title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: Three centuries later the proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the Milky Way and discovered that it is really composed of a huge number of faint stars.


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: Nasir al-Din Tusi was a supporter of Avicennian logic, and wrote the following commentary on Avicenna's theory of absolute propositions:


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: Al-Tusi was the first to write a work on trigonometry independently of astronomy. Al-Tusi, in his "Treatise on the Quadrilateral", gave an extensive exposition of spherical trigonometry, distinct from astronomy. It was in the works of Al-Tusi that trigonometry achieved the status of an independent branch of pure mathematics distinct from astronomy, to which it had been linked for so long.


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: This followed earlier work by Greek mathematicians such as Menelaus of Alexandria, who wrote a book on spherical trigonometry called "Sphaerica," and the earlier Muslim mathematicians Abū al-Wafā' al-Būzjānī and Al-Jayyani.


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: He also stated the sine law for spherical triangles, discovered the law of tangents for spherical triangles, and provided proofs for these laws.


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: While Aristotle (d. 322 BCE) had suggested that all colors can be aligned on a single line from black to white, Ibn-Sina (d. 1037) described that there were three paths from black to white, one path via grey, a second path via red and the third path via green. Al-Tusi (ca. 1258) stated that there are no less than five of such paths, via lemon (yellow), blood (red), pistachio (green), indigo (blue) and grey. This text, which was copied in the Middle East numerous times until at least the nineteenth century as part of the textbook Revision of the Optics (Tanqih al-Manazir) by Kamal al-Din al-Farisi (d. 1320), made color space effectively two-dimensional.


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: In his "Akhlaq-i Nasiri", Tusi wrote about several biological topics. He defended a version of Aristotle's "scala naturae", in which he placed man above animals, plants, minerals, and the elements. He described "grasses which grow without sowing or cultivation, by the mere mingling of elements," as closest to minerals. Among plants, he considered the date-palm as the most highly developed, since "it only lacks one thing further to reach (the stage of) an animal: to tear itself loose from the soil and to move away in the quest for nourishment."


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: The lowest animals "are adjacent to the region of plants: such are those animals which propagate like grass, being incapable of mating [...], e.g. earthworms, and certain insects". The animals "which reach the stage of perfection [...] are distinguished by fully developed weapons", such as antlers, horns, teeth, and claws. Tusi described these organs as adaptations to each species's lifestyle, in a way anticipating natural theology. He continued:


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: Thus, in this paragraph, Tusi described different types of learning, recognising observational learning as the most advanced form, and correctly attributing it to certain animals.


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: Tusi seems to have perceived man as belonging to the animals, since he stated that "the Animal Soul [comprising the faculties of perception and movement ...] is restricted to individuals of the animal species", and that, by possessing a "Human Soul, [...] mankind is distinguished and particularized among "other" animals."


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: Some scholars have interpreted Tusi's biological writings as suggesting that he adhered to some kind of evolutionary theory. However, Tusi did not state explicitly that he believed species to change over time.


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: Tusi contributed many writings to the topic of philosophy. Amongst his philosophical work are his disagreements with fellow philosopher Avicenna. His most famous philosophical work is "Akhlaq-i nasiri" or "Nasirean Ethics" in English. Within this work he discusses and compares Islamic teachings to the ethics of Aristotle and Plato. Tusi's book became a popular ethical work in the Muslim world, specifically in India and Persia. Tusi's work also left an impact on Shi'ite Islamic theology. His book "Targid" also called "Catharsis" is significant in Shi'ite theology. He also contributed five works to the subject of logic; which were highly regarded by his contemporaries and achieved notoriety in the Muslim world.


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: A 60-km diameter lunar crater located on the southern hemisphere of the moon is named after him as "Nasireddin". A minor planet 10269 Tusi discovered by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh in 1979 is named after him. The K. N. Toosi University of Technology in Iran and Observatory of Shamakhy in the Republic of Azerbaijan are also named after him. In February 2013, Google celebrated his 812th birthday with a doodle, which was accessible in its websites with Arabic language calling him "al-farsi" (the Persian). His birthday is also celebrated as Engineer's Day in Iran.


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: Some scholars believe that Nicolaus Copernicus may have been influenced by Middle Eastern astronomers due to uncanny similarities between his work and the uncited work of these Islamic scholars, including Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Ibn al-Shatir, Muayyad al-Din al-Urdi, and Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi. al-Tusi specifically, the plagiarism in question comes from similarities in the Tusi couple and Copernicus' geometric method of removing the Equant from mathematical astronomy. Not only do both of the methods match geometrically, however, more importantly they both use the same exact lettering system for each vertex; a detail that seems too preternatural to be happenstance. Moreover, the fact that several other details of his model also mirror other Islamic scholars bolsters the notion that Copernicus' work may not have been only his own.


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: There is no evidence that any of the direct work of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi ever made it to Copernicus, however there is evidence that the mathematics and theories did make the journey to Europe. There were Jewish scientists and pilgrims who would make the journey from the Middle East to Europe, bringing with them Middle Eastern scientific ideas to share with their Christian counterparts. While acknowledging that this is not direct evidence that Copernicus has access to al-Tusi's work, it does show that it was possible. There was just such a Jewish scholar by the name of Abner of Burgos who wrote a book containing an incomplete version of the Tusi couple that he had learned second hand, which could have been found by Copernicus. It is important to note that his version had no proofs of the geometry either, so if Copernicus had obtained this book he would have had to complete both the proof and mechanism. Additionally, some scholars believe that, if not Jewish thinkers, it could have been transmission from the Islamic school in Maragheh, home to Nasir al-Din al-Tusi's observatory to Muslim Spain. From Spain, al-Tusi and other Islamic cosmological theories could spread through Europe. Spread of Islamic astronomy from Maragheh Observatory into Europe could have also been possible in the form of Greek translations from Gregory Choniades. There is evidence as to the means of Copernicus acquiring the Tusi couple and suspicious similarities, not only in math but in visual details as well.


title: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

text: Despite this circumstantial evidence, there is still no direct proof that Copernicus did plagiarize the work of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, and if he did that he did so intentionally. The Tusi couple is not a unique principle, and as the equant was a problematic necessity to preserve circular motion it is possible that more than one astronomer wished to improve on it; to that end, some scholars argue it would not be difficult for an astronomer to use Euclid's own work to derive the Tusi couple on their own, and that Copernicus most likely did this instead of stealing. Before Copernicus ever published the work on his geometrical mechanism, he had written at length his dissatisfaction over Ptolemaic astronomy and the use of the equant, so some scholars then purport that it was not unfounded for Copernicus to have rederived the Tusi couple without having seen it as he had clear motive to do so. Also, some scholars that argue Copernicus did commit plagiarism say that by never claiming it as his own, he inherently condemns himself. However, others critique that mathematicians do not normally claim work like other scientists, so declaring a theorem for oneself is an exception and not the norm. Therefore, there is motive and some explanation as to why and how Copernicus did not plagiarize, despite the evidence against him.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: In genomics, a genome-wide association study (GWA study, or GWAS), also known as whole genome association study (WGA study, or WGAS), is an observational study of a genome-wide set of genetic variants in different individuals to see if any variant is associated with a trait. GWA studies typically focus on associations between single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and traits like major human diseases, but can equally be applied to any other genetic variants and any other organisms.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: When applied to human data, GWA studies compare the DNA of participants having varying phenotypes for a particular trait or disease. These participants may be people with a disease (cases) and similar people without the disease (controls), or they may be people with different phenotypes for a particular trait, for example blood pressure. This approach is known as phenotype-first, in which the participants are classified first by their clinical manifestation(s), as opposed to genotype-first. Each person gives a sample of DNA, from which millions of genetic variants are read using SNP arrays. If one type of the variant (one allele) is more frequent in people with the disease, the variant is said to be "associated" with the disease. The associated SNPs are then considered to mark a region of the human genome that may influence the risk of disease.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: GWA studies investigate the entire genome, in contrast to methods that specifically test a small number of pre-specified genetic regions. Hence, GWAS is a "non-candidate-driven" approach, in contrast to "gene-specific candidate-driven studies". GWA studies identify SNPs and other variants in DNA associated with a disease, but they cannot on their own specify which genes are causal.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: The first successful GWAS published in 2002 studied myocardial infarction. This study design was then implemented in the landmark GWA 2005 study investigating patients with age-related macular degeneration, and found two SNPs with significantly altered allele frequency compared to healthy controls. , over 3,000 human GWA studies have examined over 1,800 diseases and traits, and thousands of SNP associations have been found. Except in the case of rare genetic diseases, these associations are very weak, but while they may not explain much of the risk, they provide insight into genes and pathways that can be important.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: Any two human genomes differ in millions of different ways. There are small variations in the individual nucleotides of the genomes (SNPs) as well as many larger variations, such as deletions, insertions and copy number variations. Any of these may cause alterations in an individual's traits, or phenotype, which can be anything from disease risk to physical properties such as height. Around the year 2000, prior to the introduction of GWA studies, the primary method of investigation was through inheritance studies of genetic linkage in families. This approach had proven highly useful towards single gene disorders. However, for common and complex diseases the results of genetic linkage studies proved hard to reproduce. A suggested alternative to linkage studies was the genetic association study. This study type asks if the allele of a genetic variant is found more often than expected in individuals with the phenotype of interest (e.g. with the disease being studied). Early calculations on statistical power indicated that this approach could be better than linkage studies at detecting weak genetic effects.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: In addition to the conceptual framework several additional factors enabled the GWA studies. One was the advent of biobanks, which are repositories of human genetic material that greatly reduced the cost and difficulty of collecting sufficient numbers of biological specimens for study. Another was the International HapMap Project, which, from 2003 identified a majority of the common SNPs interrogated in a GWA study. The haploblock structure identified by HapMap project also allowed the focus on the subset of SNPs that would describe most of the variation. Also the development of the methods to genotype all these SNPs using genotyping arrays was an important prerequisite.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: The most common approach of GWA studies is the case-control setup, which compares two large groups of individuals, one healthy control group and one case group affected by a disease. All individuals in each group are genotyped for the majority of common known SNPs. The exact number of SNPs depends on the genotyping technology, but are typically one million or more. For each of these SNPs it is then investigated if the allele frequency is significantly altered between the case and the control group. In such setups, the fundamental unit for reporting effect sizes is the odds ratio. The odds ratio is the ratio of two odds, which in the context of GWA studies are the odds of case for individuals having a specific allele and the odds of case for individuals who do not have that same allele.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: Example: suppose that there are two alleles, T and C. The number of individuals in the case group having allele T is represented by 'A' and the number of individuals in the control group having allele T is represented by 'B'. Similarly, the number of individuals in the case group having allele C is represented by 'X' and the number of individuals in the control group having allele C is represented by 'Y'. In this case the odds ratio for allele T is A:B (meaning 'A to B', in standard odds terminology) divided by X:Y, which in mathematical notation is simply (A/B)/(X/Y).


