title: Municipal governance in India

text: In terms of fiscal federalism, functions whose benefits largely confine to municipal jurisdictions and may be termed as the "essentially municipal" functions. Similarly, functions that involve substantial economics of scale or are of national interest may not be assigned to small local bodies. For valid reasons, certain functions of higher authorities are appropriate to be entrusted with the Municipalities – as if under principal-agent contracts and may be called "agency" functions that need to be financed by intergovernmental revenues. Thus instead of continuing the traditional distinction between "obligatory" and "discretionary" functions the municipal responsibilities may be grouped into "essentially municipal", "joint" and "agency" functions.


title: Municipal governance in India

text: The suggested functions to municipal corporations, municipalities, and Nagar panchayats are listed in the table below.


title: Municipal governance in India

text: Nagar Nigam and other names in different states (translated as "Municipal Corporation/City Corporation") in India are state government formed departments that work for the development of a metropolitan city, which has a population of more than 1 million. The growing population and urbanisation in various cities of India were in need of a local governing body that can work for providing necessary community services like health centres, educational institutes, and housing and property tax. They also replace street lights.


title: Municipal governance in India

text: They are formed under the Corporations Act of 1835 which mainly deals in providing essential services in a major city. Their elections are held once in five-year and the people choose the candidates. The largest corporations are in the eight metropolitan cities of India, namely Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Surat, and Pune. These cities not only have a large population but are also the administrative as well as commercial centres of the country.


title: Municipal governance in India

text: A Nagar Palika or Town Municipality is an urban local body that administers a city with a minimum population of 100,000 but less than 1,000,000. However, there are exceptions to that, as previously Nagar Palikas were constituted in urban centers with a population over 20,000 were reclassified as Nagar Palika even if their population was under 100,000. Under the Panchayati Raj system, it interacts directly with the state government, though it is administratively part of the district it is located in. Generally smaller district cities and bigger towns have a Nagar Palika. Municipalities are also a form of local self-government, entrusted with some duties and responsibilities, as enshrined and guided upon by the Constitutional (74th Amendment) Act, 1992. Udaipur is a city which is big but its population is 451,000 so it has a Nagar Palika.


title: Municipal governance in India

text: The members of the Nagar Palika are elected representatives for a term of five years. The town is divided into wards according to its population, and representatives are elected from each ward. The members elect a president among themselves to preside over and conduct meetings. A chief officer, along with officers like an engineer, sanitary inspector, health officer, and education officer who come from the state public service are appointed by the state government to control the administrative affairs of the Nagar Palika.


title: Municipal governance in India

text: City Municipal Councils are known regionaly by different names, including Town Municipal Council, Town Municipality, Nagar Palika, Nagarasabe, Purasabe, and Nagaraatchi.


title: Municipal governance in India

text: A Nagar Panchayat or Town Board is a form of an urban political unit in India comparable to a municipality. An urban centre with more than 11,000 and less than 25,000 inhabitants is classified as a "Nagar Panchayat".


title: Municipal governance in India

text: Each Nagar Panchayat has a committee consisting of a chairman with ward members. Membership consists of a minimum of ten elected ward members and three nominated members. The NAC members of the Nagar Panchayat are elected from the several wards of the Nagar Panchayat on the basis of adult franchise for a term of five years. There are seats reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, backward classes, and women. The Councillors or Ward Members are chosen by direct election from electoral wards in the Nagar Panchayats.


title: Municipal governance in India

text: Town boards are also known by different names depending on the region, including: Town Panchayat, Taluk Panchayat, Notified Area Council, Municipal Board, Nagar Panchayat, and Pura Panchayat.


title: Richard Carapaz

text: Richard Antonio Carapaz Montenegro (born 29 May 1993) is an Ecuadorian professional road racing cyclist who currently rides for UCI WorldTeam . Carapaz won the 2019 Giro d'Italia, becoming the first Ecuadorian rider to win the race. In July 2021, he won the gold medal in the road race at the 2020 Summer Olympics, becoming the first Ecuadorian cyclist to win a medal and only the second Ecuadorian in any sport to win a gold medal at the Olympic Games. In doing so, he became the first cyclist to achieve an Olympic road race gold medal and a podium finish in each of the three Grand Tours.


title: Richard Carapaz

text: Carapaz was born in El Carmelo, Tulcán Canton. Whilst at school, he was mentored by one of his teachers, former Olympic racing cyclist Juan Carlos Rosero, who started a cycling club at the school. The club has also produced a number of other professional riders, including Jhonatan Narváez and Jonathan Caicedo. Prior to taking up cycling, Carapaz competed for his school as a runner.


title: Richard Carapaz

text: Carapaz began his career with amateur teams in Ecuador, Colombia and Spain. On 28 July 2016, he joined from as a trainee for the remainder of the 2016 season. He signed as a professional rider ahead of the 2017 season.


title: Richard Carapaz

text: In his first full year for the , Carapaz came second in both the GP Industria & Artigianato and the Route du Sud. He made his Grand Tour debut in the Vuelta a España, finishing 36th overall.


title: Richard Carapaz

text: His first professional victories came in 2018, with a stage and the overall in the Vuelta a Asturias. He won stage 8 of the Giro d'Italia, becoming the first Ecuadorian cyclist to win a Grand Tour stage. He finished in the top ten in five other stages of that race, and finished fourth in the general classification. He also completed the 2018 Vuelta a España in 18th place.


title: Richard Carapaz

text: Carapaz again won the Vuelta a Asturias in 2019, and went on to win the 2019 Giro d'Italia. After multiple crashes late in stage 4 saw several riders go down and a select group break off on the front, Carapaz made an attack in the final kilometre to take the stage win. On Stage 13, Carapaz attacked and got clear of the two favourites for overall victory, Vincenzo Nibali () and Primož Roglič (). This placed him among the other favourites, two minutes down on Roglič. On stage 14, Carapaz again attacked and won the stage by almost two minutes, taking the general classification lead. Carapaz successfully defended his lead for the rest of the race to take the overall victory. Carapaz became the first Ecuadorian rider to win a Grand Tour and the second South American rider to win the Giro, after Colombian Nairo Quintana in 2014.


title: Richard Carapaz

text: Carapaz joined at the beginning of the 2020 season on a three-year deal. His first win for the team came on 7 August, on the third stage of the Tour de Pologne: on the uphill drag to the finish, Carapaz made an attack in the final kilometre and held off the peloton. In the Tour de France, he came second in both stages 16 and 18. On the latter stage, he finished alongside teammate Michał Kwiatkowski, who won the stage, while Carapaz took the lead in the mountains classification from Tadej Pogačar. However, two days later, Pogačar retook the lead, and also won the stage and moved into the overall race lead; Carapaz ultimately finished second in the mountains classification.


title: Richard Carapaz

text: In the Vuelta a España, Carapaz was once again a challenger for overall victory and traded places with defending champion Primož Roglič several times for the race lead. He first took the red jersey of the race leader on stage 6 from Roglič. On stage 10, Carapaz relinquished it back to Roglič, who won the day's stage, though the two were tied on time and had to be differentiated by tiebreakers. Carapaz regained the race lead briefly after stage 12, but lost it for good to Roglič after the thirteenth stage. On the mountainous penultimate stage, with Roglič, Carapaz, and Hugh Carthy locked in a three-way battle for the overall victory, Carapaz attacked but only managed to take 15 seconds on Carthy and 21 seconds on Roglič. In doing so, he secured a second place overall finish.


title: Richard Carapaz

text: Carapaz took his first victory of the 2021 season on 10 June, winning the mountainous fifth stage of the Tour de Suisse. In so doing, he took the general classification lead, which he defended over the remaining five stages to take the overall win by 17 seconds ahead of Rigoberto Urán.


title: Richard Carapaz

text: Carapaz was named to the 's Tour de France squad as one of four possible contenders for the general classification alongside Tao Geoghegan Hart, Richie Porte, and Tour winner Geraint Thomas. After the other three riders were involved in crashes and lost time in the first week, Carapaz emerged as the sole leader. He would eventually finish third overall.


title: Richard Carapaz

text: Carapaz won the Olympic road race, finishing over a minute clear of the rest of the field. He initially followed an attack by Brandon McNulty with to go, but with left, he pulled away from McNulty and rode across the finish line solo.


title: Richard Carapaz

text: Carapaz began the 2022 season at the Étoile de Bessèges in early February, in which he crashed during stage 3 and abandoned prior to the last stage, having already lost over nine minutes to eventual winner Benjamin Thomas. His bad luck continued at the Tour de la Provence about a week later, from which he was forced to withdraw after testing positive for COVID-19 despite showing no symptoms. However, Carapaz took his first win of the season later that month at the Ecuadorian National Time Trial Championships, which was also his first national title at the elite level. His next important success came during stage 6 of the 2022 Volta a Catalunya when he went on a long distance attack with Sergio Higuita. The pair stayed away for over 100 kilometers and raced all the way to the line with Carapaz taking the stage win and moving into 2nd on GC.


title: Right of way

text: Right of way is the legal right, established by grant from a landowner or long usage (i.e. by prescription), to pass along a specific route through property belonging to another.


title: Right of way

text: A similar "right of access" also exists on land held by a government, lands that are typically called public land, state land, or Crown land. When one person owns a piece of land that is bordered on all sides by lands owned by others, an easement may exist or might be created so as to initiate a right of way through the bordering land.


title: Right of way

text: This article focuses on access by foot, by bicycle, horseback, or along a waterway, while Right-of-way (transportation) focuses on land usage rights for highways, railways, and pipelines.


title: Right of way

text: A footpath is a right of way that legally may only be used by pedestrians. A bridleway is a right of way that legally may be used only by pedestrians, cyclists and equestrians, but not by motorised vehicles. In some countries, especially in Northern Europe, where the freedom to roam has historically taken the form of general public rights, a right of way may not be restricted to specific paths or trails.


title: Right of way

text: A further definition of right of way, chiefly in American transport, is as a type of easement granted or reserved over the land for as to transportation purposes, this can be for a highway, public footpath, railway, canal, as well as electrical transmission lines, oil and gas pipelines.


