title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: According to several 20th century witches, most notably Gerald Gardner, the "father of Wicca", the witches' God and Goddess are the ancient gods of the British Isles: a Horned God of hunting, death and magic who rules over an after-world paradise (often referred to as the Summerland), and a goddess, the Great Mother (who is simultaneously the Eternal Virgin and the Primordial Enchantress), who gives regeneration and rebirth to souls of the dead and love to the living. The Goddess is especially connected to the Moon and stars and the sea, while the Horned God is connected to the Sun and the forests. Gardner explains that these are the tribal gods of the witches, just as the Egyptians had their tribal gods Isis and Osiris and the Jews had Elohim; he also states that a being higher than any of these tribal gods is recognised by the witches as Prime Mover, but remains unknowable, and is of little concern to them.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: The Goddess is often seen as having a triple aspect; that of the maiden, mother and crone. The God is traditionally seen as being the Horned God of the woods. A key belief in Wicca is that the gods are able to manifest in personal form, either through dreams, as physical manifestations, or through the bodies of Priestesses and Priests.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: Gardnerian Wicca as a denomination is primarily concerned with the priestess or priest's relationship to the Goddess and God. The Lady and Lord (as they are often called) are seen as primal cosmic beings, the source of limitless power, yet they are also familiar figures who comfort and nurture their children, and often challenge or even reprimand them.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: Wiccan theology largely revolves around ontological dualism. Ontological dualism is traditionally a sacred gender polarity between the complementary polar opposites of male and female, who are regarded as divine lovers. This kind of dualism is common to various religions; for example, Taoism, where it is represented through yin and yang. Ontological dualism is distinct from moral dualism in that moral dualism posits a supreme force of good and a supreme force of evil. There is no supreme force of evil in Wicca.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: In Wicca, the God is seen as the masculine form of divinity, and the polar opposite, and equal, to the Goddess.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: The God is traditionally seen as the Horned God, an archetypal deity with links to the Celtic Cernunnos, English folkloric Herne the Hunter, Greek Pan, Roman Faunus and Indian Pashupati. This was the God whom Gerald Gardner presented as the old God of the ancient Witches, and who was supported by Margaret Murray's theory of the pan-European witch religion, which has largely been discredited. Horns are traditionally a sacred symbol of male virility, and male gods with horns or antlers were common in pagan religious iconography throughout the ancient world.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: In Wicca, the Green Man is also often associated with the Horned God, though he does not always have horns.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: At different times of the Wiccan year the God is seen as different personalities. He is sometimes seen as the Oak King and the Holly King, who each rule for half of the year each. Oak and Holly are two European trees. Another view of the God is that of the sun god, who is particularly revered at the sabbat of Lughnasadh. Many Wiccans see these many facets, such as the sun god, horned god, sacrificial god, as all aspects of the same God, but a minority view them as separate polytheistic deities.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: The most exhaustive work on Wiccan ideas of the God is the book "The Witches' God" by Janet and Stewart Farrar.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: Traditionally in Wicca, the Goddess is seen as the Triple Goddess, meaning that she is the maiden, the mother and the crone. The mother aspect, the Mother Goddess, is perhaps the most important of these, and it was her that Gerald Gardner and Margaret Murray claimed was the ancient Goddess of the witches.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: Certain Wiccan traditions are Goddess-centric; this view differs from most traditions in that most others focus on a duality of goddess and god.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: Gardner's explanation aside, individual interpretations of the exact natures of the gods differ significantly, since priests and priestesses develop their own relationships with the gods through intense personal work and revelation. Many have a duotheistic conception of deity as a Goddess (of Moon, Earth and sea) and a God (of forest, hunting and the animal realm). This concept is often extended into a kind of polytheism by the belief that the gods and goddesses of all cultures are aspects of this pair (or of the Goddess alone). Others hold the various gods and goddesses to be separate and distinct. Janet Farrar and Gavin Bone have observed that Wicca is becoming more polytheistic as it matures, and embracing a more traditional pagan worldview.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: Many groups and individuals are drawn to particular deities from a variety of pantheons (often Celtic, Greek, or from elsewhere in Europe), whom they honour specifically. Some examples are Cernunnos and Brigit from Celtic mythology, Hecate, Lugh, and Diana.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: Still others do not believe in the gods as real personalities, yet attempt to have a relationship with them as personifications of universal principles or as Jungian archetypes.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: "Dryghten", an Old English term for The Lord, is the term used by Patricia Crowther to refer to the universal pantheistic deity in Wicca. Gerald Gardner had initially called it, according to the cosmological argument, the Prime Mover, a term borrowed from Aristotle, but he claimed that the witches did not worship it, and considered it unknowable. It was referred to by Scott Cunningham by the term used in Neo-Platonism, "The One"; Many Wiccans whose practice involves study of the Kabbalah also regard the Gods and Goddesses they worship as being aspects or expressions of the ineffable supreme One.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: Some feminist Wiccans such as Starhawk use the term "Star Goddess" to describe the universal pantheistic deity that created the cosmos, and regard Her as a knowable Deity that can and should be worshipped. Contrary to the popular notion that the term "Star Goddess" comes from the Charge of the Goddess, a text sacred to many Wiccans, it actually originates from the Anderson Feri Tradition of (non-Wiccan) Witchcraft- of which Starhawk was an initiate. Within the Feri tradition the "Star Goddess" is the androgynous point of all creation - from which all things (including the dual God and Goddess) emanate.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: In addition to the two main deities worshiped within Wicca—the God and Goddess—there are also several possible theological conceptions of an ultimate (impersonal) pantheistic or monistic divinity, known variously as Dryghtyn or "the One" or "The All." This impersonal ultimate divinity is generally regarded as unknowable, and is acknowledged but not worshiped. This monistic idea of an ultimate impersonal divinity is not to be confused with the monotheistic idea of a single supreme personal deity. (Especially since Wicca traditionally honors its two supreme deities, the Goddess and the God, as equal.) This impersonal ultimate divinity may also be regarded as the underlying order or organising principle within the world, similar to religious ideas such as Tao and Atman. While not all Wiccans subscribe to this monistic idea of an impersonal, ultimate divinity, many do; and there are various philosophical constructions of how this ultimate divinity relates to the physical world of Nature. Unlike religions that place a divine creator outside of Nature, Wicca is generally pantheistic, seeing Nature as divine in itself. (The traditional Charge of the Goddess—the most widely shared piece of liturgy within the religion—refers to the Goddess as "the Soul of Nature" from whom all things come, and to which all things return. This theme is also expressed in the symbology of the magic cauldron as the womb of the Goddess, from which all creation emerges, and in which it is all dissolved before reemerging again.)


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: Wicca emphasises the immanence of divinity within Nature, seeing the natural world as comprised both of spiritual substance as well as matter and physical energy. Many Wiccans also embrace the idea of the spiritual transcendence of divinity, and see this transcendence as compatible with the idea of immanence. In such a view, divinity and dimensions of spiritual existence (sometimes called "the astral planes") can exist outside the physical world, as well as extending into the material, and/or rising out of the material, intimately interwoven into the fabric of material existence in such a way that the spiritual affects the physical, and vice versa. (The conception of Nature as a vast, interconnected web of existence that is woven by the Goddess is very common within Wicca; an idea often connected with the Triple Goddess as personified by the Three Fates who weave the Web of Wyrd.) This combination of transcendence and immanence allows for the intermingling and the interaction of the unmanifest spiritual nature of the universe with the manifest physical universe; the physical reflects the spiritual, and vice versa. (An idea expressed in the occult maxim "As Above, So Below" which is also used within Wicca.)


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: Given the usual interpretation of Wicca as a pantheistic and duotheistic/polytheistic religion, the monotheistic belief in a single "supreme deity" does not generally apply. An individual Wiccan's personal devotion may be centered on the traditional Horned God and the Moon Goddess of Wicca, a large number of divine "aspects" of the Wiccan God and Goddess, a large pantheon of individual pagan Gods, one specific pagan God and one specific pagan Goddess, or any combination of those perspectives. Accordingly, the religion of Wicca can be understood as duotheistic, henotheistic, pantheistic, polytheistic, or panentheistic depending upon the personal faith, cosmological belief, and philosophy of the individual Wiccan.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: If persons choose to use different personal names for their God or Goddess, such as Hecate (Greek) or Trivia (Roman), it is merely a familiar name to use. Both names refer to the same fundamental Goddess.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: Because Wicca (as with most neo-Pagan belief systems) is very eclectic there is no "right" way to practice the craft, no rulebook. The focus is on connecting with the "divine" however an individual chooses to conceptualise it.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: According to current Gardnerian Wiccans, the exact names of the Goddess and God of traditional Wicca remain an initiatory secret, and they are not given in Gardner's books about witchcraft. However, the collection of Toronto Papers of Gardner's writings has been investigated by American scholars such as Aidan Kelly, leading to the suggestion that their names are Cernunnos and Aradia. These are the names used in the prototype Book of Shadows known as "Ye Bok of Ye Arte Magical".


