title: Quaestor

text: The relationship between a governor and his quaestor was similar to that between a patron and a client, but was entirely official. While in office together, a quaestor was expected to show "reverence, courtesy, and loyalty" to his governor; the governor was likewise obliged to respect his subordinates. This relationship often continued past the designated terms of either individual, and the quaestor could be called upon for assistance or other needs by the consul. Also related were the need to maintain a working relationship to avoid tensions that could endanger the province, as well as a "certain degree of complicity [needed...] to conceal anything that could compromise the magistrates' reputations".


title: Quaestor

text: There were usually two quaestors assigned to the city of Rome (termed urban quaestors), with both simultaneously responsible for the treasury. While some older scholars believed that the urban quaestors were forbidden from leaving the city, this is now rejected.


title: Quaestor

text: The normal main duty of the urban quaestors was to handle the "aerarium" (the public treasury). This involved control and management of the gold and coins stored there, safekeeping of the keys to the treasury, supervision of all public expenses and tax receipts, validation of official documents, and archival of the same. The quaestors were aided by assistants called "apparitores", who likely served multi-year terms to familiarise themselves with the job; their number multiplied during the later Republic to meet administrative needs. As part of administering the treasury, they also handled the receipt and auditing of war reparations and tribute from polities defeated by Rome. Collections of taxes were also handled by the urban quaestors and their staff, with overpayments reimbursed when funds became available. They also made the appropriate withdrawals from the treasury to cover various expenses – including building, army pay, temple maintenance, state visits, state funerals, road maintenance, minting of coins, etc – as directed by the Senate.


title: Quaestor

text: They were also in charge of auctions for public land ("ager publicus"). Such land was acquired by conquest and became the property of the Roman people. Land sales could be directed by the Senate to meet funding shortfalls, as during the Second Punic War, when the urban quaestors auctioned lands around Capua to raise funds. These quaestors were also responsible for handling public auction of war booty returned to the public treasury by victorious generals. This included objects as well as slaves, with the proceeds to be deposited in the public treasury. They were also responsible for public auction of property seized from citizens who had debts or fines owed to the state if they were unable to pay. These responsibilities over public debts also included the collection of fines in general, where a convict ordered to pay a fine would be required to make a surety to the urban quaestors and deposit the money in the "aerarium".


title: Quaestor

text: Returning magistrates and governors also had to produce detailed account books for their handling of public money, which would then be deposited in the treasury, where the urban quaestors and their staff would audit them. These records were supposed to total a running ledger of starting balances, a line-by-line itemised accounting of all inflows and outflows, and ending balances for the province. They also included, for generals, detailed lists of all the money, gold, silver, spoils, and other assets acquired during a governorship. The scribes checked the account books, looking for transactional documentation and arithmetic errors, the results were then approved or disapproved by the quaestors. A negative audit could provide fodder for corruption charges, which was regular in the last two centuries of the Republic.


title: Quaestor

text: After the formation of the permanent courts (), the urban quaestors were also responsible for assembling the jury pools and allocation of portions of those pools to the various courts. These quaestors also handled various tasks assigned ad hoc by the Senate, such as meeting and accompanying foreign dignitaries on state visits or leaving Rome to the provinces on special assignments.


title: Quaestor

text: In earlier Republic, the quaestors also controlled the distribution of the legionary "aquilae" (eagle standards), which were kept in the treasury before distribution to generals before they were returned on the conclusion of a campaign. This likely, however, fell into disuse as Rome expanded across the Mediterranean.


title: Quaestor

text: Because consuls, praetors, and their promagisterial counterparts were "practically... plenipotentiary agent[s] upon [which all] aspect[s] of government associated with that "provincia" depended", the quaestor's responsibilities could vary widely, including not only financial and administrative matters but also sometimes encompassing military command and judicial functions. In general, however, the core administrative duty of the quaestor was to "[extract] whatever material assets the Roman military apparatus might need". When quaestors were sometimes assigned to a province alone (without attachment to a superior) in the late republic, quaestorian responsibilities increased dramatically as the only Roman magistrate present. At times, quaestors were sent without superiors to peaceful acquisitions to inventory property, auction them if necessary, and transport proceeds to Rome.


title: Quaestor

text: During normal times under a governor, the quaestor would handle administrative tasks related to supply of the armies. He would oversee the transport of public money assigned by the Senate to the province, record its uses, and use it to pay soldiers' wages or purchase supplies. He also helped manage the taxation of the province in terms of collecting food, supplies, and money from local leaders. In terms of taxation, quaestors also handled the local auction of raw goods to public contractors ("publicani") or merchants; at times, they also made requisitions from local provincials on orders of their superior or at times on their own accord. This remit also extended to minting coinage – usually to pay soldiers serving in the provinces – from precious metal stocks on hand.


title: Quaestor

text: The provincial quaestor also had to carefully record all the money that fell into the provincial government's hands. Other assets acquired by conquest or otherwise classed as war spoils – from gold to grain, arms, and ships – also had to be inventoried, recorded, and deposited in the public treasury at Rome. Captives captured in war were usually sold into slavery in that province, which was managed by the quaestor for funds also to be noted in the account books. They also were expected to register those provincial records in Rome upon conclusion of their terms for review by the urban quaestors, which were supposed to record all movements of funds. Loss of those records could give rise to damaging charges of corruption. After Julius Caesar's "lex Julia", these records had to be made in triplicate, with two copies lodged in provincial cities (not always the same cities from governor to governor) and the remaining copy returned to Rome for presentation. Then, at least according to custom, both the quaestor and the governor would return to Rome to present the provincial accounts. Upon the close of the term, the quaestor would coordinate to divide the remaining money between the incoming provincial administration and the treasury in Rome.


title: Quaestor

text: These great responsibilities with little immediate oversight gave both provincial quaestors and their governors many opportunities for corruption by misappropriating funds, demanding exorbitant taxes, getting involved in various business schemes, or taking bribes outright. Quaestors' behaviour did not always comport with their administrative and legal responsibilities.


title: Quaestor

text: On campaign, provincial quaestors acted as subordinate military officers to their attached superior, taking a role "analogous to... that [of] other members of the governor's entourage, such as his legates". At times, the quaestor could get into tension with the governor's legates over respective spheres of responsibility or accountability; officially, however, the quaestor was "higher up the chain of command... [as], besides the governor, he was the only magistrate [and] representative of the Senate and the Roman people", giving him "greater authority than legates in all areas of provincial command".


title: Quaestor

text: Quaestors are documented at various times leading and raising troops and fleets under the command of their governors. Some quaestors were delegated significant open-ended responsibilities far exceeding administrative tasks: Lucullus, for example, during the First Mithridatic War as Sulla's proquaestor, led troops, assembled fleets, travelled the eastern Mediterranean as a diplomat, intervened to overthrow governments, commanded naval battles, captured prisoners, and levied taxes and indemnities.


title: Quaestor

text: When a governor left the province, he normally left it to his quaestor's command (though this was at times given instead to one of his high-ranking legates). If a governor died, however, the quaestor generally assumed command of the forces until replacement, possibly with "imperium pro praetore". The specifics of how this "imperium" was delegated after the death of its actual possessor are unclear: some scholars believe that this was automatic, whereas others believed that a proconsul had to first endow his quaestor with propraetorian "imperium".


title: Quaestor

text: A provincial quaestor also could be sent as a diplomatic representative. Two famous examples thereof are those of Tiberius Gracchus and Sulla: Gracchus negotiated a peace treaty on behalf of his proconsul allowing some twenty thousand soldiers to leave with their lives (though the treaty was later invalidated by the Senate) and Sulla negotiated the capture of Jugurtha at the end of the Jugurthine War.


title: Quaestor

text: There were initially two quaestors; they were initially appointed by the consuls, but after 447 BC, they were elected by the "comitia tributa". When plebeians were permitted to stand for the quaestorship in 421 BC, two more were added, with assignments to administer the "aerarium" under senatorial direction. It is also around this time that Livy reports a relationship between the quaestors and the public treasury. After 267 BC, four more quaestors were added, possibly with assignments to various towns in Italy (e.g., Ostia for management of the food supply).


title: Quaestor

text: The specific number elected year-to-year is difficult to determine at any time, but before Lucius Cornelius Sulla's reforms in 81 BC, there were 19 quaestors; his reforms created one for the water supply, raising the total to 20. He also made holding the quaestorship compulsory for advancement to future offices. These reforms also established a minimum age for the office, established at 30. Additionally, the reforms granted quaestors automatic membership in the senate upon being elected, whereas previously, membership in the senate was granted only after censors revised the Senate rolls every few years.


title: Quaestor

text: During the Principate, the number was halved back to twenty by Augustus. He also removed the quaestors from government of the "aerarium" (with a short interlude under Claudius when this was reversed). The emperor and the two consuls each had two quaestors, with the emperor selecting his own, the "quaestores Caesaris", who were often up-and-coming men from noble families.


title: Quaestor

text: Over time, the former duties of the quaestors were subsumed by imperial officials, but, in the senatorial provinces, they "retained some financial functions through the Principate".


title: Quaestor

text: During the reign of the Emperor Constantine I, a new quaestorship was established, called the "quaestor sacri palatii" (). The office functioned as a spokesman for the emperor and was charged with the creation of laws and management of legal petitions, serving as de facto minister of justice. The formal judicial powers of the office were slim, but, as chief legal advisor to the emperor, holders gained substantial influence. Various famous lawyers held this quaestorship, including Antiochus Chuzon and Tribonian, who contributed greatly to the production of the Theodosian code and Code of Justinian, respectively.