title: Right of way

text: The term may also describe priority of traffic flow, "the legal right of a pedestrian, vehicle, or ship to proceed with precedence over others in a particular situation or place". In hiking etiquette, where when two groups of hikers meet on a steep trail, a custom has developed in some areas whereby the group moving uphill has the right of way.


title: Right of way

text: There is extensive public access in New Zealand, including waterways and the coast, but it is "often fragmented and difficult to locate".


title: Right of way

text: In the Republic of Ireland, pedestrian rights of way to churches, known as mass paths, have existed for centuries. In other cases, the modern law is unclear; on the one hand, Victorian era laws on easements protect a property owner's rights, amplified by the 1937 constitution, which stipulate that a right of way has to be specifically dedicated to public use. Opposing these, those claiming general rights of way hark back to an anti-landed gentry position that lasted the Land War of the 1880s to the end of British rule in 1922. Rights of way can be asserted by adverse possession, but proving continuous use can be difficult. A case heard in 2010 concerning claims over the Lissadell House estate was based on the historical laws, since amended by the Land and Conveyancing Law Reform Act, 2009.


title: Right of way

text: The 2009 Act abolished the doctrine of lost modern grant, and allows a user to claim a right of way after 12 years of use across private land owned by another, 30 years on state land and 60 years on the foreshore. The claimant must apply to the courts, and have their claim confirmed by a court order, and then have it duly registered on the title deeds, a lengthy process. The user must prove "enjoyment without force, without secrecy and without the oral or written consent of the […] owner", a restatement of the centuries-old principle of "Nec vi, nec clam, nec precario". A court order granting a right of way is personal to the applicant for their lifetime, and cannot be inherited or assigned.


title: Right of way

text: In England and Wales, other than in the 12 Inner London Boroughs and the City of London, public rights of way are paths on which the public have a legally protected right to pass and re-pass. The law in England and Wales differs from that in Scotland in that rights of way only exist where they are so designated (or are able to be designated if not already) whereas in Scotland any route that meets certain conditions is defined as a right of way, and in addition there is a general presumption of access to the countryside. Private rights of way or easements also exist.


title: Right of way

text: Footpaths, bridleways and other rights of way in most of England and Wales are shown on definitive maps. A definitive map is a record of public rights of way in England and Wales. In law it is the definitive record of where a right of way is located. The highway authority (normally the county council, or unitary authority in areas with a one-tier system) has a statutory duty to maintain a definitive map, though in national parks the national park authority usually maintains the map.


title: Right of way

text: Definitive maps of public rights of way have been compiled for all of England and Wales as a result of the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, except the twelve Inner London boroughs which, along with the City of London, were not covered by the Act.


title: Right of way

text: To protect the existing rights of way in London, the Ramblers launched their "Putting London on the Map" in 2010 with the aim of getting "the same legal protection for paths in the capital as already exists for footpaths elsewhere in England and Wales. Currently, legislation allows the Inner London boroughs to choose to produce definitive maps if they wish, but none do so.


title: Right of way

text: The launch event of "Putting London on the Map" took place at the British Library, and since then "the Inner London Area of the Ramblers has been working with Ramblers Central Office staff to try to persuade each of the Inner London boroughs on the desirability of producing definitive maps of rights of way".


title: Right of way

text: In 2011 Lambeth Council passed a resolution to work towards creating a definitive map for their borough, but this does not yet exist. The City of London has produced a Public Access Map. Definitive maps exist for the Outer London boroughs.


title: Right of way

text: Some landowners allow access over their land without dedicating a right of way. These are often physically indistinguishable from public rights of way, but they are may be subject to restrictions. Such paths are often closed at least once a year, so that a permanent right of way cannot be established in law.


title: Right of way

text: In Scotland, a right of way is a route over which the public has been able to pass unhindered for at least 20 years. The route must link two "public places", such as villages, churches or roads. Unlike in England and Wales there is no obligation on Scottish local authorities to signpost rights of way. However the charity Scotways, formed in 1845 to protect rights of way, records and signs the routes.


title: Right of way

text: The Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 codified in law traditional, non-motorised, access practices on land and water. Under the 2003 Act a plain language explanation of rights is published by Scottish Natural Heritage: the Scottish Outdoor Access Code. Certain categories of land are excluded from this presumption of open access, such as railway land, airfields and private gardens.


title: Right of way

text: Section 4 of the Access Code explains how land managers are permitted to request the public to avoid certain areas for a limited period in order to undertake management tasks, however longer term restrictions must be approved by the local authority. The ability to temporarily restrict public access is commonly exercised without notice by shooting, forestry or wind farm operators, but does not extend to public Rights of Way. In Scotland the public have a higher degree of freedom on Rights of Way than on open land. Blocking a Right of Way in Scotland is a criminal obstruction under the Highways Act, just as in England and Wales, but the lack of publicly accessible Rights of Way maps in Scotland makes it very difficult to enforce.


title: Right of way

text: While in England and Wales, highway authorities have a duty to maintain legally recognised maps of rights of way, in Scotland different legislation applies and there is no legally recognised record of rights of way. However, there is a National Catalogue of Rights of Way (CROW), compiled by the Scottish Rights of Way and Access Society (Scotways), in partnership with Scottish Natural Heritage, and the help of local authorities. There are three categories of rights of way in CROW:


title: Right of way

text: Northern Ireland has very few public rights of way and access to land in Northern Ireland is more restricted than other parts of the UK, so that in many areas walkers can only enjoy the countryside because of the goodwill and tolerance of landowners. Permission has been obtained from all landowners across whose land the Waymarked Ways and Ulster Way traverse. Much of Northern Ireland's public land is accessible, e.g. Water Service and Forest Service land, as is land owned and managed by organisations such as the National Trust and the Woodland Trust.


title: Right of way

text: Northern Ireland shares the same legal system as England, including concepts about the ownership of land and public rights of way, but it has its own court structure, system of precedents and specific access legislation.


title: Right of way

text: In the United States, a right-of-way is normally created as a form of easement. The easement may be an easement appurtenant, that benefits a neighboring property, or an easement in gross, that benefits another individual or entity as opposed to another parcel of land. See also "Alternative definitions" above, with regard to


title: Right of way

text: The freedom to roam, or everyman's right is the general public's right to access certain public or privately owned land for recreation and exercise. Access is permitted across any open land, in addition to existing paths and tracks.


title: Right of way

text: In England and Wales public access rights apply to certain categories of mainly uncultivated land—specifically "mountain, moor, heath, down and registered common land". Developed land, gardens and certain other areas are specifically excluded from the right of access. Agricultural land is accessible if it falls within one of the categories described above (See Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000). Most publicly owned forests have a similar right of access by virtue of a voluntary dedication made by the Forestry Commission. People exercising the right of access have certain duties to respect other people's rights to manage the land, and to protect nature.


title: Right of way

text: In Scotland and the Nordic countries of Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden as well as the Baltic countries of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania the freedom to roam may take the form of general public rights which are sometimes codified in law, such as for example the Norway Outdoor Recreation Act. The access is ancient in parts of Northern Europe and has been regarded as sufficiently basic that it was not formalised in law until modern times.


title: Right of way

text: This right also usually includes access to lakes and rivers, and therefore activities like swimming, canoeing, rowing and sailing. The Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 gives everyone statutory access rights to most inland water in Scotland (excluding motorized vehicles), providing that they respect the rights of others.


title: Right of way

text: The Rivers Access Campaign is being undertaken by the British Canoe Union (BCU) to open up the inland water-ways in England and Wales on behalf of members of the public. Under current UK law, public access to rivers is restricted, and only 2% of all rivers in England and Wales have public access rights. The BCU is using the campaign not just to raise awareness of the access issues, but to try to bring about changes in the law.


title: Right of way

text: Many tropical countries such as Madagascar have historic policies of open access to forest or wilderness areas.


title: Right of way

text: Some land long considered public or crown land may in fact be the territory of indigenous people, in countries that were colonised.


title: Right of way

text: Much of Canada is Crown land owned by the provinces. Some is leased for commercial activity, such as forestry or mining, but on much of it there is free access for recreational activities like hiking, cycling, canoeing, cross-country skiing, horse back riding, and licensed hunting and fishing, etc. At the same time access can be restricted or limited for various reasons (e.g., to protect public safety or resources, including the protection of wild plants and animals).


title: Right of way

text: In the Canadian Territories Crown land is administered by the Canadian Federal Government. Canadian National Parks have been created from Crown land and are also administered by the Federal Government. There are also provincial parks and nature reserves that have been similarly created. The aboriginal peoples in Canada may have specific rights on Crown land established under treaties signed when Canada was a British colony, and have claimed ownership of some Crown land.


title: Right of way

text: Much of Australia's land area, including most land below the mean high water mark is Crown land, which is administered by the Australian states. Much consists of pastoral leases, land owned and run by Aboriginal people (e.g. APY lands), and “unallocated” Crown land. Access to the latter is normally permitted for recreational purposes, though motorized vehicles are required to follow roads and to be registered and insured.


title: Right of way

text: Most state and federally managed public lands are open for recreational use. Recreation opportunities depend on the managing agency, and run the gamut from the free-for-all, undeveloped wide open spaces of the Bureau of Land Management lands to the highly developed and controlled US national parks and state parks. Wildlife refuges and state wildlife management areas, managed primarily to improve habitat, are generally open to wildlife watching, hiking, and hunting, except for closures to protect mating and nesting, or to reduce stress on wintering animals. National forests generally have a mix of maintained trails and roads, wilderness and undeveloped portions, and developed picnic and camping areas.


title: Right of way

text: Public rights of way frequently exist on the foreshore of beaches. In legal discussions the foreshore is often referred to as the "wet-sand area".


title: Right of way

text: For privately owned beaches in the United States, some states such as Massachusetts use the low water mark as the dividing line between the property of the State and that of the beach owner. Other states such as California use the high-water mark.


