title: Santos, São Paulo

text: Despite the fact that it is located just outside the tropics, Santos has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen: "Af") with no real dry season. Tropical rainforest climates are typically found near the equator, so Santos featuring this type of climate is an exceptional situation. All months of the year averages more than 60 mm of rainfall during the course of the year. Santos features warm weather throughout the year, though June in Santos is somewhat cooler (and drier) than January. Mean temperatures in the city are around 19 °C during wintertime and around 25 °C in the summer months. Precipitation in Santos is very high, amounting to around annually. Santos lies in one of the few isolated regions of Brazil outside of the tropical Amazon Basin that receive more than of total average precipitation annually, although nearby Ubatuba, approximately to the east-northeast, is considerably wetter than Santos, receiving an average of of precipitation annually.


title: Santos, São Paulo

text: The Port of Santos is the biggest seaport in Latin America, which handled 96 million tons and 2.7 million TEUs in 2010. It has large industrial complexes and shipping centers, which handle a large portion of the world's coffee exports, as well as a number of other Brazilian exports including steel, oil, cars, oranges, bananas and cotton.


title: Santos, São Paulo

text: As of 2014, the municipality of Santos was the 6th largest exporting city, by value, in Brazil by trading $4.36B (USD) worth of goods. The top four products exported from Santos were raw sugar (23% of total exports), refined petroleum (16%), coffee (15%), and soybeans (13%).


title: Santos, São Paulo

text: Santos Air Force Base - BAST, a base of the Brazilian Air Force, is located in the adjoining city of Guarujá.


title: Big Four (Western Europe)

text: The Big Four, also known as G4, refers to France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom. France and the United Kingdom are official nuclear-weapon states and are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power of veto, which enables any one of them to prevent the adoption of any "substantive" draft Council resolution, regardless of its level of international support. The United Kingdom is the only country of the Big Four which is not a member state of the European Union having ended its membership in 2020, pursuant to a referendum held in 2016. France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom are considered major European economic powers and they are the Western European countries individually represented as full members of the G7 and the G20. They have been referred to as the "Big Four of Europe" since the interwar period. The term G4 was used for the first time when French President Nicolas Sarkozy called for a meeting in Paris with Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Gordon Brown and Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel to consider the response to the financial crisis during the Great Recession. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development describes them as the "Four Big European Countries".


title: Big Four (Western Europe)

text: The leaders of the four countries usually have a series of joint video conference calls with the US president (see NATO Quint), or with other leaders, on international issues. With Barack Obama, they discussed for example the TTIP, the Syrian civil war and the use of chemical weapons during the conflict, the Crimean Crisis and international sanctions against Russia, the post-civil war violence in Libya, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, the 2014 American intervention in Iraq and the Ebola virus disease. With Russia's President Vladimir Putin, they discussed, for example, the Vienna peace talks for Syria.


title: Big Four (Western Europe)

text: France, Germany, the UK and Italy have been referred to as the "Big Four of Europe" since the interwar period (1919–1939), when the four countries signed the Four-Power Pact and the Munich Agreement. Britain and France, permanent members of the League of Nations' executive council along with Italy and Japan, were involved in a policy of appeasement towards Germany. World War II (1939–1945) saw China, France, United Kingdom, Russia and the U.S. fighting against Germany, Italy and Japan. The defeat of the axis powers resulted in the formation of the United Nations, where the five victorious countries were granted a permanent seat in the Security Council. Germany, Italy and Japan experienced a post-war economic miracle and took part in the 1st G6 summit along with France, the UK and the U.S. in 1975.


title: Big Four (Western Europe)

text: Since 1945, France and Great Britain have often acted alone in defence policy matters while Germany and Italy have preferred to act within the framework of international organisations. For example, France, Germany, Italy and the UK were the EU countries represented in the Syria peace talks, but only France and the UK are directly bombing ISIS in Syria, while Germany and Italy prefer to give military aid and to send training troops.


title: Big Four (Western Europe)

text: The Quint (or NATO Quint) is an informal decision-making group consisting of five Western powers: the United States and the Big Four (France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom). It operates as a "directoire" of various entities such as NATO and the G7/G20.