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: For most Wiccans, the Lord and Lady are seen as complementary polarities: male and female, force and form, comprehending all in their union; the tension and interplay between them is the basis of all creation, and this balance is seen in much of nature. The God and Goddess are sometimes symbolised as the Sun and Moon, and from her lunar associations the Goddess becomes a Triple Goddess with aspects of "Maiden", "Mother" and "Crone" corresponding to the Moon's waxing, full and waning phases.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: Some Wiccans hold the Goddess to be pre-eminent, since she contains and conceives all (Gaea or Mother Earth is one of her more commonly revered aspects); the God, commonly described as the Horned God or the Divine Child, is the spark of life and inspiration within her, simultaneously her lover and her child. This is reflected in the traditional structure of the coven, wherein "the High Priestess is the leader, with the High Priest as her partner; he acknowledges her primacy and supports and complements her leadership with the qualities of his own polarity." In some traditions, notably Feminist branches of Dianic Wicca, the Goddess is seen as complete unto herself, and the God is not worshipped at all.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: Since the Goddess is said to conceive and contain all life within her, all beings are held to be divine. This is a key understanding conveyed in the Charge of the Goddess, one of the most important texts of Wicca, and is very similar to the Hermetic understanding that "God" contains all things, and in truth "is" all things. For some Wiccans, this idea also involves elements of animism, and plants, rivers, rocks (and, importantly, ritual tools) are seen as spiritual beings, facets of a single life.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: A key belief in Wicca is that the gods are able to manifest in personal form, either through dreams, as physical manifestations, or through the bodies of Priestesses and Priests. The latter kind of manifestation is the purpose of the ritual of Drawing down the Moon (or Drawing down the Sun), whereby the Goddess is called to descend into the body of the Priestess (or the God into the Priest) to effect divine possession.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: While they are not regarded as deities, the classical elements are a featured key of the Wiccan world-view. Every manifest force or form is seen to express one of the four archetypal elements — Earth, Air, Fire and Water — or several in combination. This scheme is fundamentally identical with that employed in other Western Esoteric and Hermetic traditions, such as Theosophy and the Golden Dawn, which in turn were influenced by the Hindu system of tattvas.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: There is no consensus as to the exact nature of these elements. One popular system is the ancient Greek conception, where the elements correspond to matter (earth) and energy (fire), with the mediating elements (water, air) relating to the phases of matter (fire/earth mixtures). A more modern conception correlates the four elements to the four states of matter known to science: Solid (earth); Liquid (water); Gas (air); and Plasma (fire); with the akasha element corresponding to pure Energy. The Aristotelian system proposes a fifth or quintessential element, spirit (aether, akasha). The preferred version is a matter of ongoing dispute in the Wiccan community. There are other non-scientific conceptions, but they are not widely used among Wiccans.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: To some Wiccans, the five points of the frequently worn pentagram symbolize, among other things, the four elements with spirit presiding at the top. The pentagram is the symbol most commonly associated with Wicca in modern times. It is often circumscribed — depicted within a circle — and is usually (though not exclusively) shown with a single point upward. The inverse pentagram, with two points up, is associated with the Horned God (the two upper points being his horns), and is a symbol of the second degree initiation rite of traditional Wicca. The inverted pentagram is also used by Satanists; and for this reason, some Wiccans have alternatively been known to associate the inverted pentagram with evil. In geometry, the pentagram is an elegant expression of the golden ratio phi which is popularly connected with ideal beauty and was considered by the Pythagoreans to express truths about the hidden nature of existence. The five points of the pentagram have also been seen to correspond to the three aspects of the Goddess and the two aspects of the Horned God.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: In the casting of a magic circle, the four cardinal elements are visualised as contributing their influence from the four cardinal directions: Air in the east, Fire in the south, Water in the west and Earth in the north. There may be variations between groups though, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere, since these attributions are symbolic of (amongst other things) the path of the sun through the daytime sky. For example, in southern latitudes the sun reaches its hottest point in the northern part of the sky, and north is the direction of the Tropics, so this is commonly the direction given to Fire.


title: Wiccan views of divinity

text: Some Wiccan groups also modify the religious calendar (the Wheel of the Year) to reflect local seasonal changes; for instance, most Southern Hemisphere covens celebrate Samhain on April 30 and Beltane on November 1, reflecting the southern hemisphere's autumn and spring seasons.


title: Ramesh Khanna

text: Ramesh Khanna (also spelt as Ramesh Kanna) is an Indian actor and film director who has worked in Tamil cinema. He has acted in a number of supporting and comedian roles.


title: Ramesh Khanna

text: Khanna was born on 12 June 1954 in Chennai and third child to the family. He acted in R. S. Manohar's drama troupe from the age of 5 as child artist of more than 1000 dramas up to his age of 10 and was appreciated by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, President of India at that time.


title: Ramesh Khanna

text: He became assistant to directors Karaikudi Narayanan, Pandiarajan ("Aan Paavam"), "Kodi Ramakrishna", Vikraman ("Poove Unakkaga", "Suryavamsam", "Unnai Ninaithu" and "Priyamana Thozhi") and K.S.Ravikumar. Ravikumar was meant to remake the Telugu film "Maavichiguru" (1996) starring Jagapati Babu and Aamani into Tamil for Sridevi Movie Makers, but his busy schedule meant that he recommended Ramesh Khanna to the producers. The remake was initially titled as "Maa Vilakku" and was supposed to star Jayaram and Meena, but went through cast changes. The film was revived under new title "Thodarum" with new cast involving Ajith Kumar, Heera and Devayani. He later started working on a film titled "Genius" in 2000, but the project eventually was shelved.


title: Ramesh Khanna

text: Only after, director Vikraman introduced him as comedian in "Unnidathil Ennai Koduthen" (1998), he came to limelight.


title: Ramesh Khanna

text: Khanna has acted in notable roles in films such as "Padayappa" (1999), "Friends" (2001), "Unnai Ninaithu" (2002) and "Villain" (2002). He has also appeared in supporting roles in films such as "Thulluvadho Ilamai" (2002).


title: Ramesh Khanna

text: Ramesh has written dialogues for "Muni" (2007) and "Nam Naadu" (2007) and written story of the film "Aadhavan" (2009).


title: Jamie Theakston

text: James Paul Theakston (born 21 December 1970) is an English television presenter, producer, and actor. He co-presented the former Saturday morning BBC One children's show "Live & Kicking", alongside Zoe Ball between 1996 and 1999. He co-hosted BBC One's former music programme "Top of the Pops" between 1998 and 2003. He currently co-hosts the national breakfast show with Amanda Holden on Heart Radio. He narrated the BBC documentary series "Traffic Cops" from 2003 and 2015, and again on Channel 5 from 2016 onwards. He has hosted several television programmes for the BBC, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5. He has won a BAFTA for Live & Kicking and numerous awards for his radio work including a SONY GOLD, 3 Silver Awards and 4 Bronze awards, 2 ARQIVA Awards, 3 TRIC awards and 2 New York Radio Festival Awards.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: He joined the National Youth Theatre at the age of 13, where he appeared in plays including "Murder in the Cathedral" and "Marat/Sade" alongside contemporaries such as Daniel Craig, but he was put off from pursuing a full-time acting career by the financial hardships that he encountered. After leaving with nine O-Levels and one GCSE in Maths, retaking it at BHASVIC, he attended North London Polytechnic (now London Metropolitan University), from which he graduated with a first class degree in business studies. Whilst at university, he read traffic bulletins on BBC GLR because he wanted to get into sports reporting.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: Before embarking on a broadcasting career, he worked for auctioneers Christie's, and planned to study art history at the Courtauld Institute. However, after undertaking football and cricket reports for GLR and Radio 5 Live, he was spotted by the BBC's head of sport and hired to present GLR's "Saturday Sport Show" at the age of 23. He then presented numerous shows for Radio 5 Live including "Sportscall," "The Jamie Theakston Cricket Show" and "Sport on Wednesday". Theakston joined Radio 1 in April 1999 to present the "Sunday Lunch" show. He fronted the 'One Big Sunday' events during 2000. He moved to a Saturday morning slot in 2001.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: He left Radio 1 in 2002 to pursue an acting career, his last show being broadcast on 28 September. He joined London radio station Heart 106.2 in May 2005, replacing Jonathan Coleman on "Heart Breakfast" with Harriet Scott, which won Gold for Best Music Personality Show at the New York Festivals and the Silver Entertainment Award at the Sony Radio Academy Awards, both in 2007. Theakston (along with Scott) won the Radio Presenter of the Year award at the Arqiva Commercial Radio Awards in June 2009. Scott left Heart Breakfast in 2013; she was replaced by Spice Girl Emma Bunton, who already had a show on the Heart network. Bunton left in 2018.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: On 3 June 2019, Heart Breakfast went national across the UK, following a decision by the UK radio regulator OFCOM to reduce local programming requirements. Theakston currently hosts the show alongside Amanda Holden.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: Between Bunton’s departure and Holden’s arrival, Heart DJ Lucy Horobin was brought in as a temporary co host for Theakston.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: On television, after presenting "The O Zone" with Jayne Middlemiss, he has most notably hosted "Top of the Pops" (1998–2003), "Live & Kicking" (1996–1999) and "The Priory". The latter two shows he co-presented alongside Zoë Ball. Theakston featured beside Zoë Ball once again in Channel 5's "Britain's Best Brain" series, which aired in October 2009.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: He has also hosted a number of other shows, including the Channel 4 reality TV show "The Games" alongside Kirsty Gallacher; game show, "Beg Borrow or Steal" (2004); prime-time Saturday night show "The People's Quiz; Channel 4's The Search;" and ITV Saturday night show "With A Little Help From My Friends". From July–August 2013, Theakston and Emma Bunton presented ITV's "This Morning Summer" on Friday mornings.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: Theakston's other presenting work includes fronting the Glastonbury Festival coverage for the BBC, the Oscars, the Grammys, "A Question of Pop", UK Music Hall of Fame and Guinness World Records. He narrated all episodes of "Traffic Cops" and its spin-off show "Motorway Cops", and since 2015 has narrated episodes of "Caught on Camera".