title: Right of way

text: In the UK, the foreshore is generally deemed to be owned by the Crown although there are notable exceptions, especially what are termed "several fisheries" which can be historic deeds to title, dating back to King John's time or earlier, and the Udal Law, which applies generally in Orkney and Shetland. While in the rest of Britain ownership of land extends only to the High water mark, and The Crown is deemed to own what lies below it, in Orkney and Shetland it extends to the lowest Spring ebb.


title: Right of way

text: In Greece, according to the L. 2971/01, the foreshore zone is defined as the area of the coast which might be reached by the maximum climbing of the waves on the coast (maximum wave run-up on the coast) in their maximum capacity (maximum referring to the “usually maximum winter waves” and of course not to exceptional cases, such as tsunamis etc.). The foreshore zone, apart from the exceptions in the law, is public, and permanent constructions are not allowed on it.


title: Right of way

text: As with the dry sand part of a beach, legal and political disputes can arise over the ownership and public use of the foreshore. One recent example is the New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy involving the land claims of the Māori people. However, the Marine and Coastal Area (Takutai Moana) Act 2011 guarantees free public access.


title: Right of way

text: The Rivers Access Campaign is being undertaken by the British Canoe Union (BCU) to open up the inland water-ways in England and Wales on behalf of members of the public. Under current England and Wales law, public access to rivers is restricted, and only 2% of all rivers in England and Wales have public access rights.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: The Gulfstream G400, G500, and G600 (GVII) are twin-engine business jets designed and produced by Gulfstream Aerospace.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: The two larger models were unveiled on October 14, 2014 and the smaller G400 was unveiled on October 4, 2021. The G500 was first delivered on September 27, 2018, and the longer G600 was first delivered August 8.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: The smaller G400 meanwhile has not yet been certified, and is not expected to go into production until 2025.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: Powered by two Pratt & Whitney Canada PW800 turbofans, the MTOW G500 has a range of while the G600 can cover at a speed of Mach 0.85.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: Both aircraft were unveiled by Gulfstream Aerospace on October 14, 2014 During the second quarter of 2017, 80% of Gulfstream orders were for the G500/G600.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: The G500 was taxiing under its own power at its unveiling on October 14, 2014, and it first flew on May 18, 2015. The model was initially planned to be certified in 2017. In May 2017, the test fleet of four G500 prototypes and the first production aircraft, made over 745 flights in two years for 2,900 flight hours, on track for the certification by the end of the year.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: In August 2017, the FAA issued the G500 a type inspection authorization to allow in flight evaluation. The five G500 test aircraft have logged more than 3,100 hours over 820 sorties and completed cabin systems, brakes, lighting, fly-over noise and fuel systems tests. The fifth G500, with a complete interior, will be the first to enter service, as a demonstrator, before customer deliveries in early 2018. Through August 20, the G500s had flown 3,460 h over 905 flights, reaching Mach 0.995 and FL530.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: For the October 2017 NBAA show, the five G500s were completing their campaign with 995 flights and 3,690 h - 10 h 19 min for the longest - the first delivery schedule was maintained as certification was pushed until early 2018.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: Mach 0.85 range for the G500 was extended by 200 nmi to 5,200 nmi/9,630 km and by 600 nmi/1,111 km to 4,400 nmi/8,149 km at Mach 0.90.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: The 300 flights hours of function and reliability testing required for FAA type certification was to be completed in summer 2018 after 240 were done at the end of May 2018 covering 100,300 nmi in 69 flights, along known icing flight and high-elevation certification tests: the five flight-test G500s made 1,355 flights in 4,955 hours.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: On July 20, 2018, Gulfstream announced it received both its type certification and production certificate from the FAA, before first delivery in the fourth quarter. As nacelle supplier Nordam filed for bankruptcy on 23 July, initial deliveries will be slowed.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: Certification allowed the EFVS to provide the only visual cues for landing down to runway visual range, to touchdown and rollout, after 50 test approaches, and testing to lower visibilities could allow dropping the limit.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: The longer G600 had its first flight at Savannah/Hilton Head International Airport on December 17, 2016. Four flight-test aircraft and a production G600 will be used for the test program for a scheduled 2018 introduction:


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: Through August 20, the four G600s have logged 780 h in 175 flights, the longest lasting 13 h 5 min, it completed testing for initial flight envelope expansion and flying qualities, flutter, brakes, low speed or stall, loads calibration, parameter identification and climb performance, the fifth test aircraft will fly later in the quarter.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: Range for the G600 was extended by 300 nmi/556 km for both Mach 0.85 to 6,500 nmi/12,038 km and Mach 0.90 to 5,100 nmi/9,445 km.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: Certification and introduction for the G600 was to happen in 2018 like for the G500. The five flight-test G600s accumulated 1,950 hours in 510 flights, were completing mechanical systems certification testing in May 2018 before airfield-performance testing in summer. By August, 600 flights over 2,290 hours were completed after trials for ice shapes and stall speed testing and before field-performance testing, towards U.S. approval by year-end and deliveries in 2019.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: The FAA's rigorous review delayed the certification as the test programme had logged more than 3,150h over 840 flights by the end of April 2019, and approval was targeted before the end of June for a second half of 2019 service entry.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: The first G600 was delivered on August 8, 2019. The first EASA-certified G600 was delivered in December 2020 to an Austrian operator.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: On October 4, 2021, Gulfstream introduced the 4,200 nmi (7,780 km) range G400, powered by Pratt & Whitney PW812GA engines with deliveries planned to start in 2025. Priced at $34.5 million, the G400 has a shortened G500 fuselage, with 2.5 zones and 10 Windows, instead of 3 zones and 14 windows. By March 2022, as the prototype was not yet rolled out, Gulfstream was anticipating a more extensive flight-test and certification campaign for the five test aircraft, as the G400 is powered by a different PW800 variant and the US government strengthened some certification requirements after the Boeing 737 Max groundings, but the 2025 first delivery goal remained.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: The G500 will replace the G450, flying nearly faster and 18% farther with the same fuel burn. The larger G600 will succeed the G550.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: Both models have a four circular arcs cross-section fuselage, similar to the Gulfstream G650, with a reduction in width and height. Similar in dimension to the Dassault Falcon, the G500/600 have more headroom, more cabin width and more floor width than Gulfstream's G450 and G550. The fuselage has an external height of , and width of . The production G500 will have 14 windows, two more than the prototype models.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: The G600 cabin is longer than the G500, allowing up to four passenger zones or three long zones, a longer galley and a forward crew rest.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: The wing is a supercritical design with a 0.87 to 0.88 drag divergence Mach number depending upon lift coefficient. It is based on the G650's wing design with the same 36° sweep. The G600's wingspan will be wider than the G500, allowing for of additional fuel. Both models have a new tail design based on the aerodynamic shape and systems of the G650's tail.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: The airframe is primarily composed of high-strength aluminum alloys with limited use of steel and titanium alloys. The horizontal stabilizer, fairings, main landing gear doors, rudder and elevators, radome, rear pressure bulkhead and winglets are composite materials. The semi-monocoque fuselage structure is made of stressed skin, frame and longeron.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: The G500/G600 will be powered by the Pratt & Whitney Canada PW800 series turbofan engines (PW814GA for G500 and PW815GA for G600) which was originally conceived for the Cessna Citation Columbus program. The PW800 is based on the Pratt & Whitney Geared Turbofan core without the gear reduction. The departure from Rolls-Royce Aero Engines is a first for Gulfstream.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: At Mach 0.90, TAS, the G600 burns per h at FL430, ISA-3°C and a weight of , compared to a per h book value.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: At Mach 0.85 TAS, the same G600 burns per h at FL470, ISA-10°C and a weight of , below the prediction.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: Electric and hydraulic systems are from the G650, as the digital air data computers, secondary power distribution with electronics, cabin acoustical treatment, primary avionics, satcom, improved cabin management system and digital fly-by-wire system. The oxygen, cabin pressurization, landing gear control, aircraft health and trend monitoring systems are adapted from the G650. The auxiliary power unit is a Honeywell HTG400G.


title: Gulfstream G400/G500/G600

text: It is equipped with BAE Systems active sidesticks, appearing to be mechanically linked by being electrically back-driven, the first civil aircraft to be so. The Honeywell Symmetry Flight Deck features four portrait main displays, three touchscreens on the overhead panel instead of stand-alone switches ; there are four force-touchscreens in the glareshield and left and right touch standby displays at each seat. The enhanced flight vision system is displayed through 42×30° field-of-view head-up display.


title: Phil Gallagher

text: Phil Gallagher is a British children's television presenter who is best known for playing the title character in the CBeebies children's television show "Mister Maker".


title: Phil Gallagher

text: Gallagher attended Rainham Mark Grammar School in Rainham, Kent, and Canterbury Christ Church University.


title: Phil Gallagher

text: Gallagher started his career as presenter and sports reporter on BBC Radio Kent. He was a performer and puppeteer on Playhouse Disney and also provided characters and voices for Studio Disney.


title: Phil Gallagher

text: From 2003 until 2005, Gallagher presented "Diggin' It" on GMTV. During 2006, he was a regular character on "Mighty Truck of Stuff" as 'Pablo', and was also the voice-over for Channel 4's "Unanimous".


title: Phil Gallagher

text: Gallagher has appeared as the title character in "Mister Maker" since 2007. He also appeared in 2 episodes of "Bear Behaving Badly" as the Robot Rat Catcher and the Mummy. Since 2009, he has also played the role of 'Mr Liker Biker' in "Grandpa in My Pocket".


title: Phil Gallagher

text: Gallagher often performs in pantomimes. In 2006, he appeared as Wishee Washee in "Aladdin" at the Theatre Royal in Winchester. In 2007, he appeared as Silly Billy (Jack's brother) in "Jack and the Beanstalk", again at the Theatre Royal in Winchester. In 2008, he appeared as Buttons in "Cinderella" at the Opera House, Buxton, Derbyshire. In 2009 he played alongside George Takei in the title role of Aladdin at the Central Theatre in Chatham, Kent, and in 2011 as Muddles in "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" in St Albans with Toyah Willcox who played the Evil Queen. In 2013, he returned to "Jack and the Beanstalk", playing Billy Trot in a production at the Marlowe Theatre, Canterbury alongside Samantha Womack.


title: Phil Gallagher

text: In 2009, Gallagher was nominated for the BAFTA Children's Awards as Best Presenter for his role in "Mister Maker".