title: Big Four (Western Europe)

text: A European Union membership referendum took place on Thursday 23 June 2016 in the UK and resulted in an overall vote to leave the EU, by 51.9%. The British government triggered Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union to begin the process to leave the EU, which concluded on January 31, 2020. The G4 now consists of the UK and the new EU big three (Germany, France and Italy), the large founding members of the European Communities that have retaken a leading role in Europe following the decision of the UK to leave the EU.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: The Washington State Cougars football program is the intercollegiate American football team for Washington State University, located in Pullman, Washington. The team competes at the NCAA Division I level in the FBS and is a member of the Pac-12 Conference (Pac-12). Known as the Cougars, the first football team was fielded in 1894.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: The Cougars play home games on campus at Martin Stadium, which opened in 1972; the site dates back to 1892 as Soldier Field and was renamed Rogers Field ten years later. Its present seating capacity is 33,522. Their main rivals are the Washington Huskies; the teams historically end the regular season with the Apple Cup rivalry game in late November.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Washington State's first head football coach was William Goodyear. That team played only two games in its inaugural season in 1894, posting a 1–1 record. The team's first win was over Idaho. The first paid head football coach was William L. Allen, who served as head coach in 1900 and 1902, posting an overall record of 6–3–1.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: John R. Bender served as head football coach from 1906 to 1907 and 1912–1914, compiling a record of 21–12. William Henry Dietz was the Cougars' head football coach from 1915 to 1917, posting a stellar 17–2–1 record. Dietz's 1915 team defeated Brown in the Rose Bowl and finished with a 7–0 record. Dietz was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach in 2012. Albert Exendine served as Washington State's head football coach from 1923 to 1925, posting a 6–13–4 overall record. Babe Hollingbery was the Cougars' head football coach for 17 seasons, posting a record. His 93 wins are the most by any head football coach in Washington State football history. Hollingbery's 1930 team played in the Rose Bowl, a game they lost to Alabama. The Cougars didn't lose a single home game from 1926 to 1935. Among the Cougar greats Hollingbery coached were Mel Hein, Turk Edwards, and Mel Dressel. The Hollingbery Fieldhouse that serves many of Washington State's athletics teams, was named in his honor in 1963. He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach in 1979. Like many other college football programs, the Cougars did not field a team in 1943 or 1944, due to World War II. After the war ended, Phil Sarboe was hired away from Lincoln High School in Tacoma to return to his alma mater as the head coach. Sarboe's Cougars posted a record in his five seasons.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Forest Evashevski took over as the head coach in late 1949. His 1951 team finished the season ranked No. 14 in the Coaches' Poll and No. 18 in the AP Poll. He was in his two seasons in Pullman, then left for Iowa in the Big Ten Conference. Evashevski was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach in 2000. Assistant coach Al Kircher was promoted, but didn't enjoy as much success as his predecessor, going in his four seasons as head coach. He was not retained after his contract expired. Jim Sutherland was Washington State's 21st head football coach and led the program for eight seasons, through 1963, with an overall record of . Previously an assistant at rival Washington, Bert Clark was WSU's head coach for four seasons, posting an overall record of . His best season was his second in 1965, when the WSU "Cardiac Kids" went 7–3; they defeated three Big Ten teams on the road, but lost to rivals Idaho and Washington. It was Clark's only winning season, as he failed to win more than three games in the other three. Clark was not retained after the end of his fourth season. Montana State head coach Jim Sweeney was hired prior to the 1968 season led the Cougars for eight seasons, with an overall record of . His best season was 1972 at 7–4, which was his only winning season. Sweeney resigned shortly after the 1975 season, and was succeeded by Jackie Sherrill, the defensive coordinator at Pittsburgh, but he stayed for only one season. The Cougars were 3–8 in 1976, then Sherrill returned to Pitt as head coach. Warren Powers, an assistant from Nebraska, also stayed for just one season (1977), then returned to the Big Eight Conference as head coach at Missouri.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Jim Walden was promoted to head coach following the departure of Powers. In nine seasons, Walden led the Cougars to one bowl appearance, the Holiday Bowl in 1981, a memorable loss to BYU. It was Washington State's first bowl in 51 years, since the 1931 Rose Bowl. (The Pac-8 did not allow a second bowl team until 1975.) Walden won Pacific-10 Coach of the Year honors in 1981 and 1983. Walden's final record at Washington State was 44–52–4. Players coached by Walden at WSU include Jack Thompson, Kerry Porter, Rueben Mayes, Ricky Turner, Ricky Reynolds, Paul Sorensen, Brian Forde, Lee Blakeney, Mark Rypien, Dan Lynch, Pat Beach, Keith Millard, Erik Howard, and Cedrick Brown. Walden left after the 1986 season for Iowa State in the Big Eight.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: When hired in early 1987, 39-year-old Dennis Erickson said it was his lifelong dream to become the head football coach of the Cougars. His contract was a five-year deal at an annual base salary of $70,000, with up to $30,000 from radio, television, and speaking obligations. Erickson was previously the head coach at Wyoming for one season, preceded by four on the Palouse at neighboring Idaho.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Erickson's Cougars posted a 3–7–1 record in his first season, but improved to 9–3 in 1988, capped with a victory in the Aloha Bowl, the Cougars' first bowl victory since January 1916. Although stating publicly a week earlier that he would not leave Washington State, Erickson departed for Miami in March 1989; his overall record with the Cougars was .