title: Jamie Theakston

text: He also played himself in the mock-interview series "Rock Profile" in which he interviewed "celebrities" impersonated by Matt Lucas and David Walliams, and in the episode "Video Killed the Radio Star" of the TV series "FM" in March 2009.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: As an actor, Theakston has appeared in shows such as "Agatha Christie's Marple" and "Little Britain". Theakston has acted with Amanda Holden in "Mad About Alice" (2004) and worked with Adam Faith on the series "Murder in Mind" in 2003, shortly before Faith's death. He has also starred in the West End in the plays "'Art'" and "Home and Beauty" at the Lyric Theatre, Shaftesbury Avenue.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: Theakston lived for about ten years in Wings Place, a Tudor mansion in Ditchling, East Sussex. Theakston married Sophie Siegle in Ditchling on 15 September 2007, and they live in west London. They have two children. He was previously romantically linked to socialite Lady Victoria Hervey, actor Joely Richardson, and models Erin O'Connor and Sophie Dahl.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: He is a keen fencer and competed for Sussex in 1985. As captain of Ditchling Cricket Club, Theakston was a member of the first cricket team from England to play the Afghan cricket team in Kabul.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: Theakston took a break in 2003 to travel to Uganda to meet with former child soldiers. He is a patron for CANCERVIVE – a charity established to address the needs of anyone whose family or friends are cancer sufferers.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: He played in his fifth successive Soccer Aid match at Old Trafford in June 2014. Having, in 2010, saved four penalties for England against the Rest of the World in a penalty shoot-out, before missing a penalty himself in a defeat, he was later named man of the match for his performance in goal.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: On 4 October 2019, Theakston took an 8 day break from Heart Breakfast to set off on his Bike Britain Challenge, a cycling event for Global's charity Make Some Noise. The event lasted 8 days, with Theakston cycling 650 miles from Edinburgh and arriving in London on the 11th. Along the way, he stopped at Newcastle upon Tyne, Leeds, Manchester, Birmingham, Cardiff and Bristol, and met numerous life threatened children and their families.


title: Jamie Theakston

text: In June 2022, Theakston gifted his wicket to the bustling medium-pace of Ricky Boardman from Kew Cricket Club's 3rd XI, an event Theakston defined as 'pure theatre'.


title: Benoît Badiashile

text: Benoît Ntambue Badiashile Mukinayi Baya (born 26 March 2001) is a French professional footballer who plays as a defender for Ligue 1 club Monaco and the France national team.


title: Benoît Badiashile

text: On 5 February 2018, Badiashile signed his first professional contract with Monaco. On 11 November 2018, he made his professional debut in a 4–0 Ligue 1 loss to Paris Saint-Germain.


title: Benoît Badiashile

text: Born in France, Badiashile is of Congolese descent. He is a youth international for France, having been a part of a number of U16–U21 sides since 2016.


title: Benoît Badiashile

text: On 15 September 2022, Badiashile received his first call-up to the France national team, for two UEFA Nations League matches.


title: Union Jack dress

text: The Union Jack dress is an item of clothing worn by singer Geri Halliwell of the Spice Girls at the 1997 Brit Awards. The mini dress featured a flag of the United Kingdom, the Union Jack, on the front, and a white CND symbol emblazoned on the black-coloured back of the dress. The next day the images of the dress made the front page of various newspapers around the world, and is now remembered as one of the most iconic pop moments of the 1990s and Brit Awards history. The dress has become synonymous with the Spice Girls, Halliwell and the notions of Girl Power, and Cool Britannia.


title: Union Jack dress

text: According to "The Daily Telegraph", the dress came top in a 2010 online poll to find the 10 most iconic dresses of the past 50 years, beating other memorable garments such as Marilyn Monroe's white 'Seven Year Itch' halterneck. In 2016, the dress was voted the "Most Inspiring British Fashion Moment" in an online poll conducted by British online retailer Very.


title: Union Jack dress

text: At the 2010 Brit Awards, the Spice Girls performance that featured the Union Jack dress won Most Memorable Performance of 30 Years. The dress held the "Guinness World Record" for the most expensive piece of popstar clothing sold at an auction.


title: Union Jack dress

text: The Spice Girls were scheduled to open the 1997 Brit Awards, where they were also nominated for five awards. The black Gucci minidress that Halliwell was given to perform in concerned her as she thought it was too "boring". Halliwell decided she wanted to "celebrate being British" and asked her sister, Natalie, to stitch a Union Jack tea towel onto the front of the black dress as a patriotic gesture. To avoid being associated with the National Front, Halliwell also had the CND peace symbol stitched onto the back of the dress. Halliwell wore the finished dress whilst performing a medley of "Wannabe" and "Who Do You Think You Are" at the Brit Awards on 24 February 1997. The group also won two awards that evening.


title: Union Jack dress

text: In 1998, a year after Halliwell performed in the dress, she auctioned it off at the London branch of Sotheby's for £41,320. The buyer was Peter Morton, on behalf of the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino, Las Vegas, who displayed the piece of clothing as pop memorabilia. Morton bid via telephone, and beat other bidders such as "The Sun". Halliwell herself watched the "frenzied bid", and rapped the gavel after the final bid. The dress was originally valued at £12,000, but the winning bid was £36,200 (£41,320 including 15% commission). Halliwell gave the proceeds of the dress sale to a children's cancer care charity. The BBC commented on the sale, saying it "marks the end of Geri's links with the Girl Power image of the past". It held the Guinness World Record for the most expensive piece of popstar clothing dealt at auction. The dress was one of many items of Spice Girls memorabilia sold at the auction, where total sales reached £146,511 for charity.


title: Union Jack dress

text: The auction, with Halliwell auctioning off the Union Jack dress as the final lot, can be seen in the documentary "Geri" by Molly Dineen.


title: Union Jack dress

text: For the 2007 Spice Girls reunion tour, named the Return of the Spice Girls, fashion designer Roberto Cavalli designed Halliwell a new Union Jack dress modelled on the original. The new version appeared slightly longer and the flag was made out of rhinestones and Swarovski crystals. It was reported by various media outlets that Halliwell had attempted to buy back the original dress prior to the commencement of their world tour.


title: Union Jack dress

text: Halliwell stated in a later interview that she "liked" the new dress and that she had decided to keep it as memorabilia.


title: Union Jack dress

text: For the Spice World – 2019 Tour, Halliwell wore a redesigned floor length Union Jack dress that featured royal designs on the red stripes and also wore a crown with the dress.


title: Kokoretsi

text: Kokoretsi or kokoreç is a dish of the Balkans and Anatolia (Asia Minor), consisting of lamb or goat intestines wrapped around seasoned offal, including sweetbreads, hearts, lungs, or kidneys, and typically grilled; a variant consists of chopped innards cooked on a griddle. The intestines of suckling lambs are preferred.


title: Kokoretsi

text: A dish identical to modern kokoretsi is first attested in the cuisine of the Byzantines. They called it ("plektín"), ("koilióchorda"), or ("chordókoila"); the latter two are preserved with the meaning of wrapped intestines in the Greek idioms of Corfu as ("tsoilíchourda"), of Plovdiv as ("chordókoila"), of Chios as ("soilígourda"), of Pontians as ("chordógkoila"), and in part, of Zagori and Argyrades as ("chordí"), of Thessaly as ("chourdí"), of northern Peloponnese as ("kordiá") or ("kórda"), and of Vogatsiko as ("kourdí"). Other names found in medieval texts are ("gardoúmion") and ("gardoúmenon"), from which ("gardoúmpa") and ("gardoumpákia") derive, as alternative names for a smaller version of kokoretsi in Greece. Τhe Medieval Greek ("gardoúmion") in turn derives from Latin ; from or 'warm, hot'.


title: Kokoretsi

text: According to Greek linguist and philologist Georgios Babiniotis, the Greek word ("kokorétsi") comes from Albanian . According to Turkish-Armenian linguist Sevan Nişanyan, Albanian is a loanword derived from Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian "kukuruza," originally meaning corncob in these languages. Nişanyan also asserts that the Greek word is not derived from the Albanian , but both words are cognates that were loaned from South Slavic languages independently.


title: Kokoretsi

text: The Turkish word was first attested in "Lokanta Esrarı"; a short story written in 1920 by the Turkish author Ömer Seyfettin. The author wrote that the first time he heard of , was when it was presented to him as a specialty of an Athenian who worked in an Istanbul restaurant; it was described as a Greek dish made from small lamb intestines. The Turkish word derives from the Greek ("kokorétsi").


title: Kokoretsi

text: The offal, along with some fat, is washed and cut into ½ to ¾-inch thick pieces, and lightly seasoned with lemon, olive oil, oregano, salt, pepper, and sometimes garlic. The intestine is turned inside out and carefully washed, then rubbed with salt and often soaked in vinegar or lemon juice and water.


title: Kokoretsi

text: The filling meats are threaded onto a long skewer and wrapped with the intestine to hold them together, forming a compact roll usually about 16–24 inches long by 1½–3 inches in diameter.


title: Kokoretsi

text: Kokoretsi is usually roasted on a horizontal skewer over a charcoal, gas, or electrical burner, and may be basted with lemon juice and olive oil.


title: Kokoretsi

text: A quite different preparation mixes the chopped innards with chopped tomatoes and green peppers, and then cooks them on a large griddle with hot red pepper and oregano added. The cook constantly mixes and chops the mixture using two spatulas. When done, the dish is kept warm aside on the griddle until someone orders a serving.


