title: DinDin

text: Lim Cheol (born November 20, 1991), better known by his stage name DinDin, is a South Korean rapper, television personality and radio personality.


title: Group of Five conferences

text: In college football, the Group of Five are five athletic conferences whose members are part of NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS). The five conferences are the American Athletic Conference (American), Conference USA (C-USA), Mid-American Conference (MAC), Mountain West Conference (MW), and Sun Belt Conference (SBC or Sun Belt).


title: Group of Five conferences

text: The Group of Five conferences are five of the ten conferences in NCAA Division I FBS. The other five FBS conferences are informally known as the Power Five. In addition, a number of schools compete in FBS as independents in football.


title: Group of Five conferences

text: The terms Group of Five and Power Five are not formally defined by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), and the precise origins of the terms are unknown. However, each of the ten conferences are named in the NCAA's Division I manual. A notable difference between the Group of Five and Power Five are designated areas of institutional autonomy granted to member institutions of the Power Five conferences.


title: Group of Five conferences

text: The Group of Five is often considered disadvantaged as to the Power Five, as its constituent members do not have similar access to New Year's Six or College Football Playoff bowls. Since the BCS era, this has been an ongoing area of contention among NCAA Division I schools. In November 2012, agreement was reached to guarantee a spot in one of the New Year's Six bowl games to a team from one of the Group of Five conferences, beginning with the 2014 football season.


title: Group of Five conferences

text: On December 5, 2021, Cincinnati became the first Group of Five team to make the College Football Playoff.


title: Group of Five conferences

text: In sports other than football (mainly basketball), conferences outside of the Power Five are known as mid-major conferences.


title: Group of Five conferences

text: The ten current FBS conferences are listed below. For the Group of Five, the football members of each conference are also listed. Independent NCAA Division I FBS teams are listed in a third table. "Tables reflect conference memberships as of the 2022 football season."


title: Ira Einhorn

text: Ira Samuel Einhorn (May 15, 1940 – April 3, 2020), known as "The Unicorn Killer", was an American convicted murderer and environmental activist. He was convicted of murdering his ex-girlfriend, Holly Maddux. On September 9, 1977, Maddux disappeared following a trip to collect her belongings from the apartment she and Einhorn had shared in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Eighteen months later, police found her partially mummified body in a trunk in Einhorn's closet.


title: Ira Einhorn

text: After his arrest, Einhorn fled the country and spent twenty-three years in Europe before being extradited to the United States. He took the stand in his own defense, claiming his ex-girlfriend had been killed by CIA agents who had framed him for the crime because he knew too much about the agency's paranormal military research. He was convicted and served a life sentence until his death in prison on April 3, 2020.


title: Ira Einhorn

text: Ira Einhorn was born into a middle-class Jewish family. As a student at the University of Pennsylvania (where he received his undergraduate degree in English in 1961 before returning to complete some graduate work in the discipline in 1963) he became active in ecological groups and was part of the counterculture, anti-establishment, and anti-war movements of the 1960s and 1970s. Einhorn was a speaker at the first Earth Day event in Philadelphia in 1970, and later claimed to have been instrumental in creating and launching the event, but event organizers refute his account.


title: Ira Einhorn

text: Einhorn served as an instructor of English at Temple University during the 1964–1965 academic year, although his contract was not renewed after he conceded his "contempt for the academic world" and boasted of proffering "straight answers about the delights and dangers" of cannabis and LSD to students in an interview. He also was a resident fellow at the Harvard Institute of Politics during the autumn 1978 semester.


title: Ira Einhorn

text: Einhorn had a five-year relationship with Holly Maddux, a graduate of Bryn Mawr College who was originally from Tyler, Texas. In 1977, Maddux broke up with Einhorn and went to New York City, where she became involved with Saul Lapidus. On September 9, 1977, Maddux returned to the Philadelphia apartment she had previously shared with Einhorn to collect her belongings (which Einhorn had reportedly threatened to throw out into the street as trash) and was never seen again. Several weeks later, the Philadelphia police questioned Einhorn about her disappearance. He claimed that Maddux had gone out to the neighborhood co-op to buy some tofu and sprouts, and never returned.


title: Ira Einhorn

text: Einhorn's initial alibi came into question when his neighbors began complaining about a foul smell coming from his apartment, which in turn aroused the suspicion of authorities. Eighteen months later, on March 28, 1979, Maddux's decomposing corpse was found by police in a trunk stored in Einhorn's closet. After finding the body, a police officer reportedly said to Einhorn, "It looks like we found Holly," to which he reportedly replied, "You found what you found." Einhorn's lawyer, Arlen Specter, negotiated bail of $40,000; he was released from custody after posting a bond of $4,000, or 10% of the $40,000. This was paid by Barbara Bronfman (née Baerwald), a Montreal socialite who married into the wealthy Bronfman family and met Einhorn through a shared interest in the paranormal. During Einhorn's flight he was again aided by Bronfman, who continued to support him financially until 1988, when she read Steven Levy's damning book on Einhorn, "The Unicorn's Secret".


title: Ira Einhorn

text: In 1981, just days before his murder trial was to begin, Einhorn skipped bail and fled to Europe. He lived there for the next seventeen years and married a Swedish woman named Annika Flodin. In Pennsylvania, as Einhorn had already been arraigned, the state convicted him "in absentia" of Maddux's murder in 1996. Einhorn was sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole.


title: Ira Einhorn

text: In 1997, Einhorn was arrested in Champagne-Mouton, France, where he had been living under the name "Eugène Mallon". The extradition process, however, proved more complex than initially envisioned. Under the extradition treaty between France and the United States, either country may refuse extradition under certain circumstances, and Einhorn used multiple avenues to avoid extradition.


title: Ira Einhorn

text: Although Einhorn was not sentenced to death, his defense attorneys argued that he would face the death penalty if he were returned to the United States. France, like many countries that have abolished the death penalty, does not extradite defendants to jurisdictions that retain the death penalty without assurance that it will be neither sought nor applied. Pennsylvania authorities pointed out that when the murder occurred, the state did not practice the death penalty and so Einhorn could not be executed because the state and federal constitutions forbid "ex post facto" law. Einhorn's next strategy involved French law and the European Court of Human Rights, which require a new trial when the defendant was tried "in absentia" and unable to present his defense. On this basis, the court of appeals of Bordeaux rejected the extradition request.


title: Ira Einhorn

text: Following the court's decision, thirty-five members of Congress sent a letter to French President Jacques Chirac to ask for Einhorn's extradition. However, under France's doctrine of the separation of powers, which was invoked in this case, the President cannot give orders to courts and does not intervene in extradition affairs. Therefore, in 1998, to secure Einhorn's extradition, the Pennsylvania legislature passed a bill, nicknamed the "Einhorn Law", allowing defendants convicted "in absentia" to request another trial. In another delay tactic, Einhorn's attorneys criticized the bill as unconstitutional and tried to get the French courts to once again deny the extradition on the grounds that the law would be inapplicable. However, the French court ruled itself unable to evaluate the constitutionality of foreign laws. Another point of friction with the United States was that the court freed Einhorn under police supervision, as French laws put restrictions on remand, the imprisonment of suspects awaiting trial. Einhorn then became the focus of intense surveillance by French police.


title: Ira Einhorn

text: The matter went before Prime Minister Lionel Jospin; extraditions, after having been approved by courts, must be ordered by the executive. The French Green Party stated that Einhorn should not be extradited until it was certain that the "Einhorn Law" could not be reversed. Jospin rejected the claims and issued an extradition decree. Einhorn then litigated against the decree before the "Conseil d'État", which ruled against him; again, the Council declined to review the constitutionality of foreign law. He then attempted to slit his own throat to avoid imprisonment and eventually litigated his case before the European Court of Human Rights, which also ruled against him. On July 20, 2001, Einhorn was extradited to the United States.


title: Ira Einhorn

text: Taking the stand in his own defense, Einhorn claimed that Maddux was murdered by CIA agents who attempted to frame him due to his "investigations" into the Cold War and "psychotronics". After two hours of deliberation, the jury convicted Einhorn on October 17, 2002, concluding the month-long trial. The following day, he was sentenced to a mandatory life term without the possibility of parole. Einhorn began serving his sentence at Pennsylvania State Correctional Institution (SCI) Houtzdale. In November 2006, Einhorn's sentence was unanimously affirmed by the Superior Court of Pennsylvania.


title: Ira Einhorn

text: On April 3, 2020, Einhorn died in the Pennsylvania SCI Laurel Highlands. His death was reported to be of natural causes.


title: Hyperreal number

text: In mathematics, the system of hyperreal numbers is a way of treating infinite and infinitesimal (infinitely small but non-zero) quantities. The hyperreals, or nonstandard reals, *R, are an extension of the real numbers R that contains numbers greater than anything of the form


title: Hyperreal number

text: Such numbers are infinite, and their reciprocals are infinitesimals. The term "hyper-real" was introduced by Edwin Hewitt in 1948.


title: Hyperreal number

text: The hyperreal numbers satisfy the transfer principle, a rigorous version of Leibniz's heuristic law of continuity. The transfer principle states that true first-order statements about R are also valid in *R. For example, the commutative law of addition, , holds for the hyperreals just as it does for the reals; since R is a real closed field, so is *R. Since formula_2 for all integers "n", one also has formula_3 for all hyperintegers formula_4. The transfer principle for ultrapowers is a consequence of Łoś' theorem of 1955.


title: Hyperreal number

text: Concerns about the soundness of arguments involving infinitesimals date back to ancient Greek mathematics, with Archimedes replacing such proofs with ones using other techniques such as the method of exhaustion. In the 1960s, Abraham Robinson proved that the hyperreals were logically consistent if and only if the reals were. This put to rest the fear that any proof involving infinitesimals might be unsound, provided that they were manipulated according to the logical rules that Robinson delineated.