title: Quaestor

text: From 440 onward, the office of the quaestor worked in conjunction with the praetorian prefect of the East to oversee the supreme tribunal, or supreme court, at Constantinople. There, they heard appeals from the various subordinate courts and governors.


title: Quaestor

text: Emperor Justinian I also created the offices ', a judicial and police official for Constantinople, and ' (quaestor of the army), a short-lived joint military-administrative post covering the border of the lower Danube. The ' survived long into the Byzantine Empire, although its duties were altered to match the ' by the 9th century AD, who was a judicial officer in charge of resolving various disputes.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 (Single Convention, 1961 Convention, or C61) is an international treaty that controls activities (cultivation, production, supply, trade, transport) of specific narcotic drugs and lays down a system of regulations (licenses, measures for treatment, research, etc.) for their medical and scientific uses; it also establishes the International Narcotics Control Board.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Single Convention was adopted in 1961 amended in 1972. As of 2022, the Single Convention as amended has been ratified by 186 countries. The convention has since been supplemented by the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, which controls LSD, MDMA, and other psychoactive pharmaceuticals, and the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Single Convention as amended in 1972 had been ratified or acceded to by 186 states. Only Chad remained party to the original 1961 Convention in its unamended form. The Cook Islands, Equatorial Guinea, Kiribati, Nauru, Niue, Samoa, South Sudan, Timor-Leste, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu are not parties.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: Since the Single Convention is not self-executing, parties must enact legislation to carry out its provisions, and the UNODC works with countries' legislatures to ensure compliance.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The League of Nations adopted several drug control treaties prior to World War II, such as the International Opium Convention, and "International Convention relating to Dangerous Drugs (1925)" specifying uniform controls on addictive drugs such as cocaine and opium, and its derivatives. However, the lists of controlled substances were fixed in the treaties' text. Consequently, it was necessary to periodically amend or supersede the conventions with the introduction of new treaties to keep up with advances in chemistry. According to a 1954 interview with United States Commissioner of Narcotics Harry J. Anslinger, the cumbersome process of conference and state-by-state ratification could take many decades.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: A Senate of Canada committee reported, "The work of consolidating the existing international drug control treaties into one instrument began in 1948, but it was 1961 before an acceptable third draft was ready." That year, the UN Economic and Social Council convened a plenipotentiary conference of 73 nations for the adoption of a single convention on narcotic drugs. That meeting was known as the United Nations Conference on Narcotic Drugs. The participating states organized themselves into five distinct caucuses:


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: These competing interests, after more than eight weeks of negotiations, finally produced a compromise treaty. Several controls were weakened; for instance, the proposed mandatory embargoes on nations failing to comply with the treaty became recommendations. The 1953 New York Opium Protocol, which had not yet entered into force, limited opium production to seven countries; the Single Convention lifted that restriction, but instituted other regulations and put the International Narcotics Control Board in charge of monitoring their enforcement. A compromise was also struck that allowed heroin and some other drugs classified as particularly dangerous to escape absolute prohibition.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Single Convention created four Schedules of controlled substances and a process for adding new substances to the Schedules without amending the treaty. The Schedules were designed to have significantly stricter regulations than the two drug "Groups" established by predecessor treaties. For the first time, cannabis was added to the list of internationally controlled drugs. In fact, regulations on the cannabis plant – as well as the opium poppy, the coca bush, poppy straw and cannabis tops – were embedded in the text of the treaty, making it impossible to deregulate them through the normal Scheduling process. A 1962 issue of the Commission on Narcotic Drugs' "Bulletin on Narcotics" proudly announced that "after a definite transitional period, all non-medical use of narcotic drugs, such as opium smoking, opium eating, consumption of cannabis (hashish, marijuana) and chewing of coca leaves, will be outlawed everywhere. This is a goal which workers in international narcotics control all over the world have striven to achieve for half a century."


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: A 3 August 1962, Economic and Social Council resolution ordered the publication of the Commentary on the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. The legal commentary was written by the United Nations Secretary-General staff member Adolf Lande, the former Secretary of the Permanent Central Narcotics Board and Drug Supervisory Body, operating under a mandate to give "an interpretation of the provisions of the Convention in the light of the relevant conference proceedings and other material." The Commentary contains the Single Convention's legislative history and is an invaluable aid to interpreting the treaty.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Single Convention entered into force on 13 December 1964, having met 's requirement of 40 ratifications. As of 1 January 2005, 180 states were Parties to the treaty. Others, such as Cambodia, have committed to becoming Parties.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: On 21 May 1971, the UN Economic and Social Council called a conference of plenipotentiaries to consider amendments to the Single Convention. The conference met at the United Nations Office at Geneva from 6 to 24 March 1972, producing the 1972 Protocol Amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. The amendments entered into force on 8 August 1975.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: On 11 November 1990, mechanisms for enforcing the Single Convention were expanded significantly by the entry into force of the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, which had been signed at Vienna on 20 December 1988. The to this treaty acknowledges the inadequacy of the Single Convention's controls to stop "steadily increasing inroads into various social groups made by illicit traffic in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances". The new treaty focuses on stopping organized crime by providing for international cooperation in apprehending and convicting gangsters and starving them of funds through forfeiture, asset freezing, and other methods. It also establishes a system for placing precursors to Scheduled drugs under international control. Some non-Parties to the Single Convention, such as Andorra, belong to this treaty and thus are still under the international drug control regime.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Single Convention repeatedly affirms the importance of medical use of controlled substances. The notes that "the medical use of narcotic drugs continues to be indispensable for the relief of pain and suffering and that adequate provision must be made to ensure the availability of narcotic drugs for such purposes". Articles 1, 2, 4, 9, 12, 19, and 49 contain provisions relating to "medical and scientific" use of controlled substances. In almost all cases, parties are permitted to allow dispensation and use of controlled substances under a prescription, subject to record-keeping requirements and other restrictions.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Single Convention unambiguously condemns "abuse of drugs", even stating that "addiction to narcotic drugs constitutes a serious evil for the individual and is fraught with social and economic danger to mankind". It takes a prohibitionist approach to the problem of drug addiction, attempting to stop all uses considered "abuse" or "addiction." requires nations to limit use and possession of drugs to medicinal and scientific purposes. allows countries to phase out coca leaf chewing, opium smoking, and other traditional drug uses gradually, but provides that "the use of cannabis for other than medical and scientific purposes must be discontinued as soon as possible".


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The discontinuation of these prohibited uses is intended to be achieved by cutting off supply. Rather than calling on nations to prosecute drug users, the treaty focuses on traffickers and producers. As of 2013, 234 substances are controlled under the Single Convention.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: In the Single Convention, "other than medical and scientific purposes" are not subject to the general legal framework established in Article 4 (c), being exempt by a series of provisions referred to in article 4 (c). Some analysts suggest the "recreational use" of drugs is part of the "other than medical and scientific purposes," and therefore exempt from the measure of control of the Convention, which are limited to "medical and scientific purposes;" others analysts have, however, suggested that "other than medical and scientific purposes" does not encompass recreational use.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: Malta seem to have followed article 2 paragraph 9 of the Single Convention, which allow for the use of drugs, other than medical and scientific, in the context of industry.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: As scholars note: "although formally binding, the penal provisions prove remarkably soft" and, as explained in the Commentary on the Single Convention, they are "rather vague, and [admit] escape clauses for the benefit of those Governments to which even such vague norms would be unacceptable." There are always escape clause and conditionalities that allow States to adjust to most obligations.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Article also provides for extradition of drug offenders, although a Party has a right to refuse to extradite a suspect if "competent authorities consider that the offense is not sufficiently serious." A 1972 amendment to the Article grants nations the discretion to substitute "treatment, education, after-care, rehabilitation and social reintegration" for criminal penalties if the offender is a drug abuser. A loophole in the Single Convention is that it requires Parties to place anti-drug laws on the books, but does not clearly mandate their enforcement.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: Drug enforcement varies widely between nations. Many European countries, including the United Kingdom, Germany, and, most famously, the Netherlands, do not prosecute all petty drug offenses. Dutch coffee shops are allowed to sell small amounts of cannabis to consumers. However, the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport's report, "Drugs Policy in the Netherlands", notes that large-scale "[p]roduction and trafficking are dealt with severely under the criminal law, in accordance with the UN Single Convention. Each year the Public Prosecutions Department deals with an average of 10,000 cases involving infringements of the Opium Act." Some of the most severe penalties for drug trafficking are handed down in certain Asian countries, such as Malaysia, which mandate capital punishment for offenses involving amounts over a certain threshold. Singapore mandates the death penalty for trafficking in 15 g (half an ounce) of heroin, 30 g of cocaine or 500 g of cannabis. Most nations, such as France and the United States, find a middle ground, imposing a spectrum of sanctions ranging from probation to life imprisonment for drug offenses.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Single Convention's penal provisions frequently begin with clauses such as "Subject to its constitutional limitations, each Party shall..." Thus, if a nation's constitution prohibited instituting the criminal penalties called for by the Single Convention, those provisions would not be binding on that country.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: It is unclear whether or not the treaty requires criminalization of drug possession for personal use. The treaty's language is ambiguous, and a ruling by the International Court of Justice would probably be required to settle the matter decisively. However, several commissions have attempted to tackle the question. With the exception of the Le Dain Commission, most have found that states are allowed to legalize possession for personal use.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Canadian Le Dain Commission of Inquiry into the Non-Medical Use of Drugs' 1972 report cites circumstantial evidence suggesting that states must prohibit possession for personal use:


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Canadian Department of National Health and Welfare's 1979 report, "The Single Convention and Its Implications for Canadian Cannabis Policy", counters with circumstantial evidence to the contrary:


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The American Shafer Commission reached a similar conclusion in 1972, finding "that the word 'possession' in refers not to possession for personal use but to Possession as a link in illicit trafficking."