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Former Cougar player and assistant Mike Price returned to Pullman in 1989; he was previously the head coach for eight years at Weber State in Ogden, Utah. Price led the Cougars to unprecedented success, taking his 1997 and 2002 teams to the Rose Bowl, both times losing. The 1997 team was led by star quarterback Ryan Leaf, the second overall pick in the 1998 NFL Draft by the San Diego Chargers. Those teams finished ranked No. 9 and No. 10 in the Coaches' and AP Polls, respectively. Price also led the Cougars to victories in the Copper, Alamo, and Sun Bowls, and had an overall record of at WSU. It was during the 2002 season that Washington State received its highest ranking ever in the modern era in the AP Poll at No. 3. Price left after the Rose Bowl for Alabama, but was fired before ever coaching a game for the Crimson Tide, due to an off-the-field incident in the spring.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Defensive coordinator Bill Doba was promoted to head coach following Price's departure. Things started out well in 2003, as they went 10–3 to finish ninth in both major polls. The Cougars slipped to 5–6 in 2004 and 4–7 in 2005. A 6–6 season in 2006 followed, and after finishing the 2007 season at 5–7, Doba was fired with an overall record of .


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Former Cougar center Paul Wulff was hired away from Eastern Washington in Cheney to succeed Doba. Wulff struggled mightily as the WSU head coach, failing to win more than four games in a single season. His overall record at Washington State was , the lowest winning percentage of any head coach in Washington State football history, and he was fired after the 2011 season.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: In November 2011, it was announced that Mike Leach would replace Wulff as head coach. Leach had previously spent ten seasons as head coach at Texas Tech. In 2012, the new coaching staff installed an Air raid offense; an exciting, up-tempo, pass-oriented offensive attack which led the Pac-12 Conference in passing offense. In his second season in 2013, Leach led Washington State to the New Mexico Bowl, the first bowl game for the Cougars in a decade. Leach received a two-year contract extension that November, after leading the Cougars to their best record since 2006.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: In 2015, Leach guided the Washington State Cougars to their first bowl victory since the 2003 season. In that same year, the team also posted a 9–4 winning season and was ranked in the AP Poll, Coach's Poll, and College Football Playoff ranking. Leach was named the Pac-12's co-Coach of the Year, as well as the Associated Press Pac-12 Coach of the Year. After the season, his contract was extended through the 2020 season.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: In 2016, sandwiched between a two-game losing streak to begin and three-game losing streak to end the season, the Cougars rode an eight-game winning streak to a place in the Holiday Bowl, but lost to Minnesota 17–12. They finished with a 7-2 Pac-12 record and overall record of 8–5 for 2016. Huge wins over Oregon and No. 15 Stanford contributed to the Cougars' best finish in Pac-12 conference play since the 2003 team went 6–2.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: After the suicide of projected starting quarterback Tyler Hilinski in January 2018, graduate transfer Gardner Minshew from East Carolina was recruited by Leach to fill the void. Minshew and other veteran players, such as sixth-year linebacker Peyton Pelluer, rallied the team in honor of their former teammate Hilinski and led Washington State to a memorable season for Cougar football fans. With a 28–26 win over No. 24 Iowa State in the Alamo Bowl, Washington State won eleven games for the first time in school history and finished the season 11–2.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: After the 2019 season, Mike Leach departed Washington State to accept the head coaching job at Mississippi State. Less than a week after Leach's departure, athletic director Pat Chun announced the hire of Hawaii head coach Nick Rolovich. On October 18, 2021, he was fired for refusing to receive the Covid-19 vaccination in compliance with Washington's state employee mandate. Rolovich originally signaled that he would receive the vaccination, but decided to file for a religious exemption. Rolovich was denied the exemption and terminated. Rolovich subsequently filed a wrongful termination lawsuit against the university, Chun, and Washington Governor Jay Inslee.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Following the firing of Nick Rolovich, defensive coordinator and linebackers coach Jake Dickert was named as acting head coach. Under Dickert's leadership, the Cougars fought to a 3–2 record, including a 40–13 victory over rival Washington in the 113th Apple Cup, snapping a seven-game losing streak in the rivalry. As a result, Dickert was hired as the permanent head coach on November 27th. The team concluded the 2021 season with a record of 7–5, with a 6–3 mark in-conference, good for a second-place finish in the Pac-12 North. The team lost to the Central Michigan Chippewas in the Sun Bowl 24–21.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: No NCAA-designated "major selector" has selected a Washington State team as national champions. The university does not claim any national titles for football.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: The 1915 WSC team was unbeaten and untied and gave up only 10 points on the season. They were invited to the Tournament East-West football game, now known as the 1916 Rose Bowl, where they defeated Brown University 14–0. This was the second Rose Bowl game, after the original in 1902, and the first in the now annual continuous series.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: There was no contemporary system for determining a national champion in the early years of college football. NCAA-designated major selectors have retroactively variously named Cornell, Minnesota, Oklahoma, and Pittsburgh champions or co-champions for the 1915 college football season.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Rose Bowl referee Walter Eckersall, who also officiated a Cornell game that season, was quoted as saying "[WSC] is the equal of Cornell. There is not a better football team in the country." The Associated Press referred to the 1915 WSC team as "mythical national champions" when members of the team returned to Pullman for a 20th anniversary celebration in 1935. In 2014, Washington State Senate Resolution 8715 recognized the team as national champions on the season's 99th anniversary. The senate resolution was adopted with WSU head football coach Mike Leach in attendance.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Dating back to their days in the Pacific Coast Conference, Washington State won four conference titles.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Washington State has made 18 bowl appearances, with a record of 8–10 through the 2021 season. The Cougars have played in four Rose Bowls three Holiday Bowls the Sun Bowl (2 wins), Alamo Bowl (2 wins), Aloha Bowl (1 win), Copper Bowl (1 win), New Mexico Bowl (1 loss), and LA Bowl (1 loss). Prior to the 1975 season, the Pac-8 allowed only bowl team, to the Rose Bowl.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: From 2015 through 2018, the Cougars made four consecutive bowl appearances for the first time in program history, all under head coach Mike Leach.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Washington State has had a rivalry with Washington since first playing years ago in 1900. The series is in favor of Washington, with the Huskies taking the most recent game in 2022. The teams played for the "Governor's Trophy" from 1934 to 1961. The game was renamed the Apple Cup in 1962 because of Washington's national reputation as a major producer of apples. Since 2011, the game is commonly played on the Friday after Thanksgiving.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: The two land-grant universities are less than apart on the rural Palouse in the Inland Northwest; the University of Idaho campus in Moscow is nearly on the Idaho–Washington border, and Washington State's campus is directly west, on the east side of Pullman, linked by Washington State Route 270 and the Bill Chipman Palouse Trail. The first game was played in November 1894 and resulted in a win for Washington State. The series has been played intermittently since 1978, It was revived as an annual game for a full decade (1998–2007) and the Cougars won eight of the ten. Idaho returned to lower-level FCS play in 2018 but the teams continue to schedule games.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Washington State wins the so-called Northwest Championship by sweeping Oregon, Oregon State, and Washington. The four Pacific Northwest rivals began playing in a round-robin format in the 1903 season.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Eight Cougars have finished in the Top 10 of the Heisman Trophy voting. Ryan Leaf had the highest finish in the Heisman balloting in program history, at third in 1997.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: There have been seven Washington State players named consensus All-Americans through the 2017 season. Cody O'Connell was named twice, making the all-time school total eight. Both Jason Hanson (1989) and Cody O'Connell (2016) were unanimous selections. Additionally, Washington State has had 39 first team All-America selections through the 2017 season.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Five players and three coaches from the program have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: The Eddie Robinson Coach of the Year Award is given annually to a college football coach by the Football Writers Association of America (FWAA). Mike Price is the first and only coach in the Washington State football program history to have received this distinguished award.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: The AFCA Coach of the Year Award is given annually to a college football coach by the American Football Coaches Association (AFCA). Mike Leach is the first and only coach in the Washington State football program history to have received this distinguished award.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Five Washington State football head coaches have received the annual award a total of eight times as the conference's Coach of the Year.