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: Nicholas Nickleby is a 2002 British-American period comedy-drama film written and directed by Douglas McGrath. The screenplay is based on "The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby" by Charles Dickens, which originally was published in serial form between March 1838 and September 1839. Charlie Hunnam stars in the titular role alongside Nathan Lane, Jim Broadbent, Christopher Plummer, Jamie Bell, Anne Hathaway, Romola Garai, Alan Cumming, and Timothy Spall.


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: A prologue introduces the Nicklebys, country gentry who enjoy a comfortable life in the Devon countryside until the father dies and leaves his family with no source of income. Nineteen-year-old Nicholas, his mother, and his younger sister, Kate, venture to London to seek help from their wealthy, cold-hearted uncle Ralph, an investor who arranges for Nicholas to be hired as a tutor at Dotheboys Hall in Yorkshire and finds Kate work as a seamstress.


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: Nicholas is horrified to discover his employers, the sadistic Mr and Mrs Squeers, run their boarding school like a prison and physically, verbally, and emotionally abuse their young charges on a regular basis. He eventually rebels and escapes, taking with him the crippled young servant boy Smike. As they journey to London, they stumble upon a theatrical troupe owned and operated by Mr and Mrs Crummles. They cast them in a production of "Romeo and Juliet", but despite a successful first night and the couple's invitation to stay, Nicholas is determined to continue their journey to London after hearing that Kate is in trouble.


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: Nicholas discovers his sister has been subjected to humiliating sexual harassment from the lecherous Sir Mulberry Hawk, a client of their uncle, who has encouraged the man to seduce his niece in the hope that she will succumb and thus cement Hawk's business relationship with him. Nicholas confronts Sir Mulberry and his uncle, renouncing the latter.


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: Nicholas is reunited with his family, who welcome Smike as one of their own, and finds clerical employment with the kindly Cheeryble brothers, who offer him more than double his previous salary. While thus employed, Nicholas makes the acquaintance of Madeline Bray, an artist who financially supports both herself and her tyrannical father, as her father gambled away his fortune and that of his late wife.


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: Nicholas' determination to defend his sister's honour leads his uncle to vow he will destroy the young man. What ensues is a series of adventures in which the upstanding Nicholas manages to survive the schemes of his evil uncle, including an attempt to return Smike to Squeers by kidnapping him and an effort to abort Nicholas' growing relationship with Madeline by promising her father he will excuse his debts if the girl weds Hawk. Ralph's designs on Madeline are thwarted when her father dies unexpectedly. Unfortunately, Smike falls ill and soon dies. Soon after, a sinister secret Ralph has harbored for years surfaces, and it is revealed Smike was Ralph's son, whom he had thought dead. Realizing that his son had died the best friend of his most hated enemy, Ralph hangs himself. Kate marries the Cheeryble brothers' nephew Frank, while Nicholas marries Madeline and settles with her in Devon at his father's house and grounds, where Smike is buried.


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: In "Creating a Classic: The Making of Nicholas Nickleby", a bonus feature on the film's DVD release, screenwriter/director Douglas McGrath and his cast and crew discuss the development of the project. The positive audience reaction to a stage reading of the screenplay in a theater in lower Manhattan, which included a number of actors who eventually were cast in the film, convinced McGrath to proceed with the movie. At the request of production designer Eve Stewart, he advanced the time frame from the 1830s to the 1850s so she could incorporate elements of the Industrial Revolution into her design plans.


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: Jamie Bell's audition for the role of Smike in a London hotel room left McGrath and the producers in tears, and they cast him on the spot. While considering Mrs. Crummles, a smug, opinionated, but lovable dowager, McGrath realized all her traits and characteristics were embodied by Dame Edna Everage, alter ego of actor Barry Humphries, but was hesitant to suggest casting a male in the role. The producers, however, agreed Humphries was an ideal choice. Nicholas was one of the last roles to be cast. Charlie Hunnam had been sent the script, but several months passed before he had an opportunity to read it. He met with McGrath, and based on a couple of hours of conversation with the actor, the director felt he finally had found the right man for the part. Ironically, the British Hunnam had to work with a dialect coach; having lived and worked in the US for the past several years, he had perfected an American accent in order to ensure regular employment.


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: Costume designer Ruth Myers opted to dress two of the leading characters in clothing pre-dating the period in which the film is set in order to suggest Nicholas, as the newly anointed head of his family, wore clothing inherited from his father, and the impoverished Madeline's dresses were hand-me-downs from her mother.


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: Locations used in the film included the abandoned 19th century Gibson Mill in Hardcastle Crags; Hebden Bridge in West Yorkshire; Churchill College at the University of Cambridge; and Wilton's Music Hall, the Old Vic, and the Reform Club in London. Interiors were filmed in Elstree Studios in Borehamwood and Three Mills Studios in the East End of London.


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: The film received positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 78% out of 126 professional critics gave the film a positive review, with a rating average of 6.8/10 and the critical consensus being: "Thanks to a strong cast of experienced actors and director Douglas McGrath's steady hand, "Nicholas Nickleby" is a worthy and respectful adaptation of the Dickens novel."


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: In his review in "The New York Times", A. O. Scott called the film "two hours of swift, engaging entertainment" and added, "The book's theme and spirit have been dutifully respected. No, what Mr. McGrath has done with admirable modesty is better than that. Rather than trying to update, transform or otherwise interpret "Nickleby", he has decided to share his enthusiasm for it ... [He] has adapted [Dickens' dialogue] with a scholar's ear and a showman's flair ... [and] produced a colorful, affecting collage of Dickensian moods and motifs, a movie that elicits an overwhelming desire to plunge into 900 pages of 19th-century prose."


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" said, "The movie is jolly and exciting and brimming with life, and wonderfully well-acted."


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: In the "San Francisco Chronicle", Mick LaSalle observed, "It took Dickens 65 chapters, and it took the famous stage production eight hours to tell the story of "Nicholas Nickleby". But in the new movie, writer-director Douglas McGrath manages to tell it all in 132 minutes, without the story ever seeming rushed or curtailed. Instead, the impression is one of abundance: It's a generous tale, told through big performances by a talented cast."


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" awarded the film three out of a possible four stars and commented, "Christopher Plummer steals the show without resorting to camp as Nicholas' wounded and wounding Uncle Ralph. It's a great performance and a reminder of Dickens' grandeur. This CliffsNotes of a film, though lively fun, only hints at that. No matter. I'll take the hint."


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: In "Variety", David Rooney described the film as "a delightful experience. The sacrifices of condensing Dickens' massive novel to standard feature length are discernible, especially in the title character's discovery of love. But while it's told in conventional fashion, the heart of this tale of a young man's quest to rescue his family from villainy and misfortune is lovingly rendered by a mostly superlative cast and with an entertaining balance of humor and pathos . . . McGrath's approach is old-fashioned but appealing, using a novelistic style that relies on voiceover to get through much of the initial exposition. His script captures the scope, humor and compassion of Dickens' novel and drives the picaresque story along at a lively clip."


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: The film grossed $1,587,173 in the U.S. and $2,064,289 in foreign markets for a total worldwide box office of $3,651,462.


title: Nicholas Nickleby (2002 film)

text: The film was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy. It received the National Board of Review Award for Best Cast, and Romola Garai was nominated for the Jameson People's Choice Award for Best European Actress at the European Film Awards.


title: Clark Gable filmography

text: Clark Gable (1901–1960) was an American actor and producer who appeared in over 70 feature films and several short films. Gable first began acting in stage productions, before his film debut in 1924. After many minor roles, Gable landed a leading role in 1931, subsequently becoming one of the most dominant leading men in Hollywood. He often acted alongside re-occurring leading ladies: six films with Jean Harlow, seven with Myrna Loy, and eight with Joan Crawford, among many others.


title: Clark Gable filmography

text: Gable's first role opposite Joan Crawford was in "Dance, Fools, Dance" (1931), the first of eight films in which they appeared together. He was billed sixth. That same year, he also appeared in the gangster film "The Secret Six", his first film with Harlow. In 1932, he acted alongside future wife Carole Lombard in "No Man of Her Own". In his next role in "Dancing Lady" (1933), Gable appeared alongside Ted Healy and His Stooges and Fred Astaire, who was making his acting debut. Gable's role in the Frank Capra-directed "It Happened One Night" (1934) garnered him the Academy Award for Best Actor.


title: Clark Gable filmography

text: For his performance in "Mutiny on the Bounty" (1935), Gable was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor. He then appeared in "San Francisco", which was the highest-grossing film of 1936. In 1937, he starred in "Saratoga"; his co-star Jean Harlow died during production. Gable then appeared in "Too Hot to Handle" (1938), the last of seven films with Myrna Loy. He then played Rhett Butler in "Gone with the Wind" (1939), acting alongside Vivien Leigh and Olivia de Havilland. The film was massively successful, winning the Academy Award for Best Picture, and remains the highest-grossing film of all time, adjusted for inflation. The following year, he starred with leading lady Hedy Lamarr in the King Vidor-directed "Comrade X". Also released that year, "Strange Cargo" would be Gable's last film with Crawford. His final film before joining the United States Army Air Forces was "Somewhere I'll Find You" (1942). During the war, he narrated the propaganda film "Wings Up" (1942) and filmed "Combat America" (1945).


title: Clark Gable filmography

text: Gable's first film after returning from combat was the Victor Fleming-directed "Adventure" (1945). His next role was alongside leading ladies Ava Gardner and Deborah Kerr in "The Hucksters" (1947). Gable next collaborated with Gardner and Grace Kelly in the John Ford-directed "Mogambo" (1953), a remake of Gable's earlier film "Red Dust" (1932). In 1958, Gable appeared in "Run Silent, Run Deep", which also featured Burt Lancaster and Don Rickles. That same year, he starred opposite Doris Day and Mamie Van Doren in "Teacher's Pet", which garnered him a nomination for Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. Gable acted alongside Sophia Loren in "It Started in Naples" (1960). Gable's final film appearance was in the John Huston-directed western "The Misfits" (1961), released post-humously. It was also Marilyn Monroe's last acting role.