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Canadian Department of National Health and Welfare report cites the Commentary itself in backing up its interpretation:


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Single Convention places generally the same restrictions on cannabis cultivation that it does on opium cultivation, although there are cannabis-specific dispositions.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: Once on a path to reduction, there are now an increasing number of countries worldwide which are returning to hemp cultivation, often a traditional crop in various regions of the world, according to a report of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The treaty updated the Paris Convention of 13 July 1931, to include the vast number of synthetic opioids invented in the intervening 30 years and to add a mechanism for more easily including new ones. From 1931 to 1961, most of the families of synthetic opioids had been developed, including drugs related to methadone, pethidine (meperidine/Demerol), morphinans, and dextromoramide (Palfium, Palphium, Jetrium, Dimorlin, marketed solely in the Netherlands). Research on fentanyls and piritramide (R-3365, Pirium, Dipidolor, Piridolan, among others) was also nearing fruition at that point.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: Earlier treaties had only controlled opium, coca, and derivatives such as morphine, heroin, and cocaine. The Single Convention, adopted in 1961, consolidated those treaties and broadened their scope to include cannabis and other substances with effects similar to drugs already covered. The Commission on Narcotic Drugs and the World Health Organization were empowered to add, remove, and transfer drugs among the treaty's four schedules of controlled substances. The International Narcotics Control Board was put in overall control of drug production, international trade, and dispensation. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) was delegated the Board's daily monitoring of each country and working with national authorities to ensure compliance with the Single Convention. This treaty has since been supplemented by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, which controls LSD, MDMA, and other psychoactive pharmaceuticals, and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, which strengthens provisions against money laundering and other drug-related offenses.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Single Convention's Schedules of drugs range from most restrictive to least restrictive, in this order: Schedule IV, Schedule I, Schedule II, Schedule III. The list of drugs initially controlled was annexed to the treaty. states that for a drug to be placed in a Schedule, the World Health Organization must make the findings required for that Schedule, to wit:


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: According to the Commentary, is the category of drugs whose control provisions "constitute the standard regime under the Single Convention." The principal features of that regime are:


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: Drugs in Schedule II are regulated only slightly less strictly than Schedule I drugs. The Commentary confirms, "Drugs in Schedule II are subject to the same measures of control as drugs in Schedule I, with only a few exceptions":


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: Schedule III "contains preparations which enjoy a privileged position under the Single Convention, i.e. are subject to a less strict regime than other Preparations," according to the Commentary. Specifically:


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: This is the category of drugs, such as heroin, that are considered to have "particularly dangerous properties" in comparison to other drugs (ethanol is left unregulated).


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: According to , "The drugs in Schedule IV shall also be included in Schedule I and subject to all measures of control applicable to drugs in the latter Schedule" as well as whatever "special measures of control"; each Party deems necessary. This is in contrast to the U.S. Controlled Substances Act, which has five Schedules ranging from Schedule I (most restrictive) to Schedule V (least restrictive), and the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, which has four Schedules ranging for Schedule I (most restrictive) to Schedule IV (least restrictive).


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: Under certain circumstances, Parties are required to limit Schedule IV drugs to research purposes only:


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Commentary notes that "Whether the prohibition of drugs in Schedule IV (cannabis and resin, desomorphine, heroin, ketobemidone) should be mandatory or only recommended was a controversial question at the Plenipotentiary Conference." The provision adopted represents "a compromise which leaves prohibition to the judgement, though theoretically not to the discretion, of each Party." The Parties are required to act in good faith in making this decision, or else they will be in violation of the treaty.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Single Convention allows only drugs with morphine-like, cocaine-like, and cannabis-like effects to be added to the Schedules. The strength of the drug is not relevant; only the similarity of its effects to the substances already controlled. For instance, etorphine and acetorphine were considered sufficiently morphine-like to fall under the treaty's scope, although they are many times more potent than morphine. However, according to the Commentary:


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: Since cannabis is a hallucinogen (although some dispute this), the Commentary speculates that mescaline, psilocybin, tetrahydrocannabinol, and LSD could have been considered sufficiently cannabis-like to be regulated under the Single Convention; however, it opines, "It appears that the fact that the potent hallucinogenics whose abuse has spread in recent years have not been brought under international narcotics control does not result from legal reasons, but rather from the view of Governments that a regime different from that offered by the Single Convention would be more adequate." That different regime was instituted by the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Convention on Psychotropic Drugs' scope can include any drug not already under international control if the World Health Organization finds that:


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The reason for sharply limiting the scope of Single Convention to a few types of drugs while letting the Convention on Psychotropic Drugs cover the rest was concern for the interests of industry. Professor Cindy Fazey's "The Mechanics and Dynamics of the UN System for International Drug Control" explains, "concerted efforts by drug manufacturing nations and the pharmaceutical industry ensured that the controls on psychotropics in the 1971 treaty were considerably looser than those applied to organic drugs in the Single Convention."


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: A failed 24 March 2003 European Parliament committee report noted the disparity in how drugs are regulated under the two treaties:


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: For this reason, the European Parliament, Transnational Radical Party, and other organizations have proposed removing cannabis and other drugs from the Single Convention and scheduling them under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: Furthermore, the provisions of the Single Convention regarding the national supply and demand of opium to make morphine contribute to the global shortage of essential poppy-based pain relief medicines. According to the convention, governments can only request raw poppy materials according to the amount of poppy-based medicines used in the two preceding years. Consequently, in countries where underprescription is chronic due to the high prices of morphine and lack of availability and medical training in the prescription of poppy-based drugs, it is impossible to demand enough raw poppy materials from the INCB, as the convention's regulating body, to meet the country's pain relief needs. As such, 77% of the world's poppy-based medicine supplies are used by only six countries (See: Fischer, B J. Rehm, and T Culbert, "Opium based medicines: a mapping of global supply, demand and needs" in


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: Spivack D. (ed.) Feasibility Study on Opium Licensing in Afghanistan, Kabul, 2005. p. 85–86.). Many critics of the Convention cite this as one of its primary limitations and the World Health Organization is currently attempting to increase prescription of poppy-based drugs and to help governments of emerging countries in particular alter their internal regulations to be able to demand poppy-based medicines according to the convention's provisions (see the WHO "Assuring Availability of Opioid Analgesics for Palliative Care"). The Senlis Council, a European drug policy thinktank, proposes creating a second-tier supply system that would complement the existing system without altering the balance of its relatively closed supply and demand system. The council, who support licensing poppy cultivation in Afghanistan to create Afghan morphine, believe the opium supply in this country could go a long way to easing the pain relief needs of sufferers in emerging countries by producing a cheap poppy-based medicine solution (see [The Senlis Council]: "Poppy for Medicine").


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: There has long been a controversy over whether cannabis is "particularly liable to abuse and to produce ill effects" and whether that "liability is not offset by substantial therapeutic advantages", as required by Schedule IV criteria. Already in 1973, the Commentary on the Single Convention edited by UN Secretary-General pointed out that "should the results of the intensive research which is at the time of this writing being undertaken on the effects of [cannabis and cannabis resin] so warrant, they could be deleted from Schedule IV, and these two drugs, as well as extracts and tinctures of cannabis, could be transferred from Schedule I to Schedule II." Since the discovery of the endocannabinoid receptor system in the late 1980s, which revolutionized the scientific understanding of the psychopharmacological effects of cannabis, and the important progresses in research related to the medical uses of the plant, questions as to the validity of the placement of cannabis and cannabis resin in Schedule IV increased.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: In 1991, "delta-"9-THC was down-scheduled from Schedule I to Schedule II of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971. After numerous discussions at the World Health Organization in the 2000s and 2010s, on 2 December 2020, the Commission on Narcotic Drugs adopted Decision 63/17 withdrawing "cannabis and cannabis resin" from Schedule IV of the Single Convention. The vote was based on recommendations issued by the World Health Organization in 2019 on the basis of scientific evidence-based reviews. The decision entered into force in April 2021.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: Cannabinoids (natural and synthetic) and opioids (synthetic and semisynthetic) are scheduled by Convention on Psychotropic Substances.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: Some opioids currently or formerly used in medicine are not scheduled by UN conventions, for example:


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Single Convention gives the UN Economic and Social Council's Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND) power to add or delete drugs from the Schedules, in accordance with the World Health Organization's findings and recommendations. Any Party to the treaty may request an amendment to the Schedules, or request a review of the commission's decision. The Economic and Social Council is the only body that has power to confirm, alter, or reverse the CND's scheduling decisions. The United Nations General Assembly can approve or modify any CND decision, except for scheduling decisions.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The CND's annual meeting serves as a forum for nations to debate drug policy. At the 2005 meeting, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Canada, Australia and Iran rallied in opposition to the UN's zero-tolerance approach in international drug policy. Their appeal was vetoed by the United States, while the United Kingdom delegation remained reticent. Meanwhile, U.S. Office of National Drug Control Policy Director John Walters clashed with United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Executive Director Antonio Maria Costa on the issue of needle exchange programs. Walters advocated strict prohibition, while Costa opined, "We must not deny these addicts any genuine opportunities to remain HIV-negative."


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) is mandated by of the Single Convention to "endeavour to limit the cultivation, production, manufacture and use of drugs to an adequate amount required for medical and scientific purposes, to ensure their availability for such purposes and to prevent illicit cultivation, production and manufacture of, and illicit trafficking in and use of, drugs." The INCB administers the estimate system, which limits each nation's annual production of controlled substances to the estimated amounts needed for medical and scientific purposes.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: , added to the treaty by a 1971 amendment, gives the INCB more enforcement power by allowing it to deduct from a nation's production quota of cannabis, opium, and coca the amounts it determines have been produced within that nation and introduced into the illicit traffic. This could happen as a result of failing to control either illicit production or diversion of licitly produced opium to illicit purposes. In this way, the INCB can essentially punish a narcotics-exporting nation that does not control its illicit traffic by imposing an economic sanction on its medicinal narcotics industry.