title: Washington State Cougars football

text: Washington State plays each of the other 5 schools in the North Division annually and 4 of the 6 schools from the South Division. Each season, Washington State "misses" two schools from the South Division: either UCLA or USC and one of the four Arizona or Mountain schools. This cycle repeats after eight seasons.


title: Yorushika

text: The duo is extremely secretive, never publicly revealing their faces or holding many concerts. To date, Yorushika has only held three concerts, one in July 2017, one in August 2019, and another in January 2021.


title: Yorushika

text: Prior to the formation of Yorushika, N-buna already had a sizeable following on Niconico, a Japanese video hosting website, first releasing vocaloid music on the platform in 2012. His 2013 song reached first on the platform's daily vocaloid ranking. Additionally, he has produced two albums through U&R Records, a subsidiary of Niconico's owner Dwango.


title: Yorushika

text: According to an interview with Natalie, N-buna and Suis met through a common acquaintance; Suis was a longtime fan of N-buna's vocaloid work. Suis first appeared as a guest vocalist during N-buna's two solo concerts in Tokyo. N-buna reached out to Suis to form Yorushika as part of N-buna's effort to find a "more human" voice to use in his music, as opposed to vocaloid. Since then, the two have released three extended plays and three full albums, all of which charted on both the Oricon Albums Chart and the "Billboard Japan" Hot 100 Albums Chart. Yorushika's popularity grew explosively, with critics noting that the lyrics seemed to strike a chord with younger audiences. Additionally, the song also became popular in video app TikTok.