title: Genome-wide association study

text: When the allele frequency in the case group is much higher than in the control group, the odds ratio is higher than 1, and vice versa for lower allele frequency. Additionally, a P-value for the significance of the odds ratio is typically calculated using a simple chi-squared test. Finding odds ratios that are significantly different from 1 is the objective of the GWA study because this shows that a SNP is associated with disease. Because so many variants are tested, it is standard practice to require the p-value to be lower than to consider a variant significant.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: Variations on the case-control approach. A common alternative to case-control GWA studies is the analysis of quantitative phenotypic data, e.g. height or biomarker concentrations or even gene expression. Likewise, alternative statistics designed for dominance or recessive penetrance patterns can be used. Calculations are typically done using bioinformatics software such as SNPTEST and PLINK, which also include support for many of these alternative statistics. GWAS focuses on the effect of individual SNPs. However, it is also possible that complex interactions among two or more SNPs, epistasis, might contribute to complex diseases. Due to the potentially exponential number of interactions, detecting statistically significant interactions in GWAS data is both computationally and statistically challenging. This task has been tackled in existing publications that use algorithms inspired from data mining. Moreover, the researchers try to integrate GWA data with other biological data such as protein-protein interaction network to extract more informative results.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: A key step in the majority of GWA studies is the imputation of genotypes at SNPs not on the genotype chip used in the study. This process greatly increases the number of SNPs that can be tested for association, increases the power of the study, and facilitates meta-analysis of GWAS across distinct cohorts. Genotype imputation is carried out by statistical methods that combine the GWAS data together with a reference panel of haplotypes. These methods take advantage of sharing of haplotypes between individuals over short stretches of sequence to impute alleles. Existing software packages for genotype imputation include IMPUTE2, Minimac, Beagle and MaCH.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: In addition to the calculation of association, it is common to take into account any variables that could potentially confound the results. Sex and age are common examples of confounding variables. Moreover, it is also known that many genetic variations are associated with the geographical and historical populations in which the mutations first arose. Because of this association, studies must take account of the geographic and ethnic background of participants by controlling for what is called population stratification. If they fail to do so, these studies can produce false positive results.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: After odds ratios and P-values have been calculated for all SNPs, a common approach is to create a Manhattan plot. In the context of GWA studies, this plot shows the negative logarithm of the P-value as a function of genomic location. Thus the SNPs with the most significant association stand out on the plot, usually as stacks of points because of haploblock structure. Importantly, the P-value threshold for significance is corrected for multiple testing issues. The exact threshold varies by study, but the conventional genome-wide significance threshold is to be significant in the face of hundreds of thousands to millions of tested SNPs. GWA studies typically perform the first analysis in a discovery cohort, followed by validation of the most significant SNPs in an independent validation cohort.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: Attempts have been made at creating comprehensive catalogues of SNPs that have been identified from GWA studies. As of 2009, SNPs associated with diseases are numbered in the thousands.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: The first GWA study, conducted in 2005, compared 96 patients with age-related macular degeneration (ARMD) with 50 healthy controls. It identified two SNPs with significantly altered allele frequency between the two groups. These SNPs were located in the gene encoding complement factor H, which was an unexpected finding in the research of ARMD. The findings from these first GWA studies have subsequently prompted further functional research towards therapeutical manipulation of the complement system in ARMD.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: Another landmark publication in the history of GWA studies was the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium (WTCCC) study, the largest GWA study ever conducted at the time of its publication in 2007. The WTCCC included 14,000 cases of seven common diseases (~2,000 individuals for each of coronary heart disease, type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, bipolar disorder, and hypertension) and 3,000 shared controls. This study was successful in uncovering many new disease genes underlying these diseases.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: Since these first landmark GWA studies, there have been two general trends. One has been towards larger and larger sample sizes. In 2018, several genome-wide association studies are reaching a total sample size of over 1 million participants, including 1.1 million in a genome-wide study of educational attainment and a study of insomnia containing 1.3 million individuals. The reason is the drive towards reliably detecting risk-SNPs that have smaller odds ratios and lower allele frequency. Another trend has been towards the use of more narrowly defined phenotypes, such as blood lipids, proinsulin or similar biomarkers. These are called "intermediate phenotypes", and their analyses may be of value to functional research into biomarkers.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: A variation of GWAS uses participants that are first-degree "relatives" of people with a disease. This type of study has been named genome-wide association study by proxy ("GWAX").


title: Genome-wide association study

text: A central point of debate on GWA studies has been that most of the SNP variations found by GWA studies are associated with only a small increased risk of the disease, and have only a small predictive value. The median odds ratio is 1.33 per risk-SNP, with only a few showing odds ratios above 3.0. These magnitudes are considered small because they do not explain much of the heritable variation. This heritable variation is estimated from heritability studies based on monozygotic twins. For example, it is known that 80-90% of variance in height can be explained by hereditary differences, but GWA studies only account for a minority of this variance.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: A challenge for future successful GWA study is to apply the findings in a way that accelerates drug and diagnostics development, including better integration of genetic studies into the drug-development process and a focus on the role of genetic variation in maintaining health as a blueprint for designing new drugs and diagnostics. Several studies have looked into the use of risk-SNP markers as a means of directly improving the accuracy of prognosis. Some have found that the accuracy of prognosis improves, while others report only minor benefits from this use. Generally, a problem with this direct approach is the small magnitudes of the effects observed. A small effect ultimately translates into a poor separation of cases and controls and thus only a small improvement of prognosis accuracy. An alternative application is therefore the potential for GWA studies to elucidate pathophysiology.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: One such success is related to identifying the genetic variant associated with response to anti-hepatitis C virus treatment. For genotype 1 hepatitis C treated with Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a or Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b combined with ribavirin, a GWA study has shown that SNPs near the human IL28B gene, encoding interferon lambda 3, are associated with significant differences in response to the treatment. A later report demonstrated that the same genetic variants are also associated with the natural clearance of the genotype 1 hepatitis C virus. These major findings facilitated the development of personalized medicine and allowed physicians to customize medical decisions based on the patient's genotype.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: The goal of elucidating pathophysiology has also led to increased interest in the association between risk-SNPs and the gene expression of nearby genes, the so-called expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) studies. The reason is that GWAS studies identify risk-SNPs, but not risk-genes, and specification of genes is one step closer towards actionable drug targets. As a result, major GWA studies by 2011 typically included extensive eQTL analysis. One of the strongest eQTL effects observed for a GWA-identified risk SNP is the SORT1 locus. Functional follow up studies of this locus using small interfering RNA and gene knock-out mice have shed light on the metabolism of low-density lipoproteins, which have important clinical implications for cardiovascular disease.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: For example, a meta-analysis accomplished in 2018 revealed the discovery of 70 new loci associated with atrial fibrillation. It has been identified different variants associated with transcription factor coding-genes, such as TBX3 and TBX5, NKX2-5 o PITX2, which are involved in cardiac conduction regulation, in ionic channel modulation and cardiac development. It was also identified new genes involved in tachycardia (CASQ2) or associated with alteration of cardiac muscle cell communication (PKP2).


title: Genome-wide association study

text: While there is some research using a High-Precision Protein Interaction Prediction (HiPPIP) computational model that discovered 504 new protein-protein interactions (PPIs) associated with genes linked to schizophrenia, the evidence supporting the genetic basis of schizophrenia is actually controversial and may suffer from some of the limitation of this method of study.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: GWA studies act as an important tool in plant breeding. With large genotyping and phenotyping data, GWAS are powerful in analyzing complex inheritance modes of traits that are important yield components such as number of grains per spike, weight of each grain and plant structure. In a study on GWAS in spring wheat, GWAS have revealed a strong correlation of grain production with booting data, biomass and number of grains per spike. GWA study is also a success in study genetic architecture of complex traits in rice.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: The emergences of plant pathogens have posed serious threats to plant health and biodiversity. Under this consideration, identification of wild types that have the natural resistance to certain pathogens could be of vital importance. Furthermore, we need to predict which alleles are associated with the resistance. GWA studies is a powerful tool to detect the relationships of certain variants and the resistance to the plant pathogen, which is beneficial for developing new pathogen-resisted cultivars.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: The first GWA study in chickens was done by Abasht and Lamont in 2007. This GWA was used to study the fatness trait in F2 population found previously. Significantly related SNPs were found are on 10 chromosomes (1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 12, 15 and 27).