title: Kokoretsi

text: The cooked kokoretsi is chopped or sliced, sprinkled with oregano, and served on a plate. Sometimes it is served on a piece of flatbread. Some add tomatoes or spices in it. It may also (especially in Turkey) be served in half a baguette or in a sandwich bun, plain or garnished, almost always with oregano and red pepper. In Turkey, common side dishes are pickled peppers or cucumbers. It is often seasoned with lemon, oregano, salt, a pepper, and typically accompanied by wine or rakı.


title: Kokoretsi

text: The Byzantines treated the small intestines of sheep and goats the same way as modern Greeks do when making kokoretsi. Through a simple process, the intestines were inverted with the help of a small stick in order to be cleaned. They were then wrapped in braids, in the appropriate shape, or around other entrails on a skewer.


title: Kokoretsi

text: In modern times, kokoretsi is traditionally served for Orthodox Easter celebrations; eaten as an appetizer while the lamb (being the main dish) is roasting. It is also served year-round. Gardouba (γαρδούμπα) or gardoubakia (γαρδουμπάκια) is a smaller version of kokoretsi; it may be grilled like kokoretsi, roasted in a pan, or cooked in the oven.


title: Kokoretsi

text: Due to outbreak of mad cow disease in the late '90s, banning the consumption of offal was considered. However, the idea was abandoned.


title: Kokoretsi

text: Kokoretsi is one of the most consumed fast foods in Turkey, being described as "the signature delight" of the country. Although it is also served in some restaurants, most of the kokoretsi is prepared, cooked and sold in small kiosks year-round, and is usually consumed as a sandwich after having alcohol. Kokoretsi makers are called in Turkish.


title: Kokoretsi

text: In the early 2000s, during the Turkish accession to the European Union it has been speculated by the Turkish media that EU regulations regarding sheep's offal would eventually lead to a ban on kokoretsi, if Turkey ever become a member state.


title: Limonite

text: Limonite () is an iron ore consisting of a mixture of hydrated iron(III) oxide-hydroxides in varying composition. The generic formula is frequently written as FeO(OH)·HO, although this is not entirely accurate as the ratio of oxide to hydroxide can vary quite widely. Limonite is one of the three principal iron ores, the others being hematite and magnetite, and has been mined for the production of iron since at least 2500 BP.


title: Limonite

text: Limonite is named for the Greek word (/leː.mɔ̌ːn/), meaning "wet meadow", or (/lím.nɛː/), meaning “marshy lake” as an allusion to its occurrence as "bog iron ore" in meadows and marshes. In its brown form it is sometimes called brown hematite or brown iron ore.


title: Limonite

text: Limonite is relatively dense with a specific gravity varying from 2.7 to 4.3. It is usually medium to dark yellowish brown in color. The streak of limonite on an unglazed porcelain plate is always yellowish brown, a character which distinguishes it from hematite with a red streak, or from magnetite with a black streak. The hardness is quite variable, ranging from 1 to 5. In thin section it appears as red, yellow, or brown and has a high index of refraction, 2.0 - 2.4. Limonite minerals are strongly birefringent, but grain sizes are usually too small for this to be detectable.


title: Limonite

text: Although originally defined as a single mineral, limonite is now recognized as a field term for a mixture of related hydrated iron oxide minerals, among them goethite, lepidocrocite, akaganeite, and jarosite. Determination of the precise mineral composition is practical only with X-ray diffraction techniques. Individual minerals in limonite may form crystals, but limonite does not, although specimens may show a fibrous or microcrystalline structure, and limonite often occurs in concretionary forms or in compact and earthy masses; sometimes mammillary, botryoidal, reniform or stalactitic. Because of its amorphous nature, and occurrence in hydrated areas limonite often presents as a clay or mudstone. However, there are limonite pseudomorphs after other minerals such as pyrite. This means that chemical weathering transforms the crystals of pyrite into limonite by hydrating the molecules, but the external shape of the pyrite crystal remains. Limonite pseudomorphs have also been formed from other iron oxides, hematite and magnetite; from the carbonate siderite and from iron rich silicates such as almandine garnets.


title: Limonite

text: Limonite usually forms from the hydration of hematite and magnetite, from the oxidation and hydration of iron rich sulfide minerals, and chemical weathering of other iron rich minerals such as olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite. It is often the major iron component in lateritic soils, and limonite laterite ores are a source of nickel and potentially cobalt and other valuable metals, present as trace elements. It is often deposited in run-off streams from mining operations.


title: Limonite

text: Nickel-rich limonite ores represent the largest reserves of nickel. Such minerals are classified as lateritic nickel ore deposits.


title: Limonite

text: One of the first uses was as a pigment. The yellow form produced yellow ochre for which Cyprus was famous, while the darker forms produced more earthy tones. Roasting the limonite changed it partially to hematite, producing red ochres, burnt umbers and siennas.


title: Limonite

text: Bog iron ore and limonite mudstones are mined as a source of iron, although commercial mining of them has ceased in the United States.


title: Limonite

text: "Iron caps" or gossans of siliceous iron oxide typically form as the result of intensive oxidation of sulfide ore deposits. These gossans were used by prospectors as guides to buried ore. In addition the oxidation of those sulfide deposits which contained gold, often resulted in the concentration of gold in the iron oxide and quartz of the gossans. Goldbearing limonite gossans were productively mined in the Shasta County, California mining district. Similar deposits were mined near Rio Tinto in Spain and Mount Morgan in Australia. In the Dahlonega gold belt in Lumpkin County, Georgia gold was mined from limonite-rich lateritic or saprolite soil. The gold of the primary veins was concentrated into the limonites of the deeply weathered rocks. In another example the deeply weathered iron formations of Brazil served to concentrate gold with the limonite of the resulting soils.


title: Limonite

text: While the first iron ore was likely meteoric iron, and hematite was far easier to smelt, in Africa, where the first evidence of iron metallurgy occurs, limonite is the most prevalent iron ore. Before smelting, as the ore was heated and the water driven off, more and more of the limonite was converted to hematite. The ore was then pounded as it was heated above 1250 °C, at which temperature the metallic iron begins sticking together and non-metallic impurities are thrown off as sparks. Complex systems developed, notably in Tanzania, to process limonite. Nonetheless, hematite and magnetite remained the ores of choice when smelting was by bloomeries, and it was only with the development of blast furnaces in the 1st century BCE in China and about 1150 CE in Europe, that the brown iron ore of limonite could be used to best advantage.


title: Limonite

text: Limonite was one of the earliest materials used as a pigment by humans, and can be seen in Neolithic cave paintings and pictographs.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge (also known as the Ravenel Bridge and the Cooper River Bridge) is a cable-stayed bridge over the Cooper River in South Carolina, US, connecting downtown Charleston to Mount Pleasant. The bridge has a main span of , the third longest among cable-stayed bridges in the Western Hemisphere. It was built using the design–build method and was designed by Parsons Brinckerhoff.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The first bridge to cross the lower Cooper River opened in 1929, eventually named the John P. Grace Memorial Bridge for former Charleston mayor John P. Grace, who spearheaded the project. The main span of the double cantilever truss bridge was the fifth-longest in the world at and soared above the river. The mainspan of the second cantilever was the twelfth-longest in the world. The total length of the structure was about . Following a 17-month construction at a cost of $6 million, it opened with a three-day celebration that attracted visitors from around the globe. Engineers and critics proclaimed colorful descriptions of the unique structure, deeming it "the first roller-coaster bridge" and citing that "steep approaches, stupendous height, extremely narrow width, and a sharp curve at the dip conspire to excite and alarm the motorist." Privately owned originally, a $1.00 toll was charged for car and driver to cross. In 1943, the state of South Carolina purchased the bridge, and the tolls were lifted in 1946.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: By the 1960s, the Grace Memorial Bridge had become insufficient, with its two narrow lanes built for Ford Model As and its steep grades of up to six percent. Later, changes to the side rail and curb reduced the lane width further. A new bridge was constructed alongside and parallel to it. Named for the then–South Carolina Highway Commissioner, the Silas N. Pearman Bridge opened in 1966 at cost of $15 million (equivalent to $ million in ). Its three lanes, at a modern width, opened to northbound traffic, while its older counterpart carried the southbound traffic into downtown Charleston. One lane was reversible on the Pearman bridge, which led to signs warning "Use lanes with green arrow" and "Do not use red X lane" on the bridge.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The two truss bridges had become functionally obsolete by 1979. Extensive metal deterioration caused by the lack of maintenance shortly after Grace Bridge's tolls were removed limited the capacity of the older Grace bridge to vehicles (later ), and the reversible lane on the Pearman was eliminated (it had been able to switch to three lanes northbound for rush hour traffic), making that lane southbound permanently diverting all heavy trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles to that lane on the Pearman bridge. Neither of the bridges had emergency lanes, and the Pearman bridge had no median between the northbound and southbound lanes because of its reversible lane, and it was not until 2002 when flexible barriers were added to the Pearman bridge to prevent head-on collisions.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: Furthermore, the vertical clearance above the river—once among the highest in the world—could no longer accommodate modern shipping vessels. Three of Charleston's four shipping terminals are situated up the Cooper and Wando rivers, and the limited bridge clearance excluded the access of ships that would otherwise be beneficial to the economy of South Carolina. Now that the old bridges are disassembled, the world's largest modern container ships are able to access all terminals of the nation's fourth-largest container port.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: Raising financial support for a new eight-lane bridge over the Cooper River was a struggle 20 years in the making, prolonged by the state's insistence that it could not afford such a bridge and by Charleston's reluctance to provide any funds for the project. Several proposals were made for a toll bridge, but the mayors of Charleston and Mount Pleasant objected. When officials revealed in 1995 that the Grace Bridge scored a 4 out of 100 for safety and integrity, retired US Congressman Arthur Ravenel Jr. ran for the South Carolina Senate with a goal of solving the funding problem. He helped to establish the S.C. Infrastructure Bank and worked with local, state, and federal officials to create partnerships that helped to materialize the final funding.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The State Infrastructure Bank (SIB) budgeted $325 million to accompany $96.6 million from the Federal Highway Administration. The project did not become a reality, however, until the SIB agreed to commit to a $215 million federal loan, provided that Charleston County would contribute $3 million a year for 25 years, including an 8.33% sales tax increase, to the federal loan, as well as yearly payments from the SCDOT and State Ports Authority. The overall price of the bridge totaled around $700 million.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: Due to his efforts in passing laws for the new bridge's funding, fellow lawmakers voted to name bridge the Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge. Some felt that the bridge should not be named after Ravenel, with the head of the South Carolina infrastructure bank saying in 1999, "Certainly, Arthur Ravenel is a fine, decent person, but that bridge is bigger than any one individual and it should reflect all the qualities of the state and not some state senator who happens to be in the Legislature the time the structure is being built."