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The Single Convention exerts power even over those nations that have not ratified it. The International Narcotics Board states:


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The most controversial decisions of the INCB are those in which it assumes the power to interpret the Single Convention. Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Spain continue to experiment with medically supervised injection rooms, despite the INCB's objections that the Single Convention's allowance of "scientific purposes" is limited to clinical trials of pharmaceutical grade drugs and not public health interventions. These European nations have more leverage to disregard the Board's decisions because they are not dependent on licit psychoactive drug exports (which are regulated by the Board). As international lawyer Bill Bush notes, "Because of the Tasmanian opium poppy industry, Australia is more vulnerable to political pressure than, say, Germany."


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: The INCB is an outspoken opponent of drug legalization. Its 2002 report rejects a common argument for drug reform, stating, "Persons in favour of legalizing illicit drug use argue that drug abusers should not have their basic rights violated; however, it does not seem to have occurred to those persons that drug abusers themselves violate the basic rights of their own family members and society." The report dismisses concerns that drug control conflicts with principles of limited government and self-determination, arguing, "States have a moral and legal responsibility to protect drug abusers from further self-destruction." The report takes a majoritarian view of the situation, declaring, "Governments must respect the view of the majority of lawful citizens; and those citizens are against illicit drug use."


title: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: Article 44 provided that the Single Convention's entry into force terminated several predecessor treaties, including:


title: Pulmonary vein

text: The pulmonary veins are the veins that transfer oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. The largest pulmonary veins are the four "main pulmonary veins", two from each lung that drain into the left atrium of the heart. The pulmonary veins are part of the pulmonary circulation.


title: Pulmonary vein

text: There are four main pulmonary veins, two from each lung – an inferior and a superior main vein, emerging from each hilum. The main pulmonary veins receive blood from three or four feeding veins in each lung, and drain into the left atrium. The peripheral feeding veins do not follow the bronchial tree. They run between the pulmonary segments from which they drain the blood.


title: Pulmonary vein

text: At the root of the lung, the right superior pulmonary vein lies in front of and a little below the pulmonary artery; the inferior is situated at the lowest part of the lung hilum. Behind the pulmonary artery is the bronchus. The right main pulmonary veins (contains oxygenated blood) pass behind the right atrium and superior vena cava; the left in front of the descending thoracic aorta.


title: Pulmonary vein

text: Occasionally the three lobar veins on the right side remain separate, and not infrequently the two left lobar veins end by a common opening into the left atrium. Therefore, the number of pulmonary veins opening into the left atrium can vary between three and five in the healthy population.


title: Pulmonary vein

text: The two left lobar veins may be united as a single pulmonary vein in about 25% of people; the two right veins may be united in about 3%.


title: Pulmonary vein

text: The pulmonary veins play an essential role in respiration, by receiving blood that has been oxygenated in the alveoli and returning it to the left atrium.


title: Pulmonary vein

text: As part of the pulmonary circulation they carry oxygenated blood back to the heart, as opposed to the veins of the systemic circulation which carry deoxygenated blood.


title: Pulmonary vein

text: On chest X-ray, the diameters of pulmonary veins increases from upper to lower lobes, from 3 mm at the first intercoastal space, to 6 mm just above the diaphragm.


title: Pulmonary vein

text: A rare genetic defect of the pulmonary veins can cause them to drain into the pulmonary circulation in whole or in part, this is known as a total anomalous pulmonary venous connection (or drainage), or partial anomalous pulmonary connection, respectively.


title: Philippe Leroy (actor)

text: Philippe Leroy-Beaulieu (born 15 October 1930) is a French actor. He has appeared in over 150 films since 1960, and has worked extensively in Italian cinema, as well as in his native country. He was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actor for his debut performance in Jacques Becker’s "The Hole" (1960), and for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movie for playing the titular role in the Italian miniseries "The Life of Leonardo da Vinci" (1971). He was previously a decorated paratrooper in the French Foreign Legion, where he served in the First Indochina War and the Algerian War.


title: Philippe Leroy (actor)

text: Philippe Leroy-Beaulieu was born in Paris on 15 October 1930 to a prominent family. His ancestors included economist Pierre Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, historian Henri Jean Baptiste Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, and architect Jean-François Leroy. He worked on an ocean liner as a teenager, and spent a year abroad in New York City.


title: Philippe Leroy (actor)

text: In 1953, he enlisted in the French Foreign Legion and served as a paratrooper in the 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment in the French Indochina War. He later became a reservist, and served in the Algerian War as a 2nd Lieutenant. He was awarded two decorations of the Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur, a Croix de guerre des théâtres d'opérations extérieures, and the Cross for Military Valour for his service. He retired as a captain.


title: Philippe Leroy (actor)

text: Leroy made his film debut in 1960 as a character based on José Giovanni in Jacques Becker’s prison drama "The Hole". Becker cast all non-professional actors as his leads to lend a sense of authenticity, Leroy among them. His performance won international recognition, and he was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actor.


title: Philippe Leroy (actor)

text: In 1962 he went to Italy and he started working in many Italian films and TV fictions, such as Renato Castellani's "The Life of Leonardo da Vinci". He also played the role of Yanez de Gomera, Sandokan's partner, in 1976 TV series "Sandokan".


title: Philippe Leroy (actor)

text: During his career, he has worked with directors like Jean-Luc Godard, Jacques Deray, Dario Argento, Luc Besson, Alberto Lattuada, Luigi Magni and many more.


title: Philippe Leroy (actor)

text: Leroy married Italian journalist Silvia Tortora in 1990. They were married until her death on 10 January 2022. They had two children; Philippe and Michelle. He also has another child, actress Philippine Leroy-Beaulieu, from a previous marriage.


title: Philippe Leroy (actor)

text: Leroy has continued parachuting as a hobby. He is a member of the parachuting division of the SS Lazio sports club, as well as a supporter of the Lazio's football team. In 2010 during the Rome Parashow, he celebrated his 80th birthday with a jump. In April 2011 (at the age of 81) he spent 12 days in Afghanistan with Italian paratroopers as a special correspondent.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły (11 March 1886 – 2 December 1941; nom de guerre "Śmigły, Tarłowski, Adam Zawisza"), also called Edward Śmigły-Rydz, was a Polish politician, statesman, Marshal of Poland and Commander-in-Chief of Poland's armed forces, as well as a painter and poet.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: During the interwar period, he was an exceptionally admired public figure in Poland and was regarded as a hero for his exemplary record as an army commander in the Polish Legions of World War I and the ensuing Polish–Soviet War in 1920. He was appointed Commander-in-Chief and Inspector General of the Polish Armed Forces following Marshal Józef Piłsudski's death in 1935. Rydz served in this capacity at the start of World War II during the invasion of Poland.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: When war loomed, political differences fell away and defense became the national priority. Consequently, Rydz's stature eclipsed even that of the president. The shock of the Polish defeat made objective evaluations of his legacy during and after the war difficult; his reputation, very much tied to the critical early months of World War II, remains tendentious and controversial.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: Edward Rydz was born in the Polish village of Łapszyn (now Lapshin in Ukraine) near Brzeżany, Galicia, a possession of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to Polish parents. He was the son of a professional non-commissioned officer in the Austro-Hungarian Army, Tomasz Rydz, and his wife Maria Babiak. Rydz grew up in rather humble circumstances and was orphaned at the age of 13. He was then raised by his maternal grandparents and, after their deaths, by the family of a Dr. Uranowicz, the town physician at Brzeżany. After graduating with distinction at the local "Gymnasium", Rydz went to Kraków, where he completed studies in philosophy and history of art at the Jagiellonian University. He then studied to be a painter at the Academy of Fine Arts in Kraków and later in Vienna and Munich. In 1910–1911, he attended the reserve officers' academy in Vienna and received military training at the renowned Austrian 4th Infantry Regiment, the "Grand Masters of the Teutonic Knights".