title: Hyperreal number

text: The application of hyperreal numbers and in particular the transfer principle to problems of analysis is called nonstandard analysis. One immediate application is the definition of the basic concepts of analysis such as the derivative and integral in a direct fashion, without passing via logical complications of multiple quantifiers. Thus, the derivative of "f"("x") becomes formula_5 for an infinitesimal formula_6, where st(·) denotes the standard part function, which "rounds off" each finite hyperreal to the nearest real. Similarly, the integral is defined as the standard part of a suitable infinite sum.


title: Hyperreal number

text: The idea of the hyperreal system is to extend the real numbers R to form a system *R that includes infinitesimal and infinite numbers, but without changing any of the elementary axioms of algebra. Any statement of the form "for any number x..." that is true for the reals is also true for the hyperreals. For example, the axiom that states "for any number "x", "x" + 0 = "x"" still applies. The same is true for quantification over several numbers, e.g., "for any numbers "x" and "y", "xy" = "yx"." This ability to carry over statements from the reals to the hyperreals is called the transfer principle. However, statements of the form "for any "set" of numbers "S" ..." may not carry over. The only properties that differ between the reals and the hyperreals are those that rely on quantification over sets, or other higher-level structures such as functions and relations, which are typically constructed out of sets. Each real set, function, and relation has its natural hyperreal extension, satisfying the same first-order properties. The kinds of logical sentences that obey this restriction on quantification are referred to as statements in first-order logic.


title: Hyperreal number

text: The transfer principle, however, does not mean that R and *R have identical behavior. For instance, in *R there exists an element "ω" such that


title: Hyperreal number

text: but there is no such number in R. (In other words, *R is not Archimedean.) This is possible because the nonexistence of "ω" cannot be expressed as a first-order statement.


title: Hyperreal number

text: Informal notations for non-real quantities have historically appeared in calculus in two contexts: as infinitesimals, like "dx", and as the symbol ∞, used, for example, in limits of integration of improper integrals.


title: Hyperreal number

text: As an example of the transfer principle, the statement that for any nonzero number "x", "2x" ≠ "x", is true for the real numbers, and it is in the form required by the transfer principle, so it is also true for the hyperreal numbers. This shows that it is not possible to use a generic symbol such as ∞ for all the infinite quantities in the hyperreal system; infinite quantities differ in magnitude from other infinite quantities, and infinitesimals from other infinitesimals.


title: Hyperreal number

text: Similarly, the casual use of 1/0 = ∞ is invalid, since the transfer principle applies to the statement that zero has no multiplicative inverse. The rigorous counterpart of such a calculation would be that if ε is a non-zero infinitesimal, then 1/ε is infinite.


title: Hyperreal number

text: For any finite hyperreal number "x", the standard part, st("x"), is defined as the unique closest real number to "x"; it necessarily differs from "x" only infinitesimally. The standard part function can also be defined for infinite hyperreal numbers as follows: If x is a positive infinite hyperreal number, set st("x") to be the extended real number formula_8, and likewise, if x is a negative infinite hyperreal number, set st("x") to be formula_9 (the idea is that an infinite hyperreal number should be smaller than the "true" absolute infinity but closer to it than any real number is).


title: Hyperreal number

text: One of the key uses of the hyperreal number system is to give a precise meaning to the differential operator "d" as used by Leibniz to define the derivative and the integral.


title: Hyperreal number

text: For any real-valued function formula_10 the differential formula_11 is defined as a map which sends every ordered pair formula_12 (where formula_13 is real and formula_14 is nonzero infinitesimal) to an infinitesimal


title: Hyperreal number

text: Note that the vary notation "formula_14" used to denote any infinitesimal is consistent with the above definition of the operator formula_17 for if one interprets formula_13 (as is commonly done) to be the function formula_19 then for every formula_12 the differential formula_21 will equal the infinitesimal formula_14.


title: Hyperreal number

text: is the same for all nonzero infinitesimals formula_26 If so, this quotient is called the derivative of formula_23 at formula_13.


title: Hyperreal number

text: For example, to find the derivative of the function formula_29, let formula_14 be a non-zero infinitesimal. Then,


title: Hyperreal number

text: The use of the standard part in the definition of the derivative is a rigorous alternative to the traditional practice of neglecting the square of an infinitesimal quantity. Dual numbers are a number system based on this idea. After the third line of the differentiation above, the typical method from Newton through the 19th century would have been simply to discard the "dx" term. In the hyperreal system,


title: Hyperreal number

text: "dx" ≠ 0, since "dx" is nonzero, and the transfer principle can be applied to the statement that the square of any nonzero number is nonzero. However, the quantity "dx" is infinitesimally small compared to "dx"; that is, the hyperreal system contains a hierarchy of infinitesimal quantities.


title: Hyperreal number

text: Another key use of the hyperreal number system is to give a precise meaning to the integral sign ∫ used by Leibniz to define the definite integral.


title: Hyperreal number

text: For any infinitesimal functionformula_31one may define the integral formula_32as a map sending any ordered triple formula_33 (whereformula_34andformula_35are real, andformula_36is infinitesimal of the same sign as formula_37) to the value


title: Hyperreal number

text: A real-valued function formula_23 is then said to integrable over a closed intervalformula_42if for any nonzero infinitesimalformula_43the integral


title: Hyperreal number

text: is independent of the choice offormula_45 If so, this integral is called the definite integral (or antiderivative) of formula_23 onformula_47


title: Hyperreal number

text: This shows that using hyperreal numbers, Leibniz's notation for the definite integral can actually be interpreted as a meaningful algebraic expression (just as the derivative can be interpreted as a meaningful quotient).


title: Hyperreal number

text: The hyperreals *R form an ordered field containing the reals R as a subfield. Unlike the reals, the hyperreals do not form a standard metric space, but by virtue of their order they carry an order topology.


title: Hyperreal number

text: The use of the definite article "the" in the phrase "the hyperreal numbers" is somewhat misleading in that there is not a unique ordered field that is referred to in most treatments.


title: Hyperreal number

text: However, a 2003 paper by Vladimir Kanovei and Saharon Shelah shows that there is a definable, countably saturated (meaning ω-saturated, but not, of course, countable) elementary extension of the reals, which therefore has a good claim to the title of "the" hyperreal numbers. Furthermore, the field obtained by the ultrapower construction from the space of all real sequences, is unique up to isomorphism if one assumes the continuum hypothesis.


title: Hyperreal number

text: The condition of being a hyperreal field is a stronger one than that of being a real closed field strictly containing R. It is also stronger than that of being a superreal field in the sense of Dales and Woodin.


title: Hyperreal number

text: The hyperreals can be developed either axiomatically or by more constructively oriented methods. The essence of the axiomatic approach is to assert (1) the existence of at least one infinitesimal number, and (2) the validity of the transfer principle. In the following subsection we give a detailed outline of a more constructive approach. This method allows one to construct the hyperreals if given a set-theoretic object called an ultrafilter, but the ultrafilter itself cannot be explicitly constructed.


title: Hyperreal number

text: When Newton and (more explicitly) Leibniz introduced differentials, they used infinitesimals and these were still regarded as useful by later mathematicians such as Euler and Cauchy. Nonetheless these concepts were from the beginning seen as suspect, notably by George Berkeley. Berkeley's criticism centered on a perceived shift in hypothesis in the definition of the derivative in terms of infinitesimals (or fluxions), where "dx" is assumed to be nonzero at the beginning of the calculation, and to vanish at its conclusion (see Ghosts of departed quantities for details). When in the 1800s calculus was put on a firm footing through the development of the (ε, δ)-definition of limit by Bolzano, Cauchy, Weierstrass, and others, infinitesimals were largely abandoned, though research in non-Archimedean fields continued (Ehrlich 2006).


title: Hyperreal number

text: However, in the 1960s Abraham Robinson showed how infinitely large and infinitesimal numbers can be rigorously defined and used to develop the field of nonstandard analysis. Robinson developed his theory nonconstructively, using model theory; however it is possible to proceed using only algebra and topology, and proving the transfer principle as a consequence of the definitions. In other words hyperreal numbers "per se", aside from their use in nonstandard analysis, have no necessary relationship to model theory or first order logic, although they were discovered by the application of model theoretic techniques from logic. Hyper-real fields were in fact originally introduced by Hewitt (1948) by purely algebraic techniques, using an ultrapower construction.


title: Hyperreal number

text: We are going to construct a hyperreal field via sequences of reals. In fact we can add and multiply sequences componentwise; for example:


title: Hyperreal number

text: This turns the set of such sequences into a commutative ring, which is in fact a real algebra A. We have a natural embedding of R in A by identifying the real number "r" with the sequence ("r", "r", "r", …) and this identification preserves the corresponding algebraic operations of the reals. The intuitive motivation is, for example, to represent an infinitesimal number using a sequence that approaches zero. The inverse of such a sequence would represent an infinite number. As we will see below, the difficulties arise because of the need to define rules for comparing such sequences in a manner that, although inevitably somewhat arbitrary, must be self-consistent and well defined. For example, we may have two sequences that differ in their first "n" members, but are equal after that; such sequences should clearly be considered as representing the same hyperreal number. Similarly, most sequences oscillate randomly forever, and we must find some way of taking such a sequence and interpreting it as, say, formula_49, where formula_50 is a certain infinitesimal number.


title: Hyperreal number

text: Comparing sequences is thus a delicate matter. We could, for example, try to define a relation between sequences in a componentwise fashion:


title: Hyperreal number

text: but here we run into trouble, since some entries of the first sequence may be bigger than the corresponding entries of the second sequence, and some others may be smaller. It follows that the relation defined in this way is only a partial order. To get around this, we have to specify which positions matter. Since there are infinitely many indices, we don't want finite sets of indices to matter. A consistent choice of index sets that matter is given by any free ultrafilter "U" on the natural numbers; these can be characterized as ultrafilters that do not contain any finite sets. (The good news is that Zorn's lemma guarantees the existence of many such "U"; the bad news is that they cannot be explicitly constructed.) We think of "U" as singling out those sets of indices that "matter": We write ("a", "a", "a", ...) ≤ ("b", "b", "b", ...) if and only if the set of natural numbers { "n" : "a" ≤ "b" } is in "U".