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The Ravenel Bridge is a cable-stayed design with two diamond-shaped towers, each high. The total length of the structure is , with the mainspan stretching between the towers. Suspending the deck above the river are 128 individual cables anchored to the inside of the diamond towers. The roadway consists of eight lanes, four in each direction plus a bicycle and pedestrian path, which runs along the south edge of the bridge overlooking Charleston Harbor and the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The bridge structure is designed to withstand shipping accidents and the natural disasters that have plagued Charleston's history. The span is designed to endure wind gusts in excess of , far stronger than those of the worst storm in Charleston's history, Hurricane Hugo in 1989. Engineers also considered the 1886 earthquake that nearly leveled Charleston. The Ravenel Bridge is designed to withstand an earthquake of approximately 7.4 on the Richter magnitude scale without total failure. To protect the bridge from errant ships, the towers are flanked by rock islands. Ships will run aground on the islands before colliding with the towers.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The bridge was designed for traffic of 100,000 vehicles per day, and forecasted to reach that number in 2030. , the bridge was carrying an average of 96,300 vehicles per day. The bridge includes a shared bicycle–pedestrian path named "Wonders' Way" in memory of Garrett Wonders. Wonders was a US Navy ensign stationed in Charleston and was in training for the 2004 Olympics before he died in a bicycle–vehicle collision. The path was included in design of the new bridge because of grassroots efforts by groups, such as a fifth grade class at a local elementary school.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: Groundbreaking on the bridge occurred in 2001 in Mount Pleasant. The bridge was built as a design–build project, meaning that one contract was signed to both design and construct the bridge. This meant that construction could begin even while the design was not yet finalized. The bridge was built by a joint venture of two major construction firms operating under the name "Palmetto Bridge Constructors". The joint venture partners were Tidewater Skanska of Norfolk, Virginia and Flatiron Constructors of Longmont, Colorado. The construction joint venture hired Parsons Brinckerhoff to complete the design. T.Y. Lin International provided design review and construction engineering and field inspection services. For the sake of simplifying labor and equipment resources, Palmetto Bridge Constructors actually managed the building of the bridge as five separate projects (the two highway interchanges at either end of the bridge, the two approach spans, and the cable-stayed span) going on simultaneously.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: By the summer of 2002, the foundations for the towers and most of the piers were in place, and the rock islands were completed. The steel and concrete towers began to ascend from the islands soon after. Originally, each of the towers was to be topped with a multicolored LED "beacon", but public opinion caused this plan to be scrapped.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The fast-paced construction schedule led to contractors to use a self-climbing form system to build the towers. The formwork, supplied by PERI, provided a solution to meet the tight construction tolerances and provide safe access for workers laboring hundreds of feet in the air. The self-climbing system meant that the tower cranes did not have to spend time raising the forms after each segment of concrete hardened, and instead could be better used to haul material from barges below.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The first cables were hung from the towers in 2004—as a time-saving measure, this was done before the towers were wholly completed. Sections of the deck were built outward from each of the towers as more cables were hung.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The decks of the approaches were taking shape as well. Construction of part of the roadway actually occurred over the top of the old cantilever bridges, which remained open to traffic without interruption.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: A ceremony was held in March 2005, when the last slab of the deck was added, thus making the bridge "complete". But paving, installation of lights and signs, and cleanup meant that the bridge would not open for another four months.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: Following a week-long celebration that included a public bridge walk, concerts, dinners, and fireworks, the bridge was dedicated and opened on July 16, 2005—one year ahead of schedule and under budget. The bridge was featured on the TV show Extreme Engineering.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The proximity and rivalry between Charleston, South Carolina and Savannah and Brunswick often lead to comparisons between the Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge, the Sidney Lanier Bridge, and the Talmadge Memorial Bridge, all of which carry U.S. Route 17. Completed in 2005, the clearance under the Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge is actually only taller than both the Sidney Lanier Bridge and the Talmadge Memorial Bridge. Unlike the Sidney Lanier Bridge and the Talmadge Memorial Bridge, however, the Ravenel Bridge has eight travel lanes; the Talmadge and the Sidney Lanier both have just four lanes. The Ravenel also features a dedicated bike–pedestrian lane. The Talmadge Memorial Bridge also has a similar design as the Alex Fraser Bridge in Vancouver, Canada.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: As for the span of the three bridges, the Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge is , the Sidney Lanier Bridge is , and the Talmadge Memorial Bridge is .


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The bridge is home to the annual USA Track & Field Cooper River Bridge Run on the first weekend of April. This event attracts up to 50,000 people. The route starts in Mount Pleasant and finishes in downtown Charleston at Marion Square.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The original cantilever bridge can be seen extensively in the 1984 John Carpenter film The Philadelphia Experiment (film).


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The cover of Darius Rucker's 2010 album "Charleston, SC 1966" features a picture of Rucker, a Charleston native, with the Ravenel Bridge in the background.


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: In the video game "", a bridge similar to the Ravenel Bridge was featured but only on the PlayStation 3, Xbox, and PC versions. It was also featured in the 2012 version of "Need for Speed Most Wanted" (but it only crosses half of the water).


title: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge

text: The 2009 movie "The New Daughter", starring Kevin Costner, features the Ravenel Bridge in several scenes, as the movie is based in and around Charleston, South Carolina.


title: The Silent Twins (2022 film)

text: The Silent Twins is a 2022 internationally co-produced biographical drama film about the twin sisters, June and Jennifer Gibbons, who were institutionalized at Broadmoor Hospital following years of silence and teenage rebellion. It is directed by Agnieszka Smoczyńska from a screenplay by Andrea Seigel, who adapted the book of the same name by Marjorie Wallace. The film stars Letitia Wright, Tamara Lawrance, Nadine Marshall, Treva Etienne, Michael Smiley, and Jodhi May.


title: The Silent Twins (2022 film)

text: "The Silent Twins" had its world premiere at the 2022 Cannes Film Festival, under the "Un Certain Regard" section, on May 24, 2022, was released in the United States on September 16, 2022, by Focus Features, and was released in the United Kingdom on December 9, 2022, by Universal Pictures.


title: The Silent Twins (2022 film)

text: Feeling isolated from their unwelcoming community, June and Jennifer Gibbons turn inward and reject communication with everyone but each other, retreating into a fantasy world of artistic inspiration and adolescent desires. After a spree of vandalism inspired by an American teenager they both idolize, the girls are summarily sentenced to Broadmoor Hospital, an infamous psychiatric hospital, where they face the choice to separate and survive or die together.


title: The Silent Twins (2022 film)

text: In February 2020, it was announced that Letitia Wright and Tamara Lawrance has been cast as twin sisters June and Jennifer Gibbons in the film "The Silent Twins", based on the 1986 book of the same name by Marjorie Wallace, with Agnieszka Smoczyńska set to direct and Andrea Seigel set to write the screenplay, it marks Smoczyńska's English-language film debut. On April 8, 2021 it was announced that Focus Features acquired US distribution rights to the film while parent company Universal Pictures took international distribution rights. Principal photography wrapped in Poland.


title: The Silent Twins (2022 film)

text: "The Silent Twins" had its world premiere at the 2022 Cannes Film Festival, under the "Un Certain Regard" section, on May 24, 2022. It was released in the United States by Focus Features on September 16, 2022, and is scheduled to be released in the United Kingdom by Universal Pictures on December 9. It also screened in the 'World Cinema' section of 27th Busan International Film Festival in October 2022.


title: The Silent Twins (2022 film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 70% of 82 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 6.3/10. The website's consensus reads, "Although it struggles to really get inside the true story that inspired it, "The Silent Twins" is still a well-acted and poignant dramatization of actual events." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 59 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Jacobo Grinberg

text: Jacobo Grinberg-Zylberbaum (born Mexico City, 1946), known as Jacobo Grinberg (Obo) was a Mexican neurophysiologist and psychologist. He studied Mexican shamanism, Eastern disciplines, meditation, astrology and telepathy through the scientific method. He wrote more than 50 books about these subjects. Grinberg disappeared in December 1994.


title: Jacobo Grinberg

text: Jacobo Grinberg-Zylberbaum was born in Mexico City in 1946. Grinberg decided to study the human mind when he was 12 years old, after his mother died from a brain tumor. He studied psychology at the Faculty of Psychology of UNAM.


title: Jacobo Grinberg

text: In 1970, he went to New York City to study psychophysiology at the Brain Research Institute. He earned a Ph.D. at the E. Roy John Laboratory. His Ph.D. focused on the electrophysiological effects of geometric stimuli on the human brain.