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: Rydz finished his military education with distinction, and he was offered a commission in the Imperial Army, which he declined. In 1912, Rydz became a founder of the Polish paramilitary group, the Riflemen's Association ("Związek Strzelecki"). At the same time, he completed his art studies. He was regarded as a very promising talent in landscape and portrait painting, and was often praised by his professors and critics.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: Drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army in July 1914, Rydz was transferred in August to the Polish Legions and fought in World War I in the famous Polish 1st Brigade of Józef Piłsudski. He took part in numerous engagements against the Imperial Russian Army in the region of the Southern Vistula and rose quickly in rank. By 1916, he was already a full colonel. He did not forget his art, however, and exhibited his work at a gallery in Kraków around that time. In 1917, after their refusal to swear an oath to the Austrian and German authorities, the Legions were disbanded, their soldiers interned and their leader Józef Piłsudski imprisoned in Magdeburg fortress. By Piłsudski's appointment, Rydz (who was released from prison on grounds of ill health) became commander of the Polish Military Organization ("POW") and adopted the nom de guerre "Śmigły" ("Fast" or "Agile"), which he later officially added to his surname.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: In October 1918, Rydz entered the socialist government of politician and diplomat Ignacy Daszyński in Lublin as Minister of War. Having been promoted to brigadier general, he underlined that upon his acceptance of the office he was to be seen as a deputy of Piłsudski. It was at this time he began using the name Rydz-Śmigły. On 11 November 1918, the government relinquished all power to Piłsudski, who became Provisional Head of State. After some hesitation, Piłsudski (displeased by Rydz-Śmigły's cooperation with the socialists, he himself "having left the streetcar of Socialism at the stop called Independence") nevertheless confirmed him as a brigadier general of the Polish army.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: During the Polish-Soviet War of 1919–21, Rydz commanded Polish armies in several offensives against the Bolsheviks. Among the victorious engagements, he captured the cities of Wilno (Vilnius) and Dünaburg. Following his victories on the field, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Latvian armed forces and soon liberated Latgale from the Red Army. Subsequently, he annihilated the Red Army's 12th Army and took Kiev. After the Bolshevik counterattack led the Red Army to the gates of Warsaw, Rydz commanded the Central Front of the Polish forces during the Battle of Warsaw of 1920, also known as the "Miracle on the Vistula". In this decisive battle, Rydz-Śmigły's Central Front held firm against the Soviet attack and later blocked the escape routes for the defeated Bolshevik 4th and 15th Armies, as well as the 3rd Cavalry Corps of Soviet General Gayk Bzhishkyan, which in the end retreated to East Prussia to be interned by the Germans.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: At the conclusion of the Polish-Soviet war, Rydz was appointed Inspector General of the Polish Army in the Wilno district and later in Warsaw. In November 1924, he informally headed the so-called strike of the generals, in which a group of Polish Army commanders resigned to demonstrate their dissatisfaction with the lack of reaction of the Ministry of Military Affairs to the statements of General Franciszek Latinik that were unfavorable to former legionnaires. In 1926, during Piłsudski's May Coup, Rydz took the Marshal's side and sent troops from Wilno to reinforce anti-government troops in Warsaw. Piłsudski never forgot this fidelity, and in 1929, Rydz was appointed the Marshal's deputy on all matters concerning the East. On 13 May 1935, following Piłsudski's death, Rydz was nominated by the president and government of Poland to serve in the capacity of the Inspector-General of the Polish Armed Forces, the highest Polish military office. This was done in accordance with Piłsudski's wishes. Piłsudski's death saw his followers (the Sanacja), divide themselves into three main factions: those supporting President Ignacy Mościcki as Piłsudski's successor, those supporting Rydz, and those supporting Prime Minister Walery Sławek. Mościcki in the end would conclude a power-sharing agreement with Rydz-Śmigły, which saw Slawek marginalised as a serious political player by the end of the year. As a result of this agreement, Rydz-Śmigły was to become the "de facto" leader of Poland until the outbreak of the war, whereas Mościcki remained influential by continuing as president. From 1935, Rydz saw himself rapidly elevated in rank and position. On 15 July 1936, he was officially awarded the title of "Second Man in the State after the President" by the Polish prime minister. On 10 November, he was promoted to the rank of Marshal of Poland. Rydz's image as Piłsudski's anointed successor was popularized by the "Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego" ("Camp of National Unity") movement, or "Ozon" movement, but it alienated many of Piłsudski's supporters, who were offended by what they saw as Rydz's acts of self-promotion.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: The period of Rydz's rule, 1935–39, has often been referred to as "a dictatorship without a dictator". Rydz lacked the moral authority of Piłsudski, and the "Piłsudskites" were bitterly divided after his death in 1935. The ruling regime was divided between the Mościcki faction (known as the "president's men" or the "castle group"), made up mainly of civilians, and Rydz's group, known as the "marshal's men", mostly old comrades of Piłsudski and professional officers. Besides these two major groups, there were also supporters of Sławek and other disgruntled Piłsudskite groups, which were marginalized after the Rydz-Mościcki pact.The regime became increasingly authoritarian, as manifested by the creation of the Ozon movement. However, Ozon never achieved its goal of developing popular mass appeal and transforming Rydz into "Poland's second great leader" (after Piłsudski himself). Several of Poland's most prominent politicians, including Mościcki and the foreign minister Józef Beck, made a point of distancing themselves from this movement.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: In March 1939, Hitler occupied Bohemia and Moravia and created the satellite client-state of Slovakia. This encircled Poland with an iron ring on all sides except the east. Rydz was the only member of government who saw the impending danger of a conflict with Germany. However, the time remaining was too short for the creation of a new army operational plan in the west. During negotiations in Moscow in August 1939, Rydz refused all attempts by the Western Powers to obtain Polish permission for the Red Army to march westward, stating that "there is no guarantee that the Soviets will really take active part in the war; furthermore, once having entered Polish territory, they will never leave it".


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: On 1 September 1939, the Germans invaded Poland, and Rydz-Śmigły was named Commander-in-Chief of all Polish forces. On 7 September, along with most of the government, he evacuated Warsaw as it came under attack. Soon afterwards, Polish coordination began to suffer from issues with their communication equipment, which impaired Rydz's ability to command his forces effectively. In Brest (Brześć) on 11 September, he ordered the Polish capital to be defended at all costs. In his plan, Warsaw and the nearby Modlin Fortress were to become two redoubt-citadels in central Poland to fight on for as long as possible while the bulk of the Polish forces were to defend the Romanian bridgehead and await the counterattack promised by Poland's allies - the French and British. Unknown to Rydz-Śmigły, the Western Allies had no such plan and expected Poland to fall (see Western betrayal). This strategy was further crippled when Soviet forces invaded Poland from the east on 17 September. Realizing that mounting a defence against both Germany and the USSR was impossible, Rydz-Śmigły issued orders to his forces to begin a retreat towards Romania and to not waste men on fighting the Soviet aggressors.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: On 18 September 1939, after avoiding capture by Soviet and then German troops, Rydz-Śmigły escaped to Romania and was interned. The crossing of the Polish government into Romania prevented Poland from having to officially surrender and allowed Polish soldiers to continue the fight against Nazi Germany, though Rydz's flight sparked some controversy because of his position as supreme commander of the Polish armed forces. Large numbers of Polish soldiers and airmen managed to escape into southern Europe through Romania and later regrouped in France. After the French surrender, they re-assembled once more, but this time in the UK.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: John Gunther wrote after Rydz-Śmigły and Beck were interned in Romania that "They ought, one might say, to have been interned somewhere else before". As the Commander-in-Chief of Polish Armed Forces, Rydz-Śmigły took complete responsibility for Poland's military defeat in September 1939. Rydz had proven himself an extremely able commander on smaller fronts in earlier wars, but was not an experienced strategist in a great conflict. Indeed, in 1922, in an evaluation of Polish generals, Piłsudski had written about him: "in operational work he displays healthy common sense and a lot of stubborn energy. I could recommend him to everybody as a commander of an army, I am however not sure if he possesses sufficient abilities to function as commander-in-chief in a war between two states."


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: During his internment in Romania, Rydz-Śmigły initiated the creation of a Polish underground originating from officers who were loyal to the memory of Piłsudski. Still in Romania, on 27 October, he relinquished his function as the Commander-in-Chief and Inspector-General of the Armed Forces. This role was assumed by Władysław Sikorski, who was serving in the new Polish government-in-exile in France (and after 1940 in the United Kingdom).


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: In the autumn of 1939, Polish journalist Melchior Wańkowicz met Beck, also in internment, and he managed to talk to him for a few hours. This is what Wańkowicz wrote about this meeting: "It was completely impossible to get to Rydz, as he was kept in wild mountains, in the summer villa of Patriarch Miron, closely guarded by a special unit of Romanian police. I managed to get to his villa after bribing a Romanian officer, with the help of Rydz's physician, Dr. Cianciara (...) The Marshal spoke with a charming smile, but there was no spark in this smile. He said that after Piłsudski's death, the condition of the army was catastrophic: "The cost of the construction of modest fortifications along our western border was equivalent to an 18-month budget of Poland, and at the same time, we were working on fortifications in the East. A modest armament plan was up to 5 billion zlotys. What was I supposed to do? I am not an economist, minister Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski told me that we only had 180 million (...) We began partial mobilization in the spring 1939. The nation hated it, more than 1,000 Silesians deserted to Germany. We were unable to keep Poland mobilized for so long, we could not afford it (...) They say that I am a coward. I had three options: to surrender, to kill myself, and to be captured. It was impossible to fight, as I had only half a company of soldiers with me. To kill myself meant failure. To fly to Warsaw?"