title: Hyperreal number

text: This is a total preorder and it turns into a total order if we agree not to distinguish between two sequences "a" and "b" if "a" ≤ "b" and "b" ≤ "a". With this identification, the ordered field *R of hyperreals is constructed. From an algebraic point of view, "U" allows us to define a corresponding maximal ideal I in the commutative ring A (namely, the set of the sequences that vanish in some element of "U"), and then to define *R as A/I; as the quotient of a commutative ring by a maximal ideal, *R is a field. This is also notated A/"U", directly in terms of the free ultrafilter "U"; the two are equivalent. The maximality of I follows from the possibility of, given a sequence "a", constructing a sequence "b" inverting the non-null elements of "a" and not altering its null entries. If the set on which "a" vanishes is not in "U", the product "ab" is identified with the number 1, and any ideal containing 1 must be "A". In the resulting field, these "a" and "b" are inverses.


title: Hyperreal number

text: Since this field contains R it has cardinality at least that of the continuum. Since A has cardinality


title: Hyperreal number

text: One question we might ask is whether, if we had chosen a different free ultrafilter "V", the quotient field A/"U" would be isomorphic as an ordered field to A/"V". This question turns out to be equivalent to the continuum hypothesis; in ZFC with the continuum hypothesis we can prove this field is unique up to order isomorphism, and in ZFC with the negation of continuum hypothesis we can prove that there are non-order-isomorphic pairs of fields that are both countably indexed ultrapowers of the reals.


title: Hyperreal number

text: The following is an intuitive way of understanding the hyperreal numbers. The approach taken here is very close to the one in the book by Goldblatt. Recall that the sequences converging to zero are sometimes called infinitely small. These are almost the infinitesimals in a sense; the true infinitesimals include certain classes of sequences that contain a sequence converging to zero.


title: Hyperreal number

text: Let us see where these classes come from. Consider first the sequences of real numbers. They form a ring, that is, one can multiply, add and subtract them, but not necessarily divide by a non-zero element. The real numbers are considered as the constant sequences, the sequence is zero if it is identically zero, that is, "a" = 0 for all "n".


title: Hyperreal number

text: In our ring of sequences one can get "ab" = 0 with neither "a" = 0 nor "b" = 0. Thus, if for two sequences formula_54 one has "ab" = 0, at least one of them should be declared zero. Surprisingly enough, there is a consistent way to do it. As a result, the equivalence classes of sequences that differ by some sequence declared zero will form a field, which is called a hyperreal field. It will contain the infinitesimals in addition to the ordinary real numbers, as well as infinitely large numbers (the reciprocals of infinitesimals, including those represented by sequences diverging to infinity). Also every hyperreal that is not infinitely large will be infinitely close to an ordinary real, in other words, it will be the sum of an ordinary real and an infinitesimal.


title: Hyperreal number

text: This construction is parallel to the construction of the reals from the rationals given by Cantor. He started with the ring of the Cauchy sequences of rationals and declared all the sequences that converge to zero to be zero. The result is the reals. To continue the construction of hyperreals, consider the zero sets of our sequences, that is, the formula_55, that is, formula_56 is the set of indexes formula_57 for which formula_58. It is clear that if formula_59, then the union of formula_56 and formula_61 is N (the set of all natural numbers), so:


title: Hyperreal number

text: Now the idea is to single out a bunch "U" of subsets "X" of N and to declare that formula_68 if and only if formula_56 belongs to "U". From the above conditions one can see that:


title: Hyperreal number

text: Any family of sets that satisfies (2–4) is called a filter (an example: the complements to the finite sets, it is called the Fréchet filter and it is used in the usual limit theory). If (1) also holds, U is called an ultrafilter (because you can add no more sets to it without breaking it). The only explicitly known example of an ultrafilter is the family of sets containing a given element (in our case, say, the number 10). Such ultrafilters are called trivial, and if we use it in our construction, we come back to the ordinary real numbers. Any ultrafilter containing a finite set is trivial. It is known that any filter can be extended to an ultrafilter, but the proof uses the axiom of choice. The existence of a nontrivial ultrafilter (the ultrafilter lemma) can be added as an extra axiom, as it is weaker than the axiom of choice.


title: Hyperreal number

text: Now if we take a nontrivial ultrafilter (which is an extension of the Fréchet filter) and do our construction, we get the hyperreal numbers as a result.


title: Hyperreal number

text: If formula_23 is a real function of a real variable formula_13 then formula_23 naturally extends to a hyperreal function of a hyperreal variable by composition:


title: Hyperreal number

text: where formula_74 means "the equivalence class of the sequence formula_75 relative to our ultrafilter", two sequences being in the same class if and only if the zero set of their difference belongs to our ultrafilter.


title: Hyperreal number

text: All the arithmetical expressions and formulas make sense for hyperreals and hold true if they are true for the ordinary reals. It turns out that any finite (that is, such that formula_76 for some ordinary real formula_62) hyperreal formula_13 will be of the form formula_79 where formula_80 is an ordinary (called standard) real and formula_81 is an infinitesimal. It can be proven by bisection method used in proving the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem, the property (1) of ultrafilters turns out to be crucial.


title: Hyperreal number

text: The finite elements F of *R form a local ring, and in fact a valuation ring, with the unique maximal ideal S being the infinitesimals; the quotient F/S is isomorphic to the reals. Hence we have a homomorphic mapping, st("x"), from F to R whose kernel consists of the infinitesimals and which sends every element "x" of F to a unique real number whose difference from x is in S; which is to say, is infinitesimal. Put another way, every "finite" nonstandard real number is "very close" to a unique real number, in the sense that if "x" is a finite nonstandard real, then there exists one and only one real number st("x") such that "x" – st("x") is infinitesimal. This number st("x") is called the standard part of "x", conceptually the same as "x" "to the nearest real number". This operation is an order-preserving homomorphism and hence is well-behaved both algebraically and order theoretically. It is order-preserving though not isotonic; i.e. formula_82 implies formula_83, but formula_84 does not imply formula_85.


title: Hyperreal number

text: The map st is continuous with respect to the order topology on the finite hyperreals; in fact it is locally constant.


title: Hyperreal number

text: Suppose "X" is a Tychonoff space, also called a T space, and C("X") is the algebra of continuous real-valued functions on "X". Suppose "M" is a maximal ideal in C("X"). Then the factor algebra "A" = C("X")/"M" is a totally ordered field "F" containing the reals. If "F" strictly contains R then "M" is called a hyperreal ideal (terminology due to Hewitt (1948)) and "F" a hyperreal field. Note that no assumption is being made that the cardinality of "F" is greater than R; it can in fact have the same cardinality.


title: Hyperreal number

text: An important special case is where the topology on "X" is the discrete topology; in this case "X" can be identified with a cardinal number κ and C("X") with the real algebra R of functions from κ to R. The hyperreal fields we obtain in this case are called ultrapowers of R and are identical to the ultrapowers constructed via free ultrafilters in model theory.


title: Responsible government

text: Responsible government is a conception of a system of government that embodies the principle of parliamentary accountability, the foundation of the Westminster system of parliamentary democracy. Governments (the equivalent of the executive branch) in Westminster democracies are responsible to parliament rather than to the monarch, or, in a colonial context, to the imperial government, and in a republican context, to the president, either in full or in part. If the parliament is bicameral, then the government is responsible first to the parliament's lower house, which is more representative than the upper house, as it usually has more members and they are always directly elected.


title: Responsible government

text: Responsible government of parliamentary accountability manifests itself in several ways. Ministers account to Parliament for their decisions and for the performance of their departments. This requirement to make announcements and to answer questions in Parliament means that ministers must have the privileges of the "floor", which are only granted to those who are members of either house of Parliament. Secondly, and most importantly, although ministers are officially appointed by the authority of the head of state and can theoretically be dismissed at the pleasure of the sovereign, they concurrently retain their office subject to their holding the confidence of the lower house of Parliament. When the lower house has passed a motion of no confidence in the government, the government must immediately resign or submit itself to the electorate in a new general election.


title: Responsible government

text: Lastly, the head of state is in turn required to effectuate their executive power only through these responsible ministers. They must never attempt to set up a "shadow" government of executives or advisors and attempt to use them as instruments of government, or to rely upon their "unofficial" advice. They are bound to take no decision or action that is put into effect under the colour of their executive power without that action being as a result of the counsel and advisement of their responsible ministers. Their ministers are required to counsel them (i.e., explain to them and be sure they understand any issue that they will be called upon to decide) and to form and have recommendations for them (i.e., their advice or advisement) to choose from, which are the ministers' formal, reasoned recommendations as to what course of action should be taken.


title: Responsible government

text: From the middle of the 19th century, the United Kingdom began to introduce systems of responsible government to the colonial governments of its settler colonies including in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. These systems were heavily based upon the system that had developed in the United Kingdom itself with a bicameral legislature and an executive responsible to the Lower House.


title: Responsible government

text: Responsible government was implemented in several colonies of British North America (present day Canada), between 1848 and 1850, with the executive council formulating policy with the assistance of the legislative branch, the legislature voting approval or disapproval, and the appointed governor enacting those policies that it had approved. This replaced the previous system whereby the governor took advice from an executive council, and used the legislature chiefly to raise money.


title: Responsible government

text: Responsible government was a major element of the gradual development of Canada towards independence. The concept of responsible government is associated in Canada more with self-government than with parliamentary accountability; hence there is the notion that the Dominion of Newfoundland "gave up responsible government" when it suspended its self-governing status in 1933, as a result of financial problems. It did not regain responsible government until it became a province of Canada in 1949.


title: Responsible government

text: After the formation of elected legislative assemblies starting with Nova Scotia in 1758, governors and their executive councils did not require the consent of elected legislators in order to carry out all their roles. It was only in the decades leading up to Canadian Confederation in 1867 that the governing councils of those British North American colonies became responsible to the elected representatives of the people.


