality format. This allowed for the creation of the 1995 version of the story. "The Five Doctors" was recorded in four-channel stereo, but broadcast in mono. The later DVD releases had a Dolby Digital 5.1 soundtrack.


title: The Five Doctors

text: In the various publicity photos of the five Doctors from this story, a waxwork model of Tom Baker from a 1980 Doctor Who Exhibition in Madame Tussauds was used. According to producer John Nathan-Turner, Baker had agreed to do the photocall for the 20th anniversary but, suspecting that he might not turn up, Nathan-Turner arranged for the waxwork to be on location.


title: The Five Doctors

text: The end credits featured a specially-mixed version of the theme music, which began with Delia Derbyshire's original 1960s arrangement and then segued into the Peter Howell arrangement being used by the series at the time (the former being played at a slightly higher speed to match the tempo and pitch of the latter). This arrangement was only used on this one occasion and was the last time that the Derbyshire version was heard during the show's original run. A unique arrangement of the opening credits music was also used, which ended in a brief coda phrase that was never used in any other serial.


title: The Five Doctors

text: The First Doctor was played by Richard Hurndall, replacing William Hartnell, who died in 1975. Hartnell does make an appearance, however, in a pre-titles clip taken from the end of "The Dalek Invasion of Earth" (1964). After initially agreeing to take part, Tom Baker declined to return so soon after his departure from the series two years before, saying in 2014, "I didn't want to play 20 per cent of the part. I didn't fancy being a feed for other Doctors—in fact, it filled me with horror." His appearance was pieced together with footage from the unaired serial "Shada".


title: The Five Doctors

text: In early drafts of the script, some of the Doctor and companion combinations were different. Originally, the Fourth Doctor would have been paired with Sarah Jane Smith, the Third Doctor with Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart and the Second Doctor with Jamie McCrimmon. When Frazer Hines, Jamie's actor, proved unavailable for more than a cameo appearance the script had to be altered, pairing the Second Doctor with Victoria Waterfield. This was revised again when Deborah Watling, Victoria's actress, became unavailable and Baker decided not to appear, resulting in the pairings as they were screened. Instead of meeting phantoms of Jamie and Zoe (Wendy Padbury), the Second Doctor and the Brigadier were originally scripted to meet Zoe and Victoria. The Doctor would have realised the truth about them when Victoria called Lethbridge-Stewart "Brigadier", when she only knew him as a Colonel (in "The Web of Fear"). Deborah Watling was unable to make the recording dates but Frazer Hines was able to free himself up for a day's shooting, so Jamie was written in instead.


title: The Five Doctors

text: John Levene was invited back as Sergeant Benton but objected to the script requiring Benton to not recognise the Second Doctor. Levene felt this was unfaithful to his character, who he felt would not forget the Second Doctor, and he declined to participate. The scene was filmed with a character introduced as Colonel Crichton in his place.


title: The Five Doctors

text: In April 2013, Carole Ann Ford revealed the producer had initially insisted that Susan not refer to the Doctor as her grandfather: "You will not believe why. They said, 'We don't really want people to perceive him as having had sex with someone, to father a child.' I just screamed with hysterical laughter and said, 'In that case, I'm not doing it.'" The script was changed to include mentions of the characters' relationship.


title: The Five Doctors

text: "The Five Doctors" was first broadcast in the United States on the actual date of the programme's 20th anniversary. The broadcast in the United Kingdom was delayed two days so it could coincide with the BBC's Children in Need charity night, with an outro in character by Peter Davison. There were a few segments in the BBC broadcast that had not been shown in the US airing.


title: The Five Doctors

text: A four-part-serial version of the story was shown on BBC One, nightly between 14 August and 17 August 1984 at 6:15 p.m., achieving viewing figures of 4.7, 4.5, 3.7 and 4.8 million, respectively.


title: The Five Doctors

text: Paul Cornell, Martin Day and Keith Topping wrote of the special in "The Discontinuity Guide" (1995), "A fine anniversary tale, although don't analyse the plot too closely as it's largely a collection of set pieces without a great deal of substance. This is Terrance Dicks' loving tribute to a series that he helped to mould and, as such, contains everything that it should." In "The Television Companion" (1998), David J. Howe and Stephen James Walker stated that "The Five Doctors" "is not as bad as it could have been ... [but] the story fairly groans at the seams with the inclusion of so many 'old favourites'." Still, they felt that it worked as a one-off fun celebration.


title: The Five Doctors

text: In 2012, Patrick Mulkern of "Radio Times" found the serial fun and made with a lot of love, though he noted the Third Doctor and Sarah Jane fared less well than some of the others. He also called it "Anthony Ainley's most effective outing" and praised the efficient scripting and other aspects of production aside from Moffatt's "sedate" direction. DVD Talk's Stuart Galbraith gave the story four out of five stars, finding Hurndall's performance as the First Doctor "the show's biggest, most delightful surprise". Writing for io9, Alasdair Wilkins said that the special was "far from perfect" and "a big, silly adventure", but worked "much better if you can selectively switch your brain off". Digital Spy's Morgan Jeffery gave the story three out of five stars, writing that it was "not the show's finest hour" but adding that it was "fun if enjoyed in the right frame of mind."