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: Rydz-Śmigły was transferred from the internment camp to the villa of a former Romanian prime minister in Dragoslavele, from where he escaped on 10 December 1940 and crossed illegally into Hungary.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: His flight to Hungary and rumours about his planned return to Poland were a source of considerable displeasure to his rival Sikorski, now Prime Minister. Sikorski had been in opposition to Rydz-Śmigły and Piłsudski from the time of the 1926 May Coup. Sikorski declared in a telegram to General Stefan Grot-Rowecki, leader of the Armia Krajowa (AK) underground resistance in Poland: "the Polish Government will regard a sojourn of the Marshal in Poland as a sabotage of its work in the country. The Marshal must as soon as possible move to some country of the British Empire". However, Rydz-Śmigły left Hungary on 25 October 1941, and travelling through Slovakia reached Poland. On 30 October, in strict secrecy, he came back to Warsaw to participate in the resistance movement as a common underground soldier, thus voluntarily suspending his rank as Marshal of Poland. He managed to contact Grot-Rowecki, but remained incognito. He died suddenly of heart failure at the age of 55, on 2 December 1941, only five weeks after his arrival in Warsaw. He was buried in Warsaw under his nom de guerre "Adam Zawisza". His tombstone at the Powązki Cemetery bore this assumed name until 1991. A new tombstone inscribed with the Marshal's full name was placed over his grave by the people of Warsaw in 1994.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: Edward Rydz-Śmigły's reputation after World War II was generally negative. In the Soviet Union, the east bloc states and People's Republic of Poland, he was denounced for his participation in the Polish-Soviet War in 1920, for the political repression of far-left elements under his military government of the late 1930s, and for his key role in the Polish defeat of 1939. In the West, due to the influence of anti-Piłsudski circles (with Władysław Sikorski as their foremost representative), he was seen as having fled the battlefield in 1939, and little recognition was given to the actual and impossible circumstances of Poland's invasion and defeat by the Germans and Soviets.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: In 2016 a large and detailed oil painting was discovered amongst the archives of The Sikorski Museum in London. It had been folded into four and hidden in a briefcase by an unknown person and smuggled to Britain to avoid being taken by the Nazi occupation forces. After quite a feat of restoration funded by Philip Bujak, a private member of The Polish Heritage Society, the fully restored painting was presented back to the Sikorski Institute where it is currently on display.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: Order of the White Eagle, Commander and Knight of Virtuti Militari, Grand Cross, Grand Officer and Officer of Order of Polonia Restituta, four times Cross of Valour, Golden Cross of Merit (Złoty Krzyż Zasługi), and Cross of Independence with Swords.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania, Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy, Grand Cross, Grand Officer and Commander of the French Order of the Legion of Honour, Grand Officer of the Finnish Order of the White Rose, Grand Cross of the Order of the White Eagle (Yugoslavia) and Order of Saint Sava of Yugoslavia, Grand Cross of the Hungarian Order of Merit, Grand Cross of the Japanese Order of the Rising Sun, Knight of Latvia's highest military award, Order of Lāčplēsis (the Order of the Bearslayer), 2nd class, Pulaski Medal (USA) and Italian Cross of Military Merit.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: Rydz was Honorary Doctor of the Universities of Warsaw and (then-Polish) Vilnius and the Warsaw University of Technology, as well as an Honorary Citizen of several Polish cities.


title: Edward Rydz-Śmigły

text: Marshal Edward Śmigły-Rydz Park is a large tree-covered public park in Warsaw, established after World War II on the eastern side of the Polish parliament building.


title: Madness discography

text: The discography of Madness, a British pop/ska band, comprises twelve studio albums, sixteen compilation albums, four live albums, two soundtrack albums, two extended plays, four box sets and forty-three singles.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: Gloria Anne Borrego Galla (born December 16, 1933), known professionally as Gloria Romero (), is a multi-awarded Filipino actress, regarded as the “Queen of Philippine Movies”, her career spans over 70 years, and she has starred in over 200 films and television programs. Some of her award-winning performances in films are "Tanging Yaman" (FAMAS Best Actress 2001), "Nagbabagang Luha" (FAMAS Best Supporting Actress 1989) and "Dalagang Ilocana" (FAMAS Best Actress 1955).


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: Dubbed as the “First Lady of Philippine Cinema”, Romero is a recipient of 6 FAMAS Awards, including the prestigious Huwarang Bituin of FAMAS Award, 3 Gawad Urian Awards and 3 FAP Awards. In 2019, she won 2 Best Actress Awards for her performance on the acclaimed film “Rainbow's Sunset” at the International Film Festival Manhattan and MMFF Awards. She is also a recipient of multiple "Lifetime Achievement Awards" across all leading award-giving bodies including: Cinemanila International Film Festival (2001), FAP (2002), FAMAS (2004), Gawad Urian (2004), MTRCB (2009) and PASADO (2010). She is also an inductee at the Eastwood City Walk of Fame and was honoured by The Philippine Post Office with a commemorative stamp, recognising her status as one of the Outstanding Filipinos Living Legends.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: She was long associated with her original home studio the now defunct Sampaguita Pictures, and in the 1980’s to 2011 with ABS-CBN, until in 2011 she transferred to GMA Network. Her last television program before the COVID-19 pandemic is the Sunday drama fantasy anthology series "Daig Kayo ng Lola Ko" as the story telling fairy-grandmother Lola Goreng.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: Gloria Anne Borrego Galla was born on December 16, 1933, in Denver, Colorado, the second of four siblings. Her father, Pedro Galla, was a Filipino who went to the States for his education until he met Gloria’s mother the Spanish-American Mary Borrego. She had an elder sister named Louise, and two younger brothers Tito and Gilbert. The young Gloria together with her family travelled to the Philippines to visit their grandparents in Mabini, Pangasinan. The family’s plan of going back to Denver was always postponed, and the supposed vacation was extended. When World War II was declared, the Gallas were trapped in the Philippines, their possession was confiscated and burned by the Japanese soldier, the family escaped and hid in the mountain. During the war they were taught how to do farm works. Days before the war ended their mother died, and her father decided that the family will stay in the Philippines for good.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: Gloria and her siblings became successful as they grow to adulthood, the eldest Louise became a nurse, her late brother Tito Galla (1938–1979), became a popular actor, and the youngest Gilbert is a US based doctor.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: As a young girl from the province, it was her childhood dream of becoming an actress she was a movie fan of movie stars and real-life couple Tita Duran and Pancho Magalona. In an interview, she said that she once told her high school teacher that she will be a movie star.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: Before becoming a huge star she started as a bit player, her very first movie was an extra in the 1949 movie "Ang Bahay sa Lumang Gulod" under Premiere Productions. But it was in Sampaguita Pictures that she was given a big break. She was introduced by her uncle, Nario Rosales, who was the studio’s Chief Editor. She initially portrayed the daughter of real-life couple Cesar Ramirez and Alicia Vergel, in "Madame X" (1952), and producers introduced her with a stage name "Gloria Romero". Romero got her first lead role in "Monghita" (1952) opposite Oscar Moreno. Afterward, Romero constantly topbilled box office hit films. She was often paired with Luis Gonzales in a loveteam. One of their iconic movies together was a movie that chronicles the lives of Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos and First Lady Imelda Marcos in the movie "" (1965). starring a young Bongbong Marcos who played himself and Vilma Santos-Recto who played Marcos’ eldest child Imee Marcos. The film was later followed by "Pinagbuklod ng Langit", which was released in 1969.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: During the 1950s, the first female onscreen rivalry in Philippine cinema was born, her famous rival was LVN Pictures movie queen and veteran actress Nida Blanca. Despite being screen rivals, they became good friends offscreen. Some movies that Romero and Blanca starred together was the blockbuster comedy film of 1984 "Anak ni Waray vs. Anak ni Biday", this film reunites them with their perennial love teams Luis Gonzales and Nestor de Villa, the cast also includes Maricel Soriano and Snooky Serna. They also played mothers to matinee idol Aga Muhlach in the 1985 Lino Brocka classic "Miguelito: Batang Rebelde".


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: Romero received her first major acting award in the Filipino Academy of Motion Arts and Sciences (FAMAS) in 1954 for the film "Dalagang Ilocana". She was the third actress to receive the FAMAS award for this category, and the first actress to win for a comedy role, for a long time she holds this record, until Judy Ann Santos won in 2006 for the romantic comedy film Kasal, Kasali, Kasalo. In 2000, she starred in "Tanging Yaman" as the matriarch who is suffering from Alzheimer's disease, in her role she won the FAMAS best actress in 2001, she was 67 years old at the time and currently holds the record of the oldest FAMAS best actress winner.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: On Sept. 24, 1960, Romero married fellow Sampaguita Pictures actor Juancho Gutierrez at the Santuario de San Antonio in Forbes Park, Makati. Romero's white gown was designed by National Artist for Fashion Ramón Valera. The entourage included the biggest stars of Sampaguita Pictures. The bridesmaids were Daisy Romualdez, Barbara Perez, Susan Roces and Amalia Fuentes. The wedding was covered by all the major newspapers and magazines and radios, headlined “Wedding of the Year”.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: The couple have only one daughter Maritess Gutierrez, who tried acting briefly, and now a chef. Romero has a grandson, Chris Gutierrez, a former artist of Star Magic.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: The couple separated after 12 years of being married, and Gloria did not re-marry again. In 2000, Juancho suffered a diabetic stroke that left him paralysed and reunited him with his wife Gloria, who took care of him until Juancho’s death in 2005.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: After a long run as a movie star she also appeared on TV. She was a part of the television sitcom "Palibhasa Lalake" as the drunkard landlady Tita Minerva, and other sitcom such as "Richard Loves Lucy" and "OK Fine Whatever!" as Lola Barbie. She also appeared in "Sa Dulo ng Walang Hanggan" as Lola Carmela, "Familia Zaragoza" as Donya Amparo Zaragoza, and "Sana'y Wala Nang Wakas" as Donya Valeria Valencia.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: On April 4, 2008, she was cast with Eddie Garcia in an episode for the drama anthology "Maalaala Mo Kaya" and received a nomination for the role. She appeared on the primetime drama series, "May Bukas Pa", in which she played "Aling Soledad". Romero guested in the shows 30th chapter ("Greed").


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: In December 2008, ABS-CBN broadcast a tribute to her 75th birthday in ASAP, with guests including Dolphy, Susan Roces, German Moreno, Roderick Paulate, Gina Pareño, Christopher de Leon, Lorna Tolentino, Tirso Cruz III, Ricky Davao, Cherry Pie Picache and among others.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: On February 11, 2011, Romero transferred to GMA Network after being with ABS-CBN for more than 20 years. She starred in her first teledrama on GMA titled "Munting Heredera", starring child star Mona Alawi. On the same year she also joined the cast of the situational comedy series "Andres de Saya", the series is a television adaptation of a comic novel by Carlo J. Caparas, it stars Cesar Montano and Iza Calzado.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: She continued working with GMA until the pandemic started in 2020, her last show was the Sunday fantasy anthology "Daig Kayo ng Lola Ko", where she played Lola Goreng a fairy grandmother narrating different stories to her grandchildren. On July 2022, the show celebrated its fifth year anniversary, despite in hiatus, Romero was persuaded to have a special appearance in its month-long special.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: Romero alongside other pillars of Philippine Cinema, was one of the first inductees on Eastwood City Walk of Fame in 2005. In the same year she was one of the 31 women awarded with PAMA-AS Gintong Bai Award at Malacañan Palace, by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: She was featured three times in Yes! magazines 100 Most Beautiful Stars in the categories: "Staying Power" (2007), "The Venerable" (2009) and the “Icon” (2016).