title: Responsible government

text: In the aftermath of the American Revolution, based on the perceived shortcomings of virtual representation, the British government became more sensitive to unrest in its remaining colonies with large populations of European-descended colonists. Elected assemblies were introduced to both Upper Canada and Lower Canada with the Constitutional Act of 1791. Many reformers thought that these assemblies should have some control over the executive power, leading to political unrest between the governors and assemblies in both Upper and Lower Canada. The Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada Sir Francis Bond Head wrote in one dispatch to London that if responsible government were implemented "Democracy, in the worst possible Form, will prevail in our Colonies."


title: Responsible government

text: After the Rebellions of 1837–1838 in the Canadas, Lord Durham was appointed governor general of British North America and had the task of examining the issues and determining how to defuse tensions. In his report, one of his recommendations was that colonies which were developed enough should be granted "responsible government". This term specifically meant the policy that British-appointed governors should bow to the will of elected colonial assemblies.


title: Responsible government

text: The first instance of responsible government in the British Empire outside of the United Kingdom itself was achieved by the colony of Nova Scotia in January–February 1848 through the efforts of Joseph Howe. Howe's push for responsible government was inspired by the work of Thomas McCulloch and Jotham Blanchard almost two decades earlier. The plaque in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly erected by the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada reads:


title: Responsible government

text: The first Executive Council chosen exclusively from the party having a majority in the representative branch of a colonial legislature was formed in Nova Scotia on 2 February 1848. Following a vote of want of confidence in the preceding Council, James Boyle Uniacke, who had moved the resolution, became Attorney General and leader of the Government. Joseph Howe, the long-time campaigner for this "Peaceable Revolution", became Provincial Secretary. Other members of the Council were Hugh Bell, Wm. F. Desbarres, Lawrence O.C. Doyle, Herbert Huntingdon, James McNab, Michael Tobin, and George R. Young.


title: Responsible government

text: The colony of New Brunswick soon followed in May 1848 when Lieutenant Governor Edmund Walker Head brought in a more balanced representation of Members of the Legislative Assembly to the Executive Council and ceded more powers to that body.


title: Responsible government

text: In the Province of Canada, responsible government was introduced with the ministry of Louis-Hippolyte LaFontaine and Robert Baldwin in spring 1848; it was put to the test in 1849, when Reformers in the legislature passed the Rebellion Losses Bill. This was a law that provided compensation to French-Canadians who suffered losses during the Rebellions of 1837–1838 in Lower-Canada.


title: Responsible government

text: The Governor General, Lord Elgin, had serious misgivings about the bill but nonetheless assented to it despite demands from the Tories that he refuse to do so. Elgin was physically assaulted by an English-speaking mob for this, and the Montreal Parliament building was burned to the ground in the ensuing riots. Nonetheless, the Rebellion Losses Bill helped entrench responsible government into Canadian politics.


title: Responsible government

text: In time, the granting of responsible government became the first step on the road to complete independence. Canada gradually gained greater and greater autonomy over a considerable period of time through inter imperial and commonwealth diplomacy, including the British North America Act of 1867, the Statute of Westminster of 1931, and even as late as the patriation of the Constitution Act in 1982 (see Constitution of Canada).


title: Responsible government

text: Prior to European colonisation, the Australian continent was inhabited by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island peoples, who had their own traditional forms of self-government. They were divided into various nations and clans and, in some cases, large alliances between several nations. In 1770, Royal Navy officer James Cook sailed along the east coast of Australia and claimed it for King George III, and in 1788 the First Fleet led by Arthur Phillip established the first permanent European settlement in Australia at Port Jackson. The settlers gradually expanded across the continent, displacing the indigenous population, until they had established six colonies; the legal system of these colonies were based on the common law system.


title: Responsible government

text: At first, the Australian colonies were run by autocratic Governors. They were appointed by the British monarch, but in practice the Governors exercised vast executive and legislative powers with very little oversight. This was due to the fact that most of the early colonies were penal colonies, the great distance from the United Kingdom and slow communication, as well as the enormous size and of the Australian colonies which were largely unexplored by Europeans and sparsely settled by them.


title: Responsible government

text: In 1808 there was a military coup d'état known as the Rum Rebellion, which deposed Governor Bligh and briefly established military rule over the Colony of New South Wales until a new Governor (Lachlan Macquarie) was appointed and sent from Britain. However this did nothing towards establishing responsible or representative government.


title: Responsible government

text: The early colonists, coming mostly from the United Kingdom (which by 1801 included Ireland), were familiar with the Westminster system and made efforts to reform local government in order to increase the opportunity for ordinary men to participate. The Governors and London therefore set in motion a gradual process of establishing a Westminster system in the colonies, not so fast as to get ahead of population or economic growth, nor so slow as to provoke clamouring for revolutionary change as happened in the American Revolutionary War and threatened in the Rebellions of 1837–1838 in Canada. This first took the form of appointed or partially elected Legislative Councils.


title: Responsible government

text: The most violent move towards responsible government occurred in the Colony of Victoria during the 1850s where there was growing discontent and civil disobedience, especially in the inland gold fields areas. This culminated in the 1854 Eureka Rebellion near Ballarat. 190 miners armed themselves, erected a stockade and raised the Southern Cross Flag. They demanded an end to taxation (via an expensive miner's license) without representation, as well as upkeep of the area' roads and the right to vote in colonial elections.


title: Responsible government

text: The British colonial forces overran the stockade, capturing or killing dozens of miners and bringing many to Melbourne for trial. However, mass public support led to the miners' release and, within a year, most of their demands had been met, including responsible self-government and universal male suffrage for the Colony of Victoria.


title: Responsible government

text: The Eureka Rebellion and events in Victoria resonated around the Australian colonies, which also had their own agitators for change. South Australia was quick to pass universal male suffrage, and Victoria and New South Wales followed soon after. By the end of the 1850s, all the Australian colonies and New Zealand had achieved responsible self-government, aside from Western Australia which took until 1890.


title: Responsible government

text: The Northern Territory was originally part of South Australia, but transferred to the Australian Commonwealth Government in 1911. It then "lost" responsible self-government (although residents could still vote in federal elections) and only gained it back in 1974. Likewise, the Australian Capital Territory was originally part of New South Wales. It was transferred to the Commonwealth Government in 1911 and lost responsible self-government until 1989.


title: Responsible government

text: Female suffrage (and thus universal suffrage) was gained in 1890s-1910s in Australia and New Zealand (1893), allowing the other half of the population to participate in responsible representative government.


title: Responsible government

text: In New Zealand, the English and te reo maori versions of the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi had different wording, which fueled disagreement over how the land should be governed, owned and sold. This was one of the causes of the later New Zealand Wars (1845-1872) over land and governance, in which Maori fought on both sides. These events fueled debate in the 1860s about Maori representation in the colonial Parliament. As a result, Maori men were granted legal suffrage in 1867 (12 years before European New Zealanders) through specially reserved Maori seats which only Maori could vote in, although voting turnout was very low until the 1880s and 1890s.


title: Responsible government

text: In Australia, during the colonial period, some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people may have theoretically had the right to vote in colonial elections. However, in practice they were almost always unable to exercise this right due to living a traditional lifestyle in remote areas uncontacted by the colony, or being affected by the Frontier Wars, or due to racial discrimination or property requirements for voting.


title: Responsible government

text: After federation, the Commonwealth Franchise Act of 1902 barred Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from voting in federal elections unless they were already eligible to vote in their state. Queensland explicitly barred Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from voting until the 1960s, while Western Australia barred Aboriginal people unless they successfully applied to become citizens. As a result, most Aboriginal people across the country were prevented from voting, including those who in theory had the right. Later, the 1962 Commonwealth Electoral Act gave all Aboriginal people the option to enrol to vote, but still most were not able to exercise their rights.


title: Responsible government

text: This largely changed after the 1967 Australian referendum, which allowed the federal government to count Indigenous Australians in the census, and to ensure that their voting rights were in fact respected across the country.


title: Responsible government

text: The Cape Colony, in Southern Africa, was under responsible self-government from 1872 until 1910 when it became the Cape Province of the new Union of South Africa.


title: Responsible government

text: Under its previous system of representative government, the Ministers of the Cape Government reported directly to the British Imperial Governor, and not to the locally elected representatives in the Cape Parliament. Among Cape citizens of all races, growing anger at their powerlessness in influencing unpopular imperial decisions had repeatedly led to protests and rowdy political meetings – especially during the early "Convict Crisis" of the 1840s.


title: Responsible government

text: A popular political movement for responsible government soon emerged, under local leader John Molteno. A protracted struggle was then conducted over the ensuing years as the movement (known informally as "the responsibles") grew increasingly powerful, and used their parliamentary majority to put pressure on the British Governor, withholding public finances from him, and conducting public agitations. Not everyone favoured responsible government though, and pro-imperial press outlets even accused the movement of constituting "crafts and assaults of the devil".


title: Responsible government

text: Supporters believed that the most effective means of instituting responsible government was simply to change the section of the constitution which prevented government officials from being elected to parliament or members of parliament from serving in executive positions. The conflict therefore centred on the changing of this specific section. "Although responsible government merely required an amendment to s.79 of the constitution, it transpired only after nearly twenty years in 1872 when the so-called "responsibles" under Molteno were able to command sufficient support in both houses to secure the passage of the necessary bill." Finally, with a parliamentary majority and with the Colonial Office and new Governor Henry Barkly won over, Molteno instituted responsible government, making the Ministers directly responsible to the Cape Parliament, and becoming the Cape's first Prime Minister.


title: Responsible government

text: The ensuing period saw an economic recovery, a massive growth in exports and an expansion of the colony's frontiers. Despite political complications that arose from time to time (such as an ill-fated scheme by the British Colonial Office to enforce a confederation in Southern Africa in 1878, and tensions with the Afrikaner-dominated Government of Transvaal over trade and railroad construction), economic and social progress in the Cape Colony continued at a steady pace until a renewed attempt to extend British control over the hinterland caused the outbreak of the Anglo-Boer Wars in 1899.


title: Responsible government

text: An important feature of the Cape Colony under responsible government was that it was the only state in southern Africa (and one of very few in the world at the time) to have a non-racial system of voting.