title: Jacobo Grinberg

text: When he went back to Mexico, he founded a laboratory of psychophysiology at the Universidad Anáhuac. He installed another laboratory of this kind in UNAM in the late 1970s. He founded the Instituto Nacional para el Estudio de la Conciencia (INPEC) in 1987, financed by UNAM and CONACYT. Jacobo published several of his books through INPEC. Grinberg wrote more than 50 books about brain activity, witchcraft, shamanism, telepathy, and meditation.


title: Jacobo Grinberg

text: Grinberg put his reputation as a scientist in danger when he tried to use the scientific method in shamanism studies. He combined the two in his professional work, always trying to understand the “magic world.” Grinberg attempted to change the way that the relationship between science and consciousness is understood. His work was rejected by fellow scientists as "psi assumption", the premise that any deviation from chance represents a case of telepathy.


title: Jacobo Grinberg

text: Since December 8, 1994, Jacobo Grinberg has been missing. On December 12, his family prepared a party for him to celebrate his 48th birthday, but he did not show up. It was common for him to make spontaneous travels or just not answer his phone for days, which is why his disappearance did not seem odd to his family in the beginning. There are many conspiracy theories surrounding Grinberg's disappearance.


title: Jacobo Grinberg

text: Grinberg's sintergy theory states that there is a continuous space of energy and the common human can only perceive a part of it. The result of this process is what everyone understands as "reality." This theory tries to answer the question of the creation of the experience. The book where it is mentioned, "El Cerebro Consciente", was translated into seven languages.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: A variety of movements of feminist ideology have developed over the years. They vary in goals, strategies, and affiliations. They often overlap, and some feminists identify themselves with several branches of feminist thought.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Traditionally feminism is often divided into three main traditions, sometimes known as the "Big Three" schools of feminist thought: liberal/mainstream feminism, radical feminism and socialist or Marxist feminism. Since the late 20th century, a variety of newer forms of feminisms have also emerged, many of which are viewed as branches of the three main traditions.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Judith Lorber distinguishes between three broad kinds of feminist discourses: gender reform feminisms, gender resistant feminisms, and gender revolution feminisms. In her typology, gender reform feminisms are rooted in the political philosophy of liberalism with its emphasis on individual rights. Gender resistant feminisms focus on specific behaviors and group dynamics through which women are kept in a subordinate position, even in subcultures which claim to support gender equality. Gender revolution feminisms seek to disrupt the social order through deconstructing its concepts and categories and analyzing the cultural reproduction of inequalities.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: "Mainstream feminism" as a general term identifies feminist ideologies and movements which do not fall into either the socialist or radical feminist camps. The mainstream feminist movement traditionally focused on political and legal reform, and has its roots in first-wave liberal feminism of the 19th and early-20th centuries. Liberal feminism in this broad traditional sense is also called "mainstream feminism", "reformist feminism", "egalitarian feminism" or historically "bourgeois feminism", and is one of the "Big Three" schools of feminist thought alongside socialist and radical feminism.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: In the context of third-wave and fourth-wave feminism, the term is today often used by essayists and cultural analysts in reference to a movement made palatable to a general audience. Mainstream feminism is often derisively referred to as "white feminism," a term implying that mainstream feminists don't fight for intersectionality with race, class, and sexuality.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Some parts of third-wave and fourth-wave mainstream feminism has also been accused of being commercialized, and of focusing exclusively on issues that are less contentious in the western world , such as women's political participation or female education access. Radical feminists sometimes criticize mainstream feminists as part of "a system of patriarchy". Nevertheless, major milestones of the feminist struggle—such as the right to vote and the right to education—came about mainly as a result of the work of the mainstream feminist movement, which emphasized building far-reaching support for feminist causes among both men and women.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Anarcha-feminism (also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism) combines anarchism with feminism. It generally views patriarchy as a manifestation of involuntary hierarchy. Anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of class struggle and of the anarchist struggle against the state. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a necessary component of feminist struggle and vice versa. As L. Susan Brown puts it, "as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist".


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Important historic anarcha-feminists include Emma Goldman, Federica Montseny, Voltairine de Cleyre, Maria Lacerda de Moura, and Lucy Parsons. In the Spanish Civil War, an anarcha-feminist group, Mujeres Libres ("Free Women"), linked to the Federación Anarquista Ibérica, organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Contemporary anarcha-feminist writers/theorists include Lucy Friedland, L. Susan Brown, and the eco-feminist Starhawk. Contemporary anarcha-feminist groups include Bolivia's Mujeres Creando, Radical Cheerleaders, the Spanish anarcha-feminist squat La Eskalera Karakola, and the annual La Rivolta! conference in Boston.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Black feminism argues that sexism, class oppression, and racism are inextricably bound together. Forms of feminism that strive to overcome sexism and class oppression but ignore race can discriminate against many people, including women, through racial bias. The National Black Feminist Organization (NBFO) was founded in 1973 by Florynce Kennedy, Margaret Sloan, and Doris Wright, and according to Wright it, "more than any other organization in the century launched a frontal assault on sexism and racism". The NBFO also helped inspire the founding of the Boston-based organization the Combahee River Collective in 1974 which not only led the way for crucial antiracist activism in Boston through the decade, but also provided a blueprint for Black feminism that still stands a quarter of a century later. Combahee member Barbara Smith's definition of feminism that still remains a model today states that, "feminism is the political theory and practice to free all women: women of color, working-class women, poor women, physically challenged women, lesbians, old women, as well as white economically privileged heterosexual women. Anything less than this is not feminism, but merely female self-aggrandizement." The Combahee River Collective argued in 1974 that the liberation of black women entails freedom for all people, since it would require the end of racism, sexism, and class oppression. One of the theories that evolved out of this movement was Alice Walker's womanism. It emerged after the early feminist movements that were led specifically by white women, were largely white middle-class movements, and had generally ignored oppression based on racism and classism. Alice Walker and other womanists pointed out that black women experienced a different and more intense kind of oppression from that of white women.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Angela Davis was one of the first people who articulated an argument centered around the intersection of race, gender, and class in her book, "Women, Race and Class" (1981)"." Kimberlé Crenshaw, a prominent feminist law theorist, gave the idea the name intersectionality in the late 1980s as part of her work in anti-discrimination law, as part of describing the effects of compound discrimination against black women.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Cultural feminism is the ideology of a "female nature" or "female essence" that attempts to revalidate what they consider undervalued female attributes. It emphasizes the difference between women and men but considers that difference to be psychological, and to be culturally constructed rather than biologically innate. Its critics assert that, because it is based on an essentialist view of the differences between women and men and advocates independence and institution building, it has led feminists to retreat from politics to "life-style". One such critic, Alice Echols (a feminist historian and cultural theorist), credits Redstockings member Brooke Williams with introducing the term "cultural feminism" in 1975 to describe the depoliticisation of radical feminism.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Difference feminism was developed by feminists in the 1980s, in part as a reaction to "equality feminism". Although difference feminism still aimed for equality, it emphasized the differences between men and women and argued that identicality or sameness are not necessary in order for men and women, and masculine and feminine values, to be treated equally. Some strains of difference feminism, for example Mary Daly's, argue not just that women and men were different, and had different values or different ways of knowing, but that women and their values were superior to men's.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Ecofeminism links ecology with feminism . Ecofeminists see the domination of women as stemming from the same ideologies that bring about the domination of the environment. Western patriarchal systems, where men own and control the land, are seen as responsible for the oppression of women and destruction of the natural environment. Ecofeminists argue that the men in power control the land, and therefore are able to exploit it for their own profit and success. In this situation, ecofeminists consider women to be exploited by men in power for their own profit, success, and pleasure. Thus ecofeminists argue that women and the environment are both exploited as passive pawns in the race to domination. Ecofeminists argue that those people in power are able to take advantage of them distinctly because they are seen as passive and rather helpless.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Ecofeminism connects the exploitation and domination of women with that of the environment. As a way of repairing social and ecological injustices, ecofeminists feel that women must work towards creating a healthy environment and ending the destruction of the lands that most women rely on to provide for their families.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Ecofeminism argues that there is a connection between women and nature that comes from their shared history of oppression by a patriarchal Western society. Vandana Shiva claims that women have a special connection to the environment through their daily interactions with it that has been ignored. She says that "women in subsistence economies, producing and reproducing wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in their own right of holistic and ecological knowledge of nature's processes. But these alternative modes of knowing, which are oriented to the social benefits and sustenance needs are not recognized by the capitalist reductionist paradigm, because it fails to perceive the interconnectedness of nature, or the connection of women's lives, work and knowledge with the creation of wealth."


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: However, feminist and social ecologist Janet Biehl has criticized ecofeminism for focusing too much on a mystical connection between women and nature and not enough on the actual conditions of women.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: French feminism is a branch of feminist thought from a group of feminists in France from the 1970s to the 1990s. It is distinguished from Anglophone feminism by an approach which is more philosophical and literary. Its writings tend to be effusive and metaphorical, being less concerned with political doctrine and generally focused on theories of "the body." The term includes writers who are not French, but who have worked substantially in France and the French tradition, such as Julia Kristeva and Bracha Ettinger.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: In the 1970s, French feminists approached feminism with the concept of Écriture féminine, which translates as 'feminine writing'. Hélène Cixous argues that writing and philosophy are "phallocentric" and along with other French feminists such as Luce Irigaray emphasizes "writing from the body" as a subversive exercise. The work of the feminist psychoanalyst and philosopher, Julia Kristeva, has influenced feminist theory in general and feminist literary criticism in particular. From the 1980s onwards, the work of artist and psychoanalyst Bracha Ettinger has influenced literary criticism, art history, and film theory. Bracha Ettinger conceived of a feminine-maternal dimension she has named the matrixial, and she works toward changing the definition of the human subject to include it, as well as on the "matrixial" space, object and gaze (in art) and on the importance of the matrixial feminine dimension for the fields of psychoanalysis and ethics. However, as the scholar Elizabeth Wright pointed out, "none of these French feminists align themselves with the feminist movement as it appeared in the Anglophone world."