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: "Tom Dooley" is a traditional North Carolina folk song based on the 1866 murder of a woman named Laura Foster in Wilkes County, North Carolina by Tom Dula (whose name in the local dialect was pronounced "Dooley"). One of the more famous murder ballads, a popular hit version recorded in 1958 by The Kingston Trio, which reached No. 1 in "Billboard" Hot 100 singles chart, and also was top 10 on the "Billboard" R&B chart, and appeared in the "Cashbox" Country Music Top 20.


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: The song was selected as one of the American Songs of the Century by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), the National Endowment for the Arts, and Scholastic Inc. Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: "Tom Dooley" fits within the wider genre of Appalachian "sweetheart murder ballads". A local poet named Thomas Land wrote a song about the tragedy, titled "Tom Dooley", shortly after Dula was hanged. In the documentary "Appalachian Journey" (1991), folklorist Alan Lomax describes Frank Proffitt as the "original source" for the song, which was misleading in that he did not write it. There are several earlier known recordings, notably one that Grayson and Whitter made in 1929, approximately 10 years before Proffitt cut his own recording.


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: The Kingston Trio took their version from Frank Warner's singing. Warner had learned the song from Proffitt, who learned it from his aunt, Nancy Prather, whose parents had known both Laura Foster and Tom Dula. In a 1967 interview, Nick Reynolds of the Kingston Trio recounts first hearing the song from another performer and then being criticized and sued for taking credit for the song. Supported by the testimony of Anne and Frank Warner, Frank Proffitt was eventually acknowledged by the courts as the preserver of the original version of the song, and the Kingston Trio were ordered to pay royalties to him for their uncredited use of it.


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: In 1866, Laura Foster was murdered. Confederate veteran Tom Dula, Foster's lover and the father of her unborn child, was convicted of her murder and hanged May 1, 1868. Foster had been stabbed to death with a large knife, and the brutality of the attack partly accounted for the widespread publicity of the murder and subsequent trial received.


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: Anne Foster Melton, Laura's cousin, had been Dula's lover from the time he was twelve and until he left for the Civil War – even after Anne married an older man named James Melton. When Dula returned, he became a lover again to Anne, then Laura, then their cousin Pauline Foster. Pauline's comments led to the discovery of Laura's body and accusations against both Tom and Anne. Anne was subsequently acquitted in a separate trial, based on Dula's word that she had nothing to do with the killing. Dula's enigmatic statement on the gallows that he had not harmed Foster but still deserved his punishment led to press speculation that Melton was the actual killer and that Dula simply covered for her. (Melton, who had once expressed jealousy of Dula's purported plans to marry Foster, died either in a carting accident or by going insane a few years after the homicide, depending on the version.)


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: Thanks to the efforts of newspapers such as "The New York Times" and to the fact that former North Carolina governor Zebulon Vance represented Dula "pro bono", Dula's murder trial and hanging were given widespread national publicity. A local poet, Thomas C. Land, wrote a song titled "Tom Dooley" about Dula's tragedy soon after the hanging. Combined with the widespread publicity the trial received, Land's song further cemented Dula's place in North Carolina legend and is still sung today throughout North Carolina.


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: A man named "Grayson", mentioned in the song as pivotal in Dula's downfall, has sometimes been characterized as a romantic rival of Dula's or a vengeful sheriff who captured him and presided over his hanging. Some variant lyrics of the song portray Grayson in that light, and the spoken introduction to the Kingston Trio version did the same. Col. James Grayson was actually a Tennessee politician who had hired Dula on his farm when the young man fled North Carolina under suspicion and was using a false name. Grayson did help North Carolinians capture Dula and was involved in returning him to North Carolina but otherwise played no role in the case.


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: Dula was tried in Statesville because it was believed he could not get a fair trial in Wilkes County. He was given a new trial on appeal but he was again convicted and hanged on May 1, 1868. On the gallows, Dula reportedly stated, "Gentlemen, do you see this hand? I didn't harm a hair on the girl's head."


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: Dula's last name was pronounced "Dooley," leading to some confusion in spelling over the years. The pronunciation of a final "a" like "y" (or "ee") is an old feature in Appalachian speech, as in the term "Grand Ole Opry". The confusion was compounded by the fact that Dr. Tom Dooley, an American physician known for international humanitarian work, was at the height of his fame in 1958 when the Kingston Trio version became a major hit.


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: Other artists that have recorded versions of the song include Paul Clayton, Line Renaud, Bing Crosby, Jack Narz, Steve Earle, the Grateful Dead, and Doc Watson.


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: "Tom Dooley" prompted a number of parodies, either as part of other songs or as entire songs. For example:


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: The third and final verse of Stonewall Jackson's crossover hit song Waterloo of 1958 referenced Tom Dooley with the lyrics "Now he swings where the little birdie sings, and that's where Tom Dooley met his Waterloo."


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: The Kingston Trio hit inspired the film, "The Legend of Tom Dooley" (1959), starring Michael Landon, co-starring Richard Rust. A Western set after the Civil War, it was not about traditional Tom Dula legends or the facts of the case, but a fictional treatment tailored to fit the lyrics of the song.


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: "Tom Dooley" is the name of a season 5 episode of "Ally McBeal", in which John Cage sings a version of the song with his Mexican band.


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: The song was parodied in episode No. 702 of "Mystery Science Theater 3000". Crow T. Robot, motivated by one actor's resemblance to Thomas Dewey, sang a version beginning "Hang down your head, "Tom Dewey"."


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: In the 1980 film "Friday the 13th", the campers in the opening scene start to sing the song. The opening scene is set in 1958, the year the Kingston Trio version of the song debuted.


title: Tom Dooley (song)

text: Episode 10 of Santo, Sam and Ed's Total Football Podcast is titled "Hang Down Your Head Tom Dula". This naming was in reference to a sample of the song generated by Santo Cilauro whereby he jokingly claimed Tiziano Crudeli had performed a version of Tom Dooley with "The Kingstown Trio". Crudeli's bombastic commentary style on Diretta Stadio afforded him celebrity status in Italy, and audio of Crudli's pronunciation of various footballers' names was a constant running gag throughout the Total Football Podcast.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenian cuisine includes the foods and cooking techniques of the Armenian people and traditional Armenian foods and dishes. The cuisine reflects the history and geography where Armenians have lived as well as sharing outside influences from European and Levantine cuisines. The cuisine also reflects the traditional crops and animals grown and raised in Armenian-populated areas.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: The preparation of meat, fish, and vegetable dishes in an Armenian kitchen often requires stuffing, frothing, and puréeing. Lamb, eggplant, and bread (lavash) are basic features of Armenian cuisine. Armenians traditionally prefer cracked wheat (bulgur) to maize and rice. The flavor of the food often relies on the quality and freshness of the ingredients rather than on excessive use of spices.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Fresh herbs are used extensively, both in the food and as accompaniments. Dried herbs are used in the winter when fresh herbs are not available. Wheat is the primary grain and is found in a variety of forms, such as whole wheat, shelled wheat, bulgur (parboiled cracked wheat), semolina, farina, and flour. Historically, rice was used mostly in the cities and in certain rice-growing areas (such as Marash and the region around Yerevan). Legumes are used liberally, especially chick peas, lentils, white beans, and kidney beans. Nuts are used both for texture and to add nutrition to Lenten dishes. Of primary usage are not only walnuts, almonds, and pine nuts, but also hazelnuts, pistachios (in Cilicia), and nuts from regional trees.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Fresh and dried fruit are used both as main ingredients and as sour agents. As main ingredients, the following fruits are used: apricots (fresh and dried), quince, melons, and others. As sour agents, the following fruits are used: sumac berries (in dried, powdered form), sour grapes, plums (either sour or dried), pomegranate, apricots, cherries (especially sour cherries), and lemons. In addition to grape leaves, cabbage leaves, chard, beet leaves, radish leaves, strawberry leaves, and others are also stuffed.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: A typical meal in an Armenian household might consist of bread, butter, buttermilk, cheese, fresh and picked vegetables, and radishes. Lunch might include a vegetable or meatball soup with sour milk.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Lamb, yogurt, eggplant and bread are basic features of the cuisine of the Caucasus, and in this regard, Armenian cuisine is often similar, but there are some regional differences. In Soviet cookbooks the Armenian cuisine is always stated to be the oldest of Transcaucasia and one of the oldest in whole Asia. Armenian dishes make use of cracked wheat, especially in their pilavs, while Georgian variations use maize. Armenian cuisine also makes use of mixed flours made from wheat, potato and maize, which produces flavors that are difficult to replicate. Armenians call kofta "kiufta" and tail fat "dmak". Archaeologists have found traces of barley, grapes, lentils, peas, plums, sesame, and wheat during excavations of the Erebuni Fortress in Yerevan.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Herbs are used copiously in Armenian cuisine, and Armenian desserts are often flavored with rose water, orange flower water and honey. Salads are a staple of the Armenian diet, along with various yogurt soups and lamb stews, which sometimes include apricots. Pomegranate juice is a popular beverage. Murat Belge has written that both Armenian and Iranian cuisines have meat and fruit dishes, where meat is cooked together with fruits like quince and plums, which are uncommon in Ottoman cuisine.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Mezes made with chickpeas, lentils, beans and eggplants play a role in Armenian cuisine, often served with traditional lavash bread. Lavash may also be used as a wrap for various combinations of fried meat, vegetables, cheese and herbs. Cold cucumber soup is a common dish. "Bozbash" is a soup of fatty lamb meat that may include various fruits and vegetables such as quince and apples. Armenian cuisine also features filled pastry pies called "boereg", various types of sausages, toasted pumpkin seeds, pistachios, pine nuts, "basturma", and dolma.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Cinnamon is a very commonly used spice in Armenian cuisine; it is sprinkled on soups, breads, desserts and sometimes even fish. Salads are served with a lemon-cinnamon dressing alongside as an accompaniment to meat kebabs. In a survey of Armenian-American cuisine, ginger was rated an important spice.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenians were affected by the ongoing Ottoman–Persian Wars (one text laments "The whole land is enslaved by the cursed Suleyman") and produced many literary works in the 16th and 17th centuries emphasizing the Christian identity of Armenians in troubled Anatolia. Food became a central theme in this body of Armenian literature. Despite prohibitions in early Armenian law codes against Armenians eating or drinking with Muslims, a "sort of blasphemous" 17th century Armenian drinking song describes a feast in Van attended by Armenian priests, laymen and Turks, with the refrain repeating "Intercede to the great barrel, bountiful is its wine." The poem contains many Armenian terms for common foods. Some of the terms found in Andreas are:


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Ardashes H. Keoleian authored the "Oriental Cookbook" (1913) is a collection of recipes from the Middle East "adapted to American tastes and methods of preparation" is a mixed collection of recipes that includes some recipes from the Armenian cuisine.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenian-American cookbook author Rose Baboian made her collection of traditional Armenian recipes accessible for young, English-speaking Armenians. Born in Aintab (present day Gaziantep), she survived the Armenian Genocide when her school was moved to Syria, eventually relocating to the United States. Mark Zanger, a Boston-based food reporter, wrote that Baboian's book "stands out as a model of American ethnic food because she recorded so many traditions". She is considered to have anticipated Armenian American fusion cooking with recipes like "chocolate yogurt".