title: Genome-wide association study

text: GWA studies have several issues and limitations that can be taken care of through proper quality control and study setup. Lack of well defined case and control groups, insufficient sample size, control for multiple testing and control for population stratification are common problems. Particularly the statistical issue of multiple testing wherein it has been noted that "the GWA approach can be problematic because the massive number of statistical tests performed presents an unprecedented potential for false-positive results". Ignoring these correctible issues has been cited as contributing to a general sense of problems with the GWA methodology. In addition to easily correctible problems such as these, some more subtle but important issues have surfaced. A high-profile GWA study that investigated individuals with very long life spans to identify SNPs associated with longevity is an example of this. The publication came under scrutiny because of a discrepancy between the type of genotyping array in the case and control group, which caused several SNPs to be falsely highlighted as associated with longevity. The study was subsequently retracted, but a modified manuscript was later published.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: This points to the general vulnerability of GWA studies based on genotyping arrays, which is the high reliance on array design. Another consequence is that such studies are unable to detect the contribution of very rare mutations not included in the array.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: In addition to these preventable issues, GWA studies have attracted more fundamental criticism, mainly because of their assumption that common genetic variation plays a large role in explaining the heritable variation of common disease. Indeed, it has been estimated that for most conditions the SNP heritability attributable to common SNPs is <0.05. This aspect of GWA studies has attracted the criticism that, although it could not have been known prospectively, GWA studies were ultimately not worth the expenditure. GWA studies also face criticism that the broad variation of individual responses or compensatory mechanisms to a disease state cancel out and mask potential genes or causal variants associated with the disease. Additionally, GWA studies identify candidate risk variants for the population from which their analysis is performed, and with most GWA studies stemming from European databases, there is a lack of translation of the identified risk variants to other non-European populations. Alternative strategies suggested involve linkage analysis. More recently, the rapidly decreasing price of complete genome sequencing have also provided a realistic alternative to genotyping array-based GWA studies. It can be discussed if the use of this new technique is still referred to as a GWA study, but high-throughput sequencing does have potential to side-step some of the shortcomings of non-sequencing GWA.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: Genotyping arrays designed for GWAS rely on linkage disequilibrium to provide coverage of the entire genome by genotyping a subset of variants. Because of this, the reported associated variants are unlikely to be the actual causal variants. Associated regions can contain hundreds of variants spanning large regions and encompassing many different genes, making the biological interpretation of GWAS loci more difficult. Fine-mapping is a process to refine these lists of associated variants to a credible set most likely to include the causal variant.


title: Genome-wide association study

text: Fine-mapping requires all variants in the associated region to have been genotyped or imputed (dense coverage), very stringent quality control resulting in high-quality genotypes, and large sample sizes sufficient in separating out highly correlated signals. There are several different methods to perform fine-mapping, and all methods produce a posterior probability that a variant in that locus is causal. Because the requirements are often difficult to satisfy, there are still limited examples of these methods being more generally applied.


title: Tuscarora people

text: The Tuscarora (in Tuscarora "Skarù:ręˀ", "hemp gatherers" or "Shirt-Wearing People") are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government of the Iroquoian family, with members today in New York, USA, and Ontario, Canada. They coalesced as a people around the Great Lakes, likely about the same time as the rise of the Five Nations of the historic Iroquois Confederacy, also Iroquoian-speaking and based then in present-day New York.


title: Tuscarora people

text: Well before the arrival of Europeans in North America, the Tuscarora had migrated south and settled in the region now known as Eastern Carolina. The most numerous Indigenous people in the area, they lived along the Roanoke, Neuse, Tar ("Torhunta" or "Narhontes"), and Pamlico rivers. European explorers first encountered the Tuscarora people on land later incorporated into the colonies of North Carolina and Virginia.


title: Tuscarora people

text: After the 18th-century wars of 1711–1713 (known as the Tuscarora War) against English colonists and their Indian allies, most of the surviving Tuscarora left North Carolina and migrated north to Pennsylvania and New York, over a period of 90 years. They aligned with the Iroquois in New York, because of their ancestral linguistic and cultural connections. Sponsored by the Oneida, they were accepted in 1722 as the Sixth Nation of the Iroquois Confederacy, or "Haudenosaunee". After the American Revolution, in which they and the Oneida allied with the colonists, the Tuscarora shared reservation land with the Oneida before gaining their own. The Tuscarora Nation of New York is federally recognized.


title: Tuscarora people

text: Those Tuscarora who allied with the British in the American Revolution resettled with other Iroquois tribes in present-day Ontario, where they are part of the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation. Only the tribes in New York and Ontario have been recognized on a government-to-government basis by the respective national governments. After the migration was completed in the early 18th century, the Tuscarora in New York no longer considered those remaining in North Carolina as members of the tribal nation. Since the late 20th century, some North Carolina persons claiming Tuscarora ancestry had formed bands in which they identify as Tuscarora. As of 2010, several bands in Robeson County have united on an interim basis as the Tuscarora Nation One Fire Council.


title: Tuscarora people

text: These affiliations continued to be active as independent groups after the tribe migrated to New York and, later, Ontario. F.W. Hodge, an early 19th-century historian, wrote that the Tuscarora in North Carolina traditionally were said to occupy the "country lying between the sea shores and the mountains, which divide the Atlantic states," in which they had 24 large towns and could muster about 6,000 warriors, probably meaning persons.


title: Tuscarora people

text: In late 17th and early 18th-century North Carolina, European colonists reported two primary branches of the Tuscarora: a northern group led by Chief Tom Blunt, and a southern group led by Chief Hancock. Varying accounts c. 1708 – 1710 estimated the number of Tuscarora warriors as from 1200 to 2000. Historians estimate their total population may have been three to four times that number.


title: Tuscarora people

text: Chief Blunt occupied the area around what is present-day Bertie County, North Carolina, on the Roanoke River. Chief Hancock lived closer to present-day New Bern, occupying the area south of the Pamlico River. Chief Blunt became close friends with the colonial Blount family of the Bertie region and lived peacefully.


title: Tuscarora people

text: By contrast, Chief Hancock had to deal with more numerous colonists encroaching on his community. They raided his villages and kidnapped people to sell into slavery. The colonists transported some Tuscarora to Pennsylvania to sell into slavery. Both groups of Tuscarora suffered substantial population losses after exposure to Eurasian infectious diseases endemic to Europeans. Both also suffered territorial encroachment. By 1711 Chief Hancock believed he had to attack the settlers to fight back. Chief Tom Blunt did not join him in the war.


title: Tuscarora people

text: The southern Tuscarora collaborated with the "Pamlico", the "Cothechney", the "Coree", the "Mattamuskeet" and the "Matchepungoe" nations to attack the settlers in a wide range of locations within a short time period. Their principal targets were against the planters on the Roanoke, Neuse and Trent rivers, as well as the city of Bath. They attacked on September 22, 1711, beginning the Tuscarora War. The allied Indian tribes killed hundreds of settlers, including several key political figures among the colonists.


title: Tuscarora people

text: Governor Edward Hyde called out the North Carolina militia and secured the assistance of South Carolina, which provided 600 militia and 360 allied Native Americans commanded by Col. John Barnwell. In 1712, this force attacked the southern Tuscarora and other nations in Craven County at Fort Narhontes, on the banks of the Neuse River. The Tuscarora were "defeated with great slaughter; more than three hundred were killed, and one hundred made prisoners."


title: Tuscarora people

text: The governor offered Chief Blunt leadership of the entire Tuscarora Nation if he would assist in defeating Chief Hancock. Blunt succeeded in capturing Hancock, who was tried and executed by North Carolina officials. In 1713 the Southern Tuscarora were defeated at their Fort Neoheroka (formerly spelled "Neherooka"), with 900 killed or captured in the battle.


title: Tuscarora people

text: After the defeat in the battle of 1713, about 1500 Tuscarora fled north to New York to join the Iroquois Confederacy, while as many as 1500 additional Tuscarora sought refuge in the colony of Virginia. Although some accepted tributary status in Virginia, the majority of the surviving Tuscarora are believed to have returned to North Carolina. In 1715, seventy warriors of the southern Tuscarora went to South Carolina to assist colonists against the Yamasee. Those 70 warriors later asked permission to have their wives and children join them, and settled near Port Royal, South Carolina.


title: Tuscarora people

text: Under the leadership of Tom Blunt, the Tuscarora who remained in North Carolina signed a treaty with the colony in June 1718. It granted them a tract of land on the Roanoke River in what is now Bertie County. This was the area occupied by Chief Blunt and his people. The colonies of Virginia and North Carolina both recognized Tom Blunt, who had taken the last name Blount, as "King Tom Blount" of the Tuscarora. Both colonies agreed to consider as friendly only those Tuscarora who accepted Blount's leadership. The remaining Southern Tuscarora were forced to remove from their villages on the Pamlico River and relocate to the villages of "Ooneroy" and "Resootskeh" in Bertie County. In 1722, the Bertie County Reservation, which would officially become known as "Indian Woods," was chartered by the colony.


title: Tuscarora people

text: As colonial settlement surrounded Indian Woods, the Tuscarora suffered discrimination and other acts: they were overcharged or denied use of ferries, restricted in hunting, and cheated in trade; their timber was illegally logged, and their lands were continuously encroached upon by herders and squatters. Over the next several decades, the colonial government continually reduced the Tuscarora tract, forcing cessions of land to the encroaching settlers. They sold off portions of the land in deals often designed to take advantage of the Tuscarora.


title: Tuscarora people

text: Many Tuscarora were not satisfied with the leadership of Tom Blount, and decided to leave the reservation. In 1722 300 fighting men; along with their wives, children, and the elderly, resided at Indian Woods. By 1731 there were 200 warriors, in 1755 there were 100, with a total population at Indian Woods of 301. When in 1752 Moravian missionaries visited the reservation, they had noted "many had gone north to live on the Susquehanna" and that "others are scattered as the wind scatters smoke." This refers to the Tuscarora migrating to central-western New York to live with the Oneida and other Iroquois nations.


title: Tuscarora people

text: In 1763 and 1766 additional Tuscarora migrated north to settle with other Iroquoian peoples in northern and western Pennsylvania (where the Susquehannock and Erie people both had territory) and New York. By 1767 only 104 persons were residing on the reservation in Bertie County. In 1804 the last band to leave North Carolina went to New York. By then, only "10 to 20 Old families" remained at Indian Woods.


title: Tuscarora people

text: In 1802 the last Indian Woods Tuscarora negotiated a treaty with the United States, by which land would be held for them that they could lease. As the government never ratified the treaty, the North Carolina Tuscarora viewed the treaty as null and void. In 1831 the Indian Woods Tuscarora sold the remaining rights to their lands. By this point their had been reduced to .


title: Tuscarora people

text: Although without a reservation, some Tuscarora descendants remained in the southern regions of the state. They intermarried with other residents. In 1971 the Tuscarora in Robeson County sought to get an accounting of their lands and rents due them under the unratified treaty of 1803. At least three bands have organized in Robeson County. In 2010 they united as one group.