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Possibilities for gender equality have increased due to political and cultural movements of the 20th century, which can be referred to as the "women's century" because of the successes from women's political activism in this time period. The dramatic shift in Mexican women's roles was seen in multiple sectors which included education, labor, political, and cultural, all caused by the feminist movement.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Liberal feminism asserts the equality of men and women through political and legal reform. Traditionally, during the 19th and early 20th century, liberal feminism had the same meaning as "bourgeois feminism" or "mainstream feminism," and its broadest sense, the term liberal feminism overlaps strongly with mainstream feminism. Liberal feminists sought to abolish political, legal and other forms of discrimination against women to allow them the same opportunities as men since their autonomy has deficits. Discriminations of gender, either in the workplace or in the home, and the patriarchal mentality in inherited traditions constitutes some cause for the liberals women's movement. Liberal feminists sought to alter the structure of society to ensure the equal treatment of women. The first and the second feminist waves were led by liberal feminists and they managed to formally and legally obtain many of equal right for women, including the right to vote, right to be educated, as well as the elimination of many other patriarchal paternalistic and moralistic laws.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: One of the earliest well-known liberal feminist, who had a huge influence with her writings was Mary Wollstonecraft. In her book 'A Vindication of the Rights of Woman", she encouraged women to use their voices in making their own decisions and ignore the choices which previously others had made for them.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Liberal feminism includes many, often diverging branches. Individualist feminism or libertarian feminism emphasises women's ability to show and maintain their equality through their own actions and choices and uses the personal interactions between men and women as the place from which to transform society. This use of the term differs from liberal feminism in the historical sense, which emphasized political and legal reforms and held that women's own actions and choices alone were not sufficient to bring about gender equality. For example, "libertarian feminism does not require social measures to reduce material inequality; in fact, it opposes such measures ... in contrast, liberal feminism may support such requirements and egalitarian versions of feminism insist on them."


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Issues important to modern liberal feminists include reproductive and abortion rights, sexual harassment, voting, education, "equal pay for equal work", affordable childcare, affordable health care, elimination of prejudices and stereotypes and bringing to light the frequency of sexual and domestic violence against women.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: According to the "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "Classical liberal or libertarian feminism conceives of freedom as freedom from coercive interference. It holds that women, as well as men, have a right to such freedom due to their status as self-owners."


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: There are several categories under the theory of libertarian feminism, or kinds of feminism that are linked to libertarian ideologies. Anarcha-feminism combines feminist and anarchist beliefs, embodying classical libertarianism rather than contemporary minarchist libertarianism. Wendy McElroy has defined a position, which she labels "ifeminism" or "individualist feminism", that combines feminism with anarcho-capitalism or contemporary minarchist libertarianism, and she argued that a pro-capitalist and anti-state position is compatible with an emphasis on equal rights and empowerment for women. Individualist anarchist-feminism has grown from the United States-based individualist anarchism movement.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Individualist feminism is typically defined as a feminism in opposition to what writers such as Wendy McElroy and Christina Hoff Sommers term "political" or "gender feminism". However, there are some differences within the discussion of individualist feminism. While some individualist feminists like McElroy oppose government interference into the choices women make with their bodies because such interference creates a coercive hierarchy (such as patriarchy), other feminists such as Christina Hoff Sommers hold that feminism's political role is simply to ensure that everyone's, including women's, right against coercive interference is respected. Sommers is described as a "socially conservative equity feminist" by the "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy". Some critics have called her an anti-feminist.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Multiracial feminism (also known as "women of color" feminism) offers a standpoint theory and analysis of the lives and experiences of women of color. The theory emerged in the 1990s and was developed by Dr. Maxine Baca Zinn, a Chicana feminist, and Dr. Bonnie Thornton Dill, a sociology expert on African American women and family.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Though often ignored in the history of the second wave of feminism, multiracial feminists were organizing at the same time as white feminists. Not only did they work alongside other women of color and white feminists, but multiracial feminists also organized themselves outside of women only spaces. In the 1970s women of color worked mainly on three fronts, "working with white dominated feminist groups; forming women's caucuses in existing mixed-gender organizations; and forming autonomous Black, Latina, Native American, and Asian feminist organizations" The perspective of Multiracial Feminism attempts to go beyond a mere recognition of diversity and difference among women, to examine structures of domination, specifically the importance of race in understanding the social construction of gender.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Post-structural feminism, also referred to as French feminism, uses the insights of various epistemological movements, including psychoanalysis, linguistics, political theory (Marxist and post-Marxist theory), race theory, literary theory, and other intellectual currents for feminist concerns. Many post-structural feminists maintain that difference is one of the most powerful tools that women possess in their struggle with patriarchal domination, and that to equate the feminist movement only with equality is to deny women a plethora of options because equality is still defined from the masculine or patriarchal perspective.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Postcolonial feminism, sometimes also known as Third World feminism, partly draws on postcolonialism, which discusses experiences endured during colonialism, including "migration, slavery, suppression, resistance, representation, difference, race, gender, place and responses to the influential discourses of imperial Europe." Postcolonial feminism centers on racism, ethnic issues, and the long-lasting economic, political, and cultural effects of colonialism, inextricably bound up with the unique gendered realities of non-White non-Western women. It sees the parallels between recently decolonized nations and the state of women within patriarchy—both postcolonialism and postcolonial feminism take the "perspective of a socially marginalized subgroup in their relationship to the dominant culture."


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Western feminists universalize women's issues, thereby excluding social classes and ethnic identities, reinforcing homophobia, and ignoring the activity and voices of non-White non-Western women, as under one application of Orientalism. Some postcolonial feminists criticize radical and liberal feminism and some, such as Chandra Talpade Mohanty, are critical of Western feminism for being ethnocentric. Black feminists, such as Angela Davis and Alice Walker, share this view. Another critic of Western perspectives is Sarojini Sahoo. Postcolonial feminists can be described as feminists who have reacted against both universalizing tendencies in Western feminist thought and a lack of attention to gender issues in mainstream postcolonial thought. Through this enterprise, postcolonial feminists spotlight how globalized ideologies that promise women's "emancipation" through universal standards may themselves produce false dichotomies between women's self-realization and local cultural practices.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Colonialism has a gendered history. Colonial powers often imposed Western norms on colonized regions, as seen by the prevalence of imperial feminist attitudes and ideology among colonial powers. Postcolonial feminists argue that cultures impacted by colonialism are often vastly different and should be treated as such. In the 1940s and '50s, after the formation of the United Nations, former colonies were monitored by the West for what was considered "social progress". Since then, the status of women in the developing world has been monitored by organizations such as the United Nations. Traditional practices and roles taken up by women—sometimes seen as distasteful by Western standards—could be considered a form of rebellion against colonial oppression. That oppression may result in the glorification of pre-colonial culture, which, in cultures with traditions of power stratification along gender lines, could mean the acceptance of, or refusal to deal with, issues of gender inequality. Postcolonial feminists today struggle to fight gender oppression within their own cultural models of society rather than through those imposed by the Western colonizers.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Postcolonial feminism is closely related to transnational feminism and to the phenomenon of imperial feminism. The former has strong overlaps and ties with Black feminism because both respond to racism and seek recognition by men in their own cultures and by Western feminists.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Postmodern feminism is an approach to feminist theory that incorporates postmodern and post-structuralist theory. Judith Butler argues that sex, not just gender, is constructed through language. In her 1990 book, "Gender Trouble", she draws on and critiques the work of Simone de Beauvoir, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Lacan. Butler criticizes the distinction drawn by previous feminisms between biological sex and socially constructed gender. She says that the sex/gender distinction does not allow for a sufficient criticism of essentialism. For Butler, "woman" is a debatable category, complicated by class, ethnicity, sexuality, and other facets of identity. She states that gender is performative. This argument leads to the conclusion that there is no single cause for women's subordination and no single approach towards dealing with the issue.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: In "A Cyborg Manifesto", Donna Haraway criticizes traditional notions of feminism, particularly its emphasis on identity, rather than affinity. She uses the metaphor of a cyborg in order to construct a postmodern feminism that moves beyond dualisms and the limitations of traditional gender, feminism, and politics. Haraway's cyborg is an attempt to break away from Oedipal narratives and Christian origin myths like Genesis. She writes, "The cyborg does not dream of community on the model of the organic family, this time without the oedipal project. The cyborg would not recognize the Garden of Eden; it is not made of mud and cannot dream of returning to dust."