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Grains used in traditional Armenian cuisine included millet, wheat, barley, rye, peas and maize. Various legumes were also consumed such as lentils, chickpeas, and beans.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Grains are used for a variety of purposes: traditional "lavash" bread is made from wheat flour and grains are also added to soups to give them a thicker consistency. "Lavash" is baked in a traditional clay tonir oven. Bread is a very important staple of Armenian cuisine.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: "Kofta" can be made with bulgur, finely chopped vegetables, herbs and often lamb. There are variations intended to be eaten cold or served hot. "Sini keufteh" is a dish similar to "kibbeh", but layered and baked in a baking dish. The two outer layers are made with bulgur, lamb mince, onion and spices. The inner filling includes butter, onion, lamb mince, pine nuts and spices.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Harissa is a porridge made of wheat and meat cooked together for a long time, originally in the tonir but nowadays over a stove. Ardashes Hagop Keoleian called it the "national dish" of Armenians. Traditionally, harissa was prepared on feast days in communal pots. The wheat used in harissa is typically shelled (pelted) wheat, though in Adana, harissa is made with կորկոտ ("korkot"; ground, par-boiled shelled wheat). Harissa can be made with lamb, beef, or chicken.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: A common dish of Armenian cuisine is pilaf (եղինձ; "yeghints"). Pilaf is a seasoned rice, bulgur, or shelled wheat dish often served with meats such as lamb or beef. Armenian recipes may combine vermicelli or orzo with rice cooked in stock seasoned with mint, parsley and allspice. One traditional Armenian pilaf is made with the same noodle rice mixture cooked in stock with raisins, almonds and allspice. Armenian rices are discussed by Rose Baboian in her cookbook from 1964 which includes recipes for different pilafs, most rooted in her birthplace of Aintab in Turkey. Baboian recommends that the noodles be stir-fried first in chicken fat before being added to the pilaf. Another Armenian cookbook written by Vağinag Pürad recommends to render poultry fat in the oven with red pepper until the fat mixture turns a red color before using the strained fat to prepare pilaf. Pilaf made with bulgur and liver is a specialty of Zeytun (present day Süleymanlı).


title: Armenian cuisine

text: "Lapa" is an Armenian word with several meanings, one of which is "watery boiled rice, thick rice soup, mush" and "lepe" which refers to various rice dishes differing by region. Antranig Azhderian describes Armenian pilaf as "dish resembling porridge".


title: Armenian cuisine

text: In Agn (present day Kemaliye) a thin flatbread calling "loshig" was baked and dried. It would be wetted again before being eaten. "Badjoug" was a pastry of fat and flour stamped with designs and sent as a wedding invitation. "Glodj" was unleavened bread made for Lent and "klrdig" was a bread made of semolina.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenians make extensive use of various herbs in their dishes. One porridge prepared from cereals and wild herbs is called "kerchik". (The same name is used by Yazidis.) Armenians usually eat "kerchik" with pickled cabbage, whereas Yazidis eat it with knotgrass ("Polygonum aviculare"). The Eastern Anatolia region, where many Armenians lived prior to the Armenian genocide, has an immensely rich plant biodiversity with over 3,000 vascular plant taxa—of these almost 800 are endemic species. The inhabitants of this region often lived in inaccessible area and were dependent on local cultivated and wild flora. Some of the most important areas of the region, in terms of plant diversity, include Harput, Lake Hazar and Munzur.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Commonly used spices include black pepper, sumac, cumin, and cinnamon. Some greens were dried and used to season cooking including mint, summer savory and basil. Red pepper pulp was dried in the sun. Sprigs of terebinth were dried and infused in a mixture of water, olive oil and brine, then toasted and ground. The ground terebinth was added as a seasoning for tabouleh and baked breads.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Typical dairy items were present in the Armenian cuisine such as yogurt, strained yogurt, butter, cream, and cheese.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Cheese is a staple of Armenian cuisine and in the traditional cuisine it was consumed daily. The process of making Armenian "lori" cheese begins by boiling, similar to halloumi cheese. It is preserved in a brine solution. Armenian-American cookbook author Rose Baboian explains that Armenian cheesemaking techniques date back to an era before refrigeration was widely available so cheeses had to be preserved in brine solution. Chechil is a type of smoked Armenian cheese.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: In Musa Dagh traditional cheese was made from curds called "choukalig". "Gij" or "kebdzoudz baneyr" was salted and dried thyme combined with curds and preserved in a jug. "Sourki" cheese was a mixture of spices and curds shaped as a pyramid, dried, and stored in glass until it began to turn moldy. "Khiroubaneyr" was made by adding yogurt water to milk.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Yogurt (մածուն) and yogurt-derived products are of particular importance in the cuisine. "Tahn" (called "ayran" in Turkey) is a yogurt based drink made by mixing yogurt with water and salt (Baboian's recipe also includes sugar). This may have originated as a way of preserving yogurt by the addition of salt. "Tan" is the traditional Armenian name for strained yogurt. Strained yogurt that was boiled with water until completely solid was called "yepadz madzoun" (cooked yogurt) and it could be stored for use in winter soups. Butter was made by beating yogurt in a churn.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Baboian gives several different recipes that can be prepared with yogurt ("madzoon") like barley yogurt soup, "jajek" (which she calls Easter Spinach Salad) and sauce served with koftas. She has also a yogurt spice cake with cinnamon, nutmeg and cloves served with coconut and walnut topping. Her recipe for fruitcake, also made with yogurt, includes dried fruits, nuts, baking spices and assorted candied fruits.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Baboian's recipes were published before yogurt was widely available in American shops, so her recipe collection included instructions for preparing yogurt at home from fresh milk when it was published. In the 1950s, Sarkis Colombosian, an Armenian who had fled Turkey in 1917, began selling yogurt from an Andover, Massachusetts based dairy farm, which he purchased during the Great Depression. The family made the yogurt themselves and also made "tan". Armenian merchants in Watertown, Massachusetts began ordering yogurt, "labneh" and string cheese from Colombo Yogurt, and the product eventually made it on to supermarket shelves.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: "Tarhana" is a mixture of yogurt and bulgur wheat. The yogurt and bulgur are combined and left on a tray until the grains absorb the yogurt. Once the liquid is absorbed, the grain is placed in the sun to dry and then rubbed into a powder. This powder can be used to thicken soups or stews. Traditionally, it was stored in cloth bags. Three types "tarhana" are known from Agn (present day Kemaliye): the commonly known "tahneh tarhana" made from milled bulgur and ayran, "chreh tarhana" from bulgur and water (for Lent) and "shira tarhana" with bulgur and grape juice. According to Stanley Kerr, a staff member at the Near East Relief orphanage for Armenian children, when the massacres began during the Battle of Marash Armenians sheltering at a soap factory sustained themselves on stores that included "tarhana", dried fruits and olive oil.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: The main ingredients in Armenian sweets are honey, fruits, nuts, yogurt and sesame. Both dried and fresh fruits are used. There are many fruit-based Armenian desserts including smoked peaches and nuts cooked in honey and various fruit compotes. Armenian syrupy walnuts (called churchkhela in Georgia) are sweetened with mulberry or grape juice. Yogurt and nuts can be sweetened with honey. Cinnamon is heavily used as spice for desserts like apricot compote and "kurabiye" (a type of cookie).


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenian and Persian peaches were reportedly traded westward during the era of Alexander the Great. One Soviet-era writer reports that Armenia's apricots, peaches, walnuts and quince are "equal or superior to the world's best grades". Another writes "Armenian peaches are famous, and her brandies are popular throughout the world". Grapes, figs, and pomegranates are also popular. Grapes and apricots are commonly used to make "bastegh", a dried "fruit leather" of possible Persian origins that resembles Fruit Roll-Ups.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: The Armenian version of the wheat berry pudding "ashure" is called "anoushabour". Since Armenians serve this pudding during Christmas and on New Year's Eve, it is sometimes called "Armenian Christmas Pudding". The pudding may be accompanied by "kurabiye" or nuts such as almonds and pistachios. Like "ashure", the Christmas Pudding may be garnished with pomegranate seeds and flavored with rose water, and shared with neighbors during the Christmas season. This festive pudding is the centerpiece of the New Year's table, which is often decorated with dried fruits, nuts and pomegranates.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: In "The Art of Armenian Cooking", Rose Baboian describes three methods of making the pastry sheets for "baklava", noting that this pastry is one of the most difficult to make from scratch. Armenians say the name of the pastry, which they call "paklava", derives from the Armenian word "bakh" (Lent) and helvah ("sweet").


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenians eat various meats like mutton, beef and goat but the most popular meat in Armenian cuisine is pork. Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Armenian writers in Ottoman Anatolia considered eating pork an important marker of Christian identity. An Armenian priest writing in the sixteenth century concluded, "If we didn't eat the meat of the pig, then we wouldn't be Christian."