title: Tuscarora people

text: The Iroquois Five Nations of New York had penetrated as far as the Tuscarora homeland in North Carolina by 1701, and nominally controlled the entire frontier territory lying in between. Following their discovery of a linguistically related tribe living beyond Virginia, they were more than happy to accommodate their distant cousins within the Iroquois Constitution as the "Sixth Nation", and to resettle them in safer grounds to the north. (The Iroquois had driven tribes of rival Indians out of Western New York to South Carolina during the Beaver Wars several decades earlier, not far from where the Tuscarora resided.)


title: Tuscarora people

text: Beginning about 1713 after the war, contingents of Tuscarora began leaving North Carolina for the north. They established a main village at present-day Martinsburg, West Virginia, on what is still known as Tuscarora Creek. Another group stopped in 1719–1721 in present-day Maryland along the Monocacy River, on the way to join the Oneida nation in western New York. After white settlers began to pour into what is now the Martinsburg area from around 1730, the Tuscarora continued northward to join those in western New York. Other Tuscarora bands sojourned in the Juniata River valley of Pennsylvania, before reaching New York.


title: Tuscarora people

text: The present area from Martinsburg, West Virginia west to Berkeley Springs has roads, creeks, and land still named after the Tuscarora people, including a development in Hedgesville called "The Woods" where the street names contain reference to the Tuscarora people, and which contains a burial mound adopted by the West Virginia Division of Culture as an Archaeological Site in 1998. There is record circa 1763 that some Tuscarora had not migrated to the Iroquois, and remained in the Panhandle instead, stayed and fought under Shawnee Chief Cornstalk.


title: Tuscarora people

text: During the American Revolutionary War, part of the Tuscarora and Oneida nations in New York allied with the rebel colonists. Most of the warriors of the other four Iroquois nations supported Great Britain, and many participated in battles throughout New York. They were the main forces that attacked frontier settlements of the central Mohawk and Cherry valleys. Late in the war, the pro-British Tuscarora followed Chief Joseph Brant of the Mohawk, other British-allied tribes, and Loyalists north to Ontario, then called Upper Canada by the British. They took part in establishing the reserve of the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation in what became Ontario, Canada.


title: Tuscarora people

text: In 1803 a final contingent of southern Tuscarora migrated to New York to join the reservation of their tribe in Niagara County. After that, the Tuscarora in New York no longer considered southern remnants as part of their nation. Some descendants of the southern remnants have continued to identify as Tuscarora and have organized some bands. Through the generations they had intermarried with neighbors but identify culturally as Tuscarora.


title: Tuscarora people

text: During the War of 1812 in the British attack on Lewiston, New York on December 19, 1813, a band of Tuscarora living in a village on an escarpment just above the town fought to save Americans fleeing the invasion force. The British were accompanied by allied Mohawk and some American Tories disguised as Mohawk. The American militia fled, leaving only the Tuscarora—outnumbered 30 to one—to fight a delaying action that allowed some townspeople to escape. The Tuscarora sent a party of braves to blow horns along the escarpment and suggest a larger force, while another party attacked downhill with war whoops, to give an exaggerated impression of their numbers. The British force burned Lewiston, as well as the Tuscarora village, then undefended.


title: Tuscarora people

text: The Tuscarora have continued to struggle to protect their land in New York. In the mid-20th century, New York City commissioner Robert Moses generated controversy by negotiating with the Tuscarora Sachem council and purchasing 550 acres of the Tuscarora reservation for the reservoir of the new hydroelectric project along the Niagara River, downriver from Niagara Falls. (At the time of first power generation in February 1962, it was the largest project in the world.) The plant continues to generate cheap electricity for households located from the Niagara area to as far away as New York City.


title: Tuscarora people

text: "Skarure", the Tuscarora language, is a member of the northern branch of the Iroquoian languages. Linguists and historians have both tried to determine when the Iroquoian-speaking Meherrin and Nottoway tribes separated from the Tuscarora. Before initial contact (1650), the English, based on reports from Algonquian natives, thought the three tribes were one people, as the Algonquian speakers referred to them by the exonym "Mangoag." Following encounter by the English with the Tuscarora and other tribes, the colonists noted they used the same interpreters to translate with each of the peoples, which meant their languages were closely related.


title: Tuscarora people

text: Although the Nottoway language went extinct in the early 1900s, linguists have been able to determine that it was distinct, although closely related to Tuscarora. In addition, the Cheroenhaka (Nottoway) Tribe has been working to revitalize the Nottoway Language in recent times. In historic times, the three tribes always identified as distinct and independent peoples.


title: Tuscarora people

text: Several bands, groups, and organizations with members claiming Tuscarora descent reside in North Carolina. Since the late 20th century, they have organized and reformed in various configurations. None has state or federal recognition.


title: Tuscarora people

text: Tuscarora tribal officials in New York dispute claims that anyone in North Carolina has continuity as a tribe with the Tuscarora. The Tuscarora Nation of New York, says that the great majority of the tribe moved north to New York. New York leaders consider any individuals remaining in North Carolina as no longer having tribal status, although they have Tuscarora genetic ancestry.


title: Tuscarora people

text: Both the New York Tuscarora and the North Carolina Tuscarora bands claim the historical name of the tribe. As the New York tribe is federally recognized and is the longest organized as a tribal government, it is considered the legal successor to the historic tribe. Members of North Carolina bands claim descent and continuity with the ancient "Skarure." Some North Carolina Tuscarora feel that the Tuscarora that left North Carolina abandoned the home lands, and that both groups should be allowed to have a relationship with the federal government.


title: Tuscarora people

text: In the 1930s, the Department of Interior conducted physical examinations of 209 individuals residing in Robeson County and determined that 22 possessed at least 1/2 or more degree of Indian blood, and that 18 more were borderline or near-borderline cases. Scholars and scientists no longer consider such physical exams to be a valid method of determining biological ancestry. Each federally recognized tribe has the authority to determine membership criteria and establish its own rules. These are generally based on documented descent from a historical list of agreed-upon members or descent from known living members.


title: Tuscarora people

text: In the 1960s, the surviving eight of these 22 people, with many of their descendants and approximately 2,000 other individuals in their communities organized an official Tuscarora political infrastructure in Robeson County. On November 12, 1979 the "Tuscarora Tribe of Indians Maxton" were accepted into the National Congress of American Indians.


title: Tuscarora people

text: Various factions of the Robeson County-based Tuscarora, who have split since their initial organization in the 1960s, have worked for state and federal recognition. A petition by the Hatteras Tuscarora, submitted to the federal government in 1978, was placed on hold.


title: Tuscarora people

text: In 1989, the Solicitor of the Department of Interior ruled that the Lumbee Act of 1956, which acknowledged the Lumbee as Native American, at the same time barred all Indians within Robeson and adjoining counties from consideration as a federally recognized tribe within the "Branch of Acknowledgement and Research" petitioning process. Leaders of the Lumbee had agreed to this provision at the time the legislation was passed. This provision was applied to the Lumbee petition of 1986 seeking federal recognition as a tribe. Gerald M. Sider states that rather than challenging this ruling, "The Lumbee subsequently removed their petition from active consideration by the BIA in a way that also prevented the Tuscarora petitions from being considered."


title: Tuscarora people

text: In 2006 the Skaroreh Katenuaka Nation, "AKA: Tuscarora Nation of Indians of North Carolina", filed a federal lawsuit for recognition. Skaroreh Katenuaka Nation, the Hatteras Tuscarora, and the Tuscarora Nation of the Carolinas are all based in Robeson County. Members are closely related to one another.


title: Tuscarora people

text: In May 2010 leaders and individuals from the various Tuscarora factions in the Robeson County area came together to form the Tuscarora Nation One Fire Council (TNOFC). The TNOFC is an interim, un-incorporated government; they have based it on provisions outlined in wampum 96 of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois League) Great Law of Peace. The TNOFC assembles weekly. Its members are working toward developing and implementing solutions to problems that have created division among them in the past. The TNOFC maintains separate membership enrollment from, and their members are not part of, the state-recognized Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina, the largest state-recognized tribe in North Carolina and are also located in Robeson County. Between March 21st and 23rd in 2013, citizens of both the Tuscarora in New York and North Carolina reunited at the 300 year anniversary of the Fort Neoheroka massacre.


title: Tuscarora people

text: In July 2018, following a year long state and federal investigation, more than 26 people of the Tuscarora Nation including its leader, were arrested for operating three casinos, an unlicensed police force and marijuana growing operations in Maxton and Red Springs, North Carolina. Local sheriff's office and police were joined by state SBI, state and federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, and National Guard troops in seizing vehicles, currency, marijuana, firearms and over 200 illegal gaming machines. Those arrested face drug, gambling and money laundering charges though claim sovereign citizen status and, according to a North Carolina Alcohol Law Enforcement official "openly expressed beliefs that neither the laws of North Carolina nor the United States applied to them"


title: Tuscarora people

text: Some Tuscarora descendants live in Oklahoma. They are primarily descendants of Tuscarora groups absorbed in the early decades of the nineteenth century in Ohio by relocated Iroquois Seneca and Cayuga bands from New York. They became known as Mingo while in the Midwest, coalescing as a group in Ohio. The Mingo were later forced in Indian Removals to Indian Territory in present-day Kansas, and lastly, in Oklahoma. In 1937 descendants reorganized and were federally recognized as the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma. The nation occupies territory in the northeast corner of the former Indian Territory. A band of Tuscarora also moved to Oberlin, Fremont, and Elmore, Ohio in the mid 1800s from New Bern, North Carolina and participated in the Underground Railroad.


title: Claudio Aprile

text: Claudio Aprile (born 23 January 1969) is a Uruguayan–Canadian celebrity chef, restaurateur, cookbook author, and TV personality of Italian descent best known for serving as a main host/judge on CTV's culinary competition "MasterChef Canada" since January 2014. Having owned and worked at multiple Michelin-starred restaurants over the years, he recently served as the head chef, owner and manager of the acclaimed Toronto restaurant Copetin from its grand opening in July 2017 until its closure in March 2019. In the fall of 2019, Aprile opened up a new restaurant named Xango Toronto, which he presently serves as the owner, restaurateur and head chef of since the closing of Copetin, Colborne Lane and the Origin chain.