title: Yorushika

text: As of November 2019, their faces and detailed profiles have not been disclosed as they want their audiences to listen to their music without "preconceptions". They have hosted live performances before, but the etiquette of concerts in Japan is a strict no-image policy until told otherwise.


title: Yorushika

text: In 2022, they provided the theme song "Sayuumou" (左右盲) and "Chinokate" (チノカテ) for the Japanese TV drama "Renovation like Magic" (魔法のリノベ, "Mahō no rinobe").


title: Josh Whitehouse

text: Josh Whitehouse (born 27 February 1990 in London) is an English actor, musician and artist. He is known for the BBC series "Poldark", and starring roles in "Northern Soul" and the "Valley Girl" remake. He was originally set to play an unspecified leading role in the unproduced "Game of Thrones" prequel series. He co-starred with Vanessa Hudgens in the Netflix Christmas film "The Knight Before Christmas" (2019).


title: Khartoum (film)

text: Khartoum is a 1966 British epic war film written by Robert Ardrey and directed by Basil Dearden. It stars Charlton Heston as British General Charles "Chinese" Gordon and Laurence Olivier as Muhammad Ahmed (a Sudanese leader whose devotees proclaimed him the Mahdi), with a supporting cast that includes Richard Johnson and Ralph Richardson. The film is based on historical accounts of Gordon's defence of the Sudanese city of Khartoum from the forces of the Mahdist army, during the 1884–1885 Siege of Khartoum. The opening and closing scenes are narrated by Leo Genn.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: "Khartoum" was filmed by cinematographer Edward Scaife in Technicolor and Ultra Panavision 70, and was exhibited in 70 mm Cinerama in premiere engagements. A novelization of the film's screenplay was written by Alan Caillou.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: The film had its Royal World Premiere at the Casino Cinerama Theatre, in the West End of London, on 9 June 1966, in the presence of H.R.H. Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, and the Earl of Snowdon.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: "Khartoum" earned Robert Ardrey an Oscar nomination for Best Screenplay. The film also earned Ralph Richardson a BAFTA Award nomination for Best British Actor.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: In 1883, in the Sudan, a force of 10,000 poorly trained Egyptian troops is lured into the Sudanese desert. Commanding the force is former Bombay Army soldier Colonel William "Billy" Hicks (Edward Underdown) now a private individual, in the pay of the Egyptian government. There he is defeated by native tribesmen led by Muhammad Ahmed (Laurence Olivier), a Nubian religious leader of the Samaniyya order in Sudan who had declared himself Mahdi. British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone (Ralph Richardson), does not wish to send any military forces to Khartoum but is under great pressure, mostly from the British press, to "avenge" the death of Hicks, a hero of previous colonial conflicts. He could send colonial military hero Major General Charles George Gordon (Charlton Heston) who has strong ties to Sudan, having tried to break the slave trade there, but Gladstone distrusts him. Gordon has a reputation for strong and eccentric religious beliefs, and following his own judgement regardless of his orders. Lord Granville (Michael Hordern), the British Foreign Secretary, knowing this, tells Gladstone that by sending Gordon to Khartoum, the British government can ignore all public pressure to send an army there, and, should Gordon ignore his orders, absolve themselves of any responsibility over the area. Gladstone is mildly shocked at the suggestion, but as it is popular with the public and Queen Victoria, he adopts it for the sake of expediency.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: Gordon is told that his mission, to evacuate troops and civilians, is unsanctioned by the British government, which will disavow all responsibility if he fails. He is given few resources and only a single aide, Colonel J. D. H. Stewart (Richard Johnson). After an attempt to recruit former slaver Zobeir Pasha (Zia Mohyeddin) fails, Gordon and Stewart travel to Khartoum, where Gordon is hailed as the city's savior upon his arrival in February 1884. He begins organising the defences and rallying the people, despite Stewart's protests that this is not what he was sent to do.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: Gordon's first act is to visit the Mahdi in his insurgent camp, accompanied by only a single servant. He gains the Mahdi's respect and, in the verbal fencing at the parley, discovers that the Sudanese leader intends to make an example of Khartoum by taking the city and killing all its inhabitants. The River Nile city of Khartoum lies at the confluence of the White Nile and the Blue Nile. A qualified military engineer, Gordon wastes no time upon his return in digging a ditch between the two to provide a protective moat.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: In Britain, Gladstone, apprised of how desperate the situation has become, orders Gordon to leave, but, as he had feared, his command is ignored. Colonel Stewart is sent by Gordon to London to explain the situation in Khartoum. Over the next several months, a public outcry forces Gladstone to send a relief force, but he sees to it that there is no urgency, hoping to the last that Gordon will come to his senses and save himself.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: Gordon, however, has other ideas. News arrives in Khartoum about a relief force led by General Wolseley being sent from Britain. When the waters recede in winter, drying up his moat, the small Egyptian army is finally overwhelmed by 100,000 native Mahdist tribesmen. On 26 January 1885, the city falls under a massive frontal assault. Gordon himself is slaughtered along with the entire foreign garrison and populace of some 30,000, although the Mahdi had forbidden killing Gordon. In the end, Gordon's head is cut off, stuck on top of a long pole, and paraded about the city in triumph, contrary to the Mahdi's injunctions.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: The British relief column arrives two days too late. The British withdraw from the Sudan shortly thereafter, and the Mahdi himself dies six months later. In the United Kingdom, public pressure, and anger at the fate of Gordon, eventually forces the British and their Egyptian allies to re-invade the Sudan ten years later, and they recaptured and colonised Khartoum in 1898.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: Roger Delgado, George Pastell and Jerome Willis also had parts. Each later played a villain in various episodes of "Doctor Who".