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Roasted piglet, called "gochi", is a traditional holiday meal prepared for New Year's celebrations. Roasted pork chops ("chalagach") are a favored item for barbeques. "Horovats" is an Armenian-style kebab that is usually made from pork, but can also be made with lamb. This kebab is prepared with vegetables like eggplant, tomato and green pepper. Lula kebab is very similar to adana kebab, but spiced with cinnamon.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Keshkegh is a bulgur pilav based dish with lamb or chicken; it is cooked in a broth and flavored with butter, cinnamon and pepper.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: "Tavuklu çullama" is a chicken dish that is sometimes identified as Armenian, but there are conflicting accounts about its region of origin and preparation of the dish varies substantially between regions. Some say it's a specialty of the Kırşehir region, while another variation served in simple syrup is prepared annually in Maraş, Turkey.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: "Basturma" is a salted meat that is dried and pressed before being rubbed with a special spice paste called "çemen";it is a common food item in Armenia.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: The "everyday" Armenian dish is the dzhash (Ճաշ). This is a brothy stew consisting of meat (or a legume, in the meatless version), a vegetable, and spices. The dzhash was typically cooked in the tonir. The dzhash is generally served over a pilaf of rice or bulgur, sometimes accompanied by bread, pickles or fresh vegetables or herbs. A specific variety of dzhash is the porani (պորանի), a stew made with yogurt. Examples of dzhash are:


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Grilled meats are quite common as well and are omnipresent at market stalls, where they are eaten as fast food, as well as at barbecues and picnic. Also, in modern times, no Armenian banquet is considered complete without an entree of kabob. Kabobs vary from the simple (marinated meat on a skewer interspersed with vegetables) to the more elaborate. Certain regions in Western Armenia developed their local, specialized kabobs. For example:


title: Armenian cuisine

text: The modern Armenian breakfast consists of coffee or tea, plus a spread of cheeses, jams, jellies, vegetables, eggs, and breads. Armenians living in the Diaspora often adopt local customs. Thus, Armenians in Lebanon, Syria, and Egypt may include "ful" (stewed fava beans in olive oil).


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenian appetizers include stuffed vine leaves (called "yalanchy sarma", a type of "dolma"), a fried cheese-stuffed pastry called "dabgadz banir boerag", stuffed mussels ("midye dolma") and several types of pickled vegetables generally known as "torshi". Toasted pumpkin seeds are a popular snack; Armenians call them "tutumi gud".


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Chickpea balls called "topik" are made by Turkey's Armenian community; they are spiced with currants, onions, and cinnamon and served with a tahini sauce.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Takuhi Tovmasyan discusses several Armenian mezzes in her book "Sofranız Şen Olsun" including stuffed mackerel, a dish of beans in sauce served over stale bread (leftover "yufka bread" or "lavash" may be used also) called "fasulye paçası", and a type of olive-oil based appetizer with mussels called "midye pilakisi".


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Many, if not most, Armenian salads combine a grain or legume with fresh vegetables—often tomato, onions, and fresh herbs. Mayonnaise is used in Western or Russian-inspired salads ("e.g., "Salade Olivier). Examples of Armenian salads include:


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenian soups include "spas", made from matzoon, hulled wheat and herbs (usually cilantro), and "aveluk", made from lentils, walnuts, and wild mountain sorrel (which gives the soup its name). "Kiufta" soup is made with large balls of strained boiled meat ("kiufta") and greens.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Another soup, "khash", is considered an Armenian institution. Songs and poems have been written about this one dish, which is made from cow's feet and herbs made into a clear broth. Tradition holds that khash can only be cooked by men, who spend the entire night cooking, and can be eaten only in the early morning in the dead of winter, when it is served with heaps of fresh garlic and dried lavash.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: "T'ghit" is made from "t'tu lavash" (fruit leather, thin roll-up sheets of sour plum purée), which are cut into small pieces and boiled in water. Fried onions are added and the mixture is cooked into a purée. Pieces of lavash bread are placed on top of the mixture, and it is eaten hot with fresh lavash used to scoop up the mixture by hand.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: "Karshm" is a local soup made in the town of Vaik in the Vayots Dzor Province. This is a walnut based soup with red and green beans, chick peas and spices, served garnished with red pepper and fresh garlic.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Soups of Russian heritage include borscht, a beet root soup with meat and vegetables (served hot in Armenia, with fresh sour cream) and okroshka, a matzoon- or kefir-based soup with chopped cucumber, green onion, and garlic.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenian cuisine includes many typical seafood dishes like fried mussels ("midye tava"), stuffed calamari ("kalamar dolma"), mackerel ("uskumru") and bonito ("palamut").


title: Armenian cuisine

text: The trout from Lake Sevan is called "ishkhan" and can be prepared different ways including a baked "dolma" version stuffed with dried fruits (prunes, damsons, or apricots) and a poached version marinated with red peppers. "Ishkhan" is also sometimes served in a walnut sauce. One recipe for fish "tirit" is given by a 1913 cookbook that adapted Near Eastern recipes for the American palatte.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: For a relatively land-locked country, Armenian cuisine includes a surprising number of fish dishes. Typically, fish is either broiled, fried, or sometimes poached. A few recipes direct the fish to be stuffed. Fish may have been used to stuff vegetables in ancient times, though that is not common anymore.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Baki Koufta are peanut butter and tahini stuffed kofta made with a shell of chickpeas, bulgur and semolina. They are commonly made for Lent which is observed in the Armenian Orthodox Church.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenian produced beer is considered to be one of the favorite drinks of Armenian men. The beer industry is developing barley malt and producing beer from it. The preparation of beer in Armenia was known from ancient times. According to the Greek historian Xenophon the manufacture of beer in Armenia has begun from BC 5th-4th centuries. Armenians used beer grains for brewing (barley, millet, hops).


title: Armenian cuisine

text: In 1913 there were 3 beer factories that produced 54 thousand deciliters of beer. In 1952-78 new factories in Yerevan, Goris, Alaverdi, Abovyan were built while existing factories were expanded and improved upon. For providing raw materials for beer production in Gyumri was launched large malt plant, based in the production of barley melt of Shirak valley farms (with the capacity of 10 thousand tons of production). In 1985 was produced 6 million deciliters of beer.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenian brandy ( "konyak"), known locally as "konyak" is perhaps Armenia's most popular exported alcoholic drink. It has a long history of production. Armenian brandy made by Yerevan Wine & Brandy Factory was said to be the favorite drink of British statesman Winston Churchill. It was the favorite alcoholic drink of Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Churchill at the Yalta conference at 1945.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: The history of Armenian brandy begins in 1887, in the winery of Armenian merchant N. Tairov (Yerevan). By 1890-1900 Yerevan was becoming a center for the production of brandy, numbering a number of factories owned by Gyozalov (1892), Saradjev (1894), Ter-Mkrtchian (1899), and others. In 1899, N. Tairov sold his factory to Nikolay Shustov's well-known brand in Russia. In 1914, there were 15 factories in the province of Yerevan (the largest the one now owned by Shustov) produced 210,010 deciliters of brandy. In 1921, the Soviet state took over Shustov's factory, and it was renamed to "Ararat". This became the main factory for wine manufacturing.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Despite the fact that only brandies produced in the Cognac region of France have the copyright to be called "cognac" according to Western trade rules, Armenian brandy is called cognac inside Armenia. Yerevan Brandy Factory is now negotiating to obtain an official privilege to market its brandy as cognac.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenian brandy is categorized by its age and method of aging. The rated stars indicate the age of brandy since its fermentation starting from 3 stars. The most expensive cognacs have passed additional vintage for more that 6 years and have special names. The brandy is aged in oak barrels and is made from selected local white grapes grown in the Ararat Valley which is giving it a shade of caramel brown.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Oghi ( "òġi") – an Armenian alcoholic beverage usually distilled from fruit; also called "aragh". "Artsakh" is a well-known brand name of Armenian mulberry vodka ("tuti oghi") produced in Nagorno-Karabakh from local fruit. In the Armenian Diaspora, where fruit vodka is not distilled, "oghi" refers to the aniseed-flavored distilled alcoholic drink called "arak" in the Middle East, raki in Turkey, or ouzo in Greece.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: The alcoholic drink with the longest history in Armenia is wine. The oldest known winery in the world was discovered in Armenia. Historically, wineries in Armenia were concentrated along the Ararat valley. Of particular note was the district of Koghtn (Գողթն, current Nakhichevan area). Today, Armenian wineries are concentrated in the Areni region (district of Vayots Dzor).


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenian wine is mostly made from local varietals, such as Areni, Lalvari, Kakhet, etc., though some wineries mix in better known European varietals such as Chardonnay and Cabernet. Winemaking took a downward plunge in the years following the collapse of the Soviet Union, but is undergoing a revival, with the addition of world-class labels such as "Zorah Wines". A yearly "wine festival", held in Areni, is popular with the locals and features wines from official wineries as well as homemade hooch of varying quality. Armenian wines are predominantly red and are sweet, semi-sweet (Vernashen, Ijevan), or dry (Areni).