title: Responsible government

text: Later however – following the South Africa Act 1909 to form the Union of South Africa – this multi-racial universal suffrage was steadily eroded, and eventually abolished by the Apartheid government in 1948.


title: Responsible government

text: The following is a list of British colonies, and the year when responsible government was established in the territory:


title: Responsible government

text: In the early 1860s, the Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck was involved in a bitter dispute with the Liberals, who sought to institute a system of responsible government modeled on that of Britain. Bismarck, who strongly opposed that demand, managed to deflect the pressure by embarking energetically and successfully on the unification of Germany. The Liberals, who were also strong German nationalists, backed Bismarck's unification efforts and tacitly accepted that the Constitution of Imperial Germany, crafted by Bismarck, did not include a responsible government – the Chancellor being accountable solely to the emperor and needing no parliamentary confidence. Germany gained a responsible government only with the Weimar Republic and more securely with the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany. Historians account the lack of responsible government in the formative decades of united Germany as one of the factors contributing to the prolonged weakness of German democratic institutions, lasting also after such a government was finally instituted.


title: Volkswagen currywurst

text: Volkswagen currywurst is a brand of sausage manufactured by the Volkswagen car maker since 1973. It is manufactured at the company's Wolfsburg plant and sold in restaurants in its six German factories. The currywurst are also sold externally at supermarkets and football stadiums and given away to Volkswagen customers. The sausage is branded as a "Volkswagen Original Part" and has been given the part number 199 398 500 A. The product has been described as the most produced of any of Volkswagen's parts, some 6.81 million sausages being manufactured in 2018. In many recent years the company has produced more sausages than cars. A Volkswagen ketchup is also produced and sold to accompany the currywurst.


title: Volkswagen currywurst

text: The sausage is manufactured in a part of the Wolfsburg Volkswagen Plant by a team of 30 people. The sausage is made in two sizes, one approximately long and one approximately long. The larger sized sausage weighs around .


title: Volkswagen currywurst

text: The sausage is made from pork delivered to the factory three times a week. The pork cuts are trimmed to remove excess fat, which provides a fat content to the sausage of approximately 20%, significantly lower than the 35% usual for a bratwurst sausage. The pork is then ground and mixed with a secret recipe of spices before being inserted into sausage skins branded with "Volkswagen Originalteil" ("Volkswagen Original Part"). The sausages are hung on racks and smoked over beechwood for 100 minutes at . After cooling the sausages are sealed into packs of five.


title: Volkswagen currywurst

text: The factory makes around 20,000 sausages per day, some per year. The sausage has been given an official part number, namely 199 398 500 A. Volkswagen state that their currywurst contains no protein powder, monosodium glutamate or phosphates. A ketchup, the traditional currywurst accompaniment, is also manufactured. The Volkswagen branded ketchup (199 398 500 B) is slightly more viscous than traditional mixes. A pack of sausages and a bottle of ketchup retail for approximately US$10. A wheat-based vegan version is also produced at the factory.


title: Volkswagen currywurst

text: The currywurst is sold in the 17 canteens and restaurants in the Wolfsburg factory, usually with ketchup and chips (French fries). A currywurst soup is also sold. To celebrate the product's 45th anniversary, currywurst burgers and currywurst pizza were produced.


title: Volkswagen currywurst

text: Volkswagen also sells utensils to go with the currywurst. One example is the plate, part number 33D 069 602.


title: Volkswagen currywurst

text: Volkswagen has produced food for its workers at the Wolfsburg plant since it opened in 1938 due to the remote location of the factory. It has produced the currywurst since 1973. Initially, the plant received whole animals from a Volkswagen-owned farm that were butchered on site – this has since ceased and pre-butchered animals are sourced locally. The meat was originally a blend of pork and beef but the beef was removed in the 1990s owing to the United Kingdom BSE outbreak of that decade. The currywurst has won prizes at German food fairs and has received gold awards from the German Agricultural Society. The sausage features in the AutoMuseum Volkswagen and at the Deutsches Currywurst Museum, until it closed in 2018. The vegetarian currywurst was introduced in 2010. In August 2021, VW announced that it was removing the traditional pork-based product from the cafeteria menu at the Wolfsburg plant in favor of the vegetarian version. This move drew fire from former German chancellor Gerhard Schröder.


title: Volkswagen currywurst

text: Around 40% of Volkswagen currywurst production is consumed within restaurants at its six German factories; the remainder is sold at external shops, supermarkets and football stadiums. A portion is also sent to Volkswagen dealerships across Europe which use the currywurst as a present for customers who purchase new cars. Proceeds from external sales are used by Volkswagen to subsidise the price of food in its staff restaurants. The product is sold in 11 countries but is not available in the United States due to its rules on the import of uncooked meat. In the past Volkswagen has sent a team of chefs to the United States to replicate the product with locally sourced ingredients. The company is also looking to export the product to Singapore.


title: Volkswagen currywurst

text: Currywurst production has increased in recent years. In 2015 7.2 million were produced, 14% more than had been manufactured in 2014. Production increased by 264% between 2009 and 2018 when 6.81 million were made, making the currywurst the most produced of any part in the Volkswagen range. In many years Volkswagen has produced more individual currywurst than individual cars, including 2013, 2014, 2015 and 2017. Ketchup production has also increased recently, rising from in 2014 to in 2015.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: Who's That Girl is a 1987 American screwball comedy film directed by James Foley, and written by Andrew Smith and Ken Finkleman. It stars Madonna and Griffin Dunne, and depicts the story of a street-smart girl who is falsely accused of murdering her boyfriend and is sent to jail. After release, she meets a man, supposed to make sure she gets on her bus back to Philadelphia, and convinces him to help her catch those responsible for her confinement. While searching for the embezzler, they fall in love with each other.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: After her 1986 film "Shanghai Surprise" failed, Madonna decided to sign on to another comedy, titled "Slammer", later renamed "Who's That Girl". However, she had to convince both Warner Bros. and the film's producers that she was ready. Madonna enlisted her friend Foley to direct. Shooting began in New York in October 1986, and continued until March 1987. Production was halted during December due to snowfall. Madonna utilized the time to work on her next tour and the film's soundtrack.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: The film was released on August 7, 1987, and was a box office bomb, grossing only $2.5 million in its first week, with its final domestic total being about $7.3 million on a budget between $17–20 million. Critics were highly dissatisfied with the film, and Foley's direction. However, the accompanying tour went on to be a critical and commercial success, grossing a total of US$25 million, and playing in front of audiences totaling 1.5 million people. The soundtrack also enjoyed commercial success, selling over six million copies worldwide, in addition to the title track becoming Madonna's sixth number one single on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 record chart.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: Nikki Finn is a carefree young woman who usually wears a leather jacket and skirt, sports fire-red lips and a platinum bob, and speaks in a high-pitched voice; she is also resourceful and intelligent. One day her boyfriend Johnny sees two men stealing money out of a trust fund and takes a picture of this theft. He puts the pictures in a safe deposit box and gives Nikki the key for safekeeping. The thieves catch and murder Johnny and frame Nikki by dumping his body into the trunk of her car, and she is sentenced to seven years in prison.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: Four years later, tax attorney Loudon Trott is marrying the daughter of one of the richest men in New York, Simon Worthington. Loudon's bride Wendy Worthington is a selfish woman who is more consumed in her wedding plans than in her fiancé's well-being. Loudon, on the other hand, has many duties entrusted to him by his boss—and future father-in-law—Mr. Worthington: First he must pick up a cougar for exotic-animal activist Montgomery Bell, then he must pick up Nikki (who has been put on parole) and lastly he must make sure she catches the next bus to her hometown, Philadelphia.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: Meanwhile, Nikki is determined to catch the actual thieves and expose the truth. After meeting Loudon, Nikki cons him into taking her shopping. After they take a Rolls-Royce into Harlem to buy a gun—and are nearly arrested during a police raid—she tells Loudon her story; believing she is innocent, he decides to help her. She is also on the run from a pimp named Raoul and his lackey Benny, the ones who killed Johnny. Only after dangling off a Cadillac limousine smashed through the top floor of a parking garage does he tell her the bank and the box number (6111) of her slain boyfriend.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: Afterward Nikki vanishes with the cougar, whom she names Murray. Later that night, Loudon visits Mr. Bell to apologize for losing the animal, then finds that Nikki had delivered Murray and was waiting for Loudon at Mr. Bell's penthouse apartment; he has created a Brazilian rainforest filled with animals on top of his roof. There Nikki and Loudon—who have become close—express love for each other; Murray also finds a mate. Loudon delivers Nikki to the bus station the next morning, but Nikki brokenheartedly realizes that she must return to Philadelphia, leaving Loudon, who is about to get married. On the bus she opens an envelope in the security box and finds the photographs that prove that Mr. Worthington is an embezzler and he was the mastermind behind the theft. Nikki gate-crashes the wedding, gets Mr. Worthington arrested, and proclaims her love for Loudon. Nikki and Loudon ride off into the sunset on a bus to Philadelphia, with Murray and his partner chasing after them.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: Madonna's 1986 studio album "True Blue" was a critical and commercial success, spawning five top-five singles, and selling over eight million copies worldwide, by the year-end. However, her film career was not as successful as she had hoped it would be. Following the commercially successful "Desperately Seeking Susan", her 1986 film "Shanghai Surprise"—where she starred with her then husband Sean Penn—was a critical and box-office failure, prompting Madonna to comment that she "struggled to come to terms with her character in "Shanghai Surprise", because the innocence and repressed personality I was required to portray was so at variance with my own character." Continuing to struggle with her film career, Madonna was unsure of her ability to choose a good script, and film producers were less sure about backing her up.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: Madonna felt that comedy was more of her repertoire, and proceeded to sign a comedy film titled "Slammer", written by Andrew Smith and Ken Finkleman. She wanted to play the part of a street smart girl called Nikki Finn, who was jailed for a crime she did not commit. However, in light of the bad publicity surrounding her and Penn, and of the very public failure of "Shanghai Surprise", Madonna had to persuade producers Rosilyn Heller and Bernard Williams, as well as Warner Bros., that she was up for the part. In addition, she wanted friend James Foley to direct the film. Foley had been Penn's best man at his marriage to Madonna, and had directed the music videos of Madonna's singles "Live to Tell" (1986) and "Papa Don't Preach" (1986). He was ecstatic at having the opportunity to make a major feature film, as previously he had only directed the small-budgeted film "At Close Range", starring Penn. As author Andrew Morton pointed out in his biography on Madonna, "the combination of a dubiously talented movie star and a first-time movie director hardly guaranteed a box-office hit, but the film received the go-ahead from Warner, who wanted to encache more on Madonna's success." Madonna plowed gamely on, saying: "All Warner's executives were real positive about the project. It was a process—with the writers—of honing the script, making it better."