title: Khartoum (film)

text: Robert Ardrey wrote the script at the encouragement of producer Julian Blaustein. Ardrey says it took him three years "on and off" but once he did it he sold it for $150,000.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: In May 1962 MGM announced they would make the film from Ardrey's script. It was to be an adventure movie in the vein of "55 Days at Peking" and "Lawrence of Arabia".


title: Khartoum (film)

text: "Everybody was interested and nobody doubted the subject," said writer Robert Ardrey. "But there was strong feeling against the big picture which might gross $12,000,000 but cost $25,000,000. Frankly "Khartoum" is a proposition that could bust a studio if handled the wrong way."


title: Khartoum (film)

text: In April 1964 Blaustein announced he would make the film for United Artists and that Burt Lancaster would star as Gordon. The following month Laurence Olivier agreed to play the Mahdi and Lewis Gilbert signed to direct.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: However filming was pushed back meaning Lancaster, Olivier and Gilbert had to pull out. In April 1965 Charlton Heston agreed to play Gordon. By June Olivier was back on the film with Basil Dearden to direct. In July 1965, it was announced that Ralph Richardson and Richard Johnson would join the cast as Prime Minister Gladstone and Colonel Stewart respectively.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: Filming took place in Egypt, Pinewood Studios and London. It started at Pinewood on August 9, 1965 then in September moved to Egypt. Once location filming finished, the shoot went on hiatus to give Olivier time to be available for interior scenes in December.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: It was the last movie filmed in Ultra Panavision 70 until "The Hateful Eight", written and directed by Quentin Tarantino forty-nine years later.


title: Khartoum (film)

text: Reviews for "Khartoum" at the time were generally positive. "Sight and Sound" described the film as being "beautifully photographed, lavishly mounted, intelligently acted, but ultimately dull." "The Times" praised the film for the screenplay. However negative reviews came from "The Daily Telegraph" and the "New Statesman", which criticized the film for its historical inaccuracies (for example the Mahdi did not want to kill everyone in the capital and called for killing only soldiers).


title: Khartoum (film)

text: In the 21st century, popular historian Alex von Tunzelmann criticized the film for factual inaccuracies and Olivier's unrealistic accent and blackface makeup. Literature professor Edward Said criticized "Khartoum" for what he described as a pro-colonial propagandistic portrayal of good versus evil by clashing "despotically violent Arab masculinity against a noble, rational Western one."


title: Khartoum (film)

text: Film director Martin Scorsese said "Khartoum" was one of his guilty pleasures. "Charlton Heston... is marvelous; and Laurence Olivier has a lot of fun as the Mahdi, with a space between his front teeth. It isn't very good filmmaking, but it has a mystical quality about it. This was a holy war. At the end – when Mahdi killed Gordon, and then six months later he died himself – it was as if the two of them canceled each other out, religiously and historically. It's a story I want to be told, over and over again, like a fairy tale."


title: Khartoum (film)

text: Editor Dennis Schwartz described the film as "a visually stunning historical epic, smartly acted and lavishly produced, that gives one a good look at that period’s political intrigues but does little to tell us about the two religious zealots–Gordon and the Mahdi."


title: The Smile Sessions

text: The Smile Sessions is a compilation album and box set recorded by American rock band the Beach Boys, released on October 31, 2011 by Capitol Records. The set is the follow-up to "The Pet Sounds Sessions" (1997), this time focusing on the abandoned recordings from the band's unfinished 1966–1967 album "Smile". It features comprehensive session highlights and outtakes, with the first 19 tracks comprising a hypothetical version of the completed "Smile" album.