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: A major branch in postmodern feminist thought has emerged from contemporary psychoanalytic French feminism. Other postmodern feminist works highlight stereotypical gender roles, only to portray them as parodies of the original beliefs. The history of feminism is not important in these writings—only what is going to be done about it. The history is dismissed and used to depict how ridiculous past beliefs were. Modern feminist theory has been extensively criticized as being predominantly, though not exclusively, associated with Western middle class academia. Mary Joe Frug, a postmodernist feminist, criticized mainstream feminism as being too narrowly focused and inattentive to related issues of race and class.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Radical feminists tend to be more militant in their approach when compared to other feminist movements and ideologies. It considers the male-controlled capitalist hierarchy, which it describes as sexist, as the defining feature of women's oppression. Radical feminists believe that women can free themselves only when they have done away with what they consider an inherently oppressive and dominating patriarchal system. They feel that this male-based authority and power structure and that it is responsible for oppression and inequality, and that, as long as the system and its values are in place, society will not be able to be reformed in any significant way. Radical feminists see no alternatives other than the total uprooting and reconstruction of society in order to achieve their goals.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Over time a number of sub-types of radical feminism have emerged, such as cultural feminism, separatist feminism, trans-exclusionary radical feminism, and anti-pornography feminism, the last opposed by sex-positive feminism.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Separatist feminism is a form of radical feminism that does not support heterosexual relationships. Lesbian feminism is thus closely related. Separatist feminism's proponents argue that the sexual disparities between men and women are unresolvable. Separatist feminists generally do not feel that men can make positive contributions to the feminist movement and that even well-intentioned men replicate patriarchal dynamics. Author Marilyn Frye describes separatist feminism as "separation of various sorts or modes from men and from institutions, relationships, roles and activities that are male-defined, male-dominated, and operating for the benefit of males and the maintenance of male privilege—this separation being initiated or maintained, at will, "by women"".


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Socialist feminism connects the oppression of women to Marxist ideas about exploitation, oppression and labor. Socialist feminists think unequal standing in both the workplace and the domestic sphere holds women down. Socialist feminists see prostitution, domestic work, childcare, and marriage as ways in which women are exploited by a patriarchal system that devalues women and the substantial work they do. Socialist feminists focus their energies on far-reaching change that affects society as a whole, rather than on an individual basis. They see the need to work alongside not just men but all other groups, as they see the oppression of women as a part of a larger pattern that affects everyone involved in the capitalist system.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Marx felt that when class oppression was overcome gender oppression would vanish as well; this is Marxist feminism. Some socialist feminists, many of Radical Women and the Freedom Socialist Party, point to the classic Marxist writings of Frederick Engels and August Bebel as a powerful explanation of the link between gender oppression and class exploitation. To some other socialist feminists, this view of gender oppression is naive and much of the work of socialist feminists has gone towards separating gender phenomena from class phenomena. Some contributors to socialist feminism have criticized these traditional Marxist ideas for being largely silent on gender oppression except to subsume it underneath broader class oppression.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, both Clara Zetkin and Eleanor Marx were against the demonization of men and supported a proletarian revolution that would overcome as many male–female inequalities as possible. most Marxist leaders, including Clara Zetkin and Alexandra Kollontai counterposed Marxism against feminism, rather than trying to combine them.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Since the 1980s, standpoint feminists have argued that feminism should examine how women's experience of inequality relates to that of racism, homophobia, classism and colonization. In the late 1980s and the 1990s, postmodern feminists argued that gender roles are socially constructed, and that it is impossible to generalize women's experiences across cultures and histories.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Third-world feminism has been described as a group of feminist theories developed by feminists who acquired their views and took part in feminist politics in so-called third-world countries. Although women from the third world have been engaged in the feminist movement, Chandra Talpade Mohanty and Sarojini Sahoo criticize Western feminism on the grounds that it is ethnocentric and does not take into account the unique experiences of women from third-world countries or the existence of feminist movements indigenous to third-world countries. According to Mohanty, women in the third world feel that Western feminism bases its understanding of women on "internal racism, classism and homophobia", a phenomenon which has been referred to by others as imperial feminism. This discourse is strongly related to African feminism and postcolonial feminism. Its development is also associated with black feminism, womanism, "Africana womanism", "motherism", "Stiwanism", "negofeminism", chicana feminism, and "femalism".


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Transfeminism (or trans feminism) is, a movement by and for trans women, was defined by Robert Hill, "a category of feminism, most often known for the application of transgender discourses to feminist discourses, and of feminist beliefs to transgender discourse". Hill says that transfeminism also concerns its integration within mainstream feminism. He defines transfeminism in this context as a type of feminism "having specific content that applies to transgender people, but the thinking and theory of which is also applicable to all women".


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Transfeminism includes many of the major themes of other third-wave feminism, including diversity, body image, oppression, misogyny, and women's agency. It is not merely about merging trans concerns with feminism, but often applies feminist analysis and critiques to social issues facing trans women and trans people more broadly. Transfeminism also includes critical analysis of second-wave feminism from the perspective of the third wave.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Early voices in the movement include Kate Bornstein and Sandy Stone, whose essay "" was a direct response to Janice Raymond. In the 21st century, Susan Stryker and Julia Serano have contributed work in the field of transgender women.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: The first wave of Asian women's organizing formed out of the Asian American movement of the 1960s, which in turn was inspired by the civil rights movement and the anti-Vietnam War movement.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: During the Second Wave of feminism, Asian American women provided services for battered women, worked as advocates for refugees and recent immigrants, produced events spotlighting Asian women's cultural and political diversity, and organized with other women of color. Asian Sisters, which emerged in 1971 out of the Asian American Political Alliance, is an early Asian American women's group based out of Los Angeles that focused on drug abuse intervention for young women. Networking between Asian American and other women during this period also included participation by a contingent of 150 Third World and white women from North America at the historic Vancouver Indochinese Women's Conference (1971) to work with the Indochinese women against U.S. imperialism.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: After World War II when immigration laws began to change, an increasing number of Asian women began to migrate to the United States and joined the workforce. Asian women who worked in the textile and garment industry faced gender discrimination as well as racism.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Following the African American and Chicana feminist movements of the 1960s, Asian American women activists began to organize and participated in protests with Asian American men to fight racism and classism. The first organized movement formed by Asian American women followed the Asian American movement in the 1960s, which was influenced by the Civil Rights Movement and anti-Vietnam War sentiment. However, as Asian American women's participation became increasingly active, they faced sexism and realized that many of the organizations did not recognize their needs and struggles as women.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: While Asian American women believed that they face the same social and equality issues as Asian American men, many Asian American men did not share the same sentiment.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: In the mid 1960s when more and more Asian women began immigrating to the United States, they faced gender discrimination and racism in the workforce. Au Quon McElrath, who was a Chinese labor activist and social workers, began organizing and advocating for increased wages, improved working environments, additional health benefits, and maternity leaves for women workers.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: When Asian American women activists started to recognize a need for a separate movement from the sexism that they faced, they began to develop a feminist consciousness and initialized organizations to fight for women's rights and to fight against sexism. Some groups developed caucuses within organizations like the Organization of Chinese American Women, which was an already existing Asian American organization.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Within the Asian American cultural arts movement, many artists such as poet Janice Mirikitani rose to fame within the Asian American community.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Though recent decades, Asian American feminism and feminist identity continues to struggle with the perception of Asian Americans as part of the Model minority, which has affected and shaped the political identity of Asian American women as women of color in the United States.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Additionally, globalized trade agreements like the North American Free Trade Agreement and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade have changed the dynamics of the labor force and work environments in the United States. In the free-trade capitalist global economy, protection of workers' rights and working environment has weakened dramatically, disproportionately disadvantaging women workers, especially women of color.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Women of All Red Nations (WARN) was initiated in 1974, and is one of the best known Native American women's organizations whose activism included fighting sterilization in public health service hospitals, suing the U.S. government for attempts to sell Pine Ridge water in South Dakota to corporations, and networking with indigenous people in Guatemala and Nicaragua. WARN reflected a whole generation of Native American women activists who had been leaders in the takeover of Wounded Knee in South Dakota in 1973, on the Pine Ridge reservation (1973–76), and elsewhere. WARN as well as other Native American women's organizations, grew out of—and often worked with—mixed-gender nationalist organizations.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: The American Indian Movement was founded in 1968 by Dennis Banks, George Mitchell, and Mary Jane Wilson, an Anishinabe activist.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Native American feminist ideology is founded upon addressing two often overlooked issues: one, that the United States as well as other Western nations are settler colonial nation states, and second, colonialism is gendered. United States colonialism and patriarchy disproportionately impact the experiences of Native American women who face this "double burden" of both racism and sexism and the resulting discrimination. Thus, the history of Native American feminism has always been intwined with the processes of colonialism and imperialism.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: Because of strong anti-colonial sentiments and the unique experience of Native Americans as a society that was colonized by American settlers, Native American feminist ideology is characterized by the rejection of feminist politics and their background as indigenous women. In the early 1990s, Annete Jaime, in "American Indian Women: At the Center of Indigenous Resistance in North America," argues that only Native women who have assimilated consider themselves as feminists. Jaime states that supporting the equality and political freedom of Native American women activists means the rejection of feminist politics as feminist politics is tied to the colonial history of the United States.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: The indigenous movement of Native American women also involves the preservation of Native spirituality by organizations such as Women of All Red Nations and the Indigenous Women's Network. Native spirituality includes the cultural contextualization of kinship roles through cultural beliefs, rituals, and ceremonies, strengthening and preserving the fluid bond between the individual and the "indigenous homeland." The expectation of indigenous spirituality manifested in the "feminine organic archetypes" such as images like the Corn Mother and Daughter, Spider Woman, and Changing Woman of Southwest Pueblo lore found in Native creation myths.


title: Feminist movements and ideologies

text: In the United States, more Native American women die from domestic violence than any other women. The issue of domestic violence has caused many Native American feminists to reject the assumption and notion that women in Native American communities must continue to defend the ideal of tribal nationalism when certain aspects of tribal nationalism ignore very pertinent problems of sexism and women's liberation from colonization.