title: The Five Doctors

text: A novelisation of this serial, written by Terrance Dicks, was published by Target Books in November 1983; it was the only Target novelisation to be published before its story was aired. The novelisation features numerous deleted scenes that subsequently turned up on the special-edition DVD release of this story.


title: The Five Doctors

text: "The Five Doctors" was first released on VHS and Betamax in September 1985, accidentally using the slightly shorter version sold to the USA. In 1990, the story was re-released, on VHS only, using the original UK broadcast edit. This version was also released on US LaserDisc in 1994.


title: The Five Doctors

text: A "Special Edition" of the episode (originally called the "Collector's Edition"), with updated special effects, surround-sound compatibility and an alternate editing of the raw material was released on VHS in 1995 in a box set with the video of "The King's Demons" and a limited-edition postcard album. This version also features a special BBC video ident, showing said ident being whisked away by the Time Scoop. The "Special Edition" was the first "Doctor Who" story to be released on DVD, on 1 November 1999. The Region 1 version has a commentary track by Peter Davison and writer Terrance Dicks. This would later be carried over to the 2008 re-release in Region 2.


title: The Five Doctors

text: On 22 August 2005 it was announced that "The Five Doctors" would be the first "Doctor Who" story to be made available to download to mobile phones, in a deal between BBC Worldwide and the technology firm Rok Player. The story was re-released as a "25th anniversary edition" DVD on 3 March 2008. This release contains both the original broadcast version and the special edition. The special was a free gift in issue 4 of Doctor Who DVD Files.


title: The Five Doctors

text: On 28 August 2015, "The Five Doctors" was released in Germany—with the German title "Die Fünf Doktoren".


title: The Five Doctors

text: There are many differences between the original version of the episode and the special-edition version. They are:


title: The Five Doctors

text: The complete original and special edition scores, as well as a selection of effects by Dick Mills was released on 14 September 2018. It was also released on 2-LP 28 September 2018, omitting the effects.


title: Pectoral muscles

text: Pectoral muscles (colloquially referred to as "pecs") are the muscles that connect the front of the human chest with the bones of the upper arm and shoulder. This region contains four muscles that provide movements to the upper limbs or ribs.


title: Pectoral muscles

text: Pectoralis major is a thick, fan-shaped or triangular convergent muscle, which makes up the bulk of the chest muscle. It lies under the breast. It serves to flex, extend, and rotate the humerus, the long bone of the upper arm.


title: Pectoral muscles

text: Pectoralis minor is a thin, triangular muscle located beneath the pectoralis major. It attaches to the ribs, and serves to stabilize the scapula, the large bone of the shoulder.


title: Pectoral muscles

text: The pectoral fascia is a thin layer of tissue over the pectoralis major, extending toward the latissimus dorsi muscle on the back.


title: Pectoral muscles

text: Along with the pectoralis major and pectoralis minor, the subclavius muscle forms the axilla or armpit. The subclavius moves the shoulder downward and forward.


title: Pectoral muscles

text: Serratus anterior is another muscle on the front of the chest. It moves the scapula forward around the torso, as when throwing a punch.


title: Suprachiasmatic nucleus

text: The suprachiasmatic nucleus or nuclei (SCN) is a tiny region of the brain in the hypothalamus, situated directly above the optic chiasm. It is responsible for controlling circadian rhythms. The neuronal and hormonal activities it generates regulate many different body functions in a 24-hour cycle. The mouse SCN contains approximately 20,000 neurons.


title: Suprachiasmatic nucleus

text: The SCN interacts with many other regions of the brain. It contains several cell types and several different peptides (including vasopressin and vasoactive intestinal peptide) and neurotransmitters.


title: Suprachiasmatic nucleus

text: The SCN is situated in the anterior part of the hypothalamus immediately dorsal, or "superior" (hence supra) to the optic chiasm (CHO) bilateral to (on either side of) the third ventricle.


title: Suprachiasmatic nucleus

text: The nucleus can be divided into ventrolateral and dorsolateral portions, also known as the core and shell, respectively. These regions differ in their expression of the clock genes, the core expresses them in response to stimuli whereas the shell expresses them constitutively.


title: Suprachiasmatic nucleus

text: In terms of projections, the core receives innervation via three main pathways, the retinohypothalamic tract, geniculohypothalamic tract, and projections from some raphe nuclei. Dorsomedial SCN is mainly innervated by the core and also by other hypothalamic areas. Lastly, its output is mainly to the subparaventricular zone and dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus which both mediate the influence SCN exerts over circadian regulation of the body.


title: Suprachiasmatic nucleus

text: Different organisms such as bacteria, plants, fungi, and animals, show genetically based near-24-hour rhythms. Although all of these clocks appear to be based on a similar type of genetic feedback loop, the specific genes involved are thought to have evolved independently in each kingdom. Many aspects of mammalian behavior and physiology show circadian rhythmicity, including sleep, physical activity, alertness, hormone levels, body temperature, immune function, and digestive activity. The SCN coordinates these rhythms across the entire body, and rhythmicity is lost if the SCN is destroyed. For example, total time of sleep is maintained in rats with SCN damage, but the length and timing of sleep episodes becomes erratic. The SCN maintains control across the body by synchronizing "slave oscillators," which exhibit their own near-24-hour rhythms and control circadian phenomena in local tissue.