title: The Smile Sessions

text: The compilation is the first and only package devoted to the 1960s "Smile" recordings originally produced by Brian Wilson, arriving after decades of public anticipation and numerous false starts. The project was led primarily by audio engineers Alan Boyd, Mark Linett, and Capitol A&R director Dennis Wolfe, with Wilson acting as a remote supervisor, assisting the engineers with some mixing decisions. Previously, Wilson had completed a solo album based on "Smile" in 2004, which Boyd, Linett, and Wolfe used as a blueprint for "The Smile Sessions". Wilson later stated that, while the compilation is "not a far cry" from his original vision, he prefers his 2004 version.


title: The Smile Sessions

text: "The Smile Sessions" received virtually unanimous critical acclaim upon release. It was ranked number 381 in "Rolling Stone"s 2012 list of the greatest albums of all time and won the Grammy Award for Best Historical Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards. A spiritual successor, "1967 – Sunshine Tomorrow", followed in 2017.


title: The Smile Sessions

text: Plans for a "Smile" archival release go back to at least early 1980s, when it was proposed that the album be issued in some form. In his 1978 biography "The Beach Boys and the California Myth", David Leaf wrote that "Smile" "can never be completed as Brian intended, so a compromise solution might be to release the surviving tapes and outtakes in a series of records called "The Smile Sessions" [like] Elvis' "Sun Sessions" ..." In 1993, the box set "" included the debut of several unreleased "Smile" recordings. In 1997, Capitol Records issued "The Pet Sounds Sessions", which featured an assortment of alternate mixes and highlights of the "Pet Sounds" recording sessions spread over four CDs. The releases provoked speculation that an official "Smile" release was imminent.


title: The Smile Sessions

text: In 2004, Wilson released a reimagined version of the album, "Brian Wilson Presents Smile". A comprehensive and official package dedicated to the original Beach Boys' recordings had not been compiled partly due to the logistics in organizing the dozens of convoluted song components. Band producer/archivist Mark Linett stated, "All we had were a bunch of bits and pieces — a few songs that were more or less completed later. And without some kind of a sequence from the artist, it would have just sort of been a jumble of sessions. And I think frankly until Brian felt comfortable with after all that time, he was able to finish what he started, there really wasn’t anything to seriously talk about."


title: The Smile Sessions

text: In mid-2010, before the project was officially greenlit, Linett and the other compilers began assembling what would become "The Smile Sessions". It was originally planned as a 3-CD set, but ultimately grew to 5 CDs, with two of those devoted solely to the sessions for "Heroes and Villains" and "Good Vibrations", respectively.


title: The Smile Sessions

text: The first nineteen tracks of "The Smile Sessions" constitute a hypothetical version of a completed "Smile" album that loosely follows the template established by Wilson's 2004 version. Wilson himself made a few suggestions to the compilation's sequencing after it was presented to him by the compilers Mark Linett, Alan Boyd and Dennis Wolfe. Linett said that the track listing would "present the whole piece as close to it as was envisioned, or as is envisioned, as possible ... with input from Brian as from everybody else".


title: The Smile Sessions

text: According to Darian Sahanaja, "there was a discussion about whether to follow the 2004 sequence or completely present something new. In the end, of course, it all has to be approved by the Beach Boys themselves, and Brian lobbied hard for "The Smile Sessions" to follow the template of "Brian Wilson Presents Smile"." Asked if there had been anything newly unearthed from the sessions that would have influenced the 2004 assembly, Sahanaja responded, "No. Nothing major. Perhaps a few variations here and there, but nothing that would have altered the making of "Brian Wilson Presents Smile"."


title: The Smile Sessions

text: The reconstruction runs at over 48 minutes, which would have been too much content to fit on a two-sided vinyl LP in 1967. Referencing this, Linett argued that "The Smile Sessions" may be more accurate to Wilson's vision than if he had completed the album in 1967, surmising that Wilson "would have been happier if he had had a bigger canvas to present ["Smile"]." Asked if Linett and Boyd had arrived at what he had envisioned during the 1960s, Wilson responded: "Somewhat, yeah. To some degree. It's not a far cry from what I thought it would be." He added that he preferred his 2004 version.


title: The Smile Sessions

text: The reconstruction is presented in monaural due to missing stems and as a nod to Wilson's producing methods at the time. Digital manipulation was used. For instance, on "Surf's Up", the instrumental track was mashed up and synced with the vocal stem from an alternate performance of the song.


title: The Smile Sessions

text: Not all of the tracks feature material that was originally recorded for the "Smile" album. In reference to including sessions from "Smiley Smile", Linett stated, "Of course there’s things that some people think – should "Smiley Smile" sessions be there – [with tracks such as] "Can't Wait Too Long", we get into a very fuzzy area." A list of notes on the reconstructed album assembly were given in the booklet:


title: The Smile Sessions

text: On February 3, 2011, Al Jardine told an interviewer that "Capitol Records plans to issue a Beach Boys version of "Smile" sometime this summer to begin the celebration of the Beach Boys’ 50th anniversary. "Smile" is the Holy Grail for Beach Boys’ fans, so it will be good." Jardine also mentioned that the surviving Beach Boys "didn't do any new recording. I'm happy to see it finally come out. Brian’s changed his mind about releasing the material, but it was inevitable, wasn’t it?" The release was confirmed by Capitol Records on March 11, with the acknowledgement that an official release was planned for later in 2011.