title: Claudio Aprile

text: Claudio Aprile was born in Uruguay, grew up in Toronto, and has traveled, lived, and worked in professional, multi-Michelin starred restaurant kitchens as a professional chef internationally. Aprile has been cooking since he was 14 years old, always wanting to be a chef since the age of 5, having spent his career in kitchens working through the ranks becoming the successful professional celebrity chef and restaurateur that he is today. He never received formal training for becoming a chef, and stated that, as a child, he informed his mother that he would become one, rather than a desire to attempt to become one. At 18 he travelled to Thailand, which had a profound influence on his style of cooking. He visited 160 cities in 17 countries, before stopping in England, where he worked extensively throughout London until earning the executive position as the head chef at Bali Sugar in Notting Hill.


title: Claudio Aprile

text: Throughout his career Aprile has passed through some of the most renowned Michelin-starred restaurant kitchens around the globe. The Uruguayan-born, Toronto-raised chef is a product of diverse elements, with a cooking style representative of his time spent in kitchens around the world, including Bali Sugar in London, which earned him outstanding reviews as a young executive chef where he received local and international critical acclaim. On returning to Toronto in 2000, Aprile cemented that reputation at Senses in Toronto, where he impressed critics and diners with use of avant-garde and experimental cooking techniques.


title: Claudio Aprile

text: In 2007, Aprile opened the successful restaurant Colborne Lane in Toronto, Canada. In 2009, he opened the original Origin restaurant in Toronto. Touted for its modernist food and nitrogen desserts, Colborne Lane led the pack in creativity across an unimaginative Toronto foodscape. Due to the success of the original location, he was able to open two more locations within Toronto in the subsequent years.


title: Claudio Aprile

text: Colborne Lane was lauded as one of the best restaurants in the world, and Aprile was named one of the most innovative chefs working in Canada. With Colborne Lane offering beautifully crafted, precisely plated fusion cuisine with molecular gastronomy, he switched gears with Origin restaurant. Opening in 2010, Origin offered fast, fresh, and accessible food, delivered to guests sitting right across from the chef in the open kitchen. Toronto Life magazine and Now magazine voted Origin the #1 restaurant in Toronto.


title: Claudio Aprile

text: Colborne Lane was located on Colborne Street in Toronto, close to St. Lawrence Market. Aprile’s first restaurant, Colborne Lane, opened to immediate success and became the breeding ground for some of Toronto’s current top chefs including Jonathan Poon, Steve Gonzalez, Matt Blondin, Jonathan Bower, and Romain Avril. It was named one of the top ten new restaurants in Canada in enRoute Magazine. Aprile officially closed the restaurant in February 2013.


title: Claudio Aprile

text: In 2009, Aprile opened the first Origin restaurant as the executive chef and owner. The original restaurant opened its doors to the public in 2010, it was located on King Street in Toronto and closed in early 2017. In subsequent years, Aprile opened two more Origin restaurants, one in Liberty Village and one in Bayview Village. The Liberty Village location opened in 2012 and closed in 2013. The Origin North Bayview Village location opened in June 2013, in a two-storey building in the parking lot of the Bayview Village mall. The third of Aprile’s Origin restaurants and the first outside the downtown area, it was promotionally featured in MasterChef Canada's Season 1 Restaurant Takeover, and closed in early 2016. Aprile served as the owner and creative force behind the Orderfire Restaurant Group, which included Toronto’s acclaimed Origin brand restaurants, which were voted the #1 restaurant in Toronto by Toronto Life and Now magazine.


title: Claudio Aprile

text: In June 2017, Aprile reinvented his original Origin restaurant space and opened Copetin Restaurant & Bar at the same Saint James location on King Street East in Toronto. This high-end restaurant of his was featured in Season 5's Restaurant Takeover in MasterChef Canada. The open-concept kitchen in the 80-seat dining room offered "not one, not two, but four separate menus: An a la carte dinner card for the eastern dining room, a menu of casual salads and sandwiches for the patio, a slate of bar snacks for the western "lounge" half of the resto, and an anything-goes tasting menu for those who elect to sit at the kitchen rail."


title: Claudio Aprile

text: In September 2019, Aprile teamed up with Nick Di Donato of the Liberty Entertainment Group to open up Xango, located in the heart of Toronto's King St. West neighbourhood.


title: Delta IV

text: Delta IV is a group of five expendable launch systems in the Delta rocket family introduced in the early 2000s. Originally designed by Boeing's Defense, Space and Security division for the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) program, the Delta IV became a United Launch Alliance (ULA) product in 2006. The Delta IV is primarily a launch vehicle for United States Air Force (USAF) military payloads, but has also been used to launch a number of United States government non-military payloads and a single commercial satellite.


title: Delta IV

text: The Delta IV originally had two main versions which allowed the family to cover a range of payload sizes and masses: the retired Medium (which had four configurations) and Heavy. As of 2019, only the Heavy remains active, with payloads that would previously fly on Medium moving to either the existing Atlas V or the forthcoming Vulcan. Retirement of the Delta IV is anticipated in 2024. , two flights remain.


title: Delta IV

text: Delta IV vehicles are built in the ULA facility in Decatur, Alabama. Final assembly is completed at the launch site by ULA: at the horizontal integration facility for launches from SLC-37B pad at Cape Canaveral and in a similar facility for launches from SLC-6 pad at Vandenberg Air Force Base.


title: Delta IV

text: The latest evolutionary development of the Delta rocket family, Delta IV was introduced to meet the requirements of the United States Air Force's (USAF) Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV, now National Security Space Launch (NSSL)) program. While the Delta IV retains the name of the Delta family of rockets, major changes were incorporated. Perhaps the most significant change was the switch from kerosene to liquid hydrogen fuel, with new tankage and a new engine required.


title: Delta IV

text: During the Delta IV's development, a small variant was considered. This would have featured the Delta II second stage, an optional Thiokol Star 48B third stage, and the Delta II payload fairing, all atop a single Common Booster Core (CBC). The Small variant was dropped by 1999.


title: Delta IV

text: In 2002, the Delta IV was first launched, with the RS-68 becoming the first large liquid-propellant rocket engine designed in the United States since the Space Shuttle main engine (SSME) in the 1970s.


title: Delta IV

text: The L3 Technologies Redundant Inertial Flight Control Assembly (RIFCA) guidance system originally used on the Delta IV was common to that carried on the Delta II, although the software was different because of the differences between the Delta II and Delta IV. The RIFCA featured six ring laser gyroscopes and accelerometers each, to provide a higher degree of reliability.


title: Delta IV

text: Boeing initially intended to market Delta IV commercial launch services. However, the Delta IV entered the space launch market when global capacity was already much higher than demand. Furthermore, as an unproven design it had difficulty finding a market in commercial launches, and Delta IV launch costs are higher than comparable vehicles of the same era. In 2003, Boeing pulled the Delta IV from the commercial market, citing low demand and high costs. In 2005, Boeing stated that it sought to return the Delta IV to commercial service.


title: Delta IV

text: As of 2009, the USAF funded Delta IV EELV engineering, integration, and infrastructure work through contracts with Boeing Launch Services (BLS). On 8 August 2008, the USAF Space and Missile Systems Center increased the "cost plus award fee" contract with BLS for US$1.656 billion to extend the period of performance through the 30 September 2008 (FY09). In addition a US$557.1 million option was added to cover FY10.


title: Delta IV

text: In February 2010, naturalized citizen Dongfan Chung, an engineer working with Boeing, was the first person convicted under the Economic Espionage Act of 1996. Chung passed on classified information on designs including the Delta IV rocket to China and was sentenced to 15 years.


title: Delta IV

text: With the exception of the first launch, which carried the Eutelsat W5 commercial communications satellite, all Delta IV launches have been paid for by the US government. In 2015, ULA stated that a Delta IV Heavy is sold for nearly US$400 million.


title: Delta IV

text: The possibility of a higher performance Delta IV was first proposed in a 2006 RAND Corporation study of national security launch requirements out to 2020. A single National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) payload required an increase in the lift capability of the Delta IV Heavy. Lift capacity was increased by developing the higher-performance RS-68A engine, which first flew on 29 June 2012. ULA phased out the baseline RS-68 engine with the launch of Delta flight 371 on 25 March 2015. All following launches have used the RS-68A, and the engine's higher thrust allowed the use of a single standardized CBC design for all Delta IV Medium and M+ versions. This upgrade reduced cost and increased flexibility, since any standardized CBC could be configured for zero, two, or four solid-propellant rocket boosters. However, the new CBC led to a slight performance loss for most medium configurations. The Delta IV Heavy still requires non-standard CBCs for the core and boosters.


title: Delta IV

text: Possible future upgrades for the Delta IV included adding extra strap-on solid motors, higher-thrust main engines, lighter materials, higher-thrust second stages, more (up to eight) strap-on CBCs, and a cryogenic propellant cross feed from strap on boosters to the common core.


title: Delta IV

text: At one point NASA planned to use Delta IV or Atlas V to launch the proposed Orbital Space Plane, which eventually became the Crew Exploration Vehicle and then the Orion. Orion was intended to fly on the Ares I launch vehicle, then the Space Launch System after Ares I was cancelled.


title: Delta IV

text: In 2009, The Aerospace Corporation reported on NASA results of a study to determine the feasibility of modifying Delta IV to be crew-rated for use in NASA human spaceflight missions. According to Aviation Week & Space Technology the study, "found that a Delta IV heavy [...] could meet NASA's requirements for getting humans to low Earth orbit".


title: Delta IV

text: A proposed upgrade to the Delta IV family was the addition of extra solid motors. The Medium+ (4,4) would have used existing mount points to pair the four GEM 60s of the M+ (5,4) with the upper stage and fairing of the (4,2). An M+ (4,4) would have had a GTO payload of , a LEO payload of , and could have been available within 36 months of the first order. It was also considered to add extra GEM 60s to the M+ (5,4), which would have required adding extra attachment points, structural changes to cope with the different flight loads, and launch pad and infrastructure changes. The Medium+ (5,6) and (5,8) would have flown with six and eight SRBs respectively, for a maximum of up to to GTO with the M+ (5,8). The Medium+ (5,6) and (5,8) could have been available within 48 months of the first order.