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: Casting for the film began as soon as Madonna had signed up for it. Griffin Dunne was signed to play the part of Loudon Trott, a lawyer whose job was to help Nikki get on a bus, after she was released. Initially, Madonna had thought of asking Penn to play the part of Detective Bellson, but Penn was serving a 60-day jail term, having violated the probation he received in 1986, for assaulting a friend of Madonna and attacking an extra on the set of "At Close Range". The part went to Robert Swan, followed by the signing of John McMartin, Haviland Morris, and Bibi Besch as Trott's father-in-law, fiancée, and mother-in-law respectively. Madonna commented that she had a lot in common with the character Nikki. "She's courageous and sweet and funny and misunderstood. But she clears her name in the last, and that's always good to do. I'm continuously doing that with the public. I liked Nikki's tough side and her sweet side. The toughness is only a mask for the vulnerability she feels inside." Madonna was also offered the lead role in the Blake Edwards comedy film "Blind Date" opposite to Bruce Willis, but she refused it in favor of "Slammer". She said, "The thing I had planned to do after "Shanghai Surprise" was "Blind Date" at Tri-Star. I was supposed to have the approval of the director and the leading man, but they didn't tell me they'd already hired Bruce Willis. That... just didn't work out. But I was really excited about doing a real physical, screwball comedy, so when Jamie brought this up, it was like my reward." Coati Mundi, member of Kid Creole and the Coconuts and Madonna's long-time friend, joined the cast to play the role of Raoul, Nikki's enemy. Costume designer Deborah Scott was signed to create the wardrobe for the film. Madonna, who visualized the character of Nikki as a dizzy screwball blond, started watching the screwball comedies of the sixties, especially the work of actors like Cary Grant, Clark Gable, Carole Lombard, and Judy Holiday. She asked Scott to create comical rah-rah and ballet tutu skirts for the character, with fishnet tights and loud make-up. Scott also designed a glamorous Monroe-esque dress for the love scene between her and Dunne.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: Filming began in New York in July 1986. Madonna would ask for five minutes to study the script for the scene they were filming. For example, before a scene in which she needed to appear out of breath, she did a series of push-ups before going on set. Dunne observed that "[Madonna] likes her first take best. I think my best is around fourth. She always says, 'You got it, you got it,' and she was driving me crazy just like her character would. We had to make a compromise as to which take is the best." Madonna wanted Foley to give her proper direction on set, but he preferred her to be her real self, rather than the persona in her music videos. Regarding her acting abilities, Foley stressed the fact that Madonna was very uptight and into every detail, determined to have the correct portrayal. "That's probably why it wasn't so good. In "Desperately Seeking Susan", when she didn't know what she was doing, she was being natural and at her best."


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: As December arrived, production was halted for a few days due to snowfall in New York City. Madonna decided to utilize the time by working on the film's soundtrack and her next concert tour. While recording the title track, Madonna decided to change the film's name from "Slammer" to "Who's That Girl" as she felt it to be a better title. Filming commenced in January 1987, where the scene involving a cougar was shot. During the second take, the cougar accidentally escaped from the cage, resulting in filming being paused for a few hours. By February 1987, Madonna's scenes were already shot although she proceeded to linger on the set to watch Foley and his team work. Foley described her being around the set and not acting as a "pain-in-the-ass", since she "won't skimp especially on cost and she should know that Warner had a tight schedule and constraints on the budget. They still did not trust Madonna when it came to acting. Hell they even gave a greater percentage of the budget to the soundtrack." Filming ended in March 1987, with post-production continuing till July 1987. During the development of the starting credits, Madonna asked Foley if they could have a cartoon figure of her character introducing the film credits. Foley liked the idea, and Warner enlisted cartoonist April March to create the cartoon.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: The soundtrack from the film was released on July 21, 1987, by Sire Records, and contains four songs by Madonna, and others by her label mates Scritti Politti, Duncan Faure, Club Nouveau, Coati Mundi and Michael Davidson. It is considered a Madonna album by Warner Bros. Records since almost half of the songs on the album are sung by her. Madonna began working on the soundtrack in December 1986, and contacted Patrick Leonard and Stephen Bray, both producers of her third studio album "True Blue" (1986). She needed uptempo and downtempo songs for the soundtrack. The uptempo song, composed by Leonard, ended up being the title track for the film; together, Madonna and Leonard also developed the downtempo ballad "The Look of Love". Two more songs were composed for the film with Bray, the first being the dance-y tune "Causing a Commotion", and the other being "Can't Stop", a track inspired by Sixties Motown and the group Martha and the Vandellas.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: After its release, "Who's That Girl" soundtrack received mostly negative reviews from critics, who called it plain and incomplete, although citing the title track and "The Look of Love" as its highlights. The soundtrack was a commercial success, reaching the top ten of the album charts of the United States, Austria, Canada, France, Italy, New Zealand, Sweden and the United Kingdom, while topping the charts of Germany, and "Billboard"s European Album chart. Worldwide, the album went on to sell six million copies. Three of the Madonna tracks were released as singles. The title track became her sixth number one single on the "Billboard" Hot 100, making her the first artist to accumulate six number-one singles in the 1980s, and the first female performer to get that many number-ones as a solo act. "Causing a Commotion" was the second single, and it reached number two on the Hot 100, and the top ten of the charts of other nations. "The Look of Love" was a European market-only release, reaching the top ten in United Kingdom. Another track, "Turn It Up" was a promotional release in United States, reaching the number 15 on the dance charts.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: The film was released on August 7, 1987 in the United States to 944 theatres. Warner Bros. did not arrange for an advance screening because it believed that Madonna's appeal would draw moviegoers to come to the film. A pre-release celebration was held on August 6, 1987 at Times Square in New York, where Madonna arrived to promote the film. A crowd of almost 10,000 people assembled to watch Madonna. As an introduction to the day, the radio jockeys from New York's WHTZ radio station played Madonna's popular songs in the Square atop a platform created for the event. The police closed off 43rd and 44th streets, but allowing the traffic to pass through Broadway and Seventh Avenue of Manhattan. Although she was late by about an hour, the crowd number continued increasing. Joseph A. Cincotti from "The New York Times" noted that most of the crowd were in their late teenage years and early 20s. Some held up signs and photographs but he noticed the Madonna wannabes were absent, the adolescent girls who had imitated Madonna's early lace-and-leather look. This was a result of Madonna's more mature image from "True Blue".


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: To further promote the film, Madonna embarked on the 1987 Who's That Girl World Tour. It was Madonna's first world tour, reaching Asia, North America and Europe. Musically and technically superior to her previous Virgin Tour, the Who's That Girl tour incorporated multimedia components to make the show more appealing. Madonna trained herself physically with aerobics, jogging and weight-lifting to cope with the choreography and the dance routines. The stage was bigger than her previous tour, flanked with four video screens, multimedia projectors and a flight of stairs in the middle. Leonard became the music director and encouraged Madonna to go with the idea of rearranging her older songs and presenting them in a new format. Madonna named the tour as Who's That Girl, when during rehearsals one-day she looked at a gigantic image of herself, projected on a screen on the stage and mused about how much she has changed and "who was that girl on the screen?". The show consisted of seven costume changes, with song-and-dance routines, theatrics, addressing social causes—during "Papa Don't Preach"—as well as an encore, consisting of the title song "Who's That Girl" and "Holiday". The tour was critically appreciated, and critics commented on the extravagant nature of the concert and complimented Madonna for her dancing, costume changes and dynamic pacing. Who's That Girl was a commercial success, grossing in total of US$25 million by playing in front of 1.5 million audience members. According to Performance Magazine, it was the second top selling female concert tour of 1987, behind Tina Turner's Break Every Rule Tour.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: , the film had a rating of 33% on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes from 21 reviews. Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" noted that Madonna, left to her own devices and her own canny pace, is a very engaging comedian. "When Madonna's no-nonsense pragmatism isn't being twisted into poses of lovable eccentricity, the actress is sexy and funny and never for a minute sentimental. At times she looks amazingly like Marilyn Monroe, but the personality is her own, more resilient and more knowing. As the WASP-y sleeping prince, Mr. Dunne gives the most stylishly comic performance of a career that's been largely underrated by the public. Though he seems to be Madonna's foil, he provides the movie with its backbone, even in its most ludicrous moments. He may well be one of the most truly sophisticated straight men in the business today." However, he ended the review by saying that the film was short on outright guffaws.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: Hal Hinson of "The Washington Post" gave the film a mixed review, commenting that "you may not feel as if you've seen a movie. You may not quite know what you've seen" and that although he laughed too much, the film "is outrageously inept, but not in a routine manner". Hinson also criticized the work of Foley, noting that he "doesn't have the skill to sustain a cartoon style." Philip Wuntch of "The Dallas Morning News" commented that the film is a deft and daffy comedy performance; Madonna is great with the one-liners. ... As a movie star, Madonna may be an acquired taste. But one thing is certain: acquiring this particular taste is going to be an enjoyable experience." Jay Boyar of the "Orlando Sentinel" gave a negative review saying, "Luckily for her, Madonna can sing, and use it to save herself from this disgrace of a movie."