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: In 2009, she became the first recipient of the lifetime achievement award from the MTRCB (Movies and Television Review and Classification Board) Award.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: She was honored as a "Gawad Parangal sa mga Ginintuang Bituin ng Pelikulang Pilipino" at La Consolacion College, Manila on March 15, 2010, in celebration of National Women's Month. The following year, Romero was awarded and named as one of the 13 "Movie Icons of Our Time" at the 8th Golden Screen Awards.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: In the 57th FAMAS Award (2007), she was given the Huwarang Bituin ng FAMAS Award (FAMAS' Model Movie Star), for her durability as a movie personality and only three actors have been given this award, Dolphy(2003) and Susan Roces (2004). During the 63rd FAMAS Award (2015), she was honored as one of the Iconic Movie Queens of Philippine Cinema alongside Susan Roces, Nora Aunor, Maricel Soriano, Dawn Zulueta and Sarah Geronimo


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: In 2019 at 35th PMPC Star Awards For Movies celebrated Philippine Cinemas 100 Years, Romero was among the luminaries who were honored as “Natatanging Bituin ng Siglo”.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: The Film Development Council of the Philippines (FDCP) honored Romero during 5th Film Ambassadors Night (2021) with the “Ilaw ng Industriya Award”, serving as a “veritable matriarch” to the film industry and an inspiration to generations of film actors, a rare honor usually reserved for matriarchs of Philippine movies. In 2022, the Metropolitan Theater, in cooperation with FDCP, offers “Mga Hiyas ng Sineng Filipino”, a program that aims to bring back to the big screen some of the most important restored films of Philippine Cinema including the 1954 classic comedy “Dalagang Ilocana”, where Romero won her first FAMAS for best actress.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: In February 2022 the Philippine Post Office honored Romero with a commemorative stamp as part of their “Outstanding Filipinos Series : Living Legends". The launch of the said commemorative stamps coincided with the 75th year since the first stamp of the Republic of the Philippines was issued.


title: Gloria Romero (actress)

text: In her more than 70 years in the industry, Romero made more than 200 films and TV shows for different studios and networks, including Sampaguita Pictures, LVN, Lea Production, Regal Films, GMA Films, and Star Cinema as well as Independent films.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: Humphrey of Lancaster, Duke of Gloucester (3 October 139023 February 1447) was an English prince, soldier, and literary patron. He was (as he styled himself) "son, brother and uncle of kings", being the fourth and youngest son of Henry IV of England, the brother of Henry V, and the uncle of Henry VI. Gloucester fought in the Hundred Years' War and acted as Lord Protector of England during the minority of his nephew. A controversial figure, he has been characterised as reckless, unprincipled, and fractious, but is also noted for his intellectual activity and for being the first significant English patron of humanism, in the context of the Renaissance.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: Unlike his brothers, Humphrey was given no major military command by his father, instead receiving an intellectual upbringing. Created Duke of Gloucester in 1414, he participated in Henry V's campaigns during the Hundred Years' War in France: he fought at Agincourt in 1415 and at the conquest of Normandy in 1417–9. Following the king's death in 1422, Gloucester became one of the leading figures in the regency government of the infant Henry VI. He proved a rash, impulsive, unscrupulous, and troublesome figure: he quarreled constantly with his brother, John, Duke of Bedford, and uncle, Cardinal Henry Beaufort, and went so far as to violently prosecute a dispute with the Duke of Burgundy, a key English ally in France, over conflicting claims to lands in the Low Countries. At home, Gloucester never fully achieved his desired dominance, while his attempts to gain a foreign principality for himself were fruitless.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: A staunch opponent of concessions in the French conflict, and a proponent of offensive warfare, Gloucester increasingly lost favour among the political community, and King Henry VI himself after the end of his minority, following a series of setbacks on the war in France. The trial in 1441 of Eleanor Cobham, his second wife, under charges of witchcraft, destroyed Gloucester's political influence. In 1447, he himself was accused, probably falsely, of treason, and died a few days later while under arrest.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: Humphrey was the exemplar of the romantic chivalric persona. Mettled and courageous, he was a foil for the countess Jacqueline of Hainaut, his first wife. His learned, widely read, scholarly approach to the early renaissance cultural expansion demonstrated the quintessential well-rounded princely character. He was a paragon for Eton College and an exemplar for the University of Oxford, accomplished, diplomatic, with political cunning.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: Despite the errors in both his public and private life, and the mischief he caused in politics, Gloucester is also at times praised as a patron of learning and a benefactor to the University of Oxford. He was popular among the literary figures of his age for his scholarly activity, and with the common people for his advocacy of a spirited foreign policy. For these causes, he was known as the "good Duke Humphrey".


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: The place of his birth is unknown, but he was named after his maternal grandfather, Humphrey de Bohun, 7th Earl of Hereford. He was the youngest in a powerful quadrumvirate of brothers, who were very close companions; on 20 March 1413, Henry and Humphrey had been at their dying father's bedside. Thomas, John and Humphrey had all been knighted in 1399. They joined the Order of the Garter together in 1400.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: During the reign of Henry IV, Humphrey received a scholar's education, while his elder brothers fought on the Welsh and Scottish borders. Following his father's death he was created Duke of Gloucester in 1414, and Chamberlain of England, and he took his seat in Parliament. He became a member of the Privy Council in 1415. Before embarking for France, the army camped at Southampton, where the Earl of Cambridge failed in an assassination plot to kill the king. Humphrey and his brother, the Duke of Clarence, led an Inquiry of Lords to try Cambridge and Scrope for high treason on 5 August.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: During Henry V's campaigns in France, Humphrey gained a reputation as a successful commander. His knowledge of siege warfare, gained from his classical studies, contributed to the fall of Honfleur. During the Battle of Agincourt Humphrey was wounded; as he fell, the king sheltered him, and withstood a determined assault from French knights. For his services, Humphrey was granted offices including Constable of Dover, Warden of the Cinque Ports on 27 November, and King's Lieutenant. His tenure in government was peaceful and successful. This period commenced with Emperor Sigismund's peace mission, the only visit of a medieval emperor to England. According to "Holinshed's Chronicles", Humphrey was the principal actor in a symbolic ceremony. He welcomed the emperor on the shoreline with a sword in his hand, "extorting" from Sigismund the renunciation of his prerogatives of dominion over the king of England before allowing him to land on the evening of 1 May 1416.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: The Treaty of "eternal friendship" signed at Canterbury on 15 August served only to anticipate renewed hostility from France.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: Upon the death of his brother in 1422, Humphrey became Lord Protector to his young nephew Henry VI. He also claimed the right to the regency of England following the death of his elder brother, John, Duke of Bedford, in 1435. Humphrey's claims were strongly contested by the lords of the king's council, and in particular his half-uncle, Cardinal Henry Beaufort. Henry V's will, rediscovered at Eton College in 1978, actually supported Humphrey's claims. In 1436 Philip, Duke of Burgundy, attacked Calais. Duke Humphrey was appointed garrison commander. The Flemings assaulted from the landward but the English resistance was stubborn. Humphrey marched the army to Baillieul, taking the English to safety; he threatened St. Omer before sailing home.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: Humphrey was consistently popular with the citizens of London and the Commons. He also had a widespread reputation as a patron of learning and the arts. His popularity with the people and his ability to keep the peace earned him the appointment of Chief Justice of South Wales. However, his unpopular marriage to Eleanor Cobham became ammunition for his enemies. Eleanor was arrested and tried for sorcery and heresy in 1441, and Humphrey retired from public life. He himself was arrested on a charge of treason on 20 February 1447. He died at Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk three days later, and was buried at St Albans Abbey, adjacent to St Alban's shrine. At the time, some suspected that he had been poisoned, though it is more probable that he died of a stroke.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: In about 1423 he married Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut and Holland (died 1436), daughter of William VI, Count of Hainaut. Through this marriage Gloucester assumed the title "Count of Holland, Zeeland and Hainault", and briefly fought to retain these titles when they were contested by Jacqueline's cousin Philip the Good (see: War of Succession in Holland). They had a stillborn child in 1424. The marriage was annulled in 1428, and Jacqueline died (disinherited) in 1436.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: In 1428 Humphrey married secondly Eleanor Cobham, his mistress, who in 1441 was tried and convicted of practising witchcraft against the king in an attempt to retain power for her husband. She was condemned to public penance followed by exile and life imprisonment. The marriage was without progeny.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: By mistresses unknown Humphrey had two illegitimate children. Eleanor Cobham was possibly the mother of one or both, before their marriage. Due to their illegitimacy, they were unable to succeed to their father's titles. The illegitimate children were:


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: After inheriting the manor of Greenwich, Gloucester enclosed Greenwich Park and from 1428 had a palace built there on the banks of the Thames, known as "Bella Court" and later as the Palace of Placentia. The Duke Humphrey Tower surmounting Greenwich Park was demolished in the 1660s and the site was chosen for building the Royal Observatory. His name lives on in Duke Humfrey's Library, part of the Bodleian Library in Oxford University, and in Duke Humphrey Road on Blackheath, south of Greenwich. Duke Humphrey was a patron and protector of Oxford, donating more than 280 manuscripts to the University. The possession of such a library did much to stimulate new learning.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: Duke Humphrey was also a patron of literature, notably of the poet John Lydgate and of John Capgrave. He corresponded with many leading Italian humanists and commissioned translations of Greek classics into Latin. His friendship with Zano Castiglione, Bishop of Bayeux, led to many further connections on the Continent, including Leonardo Bruni, Pietro Candido Decembrio and Tito Livio Frulovisi. Duke Humphrey also patronised the Abbey of St Albans.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: Duke Humphrey's Walk was the name of an aisle in Old St Paul's Cathedral near to what was popularly believed to be Duke Humphrey's tomb, though, according to W. Carew Hazlitt, it was, in reality, a monument to John Lord Beauchamp de Warwick (died 1360). This was an area frequented by thieves and beggars. The phrase "to dine with Duke Humphrey" was used of poor people who had no money for a meal, in reference to this. Saki updates the phrase by referring to a "Duke Humphrey picnic", one without food, in his short story "The Feast of Nemesis". In fact, Humphrey's tomb is in the Abbey of St Albans (the Cathedral): it was restored by Hertfordshire Freemasons in 2000 to celebrate the millennium.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: In Shakespeare's History plays, the portrayal of Humphrey is notable for being one of the most unambiguously sympathetic: in the War of the Roses Tetralogy, he is one of only a handful of historical personages to be portrayed in a uniformly positive light. He appears as a minor character in "Henry IV, Part 2" and "Henry V", but as a major character in two others: his conflict with Cardinal Beaufort is portrayed in "Henry VI, Part 1", and his disgrace and death following his wife's alleged sorcery is depicted in "Henry VI, Part 2". Shakespeare portrays Humphrey's death as a murder, ordered by William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and Queen Margaret of Anjou.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: The 1723 play "Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester" by Ambrose Philips revolves around the life of Gloucester. In the original Drury Lane production he was played by Barton Booth.


title: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: Margaret Frazer's 2003 historical mystery, "The Bastard's Tale", revolves around the events surrounding Gloucester's arrest and death.


title: Hilda Gadea

text: Hilda Gadea Acosta (21 March 1925 – 11 February 1974) was a Peruvian economist, Communist leader, and author. She was the first wife of Che Guevara.


title: Hilda Gadea

text: Gadea Acosta was Secretary of the Economy of the Executive National Committee for Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana (APRA, American Popular Revolutionary Alliance). Her activities in Peru led to her exile in 1948. She first met Guevara in Guatemala in December 1953. Gadea and Guevara moved to Mexico due to pressure from their politics. She introduced Guevara to several Cuban rebels.


title: Hilda Gadea

text: Gadea married Guevara in Mexico in September 1955, after learning she was pregnant. The marriage ended in a divorce in May 1959. They had a daughter named Hilda Beatriz "Hildita" Guevara Gadea in February 1956 who died of cancer in 1995.


title: Hilda Gadea

text: Following the Cuban Revolution, in which Guevara fought, Gadea came to Cuba, to be confronted with the announcement by Guevara that he had fallen in love with another woman, Aleida March, and requested a divorce. Gadea remained loyal to Guevara's political movement; she died in Havana in 1974. She wrote the memoir "My Life With Che". Gabriel San Roman, a writer for "Z Magazine", began writing a play about Gadea.


title: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary

text: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary last named Brushy Mountain Correctional Complex (also called "Brushy") was a large maximum-security prison in the town of Petros in Morgan County, Tennessee, operated by the Tennessee Department of Correction. It was established in 1896 and operated until 2009. The grounds of the prison are now included in part of the Barkley Marathons.


title: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary

text: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary opened in 1896 in the aftermath of the Coal Creek War, an 1891 lockout of coal miners that took place in Coal Creek and Briceville, Tennessee, after miners protested the use of unpaid convict leasing in the mines. This labor conflict was eventually resolved in favor of the coal miners, with a bill passing the Tennessee state legislature to abolish the convict labor system, to be replaced by the Brushy Mountain Mine and Prison. The mountainous, secure site was located with the help of consulting geologists, and Brushy Mountain convicts built a railroad spur, worked the coal mines on site, operated coke ovens, or farmed. At the end of all the state's convict lease arrangements on January 1, 1896, some 210 of those prisoners became the first inmates of Brushy Mountain.


title: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary

text: The original prison was a wooden structure also built by prisoner labor. It was replaced in the 1920s with a castle-like building constructed from stone mined by prisoners from a quarry on the property. As of 2008 Brushy Mountain was the oldest operating prison in Tennessee.


title: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary

text: The prison is nearly encircled by rugged wooded terrain in a remote section of the Cumberland Plateau, adjacent to Frozen Head State Park and Natural Area. Escape attempts were infrequent and almost always unsuccessful. Perhaps the best-known escape attempt occurred on June 10, 1977, when James Earl Ray, the assassin of Martin Luther King Jr., escaped with six other inmates by climbing over a fence. Ray was captured less than 58 hours later in rugged mountain terrain 8 miles from the prison.


title: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary

text: The prison was closed in 1972 after a strike by prison guards protesting unsafe working conditions. It reopened in 1976. Brushy Mountain was the only unionized prison in the state. The union worked closely with state legislators to improve the working conditions for correctional staff across the state. Under governor Lamar Alexander attempts were made to squeeze the union out of existence but his efforts were fruitless. Additional attempts over the years were attempted but they proved fruitless also. Many efforts to close the prison were attempted long before the 2009 closure. In 1998 Brushy Mountain Prison was administratively joined with Morgan County Correctional Complex. With the joining of the two institutions both prisons became unionized.


title: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary

text: In the 1980s Brushy Mountain ended its long-standing function as a maximum security prison and assumed a mission as a classification facility. In its final operations, it had a capacity of 584 and was used as the state's reception/classification and diagnostic center for East Tennessee. It housed all custody levels of inmates, although it retained a maximum security designation due to the ninety six bed maximum security annex contained within the prison walls. These ninety six beds were used to house the state's most troublesome inmates. The last warden was Jim Worthington.


title: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary

text: The prison closed June 11, 2009. Its functions were transferred to the Morgan County Correctional Complex. In 2018, Brushy Mountain was re-opened to the public for tours, private events, car shows, and concerts. Brushy also houses a distillery that produces moonshine, vodka, whisky, and liqueurs.


title: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary

text: In addition to James Earl Ray, the convicted assassin of Martin Luther King Jr., notable inmates included Byron Looper, who was convicted in 2000 for the murder of State Senator Tommy Burks and began serving his life sentence at Brushy Mountain. George Hyatte, one of the perpetrators of the 2005 Kingston courthouse shooting, was imprisoned at Brushy Mountain at the time of that incident.


title: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary

text: A notable, albeit fictional, occasional inmate is Otis Lee Crenshaw, the trailer-dwelling country music singer created by comedian Rich Hall.


title: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary

text: Another fictional inmate was Ray McDeere, the brother of protagonist Mitch McDeere, in the novel "The Firm".


title: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary

text: In the novel "The Silence of the Lambs", Dr. Hannibal Lecter makes a deal in which he is to be transferred to the prison in exchange for information about the serial killer Buffalo Bill that would enable authorities to rescue his latest victim, Catherine Martin, the daughter of junior state senator Ruth Martin. His information was later proven false by Clarice Starling and he escapes before he arrives at the prison.


title: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary

text: In the 1979 novel "Suttree" by Cormac McCarthy, the title character's friend, Gene Harrogate, is sentenced to a three-year prison term at Brushy Mountain after being caught burglarizing a store.


title: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary

text: In singer John Hiatt's 1988 song "Tennessee Plates" the main character laments "This ain't no hotel I'm writing you from/No, it's the Tennessee Prison up in Brushy Mountain...Yours sincerly's doin' 5-to-8/Just stampin' out my time making Tennessee plates."


title: Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary

text: The leading track of the 2014 album, "Remedy", by Old Crow Medicine Show is entitled "Brushy Mountain Conjugal Trailer". The album's cover is the state flag of Tennessee.


title: Therapy dog

text: A therapy dog is a dog that is trained to provide affection, comfort and support to people, often in settings such as hospitals, retirement homes, nursing homes, schools, libraries, hospices, or disaster areas. In contrast to assistance dogs, which are trained to assist specific patients with their day-to-day physical needs, therapy dogs are trained to interact with all kinds of people, not just their handlers.


title: Therapy dog

text: Dogs have been utilized as a therapeutic resource by many medical professionals over the last few centuries. In the late 1800s, Florence Nightingale observed that small pets helped reduce anxiety and improve recovery in children and adults living in psychiatric institutions. Sigmund Freud began using his own pet dog to improve communication with his psychiatric patients in the 1930s. More recently, Elaine Smith established the first therapy dog organization in 1976 after observing positive effects of dogs on hospital patients during her work as a registered nurse.


title: Therapy dog

text: Brian Hare, director of Duke University Canine Cognition Center, says the human-canine bond goes back thousands of years. Dogs have been drawn to people since humans began to exist in settlements. Dogs are the only species that does not show fear of strangers. Hare says that dogs are "actually xenophilic-they love strangers!"(qtd. in Figell). Although a dog does not think according to language, people often intuit that dogs are compassionate and communicative. This builds a feeling of intimacy, leading the person to feel safe and understood. This can benefit the grieving human, who may be apprehensive about talking with another person for the fear of being hurt or lied to. Pets are an addition to therapy because they allow people to feel safe and accepted.