title: Delta IV

text: The Vulcan Centaur is planned to replace the Atlas V and Delta IV rockets. Vulcan Centaur is projected to enter service by 2023, using the BE-4 methane-fueled rocket engine. The Delta IV Heavy and Atlas V are expected to stay in service for a few years after Vulcan's inaugural launch, and the Heavy is expected to be discontinued by 2024.


title: Delta IV

text: The Delta IV Medium (also referred to as 'single stick') was available in four configurations: Medium, Medium+ (4,2), Medium+ (5,2), and Medium+ (5,4).


title: Delta IV

text: The Delta IV Medium (Delta 9040) was the most basic Delta IV. It featured a single CBC and a modified Delta III second stage, with 4-meter liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen tanks (called a Delta Cryogenic Second Stage (DCSS)) and a 4-meter payload fairing. The Delta IV Medium was capable of launching 4,200 kg to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). From Cape Canaveral, GTO is 1804 m/s away from GEO. The mass of fairing and payload attach fittings have been subtracted from the gross performance.


title: Delta IV

text: The Delta IV Medium+ (4,2) (Delta 9240) had the same CBC and DCSS as the Medium, but with the addition of two Orbital ATK-built 1.5-m (60-in) diameter solid rocket booster Graphite-Epoxy Motors (GEM 60s) strap-on boosters to increase payload capacity to 6,150 kg to GTO.


title: Delta IV

text: The Delta IV Medium+ (5,2) (Delta 9250) was similar to the Medium+ (4,2), but had a 5-m–diameter DCSS and payload fairing for larger payloads. Because of the extra weight of the larger payload fairing and second stage, the Medium+ (5,2) could launch 5,072 kg to GTO.


title: Delta IV

text: The Delta IV Medium+ (5,4) (Delta 9450) was similar to the Medium+ (5,2), but used four GEM 60s instead of two, enabling it to lift 6,882 kg to GTO.


title: Delta IV

text: To encapsulate the satellite payload, a variety of different payload fairings were available. A stretched Delta III 4-meter diameter composite payload fairing was used on 4-meter Medium versions, while an enlarged, 5-meter diameter composite fairing was used on 5-meter Medium versions.


title: Delta IV

text: The Medium (4,2) version last flew on 22 August 2019, marking the retirement of the Delta IV Medium variants.


title: Delta IV

text: The Delta IV Heavy (Delta 9250H) combines a diameter DCSS and payload fairing with two additional CBCs. These are strap-on boosters which are separated earlier in the flight than the center CBC. As of 2007, a longer 5 meter diameter composite fairing was standard on the Delta IV Heavy, with an aluminum isogrid fairing also available. The aluminum trisector (three-part) fairing was built by Boeing and derived from a Titan IV fairing. The trisector fairing was first used on the DSP-23 flight. The Delta IV with the extended fairing is over tall.


title: Delta IV

text: Each Delta IV consists of at least one Common Booster Core (CBC). Each CBC is powered by one Aerojet Rocketdyne RS-68 engine, which burns liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen.


title: Delta IV

text: On flights of the Medium, the RS-68 ran at 102% rated thrust for the first few minutes of flight, and then throttled down to 58% rated thrust before main engine cutoff. On the Heavy, the main CBC's engine throttles down to 58% rated thrust around 50 seconds after liftoff, while the strap-on CBCs remain at 102%. This conserves propellant and allows the main CBC to burn after booster separation. After the strap-on CBCs separate, the main CBC's engine again throttles up to 102% before throttling back down to 58% prior to main engine cutoff.


title: Delta IV

text: The RS-68 engine is mounted to the lower thrust structure of the CBC by a four-legged (quadrapod) thrust frame and enclosed in a protective composite conical thermal shield. Above the thrust structure is an aluminum isogrid (a grid pattern machined out of the inside of the tank to reduce weight) liquid hydrogen tank, followed by a composite cylinder called the centerbody, an aluminum isogrid liquid oxygen tank, and a forward skirt. Along the back of the CBC is a cable tunnel to hold electrical and signal lines, and a feedline to carry the liquid oxygen to the RS-68 from the tank. The CBC is of a constant, diameter.


title: Delta IV

text: The upper stage of the Delta IV is the Delta Cryogenic Second Stage (DCSS). The DCSS is based on the Delta III upper stage but has increased propellant capacity. Two versions have been produced: a diameter DCSS that was retired with the Delta IV Medium and a diameter DCSS that remains in service with the Delta IV Heavy. The 4 m diameter version lengthened both Delta III propellant tanks, while the 5-meter version has an extended diameter liquid hydrogen tank and a further lengthened liquid oxygen tank. Regardless of the diameter, each DCSS is powered by one RL10B-2 engine, with an extendable carbon-carbon nozzle to improve specific impulse. Two different interstages are used to mate the first stage and DCSS. A tapering interstage that narrowed down from 5 m to 4 m diameter was used to mate the 4 m DCSS to the CBC, while a cylindrical interstage is used to mate the 5 m DCSS. Both interstages were built from composites and enclosed the liquid oxygen tank, with the larger liquid hydrogen tank making up part of the vehicle's outer mold line.


title: Delta IV

text: Delta IV launches occur from either of two rocket launch complexes. Launches on the East coast of the United States use Space Launch Complex 37 (SLC-37) at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. On the West coast, polar-orbit and high-inclination launches use Vandenberg Air Force Base's Space Launch Complex 6 (SLC-6).


title: Delta IV

text: Launch facilities at both sites are similar. A Horizontal Integration Facility (HIF) is situated some distance from the pad. Delta IV CBCs and second stages to be mated and tested in the HIF before they are moved to the pad. The partial horizontal rocket assembly of the Delta IV is somewhat similar to the Soyuz launch vehicle, which is completely assembled horizontally. The Space shuttles, the past Saturn launch vehicles, and the upcoming Space Launch System are assembled and rolled out to the launch pad entirely vertically.


title: Delta IV

text: Movement of the Delta IVs among the various facilities at the pad is facilitated by rubber-tired Elevating Platform Transporters (EPTs) and various transport jigs. Diesel engine EPTs are used for moving the vehicles from the HIF to the pad, while electric EPTs are used in the HIF, where precision of movement is important.


title: Delta IV

text: The basic launchpad structure includes a flame trench to direct the engine plume away from the rocket, lightning protection, and propellant storage. In the case of Delta IV, the vehicle is completed on the launch pad inside a building. This Mobile Service Tower (MST) provides service access to the rocket and protection from the weather and is rolled away from the rocket on launch day. A crane at the top of the MST lifts the encapsulated payload to the vehicle and also attached the GEM 60 solid motors for Delta IV Medium launches. The MST is rolled away from the rocket several hours before launch. At Vandenberg, the launch pad also has a Mobile Assembly Shelter (MAS), which completely encloses the vehicle; at CCAFS, the vehicle is partly exposed near its bottom.


title: Delta IV

text: Beside the vehicle is a Fixed Umbilical Tower (FUT), which has two (VAFB) or three (CCAFS) swing arms. These arms carry telemetry signals, electrical power, hydraulic fluid, environmental control air flow, and other support functions to the vehicle through umbilical lines. The swing arms retract at T-0 seconds once the vehicle is committed to launch.


title: Delta IV

text: Under the vehicle is a Launch Table, with six Tail Service Masts (TSMs), two for each CBC. The Launch Table supports the vehicle on the pad, and the TSMs provide further support and fueling functions for the CBCs. The vehicle is mounted to the Launch Table by a Launch Mate Unit (LMU), which is attached to the vehicle by bolts that sever at launch. Behind the Launch Table is a Fixed Pad Erector (FPE), which uses two long-stroke hydraulic pistons to raise the vehicle to the vertical position after being rolled to the pad from the HIF. Beneath the Launch Table is a flame duct, which deflects the rocket's exhaust away from the rocket or facilities.


title: Delta IV

text: Delta IV CBCs and DCSSs are assembled at ULA's factory in Decatur, Alabama. They are then loaded onto the R/S "RocketShip", a roll-on/roll-off cargo vessel, and shipped to either launch pad. There, they are offloaded and rolled into a HIF. For Delta IV Medium launches, the CBC and DCSS were mated in the HIF. For Delta IV Heavy launches, the port and starboard strap-on CBCs are also mated in the HIF.


title: Delta IV

text: Various tests are performed, and then the vehicle is rolled horizontally to the pad, where the Fixed Pad Erector (FPE) is used to raise the vehicle to the vertical position. At this time, the GEM 60 solid motors, if any are required, are rolled to the pad and attached to the vehicle. After further testing, the payload (which has already been enclosed in its fairing) is transported to the pad, hoisted into the MST by a crane, and attached to the vehicle. Finally, on launch day, the MST is rolled away from the vehicle, and the vehicle is ready for launch.


title: Delta IV

text: The first payload launched with a Delta IV was the "Eutelsat W5" communications satellite. A Medium+ (4,2) from Cape Canaveral carried the communications satellite into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) on 20 November 2002.


title: Delta IV

text: "Heavy Demo" was the first launch of the Delta IV Heavy in December 2004 after significant delays due to bad weather. Due to cavitation in the propellant lines, sensors on all three CBCs registered depletion of propellant. The strap-on CBCs and then core CBC engines shut down prematurely, even though sufficient propellant remained to continue the burn as scheduled. The second stage attempted to compensate for the shutdown and burned until it ran out of propellant. This flight was a test launch carrying a payload of:


title: Delta IV

text: "NROL-22" was the first Delta IV launched from SLC-6 at Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB). It was launched aboard a Medium+ (4,2) in June 2006 carrying a classified satellite for the U.S. National Reconnaissance Office (NRO).


title: Delta IV

text: "DSP-23" was the first launch of a valuable payload aboard a Delta IV Heavy. This was also the first Delta IV launch contracted by the United Launch Alliance, a joint venture between Boeing and Lockheed Martin. The main payload was the 23rd and final Defense Support Program missile-warning satellite, DSP-23. Launch from Cape Canaveral occurred on 10 November 2007.