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: Jamie Waylett of "The Advocate" was more critical, saying "Madonna delivers the worst performance in recent memory as the heroine of an attempt at screwball comedy. Watching her try to look like Marilyn Monroe and sound like Betty Boop, the final effect being like Jerry Lewis though, is a sure sign that this film was a disaster in the making. At the same time, it seems inconceivable that anyone would sit down and plan something so dreadful." Carole Kass of the "Richmond Times-Dispatch" felt that since "Madonna is the idol of teen-agers. If they imitate her hair and her makeup, these 'wanna-bes' who want to be like Madonna and dress like Madonna may be cute. But, as a popular personality, Madonna has a responsibility to her fans. And shoplifting is something not to promote. Nor is smoking." Dan Dinicola of "The Schenectady Gazette" felt that ""Who's That Girl" is not simply an awful film, it is positively unbearable. It's a movie without a head or a brain, a picture of such crass stupidity that it can't even make you angry. Instead it numbs you to death with its moronic platitudes, its pretensions to comedy. ... It's a vanity project which is so amateurly produced and conceived that it makes you want to cringe in shame. ... Madonna is no more than a novelty item." Johanna Steinmetz of the "Chicago Tribune" complimented Dunne's acting and said: "Fortunately the film has Griffin Dunne. Dunne, working in a domain once ruled by Cary Grant, manages to be stuffy, naive and vulnerable but never undignified as Loudon Trott, the New York lawyer." Jean Rosenbluth of "Rolling Stone" was harsh about the film, saying "The question posed by the film's title was "Who's that girl?" The answer provided by the box-office receipts was, alas, 'The same one who appeared in "Shanghai Surprise" and bored us to death'."


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: The picture was nominated for five Golden Raspberry Award at the 1988 ceremony, including Worst Director (Foley), Worst Original Song ("El Coco Loco"), Worst Screenplay and Worst Picture, with Madonna winning Worst Actress. It was also nominated for Worst Picture at the 1987 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards.


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: The film was released to a total of 944 theatres, with an extra 66 being added later. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $2.5 million ($ million in dollars), becoming the tenth highest-grossing film of that week. The next week it had a 60% decline in sales. The film grossed a total of $7.3 million ($ million in dollars) worldwide, and was a box office bomb. It was placed at 97 on the top 100 movies of 1987 list. Morton noted that although "Madonna's comic talent was acknowledged, cinemagoers in the United States stayed away in droves." The film's comparatively better faring at international territories prompted Madonna to defend that her ideas were better accepted in Europe and Japan, rather than her home country. She added, "I think the movie did badly in America because I upstaged it with my tour. People were confused about the connection between the record, the tour and the movie because they all had the same title. I also think there are people who don't want me to do well in both fields. I had to really fight to get any respect from the music business and now I guess there are some people who feel that I ought to be grateful for that respect and stick to music."


title: Who's That Girl (1987 film)

text: Foley accepted the failure of the film wishing he could rewrite the script. He remembered when he met Madonna at a hotel lobby. "She just looked to me once and said, 'So it's a flop right?' That's the only time she ever mentioned the film. Even Sean also never mentioned it in front of her." In another article in "The New York Times", Vincent Canby noted that Madonna's real personality is of a "knowing, shrewd, pragmatic young woman" failed to get portrayed in the film, becoming a possible cause of its failure. Author Georges Claude Guilbert believed that the comical personality of Madonna was also not accepted by the public. Warner Bros. decided to release the film in home media in VHS on November 11, 1987.


title: Maniche

text: Nuno Ricardo de Oliveira Ribeiro (born 11 November 1977), known as Maniche (), is a Portuguese retired professional footballer who played as a central midfielder.


title: Maniche

text: He played top flight football in Portugal, Russia, England, Spain, Italy and Germany, and in 2004 he helped Porto win the Champions League, one of eight trophies conquered with that club. He amassed Primeira Liga totals of 177 matches and 31 goals, during seven seasons. He also experienced success abroad, winning the Serie A with Inter Milan.


title: Maniche

text: Maniche won 52 caps for Portugal, representing the nation at Euro 2004 and the 2006 World Cup and finishing runner-up in the former competition.


title: Maniche

text: Born in Lisbon, Maniche played youth football for local S.L. Benfica. After three seasons with neighbouring F.C. Alverca, who acted as the former's farm team, he returned to Benfica, where he initially played as a winger.


title: Maniche

text: Following disciplinary problems at Benfica, Maniche was signed by José Mourinho for FC Porto. The manager made him a key member of his sides, reconverting him to central midfielder.


title: Maniche

text: Maniche enjoyed a successful period at Porto, winning both the UEFA Cup in 2003 and the UEFA Champions League in 2004 and contributing with 13 goals in 60 matches as the club also managed back-to-back Primeira Liga titles. He was chosen Man of the match in the 2004 Intercontinental Cup, which his team won on penalties against Once Caldas of Colombia.


title: Maniche

text: Maniche was sold to FC Dynamo Moscow in May 2005, for €16 million. He was accompanied in that adventure by Porto teammates Giourkas Seitaridis and Costinha (another club player, Derlei, had left for the Russian team in January). Unsettled, as were the vast majority of foreign players bought by new owner Alexey Fedorychev, he left in January 2006 on loan to Premier League side Chelsea.


title: Maniche

text: Maniche was part of Chelsea's 2006 league-winning squad. In his first start, a home game against West Ham United on 9 April, he had an opportunity to score an equaliser from six yards out but smashed his shot against the crossbar, and was shown an immediate red card in the 17th minute for a challenge on Lionel Scaloni; nevertheless, they went on to win it 4–1.


title: Maniche

text: However, Maniche did not make enough appearances in the league to earn a winners' medal, challenged for a central midfield place by Michael Essien, Frank Lampard and Claude Makélélé. Chelsea had the option of making the transfer permanent at the end of the season, for £5 million (US$9 million), but the player eventually returned to Dynamo Moscow.


title: Maniche

text: Maniche was signed by Atlético Madrid in late August 2006. Partnering countrymen Costinha and Zé Castro, he scored four goals in 28 La Liga matches in his first season as the capital team finished seventh.


title: Maniche

text: Following a run-in with Atlético coach, Javier Aguirre, Maniche was cut from the squad, and agreed to join Inter Milan on a January loan, running for the second part of 2007–08. Splitting time between the bench and the first eleven in eight Serie A appearances, he managed to score one goal, in a 22 March 2008, 1–2 home defeat against Juventus FC, also hitting the post in stoppage time.


title: Maniche

text: In July 2008, Maniche returned to Atlético Madrid, playing a major part in the "Colchoneros"' early season, as the club had returned to the UEFA Champions League after a 12-year absence. In late February 2009, however, he was ousted after a new quarrel with the management, now led by former club player Abel Resino.


title: Maniche

text: According to additional reports in the Spanish press, Maniche was deemed surplus to requirements in Madrid after he rejected the club's offer of a new deal, as his contract was going to expire on 30 June 2009.


title: Maniche

text: "We informed Maniche three or four weeks ago that we wanted to renew his contract" said Atlético's general manager Miguel Ángel Gil Marín."


title: Maniche

text: Maniche was released from contract on 6 May, even before the season was over, being left available to sign for any club, with a return to Porto one of the possible destinations.


title: Maniche

text: On 20 July 2009, Maniche moved to the Bundesliga with 1. FC Köln, signing a two-year deal and rejoining former Benfica and Portugal teammate Petit.


title: Maniche

text: Maniche left after only one season in Germany and, on 16 June 2010, returned to his native country, signing a one-year deal (plus an option for two further seasons) with the club he still had not represented in the Portuguese Big Three, Sporting CP. Frequently injured during his spell with the "Lions" and vastly underperforming, the 33-year-old terminated his contract by mutual consent – even though he had automatically renewed it in December after appearing in his 20th competitive game– on 6 July 2011; in May of the following year, not being able to find a new team, he decided to retire.


title: Maniche

text: On 12 June 2013, Maniche was appointed as assistant at Paços de Ferreira after his former Porto and international teammate Costinha was hired as the manager. Three years later he was hired in the same role alongside the same boss at Segunda Liga side Académica de Coimbra, but left after four months due to personal reasons.


title: Maniche

text: Maniche made his debut for the Portugal national team on 29 March 2003, in a 2–1 friendly victory over Brazil. He was a key element in the country's runner-up run at UEFA Euro 2004, scoring in a 2–0 group stage win against Russia and adding another in the semi-finals against the Netherlands, which ended in a 2–1 victory; he was subsequently selected for the Team of the Tournament.


title: Maniche

text: On 21 June 2006, in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Portugal played Mexico, in the nation's final group game. Maniche netted in the sixth minute in an eventual 2–1 triumph that sealed the group win. Four days later, in the round-of-16, as the national side faced the Netherlands once again, he scored the only goal in the game, and was the only Portuguese player to feature on Adidas' Golden Ball shortlist.


title: Maniche

text: After appearing significantly during the qualifying stages for Euro 2008, he was surprisingly left out of the nation's final squad, although younger brother Jorge Ribeiro would make the final cut. He also featured little during the qualification for the 2010 World Cup, and was subsequently left out of the squad for the final stages by manager Carlos Queiroz.


title: Maniche

text: Known for his teamwork, stamina and powerful shot, Maniche received his nickname after Benfica's 1980s Danish forward Michael Manniche.


title: Maniche

text: Jorge Ribeiro, Maniche's younger brother, was also a footballer. Mainly a left midfielder, he also represented Benfica amongst many other clubs, and the two were teammates at Dynamo Moscow.


title: Toyman

text: The Toyman is the name of three supervillains and one adolescent superhero appearing in comic books published by DC Comics, mostly as an adversary for Superman.


title: Toyman

text: The most well-known incarnation of the Toyman is Winslow Percival Schott, a criminal who uses toy-based or toy-themed devices and gimmicks in his various crimes. The Toyman made frequent appearances in the Golden Age comics, but has appeared infrequently in "Superman" stories since then. In the succeeding years, Jack Nimball briefly took up the mantle after Schott retired while Hiro Okamura uses the name while operating as a superhero despite Schott coming out of retirement by then.