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenian Highland engaged in winemaking since ancient times. It has achieved considerable development of Urartu times (9th - 6th centuries. BC). During excavations in the castle of Teyshebaini have been found around 480, and in Toprakkale, Manazkert, Red Hill and Ererbunium 200 pot.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: The evidences of high-level and large-scale wine production in Armenia are as foreign (Herodotus, Strabo, Xenophon and others) and Armenian historians of the 5th-18th centuries, as well as sculptures of architectural monuments and protocols. Armenia's current area began wine production in the 2nd half of the 19th century. At the end of the 19th century, next to the small businesses in Yerevan, Ghamarlu (Artashat), Ashtarak, Echmiadzin (Vagharshapat ), there were 4 mill.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: In addition to grapes, wines have been made with other fruit, notably pomegranate ( "nran kini"), apricot, quince, etc. In some cases, these fruit wines are fortified.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Among the soft drinks Armenian mineral water is known for its healing specialty and is recommended by doctors. This spring water originates from the depth of earth and flowing from ancient mountains in the city of Jermuk.


title: Armenian cuisine

text: Armenia has rich reserves of mineral water. After the establishment of the Soviet Union the study and development of multilateral disciplines in these waters began. First industrial bottling was organized in Arzni in 1927. In 1949, Dilijan and Jermuk mineral water factories were put into operation. In 1960-1980 “Sevan”, “Hankavan”, “Lichk”, “Bjni”, “Lori”, “Arpi”, “Ararat”, mineral water bottling plants and factories were launched, which are involved in the production unit "mineral water of Armenia". ASSR in 1985 produced 295 million bottles of mineral water.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: Sigismund I the Old (, ; 1 January 1467 – 1 April 1548) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1506 until his death in 1548. Sigismund I was a member of the Jagiellonian dynasty, the son of Casimir IV and younger brother of Kings John I Albert and Alexander I Jagiellon. He was nicknamed "the Old" in later historiography to distinguish him from his son and successor, Sigismund II Augustus.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: Sigismund was born in the town of Kozienice in 1467 as the fifth son of Casimir IV and his wife Elizabeth of Austria. He was one of thirteen children and was not expected to assume the throne after his father. Sigismund's eldest brother and rightful heir Vladislaus II instead became the King of Bohemia, Hungary and Croatia as the successor to George of Poděbrady in Bohemia and then to Matthias Corvinus in Hungary, thus temporarily uniting these kingdoms. When Casimir died, the Polish-Lithuanian realm was divided between the remaining two older sons, with John Albert being crowned King of Poland, and Alexander as Grand Duke of Lithuania. Alexander inherited Poland following John Albert's sudden death in 1501. Hence, Sigismund's reign only began when he succeeded Alexander to both titles in 1506 at the age of 39.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: A capable monarch and a patron of arts, Sigismund established Polish rule over Ducal Prussia and annexed the Duchy of Mazovia with Warsaw, while retaining the nation's wealth and prominence in the region. He made sure that his nephew Albert, Duke of Prussia, and Albert's Protestant successors would pay feudal homage or tribute to Polish monarchs as a sign of political and diplomatic dependence. This was observed until the Treaty of Bromberg in 1657 when Prussia gained its sovereignty. Sigismund and his commander Jan Amor Tarnowski also defeated Moldavia at Obertyn in 1531, and Muscovy in 1535, thereby strengthening the country's eastern borders. His 42-year reign was further marked by decisive contributions to Polish architecture, cuisine, language, and customs, especially at the behest of his second wife, the Italian-born Bona Sforza. Italian styles and fashions dominated at the height of the Polish Renaissance and Polish Golden Age, which developed the Roman Catholic identity of Poland. He was commemorated on a contemporary 200-złoty banknote.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: Sigismund was married twice, first to noblewoman Barbara Zápolya from Hungary and then to Bona Sforza, the daughter of Gian Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan. Their only son and the last Jagiellon king, Sigismund Augustus, was co-crowned "vivente rege" in 1529 and formally assumed throne when Sigismund the Old died in 1548.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: The son of King Casimir IV Jagiellon and Elisabeth Habsburg of Austria, Sigismund followed his brothers John Albert and Alexander to the Polish throne. Their eldest brother Vladislaus became king of Bohemia, Hungary, and Croatia. Sigismund was christened as the namesake of his Habsburg maternal great-grandfather, Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: When Casimir died in 1492, Sigismund was his only son without any titles or land. From 1495 to 1496, he petitioned his brother Alexander to provide him with land, and Elisabeth Habsburg attempted to install him on the Austrian throne. Both efforts failed. In 1497, King John I Albert, his older brother, led an invasion of Moldavia that was intended to place Sigismund on its throne. This, too, was a disastrous failure. Finally, his eldest brother Vladislaus II, King of Bohemia and Hungary, granted him the duchies of Głogów (1499) and Opava (1501), and in 1504 Sigismund became governor of Silesia and Lower Lusatia.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: John I Albert died suddenly in 1501, and was succeeded by Alexander I, who died in 1506. After his death, Sigismund arrived in Vilnius, where he was elected by the Lithuanian Ducal Council on 13 September 1506 as Grand Duke of Lithuania, contrary to the Union of Mielnik (1501), which proposed a joint Polish-Lithuanian election of a monarch. On 8 December 1506, during the session of the Polish Senate in Piotrków, Sigismund was elected King of Poland. He arrived in Kraków on 20 January 1507 and was crowned four days later in Wawel Cathedral by Primate Andrzej Boryszewski.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: The internal situation in Poland was characterised by broad authorisation of the Chamber of Deputies, confirmed and extended in the constitution of "Nihil novi". During Alexander's reign, the law of "Nihil novi" had been instituted, which forbade kings of Poland from enacting laws without the consent of the Sejm. Sigismund had little control over the act, unlike the senators, whom he personally appointed. Eventually, during his reign, Sigismund benefited from the advice of the local nobility, competent ministers in charge of the royal judiciary system, and the wealthy influential treasurers of Kraków. Although he was reluctant to the parliamentary system and political independence of the nobility, he recognised the authority of legal norms, supported legalism and summoned annual sessions of the Sejm, usually obtaining funds on state defence. However he was unsuccessful at attempting to create a permanent fund for defence from the annual income tax. Despite this, in 1527 he established a conscript army and the bureaucracy needed to finance it. He set up the legal codes that formalised serfdom in Poland, placing the peasants into the private estates of nobles.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: Likely related to tax matters was an unsuccessful attempt on the life of the king, made on 5 May 1523. The identity of the would-be assassin - who shot the ruler while he was strolling in the evening around the cloisters of the Wawel castle - and his potential supporters was never established. Unclear motives remained after the assassination attempt. Three weeks before the event, Sigismund I introduced a new edict that was very unfavourable and somewhat hostile to the high-ranking nobles and their interests.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: Sigismund I achieved several economic successes, including partial debt reduction, separation of accounts of public taxation from the royal treasury, strengthening of the activities of the mint operating in Kraków, and the attempt to organise the processing of income from operating salt mines. Furthermore, he issued a statute for the Armenians (1519) and strongly intended to harmonise the judicial system across the country.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: Between 1530 and 1538 the king issued two statutes defining the rules for the selection of the monarch, which permanently established the election "viritim". The laws held that all social groups, regardless of their wealth, could watch the election process ("unusquisque qui vellet"), and the election was to be free ("electio Regis libera").


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: Sigismund successfully organised the agricultural economy, looked after the development of the royal cities and recovered numerous goods of the treasury belonging to the crown that were under lien. During the financial activities, the King received full support of his wife, Queen Bona, who aimed to expand the royal estates by purchasing and improving economic efficiency. In 1514 he set up the Council of Four Lands and put Abraham of Bohemia in charge of it.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: At the start of his reign, King Sigismund I the Old inherited a Kingdom of Poland with a century-long tradition of liberties of the nobility, confirmed in numerous privileges. A rebellion in Lwów widely known as "Chicken War" () was an anti-royalist and anti-absolutist rokosz (revolt) by the Polish nobility that occurred in 1537. The derisive name was coined by the magnates, who for the most part supported the King and claimed that the "war's" only effect was the near-extinction of the local chickens, eaten by the nobles gathered for the rebellion at Lwów in eastern part of Lesser Poland.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: To strengthen his power, Sigismund initiated a set of reforms, establishing a permanent conscription army in 1527 and extending the bureaucratic apparatus necessary to govern the state and finance the army. Supported by his Italian consort Bona Sforza, he began buying up land and issue agriculture reformas to enlarge the royal treasury. He initiated a process of restitution of royal properties, previously pawned or rented to the nobles.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: The nobility gathered near the city to meet to a "levée en masse" and called for a military campaign against Moldavia. However, the lesser and middle strata of the nobility organised a revolt to force the King to abandon his risky reforms. The nobles presented him with 36 demands, most notably a cessation of further land acquisitions by Queen Bona, exemption of the nobility from the tithe, confirmation and extension of privileges for nobles and adoption of a law concerning Incompatibilitas — an individual wouldn't be able to hold two or more official administrative positions in the country. The role of the Incompatibilitas was to prevent wealthy magnates from usurping too much power at the expense of lesser nobles.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: However, the revolt soon transpired that the nobility's leaders were divided and that achieving a settlement was almost impossible. Too weak to start a civil war against the King, the protesters finally agreed to what was thought a compromise. Sigismund rejected most of their demands, while accepting the principle of Incompatibilitas the following year and agreeing not to force the election of the future king in "vivente rege". Thereupon, the nobility returned to their homes having achieved little.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: Sigismund was intermittently at war with Vasili III of Muscovy beginning in 1507, before the Polish army was fully under his command. Further tensions escalated when Vasili also discovered that Sigismund was bribing Khan Meñli I Giray to attack the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In December 1512, Muscovite forces marched into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania seeking to capture Smolensk, a major trading center between Russia and Europe. The initial six- and four-week sieges in 1513 were a failure, but the city fell to the Muscovites in July 1514.


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: Russia subsequently suffered a series of disastrous defeats in the field. In 1512, Grand Hetman of Lithuania, Konstanty Ostrogski, ransacked the region of Severia and vanquished a Russian force of approximately 6,000 men. On 8 September 1514, Muscovy suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Orsha, which prevented the Russians to place all the former Kievan Rus' lands under their lordship. Poland exploited the battle for propaganda purposes with strong anti-Russian sentiment. A letter sent to Rome stated that "Muscovites are not Christians; they are cruel and barbaric; they are Asians and not Europeans; they are in league with Turks and the Tatars to destroy Christendom".


title: Sigismund I the Old

text: Regardless of victory, the Polish–Lithuanian troops were incapable of moving quickly enough to retake Smolensk. In 1518, Russian forces were again beaten during the siege of Polotsk, when according to legend the Lithuanian forces were inspired by the sight of their patron saint, Saint Casimir, the older brother of Sigismund. However, this was dubbed by historians as a folk tale. In 1522, a truce was signed between Lithuania and Muscovy which extended until 1534.