title: Delta IV

text: "NROL-26" was the first Delta IV Heavy EELV launch for the NRO. USA 202, a classified reconnaissance satellite, lifted off 18 January 2009.


title: Delta IV

text: "NROL-32" was a Delta IV Heavy launch, carrying a satellite for NRO. The payload is speculated to be the largest satellite sent into space. After a delay from 19 October 2010, the rocket lifted off on 21 November 2010.


title: Delta IV

text: "NROL-49" lifted off from Vandenberg AFB on 20 January 2011. It was the first Delta IV Heavy mission to be launched out of Vandenberg. This mission was for the NRO and its details are classified.


title: Delta IV

text: On 4 October 2012, a Delta IV M+ (4,2) experienced an anomaly in the upper stage's RL10B-2 engine which resulted in lower than expected thrust. While the vehicle had sufficient fuel margins to successfully place the payload, a GPS Block IIF satellite USA-239, into its targeted orbit, investigation into the glitch delayed subsequent Delta IV launches and the next Atlas V launch (AV-034) due to commonality between the engines used on both vehicles' upper stages. By December 2012, ULA had determined the cause of the anomaly to be a fuel leak (into the combustion chamber), and Delta IV launches resumed in May 2013. After two more successful launches, further investigation led to the delay of Delta flight 365 with the GPS IIF-5 satellite. Originally scheduled to launch in October 2013, the vehicle lifted off on 21 February 2014.


title: Delta IV

text: A Delta IV Heavy launched the Orion spacecraft on an uncrewed test flight, EFT-1, on 5 December 2014. The launch was originally planned for 4 December 2014, but high winds and valve issues caused the launch to be rescheduled for 5 December 2014.


title: Delta IV

text: On August 12, 2018, another Delta IV Heavy launched the Parker Solar Probe on a mission to explore or "touch" the outer corona of the Sun.


title: Delta IV

text: The second GPS Block III satellite was launched with the final Delta IV Medium+ (4,2) configuration on 22 August 2019.


title: Delta IV

text: The final flight of the Delta IV, in the heavy configuration, will be NROL-70 which will launch in 2024. It will also be the final flight of the Delta rocket family before it is replaced with the Vulcan rocket.


title: Capsid

text: A capsid is the protein shell of a virus, enclosing its genetic material. It consists of several oligomeric (repeating) structural subunits made of protein called protomers. The observable 3-dimensional morphological subunits, which may or may not correspond to individual proteins, are called capsomeres. The proteins making up the capsid are called capsid proteins or viral coat proteins (VCP). The capsid and inner genome is called the nucleocapsid.


title: Capsid

text: Capsids are broadly classified according to their structure. The majority of the viruses have capsids with either helical or icosahedral structure. Some viruses, such as bacteriophages, have developed more complicated structures due to constraints of elasticity and electrostatics. The icosahedral shape, which has 20 equilateral triangular faces, approximates a sphere, while the helical shape resembles the shape of a spring, taking the space of a cylinder but not being a cylinder itself. The capsid faces may consist of one or more proteins. For example, the foot-and-mouth disease virus capsid has faces consisting of three proteins named VP1–3.


title: Capsid

text: Some viruses are "enveloped", meaning that the capsid is coated with a lipid membrane known as the "viral envelope". The envelope is acquired by the capsid from an intracellular membrane in the virus' host; examples include the inner nuclear membrane, the Golgi membrane, and the cell's outer membrane.


title: Capsid

text: Once the virus has infected a cell and begins replicating itself, new capsid subunits are synthesized using the protein biosynthesis mechanism of the cell. In some viruses, including those with helical capsids and especially those with RNA genomes, the capsid proteins co-assemble with their genomes. In other viruses, especially more complex viruses with double-stranded DNA genomes, the capsid proteins assemble into empty precursor procapsids that include a specialized portal structure at one vertex. Through this portal, viral DNA is translocated into the capsid.


title: Capsid

text: Structural analyses of major capsid protein (MCP) architectures have been used to categorise viruses into lineages. For example, the bacteriophage PRD1, the algal virus "Paramecium bursaria Chlorella virus-1" (PBCV-1), mimivirus and the mammalian adenovirus have been placed in the same lineage, whereas tailed, double-stranded DNA bacteriophages ("Caudovirales") and herpesvirus belong to a second lineage.


title: Capsid

text: The icosahedral structure is extremely common among viruses. The icosahedron consists of 20 triangular faces delimited by 12 fivefold vertexes and consists of 60 asymmetric units. Thus, an icosahedral virus is made of 60N protein subunits. The number and arrangement of capsomeres in an icosahedral capsid can be classified using the "quasi-equivalence principle" proposed by Donald Caspar and Aaron Klug. Like the Goldberg polyhedra, an icosahedral structure can be regarded as being constructed from pentamers and hexamers. The structures can be indexed by two integers "h" and "k", with formula_1 and formula_2; the structure can be thought of as taking "h" steps from the edge of a pentamer, turning 60 degrees counterclockwise, then taking "k" steps to get to the next pentamer. The triangulation number "T" for the capsid is defined as:


title: Capsid

text: In this scheme, icosahedral capsids contain 12 pentamers plus 10("T" − 1) hexamers. The "T"-number is representative of the size and complexity of the capsids. Geometric examples for many values of "h", "k", and "T" can be found at List of geodesic polyhedra and Goldberg polyhedra.


title: Capsid

text: Many exceptions to this rule exist: For example, the polyomaviruses and papillomaviruses have pentamers instead of hexamers in hexavalent positions on a quasi T = 7 lattice. Members of the double-stranded RNA virus lineage, including reovirus, rotavirus and bacteriophage φ6 have capsids built of 120 copies of capsid protein, corresponding to a T = 2 capsid, or arguably a T = 1 capsid with a dimer in the asymmetric unit. Similarly, many small viruses have a pseudo T = 3 (or P = 3) capsid, which is organized according to a T = 3 lattice, but with distinct polypeptides occupying the three quasi-equivalent positions


title: Capsid

text: T-numbers can be represented in different ways, for example "T" = 1 can only be represented as an icosahedron or a dodecahedron and, depending on the type of quasi-symmetry, "T" = 3 can be presented as a truncated dodecahedron, an icosidodecahedron, or a truncated icosahedron and their respective duals a triakis icosahedron, a rhombic triacontahedron, or a pentakis dodecahedron.


title: Capsid

text: An elongated icosahedron is a common shape for the heads of bacteriophages. Such a structure is composed of a cylinder with a cap at either end. The cylinder is composed of 10 elongated triangular faces. The Q number (or T), which can be any positive integer, specifies the number of triangles, composed of asymmetric subunits, that make up the 10 triangles of the cylinder. The caps are classified by the T (or T) number.


title: Capsid

text: The bacterium "E. coli" is the host for bacteriophage T4 that has a prolate head structure. The bacteriophage encoded gp31 protein appears to be functionally homologous to "E. coli" chaperone protein GroES and able to substitute for it in the assembly of bacteriophage T4 virions during infection. Like GroES, gp31 forms a stable complex with GroEL chaperonin that is absolutely necessary for the folding and assembly "in vivo" of the bacteriophage T4 major capsid protein gp23.


title: Capsid

text: Many rod-shaped and filamentous plant viruses have capsids with helical symmetry. The helical structure can be described as a set of "n" 1-D molecular helices related by an "n"-fold axial symmetry. The helical transformation are classified into two categories: one-dimensional and two-dimensional helical systems. Creating an entire helical structure relies on a set of translational and rotational matrices which are coded in the protein data bank. Helical symmetry is given by the formula "P" = "μ" x "ρ", where "μ" is the number of structural units per turn of the helix, "ρ" is the axial rise per unit and "P" is the pitch of the helix. The structure is said to be open due to the characteristic that any volume can be enclosed by varying the length of the helix. The most understood helical virus is the tobacco mosaic virus. The virus is a single molecule of (+) strand RNA. Each coat protein on the interior of the helix bind three nucleotides of the RNA genome. Influenza A viruses differ by comprising multiple ribonucleoproteins, the viral NP protein organizes the RNA into a helical structure. The size is also different; the tobacco mosaic virus has a 16.33 protein subunits per helical turn, while the influenza A virus has a 28 amino acid tail loop.


title: Capsid

text: The virus must assemble a stable, protective protein shell to protect the genome from lethal chemical and physical agents. These include extremes of pH or temperature and proteolytic and nucleolytic enzymes. For non-enveloped viruses, the capsid itself may be involved in interaction with receptors on the host cell, leading to penetration of the host cell membrane and internalization of the capsid. Delivery of the genome occurs by subsequent uncoating or disassembly of the capsid and release of the genome into the cytoplasm, or by ejection of the genome through a specialized portal structure directly into the host cell nucleus.


title: Capsid

text: It has been suggested that many viral capsid proteins have evolved on multiple occasions from functionally diverse cellular proteins. The recruitment of cellular proteins appears to have occurred at different stages of evolution so that some cellular proteins were captured and refunctionalized prior to the divergence of cellular organisms into the three contemporary domains of life, whereas others were hijacked relatively recently. As a result, some capsid proteins are widespread in viruses infecting distantly related organisms (e.g., capsid proteins with the jelly-roll fold), whereas others are restricted to a particular group of viruses (e.g., capsid proteins of alphaviruses).


title: Capsid

text: A computational model (2015) has shown that capsids may have originated before viruses and that they served as a means of horizontal transfer between replicator communities since these communities could not survive if the number of gene parasites increased, with certain genes being responsible for the formation of these structures and those that favored the survival of self-replicating communities. The displacement of these ancestral genes between cellular organisms could favor the appearance of new viruses during evolution.


title: Prof (rapper)

text: Jacob "Jake" Anderson (born April 29, 1984), better known by his stage name Prof, is an American rapper, singer, and songwriter based in Minneapolis, Minnesota. He released his first full-length album, "Project Gampo", in 2007 and has since released five additional albums and three EPs. In 2012, "City Pages" named Prof on their list of Minnesota's 20 best rappers. He was formerly signed to Rhymesayers Entertainment.