title: Toyman

text: Schott, Nimball, and Okamura have made several appearances in DC-related media, with Schott appearing in television series set in the DC Animated Universe, in which he is voiced by Bud Cort, and the live-action television series "Smallville", portrayed by Chris Gauthier. Additionally, Schott along with his son and series original character Winslow "Winn" Schott Jr. appear in the live-action Arrowverse television series "Supergirl", portrayed by Henry Czerny and Jeremy Jordan respectively.


title: Toyman

text: The Winslow Percival Schott version of the Toyman first appeared in "Action Comics" #64 (September 1943) and was created by Don Cameron and Ed Dobrotka.


title: Toyman

text: The Jack Nimball version of the Toyman first appeared in "Action Comics" #432 and was created by Cary Bates and Curt Swan.


title: Toyman

text: The Hiro Okamura version of the Toyman first appeared in "Superman" (vol. 2) #127 and was created by Jeph Loeb and Ed McGuinness.


title: Toyman

text: The Toyman first appeared in 1943 and appeared in several Golden Age "Superman" stories. Schott appeared less frequently in comics published after the early 1950s, but remained a semi-regular foe during the '60s, '70s, and '80s.


title: Toyman

text: While at first more of a nuisance, the Toyman gradually grew more emotionally unstable and paranoid over time, his toys following suit by becoming a lot more dangerous. Although Winslow Schott in his civilian persona was a rather sweet, humble, quirky (if socially withdrawn) person, as the Toyman he turned into a childish, destructive megalomaniac. During the '70s Winslow was effectively retired from crime, but he kept contact with Superman and even helped out to take down Jack Nimball, who he felt sullied the Toyman legacy.


title: Toyman

text: This retirement proved to be tragically short, as not long after Winslow put some of his toys on display (a suggestion by Superman), the entire museum exhibition was completely wrecked. Sightings reported this to be the work of a man in blue tights flying at great speeds. Thinking he has been played for a fool by Superman, Schott swore to destroy everything Superman cared about to avenge his life's work. Eventually it is revealed that the real culprit was Bizarro, in search of the duplicator ray, but by then it was already too late: Schott had already returned to his Toyman ways, murdered Jack Nimball and a hotel door guard in cold blood, and built a giant robot to terrorize the city. Shortly after his defeat, he regained his sanity and remembered what he had done. He shed tears of regret as he was escorted to the police car.


title: Toyman

text: After that incident Winslow's mental state grew even worse, and while he often made several legitimate attempts to atone for his sins, he would often relapse back into madness.


title: Toyman

text: After 1985's miniseries "Crisis on Infinite Earths" and John Byrne's "Man of Steel" miniseries, the Toyman's history was revised, and the Post-"Crisis" version of the character first appeared in "Superman" (vol. 2) #13 (January 1988). In this version, Winslow Schott is an unemployed British toymaker who blames Lex Luthor and his company, LexCorp, for being fired from the toy company he is working for. He uses his toymaking talents to seek revenge, which eventually causes him to cross paths with the British hero Godiva, and subsequently, Superman himself. The Toyman continues to commit various crimes in Metropolis, including engaging in child abduction.


title: Toyman

text: The Toyman later became a much more sinister figure, shaving his head, wearing black and getting advice in his head from "Mother". This was prompted by him being told that a range of Superman action figures would not include him, as he was not "edgy" enough. While this seems to begin as a pose of what he thought people expect of a villain, it rapidly became a genuine psychotic break. While in this state he abducted and later murdered Adam Morgan, the son of "Daily Planet" reporter Cat Grant. Adam and several other children captured by the Toyman tried to escape, but Schott found out and stabbed Adam to death for being the leader of the group. This caused Schott to develop a hatred of children, as he blamed them for not appreciating his toys. At the time, Schott showed no remorse for what he had done. When Cat Grant later confronted him in prison he cruelly told her "You were a bad mommy. I'm glad I killed your son."


title: Toyman

text: The Toyman later seemingly recovered, and Superman showed him that children did appreciate old-fashioned toys, arranging parole in an orphanage; it was later revealed, however, that this was all a hallucination caused when Zatanna attempted to cure him and he had, in fact, returned to child abduction. He appeared after "JLA: Crisis of Conscience" where Zatanna reveals she mind-wiped him. She and Superman go after him. Zatanna is bound and gagged by him, but freed by Superman; however, the Toyman escaped.


title: Toyman

text: Winslow was seen in "" as a criminal released by Lex Luthor's aide Mr. Orr to deploy his genetically engineered hero Hope, but she almost kills the villain, until Superman saved him.The Toyman was in the "Infinite Crisis: Villains United" special as well, preparing for the Blackgate Prison break by lacing the dinner stew with Venom and Velocity 9 to increase the prisoners' strength, speed, and aggression. Unfortunately, some guards also ate the drugged stew and fought the superheroes who showed up to stop the criminals.


title: Toyman

text: He was later seen as a member of the Injustice League in the "Justice League of America Wedding Special".


title: Toyman

text: The Toyman's history was later revised in "Action Comics" #865, by Geoff Johns and Jesus Merino. Winslow Schott tells Jimmy Olsen that he was a toymaker who lived with his wife Mary. When a businessman offered to buy his shop to expand the number of children his toys can reach, he refused. When Mary was killed in a car accident a few weeks later, Schott agreed to the purchase. However, the businessman lied and gave his technologically advanced toy plans to arms manufacturers. Schott proceeded to bomb the business with an explosive teddy bear. A twist at the end of the story reveals that Mary was just one of his first robotic creations.


title: Toyman

text: Following his first confrontation with Superman, Schott met the Prankster for the first time. The Prankster is a cruel, callous man who commits crimes "because it's fun". He repeatedly asked Schott to "team up", but Schott refused.


title: Toyman

text: Schott reveals to Jimmy that the Toyman who killed Adam Grant was a robot created by Schott to replace him in the event that he was ever incarcerated and that a glitch in the robot's programming resulted in it developing a personality (and later a hatred of children), and that Schott's repeated attempts to contact the robot resulted in it suffering from delusions of "Mother". This was confirmed in "Superman Secret Files 2009", although Jimmy initially expressed doubt that Schott was telling the truth.


title: Toyman

text: In the 1997 "Speed Force Special", the Max Mercury story "Child's Play", set in 19th century New York City, featured the Schott Toy Company run by Archimedes Schott, a crooked businessman who resembles Winslow. Any relationship between them is unknown.


title: Toyman

text: In 2011, "The New 52" rebooted the DC Comics universe. In the "Supergirl" series while in Arkham Asylum, the Toyman is visited by Cat Grant (whose son Adam was murdered) and Supergirl. Cat interrogates him about children who have been kidnapped with dolls left behind. The Toyman claims he is innocent and the robotic dolls attack him. Supergirl saves him and gets him to medical care. When Cat return home, she is confronted by a villain called the Dollmaker. He identifies himself as Anton Schott implying that he is somehow related to the Toyman.The Dollmaker eventually reveals himself to be the abandoned son of Winslow, who has been kidnapping children and using macabre experiments to turn them into slaves. He tells Cat that he wants her to become his new mother, and that he wishes to serve as a replacement for her murdered son, but Cat violently rejects him. With her gag temporarily removed, Cat is able to call Supergirl for help, and the two are able to defeat the Dollmaker and free the children he had enslaved.


title: Toyman

text: In the 1970s, a man named Jack Nimball assumes the identity of the second Toyman during a period in which Schott had retired from his criminal career and first appeared in "Action Comics" #432 (February 1974). Nimball wore a jester costume and used a similar modus operandi to the original Toyman. However, this version of the Toyman proved short-lived. Schott killed Nimball with a mechanical toy bird and resumed his criminal career in "Superman" #305 (November 1976). Between those two issues, this Toyman's only other appearances were in "Action Comics" #454 and "Superman" #299.


title: Toyman

text: In 2011, Mattel released a DC Universe Classics 6" Toyman figure based on the Jack Nimball version of the character. On the back, though, the character is labeled as Winslow Percival Schott.


title: Toyman

text: is a teenage mechanical genius from Japan first appearing as the Toyman in "Superman" (vol. 2) #177 (February 2002) by Jeph Loeb and Ed McGuinness. He shows up in Metropolis in a giant Super Robot fighting Metallo, claiming the cyborg's equally-giant body was based on material stolen from his grandfather.


title: Toyman

text: He later becomes an ally to Superman and Batman. In the "Superman/Batman" series, he aids the two in destroying a kryptonite meteor that threatens the Earth. He strikes a deal with Batman to provide him with various technological implements. Okamura uses more technologically advanced devices than the traditionally-constructed contrivances Schott uses and his work is largely whimsical in nature. Many of his inventions are inspired by anime and manga, including giant mechas (notably, his giant Composite Batman-Superman robot).


title: Toyman

text: Okamura appears only a few times in the "Superman/Batman" comic book, and his activities are limited to Japan. Winslow Schott remains active as the Toyman in the United States. In the Sam Loeb-penned memorial issue "Superman/Batman" #26, Okamura fakes his own kidnapping at the hands of Schott, forcing Superboy and Robin to search through his complex to save his life. Realizing his loneliness, Superboy and Robin extend their friendship to the boy. Okamura joins Robin and the other Teen Titans at Titans Tower for Superboy's funeral, clutching a Superboy action figure.


title: Toyman

text: In "Superman/Batman" #45, he offers to assist the duo in their quest to rid the world of kryptonite, using spider-like nanobots to collect kryptonite molecules in the air. His offer becomes a necessity as Lana Lang, in a last-ditch effort to get rid of Kryptonians and keep LexCorp afloat, turns a set of kryptonite caches into "dirty bombs", which irradiate the entire planet. Okamura comes to the rescue, settling for a Power Girl-bot to "date". Instead, he gets his own dream date, a dinner in Paris with the real Karen, and the status of an honorary member of the Justice League.


title: Toyman

text: A future version of Okamura, allied with a power-hungry group of Titans, travels back in time to the modern day to cement their power-base in "Teen Titans" (vol. 3) #52 (January 2008).