title: Prof (rapper)

text: Jacob "Jake" Anderson was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and grew up in the city's Powderhorn neighborhood. His mother, Colleen, had a rocky relationship with his father (who suffered from bipolar disorder and was physically abusive) whom she would later divorce and move away from, taking Anderson's three older sisters with her. In his teenage years, he developed a "comedic, dirty-mouthed rap persona" he named Gampo after a childhood friend. Anderson graduated from Minneapolis South High School in 2002.


title: Prof (rapper)

text: In 2010, Prof was part of Rhymesayers' Welcome to Minnesota tour. During the mid-2000s, Prof regularly performed at the Dinkytowner bar with partner and hype man Rahzwell. It was at one such show that Prof would meet his manager, Mike Campbell. Prof and Campbell, along with Dillon Parker, later became co-owners of the Stophouse Music Group, a record label that owns and manages their eponymous Stophouse Studios in northeast Minneapolis.


title: Prof (rapper)

text: The staff of "City Pages" named Prof as Minnesota's 19th-best rapper in 2012, citing his musical dexterity, "his impressive singing voice", and his ability to engage and make audiences laugh. Conversely, musician and critic Dwight Hobbes of the "Twin Cities Daily Planet" asserted that Prof's 2011 album, "King Gampo", was "asinine, narcissistic self-indulgence run completely riot, without a shred of redeeming artistry" and "rap at its worst".


title: Prof (rapper)

text: Prof has been noted as one of the few Minneapolis rap acts (in addition to Doomtree and several Rhymesayers artists) who are capable of selling out the city's famed First Avenue Mainroom, and the only to do so in recent years without the backing of Minnesota Public Radio station 89.3 The Current.


title: Prof (rapper)

text: In May 2013, when Busta Rhymes failed to show up at the Soundset Music Festival in Shakopee, Minnesota, Prof substituted for him with only an hour's notice.


title: Prof (rapper)

text: On December 3, 2013, Prof signed to Rhymesayers Entertainment. The announcement video featured the label's co-founder, Slug, and coincided with the release of a single called "The Reply". The "Star Tribune" reported on the occasion that Prof would release another album in 2014.


title: Prof (rapper)

text: In a May 2015, Prof announced his debut record on Rhymesayers, entitled "Liability". In the same interview, he also revealed he had signed with William Morris Endeavor for his future touring ventures. Prof released a single called "Ghost" from the album. "Liability" was released October 16, 2015, and peaked at 141 on the "Billboard" 200 chart November 7, 2015.


title: Prof (rapper)

text: On February 20, 2018, Prof announced he would be releasing a new album, titled "Pookie Baby", on April 13, 2018. On September 6, 2019, Prof premiered a music video for his song titled "Cousins" featuring Saint Paul, Minnesota rapper, Cashinova.


title: Prof (rapper)

text: Additionally, on October 20, 2019, Prof's song "Church" was featured in the opening of Season 2, Episode 4 of ABC's "The Rookie".


title: Prof (rapper)

text: On April 29, 2020, Prof released his first single, "Squad Goals", from his newly announced album "Powderhorn Suites" that was due to be released on June 26. However, on June 25, Rhymesayers dropped Prof from their label, stating that they "failed to not only vet the signing of Prof but also calling into question the intentions behind his music, messaging and content more strongly". Rhymesayers further intended to cease the release of "Powderhorn Suites" to the extent that they could given the imminent release date.


title: Prof (rapper)

text: On October 22, 2020, Prof announced the re-release of "Powderhorn Suites" by his Stophouse Music Group record label and premiered a music video for the song "Animal Patrol" from the album. "Powderhorn Suites" was released by Stophouse Music Group on November 13, 2020. Prof premiered a music video for his "Powderhorn Suites" song "Outside Baby" the same day of the album's release. On November 20, 2020, "Powderhorn Suites" peaked at 36 on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Prof (rapper)

text: All albums up to 2013 were released by Stophouse Music Group. "Liability" (2015) and "Pookie Baby" (2018) were released by Rhymesayers Entertainment. "Powderhorn Suites" was subsequently released by Stophouse Music Group in 2020.


title: Michel Roux

text: Michel Roux, OBE (; 19 April 1941 – 11 March 2020), also known as Michel Roux Snr., was a French chef and restaurateur working in Britain. Along with his brother Albert, he opened Le Gavroche, later to become the first three Michelin starred restaurant in Britain, and The Waterside Inn, which was the first restaurant outside France to hold three stars for 25 years.


title: Michel Roux

text: Roux followed his brother into becoming a pastry chef, and again to England in order to open their first restaurant. Together they have been described as the "godfathers of modern restaurant cuisine in the UK", and Roux was inducted into several French orders, and received two lifetime achievement awards from different publications. He was decorated during a period of National Service for France during the 1960s.


title: Michel Roux

text: He founded the Roux Brothers Scholarship along with Albert in 1984, and worked as a consultant for companies such as British Airways and Celebrity Cruises over the years. After he and his brother split the business in 1986, Roux took the Waterside Inn, which he handed over to his son, Alain, in 2002. He remained an active food writer and appeared on television shows such as "Saturday Kitchen", "MasterChef" and the Roux family-centric series "The Roux Legacy", and on the "Woman's Hour" programme on BBC Radio 4.


title: Michel Roux

text: Michel Roux was born on 19 April 1941 in Charolles, Saône-et-Loire, in a room above his grandfather's charcuterie (a delicatessen specializing in meat products). He moved to Paris with his family after the war, where his father Michel set up his own charcuterie, after not taking over the family business in Charolles. His father gambled away all of the family's money, and the shop was closed to prevent it from going bankrupt. By the time Roux turned ten, his father had left the family and was not heard from again.


title: Michel Roux

text: Roux's older brother Albert had already become a patissier (pastry chef), and Roux followed him into this field at the age of fourteen. He became an apprentice to Camille Loyal in Belleville, working seventy-hour weeks. Roux's tasks at the pâtisserie included making up to sixty galettes des rois over the course of three days for Epiphany. Albert found Roux further employment as his apprenticeship ended. As Albert was working at the British Embassy in Paris as a sous chef, Roux joined him there as the pastry chef for the Embassy. He moved on from there to become a chef in Philippe de Rothschild's service, while Albert moved to England to work there.


title: Michel Roux

text: Between 1960 and 1962, Roux served his French National Service. He was first stationed at the Palace of Versailles, but was later posted overseas in Béchar, Algeria. He was awarded the Médaille commémorative des opérations de sécurité et de maintien de l'ordre en Afrique du Nord.


title: Michel Roux

text: Roux nearly decided to give up cooking to become an opera singer, but instead followed Albert to London, despite not being able to speak English. He would later recall that people thought he was mad for travelling there in view of the fact that he considered the state of English cooking at the time to be horrific.


title: Michel Roux

text: In 1967 the brothers opened their first restaurant, Le Gavroche at Lower Sloane Street in London. The opening party was attended by celebrities such as Charlie Chaplin and Ava Gardner. For the following week, Chaplin was reportedly shuttled across London so he could eat there. In 1972 the brothers opened a second restaurant, the Waterside Inn, in Bray, Berkshire, and launched a catering business.


title: Michel Roux

text: In 1974, when Michelin stars were first awarded in the UK, Le Gavroche and the Waterside Inn both won a star, and when a number of restaurants won two Michelin stars for the first time in 1977, both Roux restaurants were among them. Le Gavroche moved to a new location in Mayfair in 1982, and in the same year became the first restaurant in the UK to be awarded three Michelin stars. The same rating for the Waterside Inn followed in 1985, but Le Gavroche went back down to two stars in 1993 and has not regained the three star level. In 2010, the Waterside Inn became the first restaurant outside France to have held three Michelin stars for a period of 25 years.


title: Michel Roux

text: The Roux Brothers Scholarship was founded by Albert and Michel in 1984. It is an annual competition to select a single chef to send out as an apprentice. The first winner was Andrew Fairlie, and winners over the years have included Sat Bains (1999) and Simon Hulstone (2003).


title: Michel Roux

text: In 1986 the brothers split their restaurant business between them, following a disagreement over the direction that their joint business should take; Albert took Le Gavroche, while Michel took the Waterside Inn. Michel was a consultant to British Airways for twenty years between 1983 and 2003, and for Celebrity Cruises since 1990. The Roux brothers' catering company was purchased by Compass Group in 1993, with Albert retained as a consultant.


title: Michel Roux

text: Roux's son, Alain Roux, currently runs the Waterside Inn in Bray, having taken over as chef patron in 2002.


title: Michel Roux

text: In July 2008, Roux announced that he would move permanently to Crans-Montana, Switzerland, citing concerns about the state of public safety in Britain. He also owned a vineyard and house on the Cote d'Azur in France.


title: Michel Roux

text: Since 2014, Roux worked with British baking company, Bakedin, as a consultant reviewing and approving all recipes.


title: Michel Roux

text: Roux spoke out against entertainment-type cooking shows such as the 1990s cooking gameshow "Can't Cook, Won't Cook", saying that "The way these people handle food is a crime. They don't even know the basics. Little attention is paid to detail. Instead, they are intent on having a giggle and a joke. They can do this without involving food." The Roux brothers had a BBC television show, "At Home with the Roux Brothers", in the early eighties.


title: Michel Roux

text: Together with his brother Albert, Roux appeared on BBC Radio 4's "Desert Island Discs" on 26 October 1986. The Good Food channel aired a five-part series entitled "The Roux Legacy" in January 2012, which featured both brothers, along with their sons Michel Jr. and Alain. Roux had also appeared as a guest judge on "", alongside his nephew Michel Jr, and on "Saturday Kitchen" alongside his son Alain.


title: Michel Roux

text: Roux and his brother have been called the "godfathers of modern restaurant cuisine in the UK" by hospitality industry magazine "Caterer and Hotelkeeper", while "The Observer Food Monthly" described him as "perhaps the finest pastry chef this country has ever had" when he was awarded their Lifetime Achievement Award in 2011. Roux had previously won the Lifetime Achievement award from "Tatler" magazine in 2008. In a poll of UK chefs carried out by "Caterer and Hotelkeeper" magazine in 2003, the Roux brothers were voted the most influential chefs in the country, and in 2004 Michel Roux was voted the AA Chef's Chef.