title: The Smile Sessions

text: After numerous delays, "The Smile Sessions" was released online via iTunes on October 31, 2011, and the next day on CD, vinyl and through other online services via digital download. The compilation was released in an array of physical format releases, including a single CD release, a double LP release, a deluxe 2-CD package, as well as a limited edition deluxe box set composed of 5 CDs, 2 LPs, 2 singles on 7" vinyl records, a poster and a 60-page booklet that features high quality photographs, essays and liner notes on the reconstruction process.


title: The Smile Sessions

text: The crowdsourcing film studio Tongal was used to create the music videos for "The Smile Sessions", where fans in 2011 could submit video concepts, which were voted on and ultimately selected by other fans for two videos.


title: The Smile Sessions

text: "The Smile Sessions" was met with universal acclaim. It was named the best reissue of 2011 by "Rolling Stone" magazine, while "The Wire" magazine placed it fifth in its annual critics' poll of the top releases of the year. In 2012, it was ranked number 381 in "Rolling Stone"s list of the greatest albums of all time. It won the Best Historical Album award at the 2013 Grammy Awards.


title: The Smile Sessions

text: "Pitchfork" reviewer Mark Richardson gave the album a perfect score and wrote, "What's here is brilliant, beautiful, and, most importantly, finally able to stand tall on its own." "The Los Angeles Times" Randall Roberts encouraged its inclusion in "every library of American recording history," suggesting, "university composition departments, music professors, budding recording engineers and composers should study it." "Rolling Stone"s David Fricke declared in his review, "there is delight and confidence in Wilson's exchanges with his studio crew. ... Wilson never found it, but the greatest pop album ever made is still in here, somewhere."


title: The Smile Sessions

text: Writing in "LA Weekly", musician Henry Rollins praised the compiled recordings as "even better than advertised ... Sonically, the album is one of the best things you are likely to hear in all of your life. There are moments on SMiLE that are so astonishingly good you might find yourself just staring at your speakers in unguarded wonder, as I have." "PopMatters" Thomas Britt wrote "There is something holy in the tapestry of the album" and when reflecting on the drama surrounding the album's history stated "Contemporary bands could certainly stand to realize that all the band myths and stories in the world don’t matter much if you can't bring the songs, and no one brought the songs like Brian Wilson."


title: Baba Sehgal

text: Harjeet Singh "Baba" Sehgal, is an Indian rapper. He was widely acclaimed to be the first Indian rapper. He is also involved in various other areas of the entertainment industry, and works in several different languages' media. He was a contestant in the reality show "Bigg Boss" in 2006.


title: Baba Sehgal

text: Born and raised in Lucknow, Baba Sehgal graduated with a B.Tech from G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Nainital. His entertainment career began in the 1990s, when he emerged as part of the Indipop scene, and released an album which got frequent airplay on MTV India. Since then he has been a popular figure on the rap scene, with hits such as 'Thanda Thanda Paani' (which sampled Vanilla Ice's "Ice Ice Baby", which in turn sampled Queen's "Under Pressure") 'Manjula' and 'Dil Dhadke'.


title: Baba Sehgal

text: Sehgal's first album was "Dilruba" (1990), followed by "Alibaba" (1991). Then came his biggest hit album "Thanda Thanda Pani" (1992), which sold 5million cassettes, making it the first successful Indian rap album.


title: Baba Sehgal

text: His next albums were "Main Bhi Madonna" (1993), "Baba Bachao na" (1993), "Dr.Dhingra" (1994), "Miss 420" (1994) movie soundtrack, "Double Gadbad" (1994) movie soundtrack, "Indian Romyo" (1995), "Tora Tora" (1995), "Loomba Loomba" (1996), "na aariya hai na jaroya hai" (1997), "America mein indian dhaba" (1997), "d.j. mix blue" (1997), "dhak dhak dil in culcutta" (1997), "A Reason to Smile" (1997), "meri jaan hindustan" (1998), "jugni mast kalandar" (1998), "abb mein vengaboy" (1999), "pinga pinga" (2001), "Pump up your Style" (2003), "Welcome to Mumbai" (2005), "Babe di gaddi" (2009), "Woh beete din" and "The Magic of Dandiya", among others. He writes the majority of the music for his albums himself. He was the music director of the movie "Dance Party" (1995), featuring the popular song "kapurthala se aaya hoon, tere liye laaya hoon, Orange kurta peela pajama..". He was the first Indian artist to have a music video broadcast on MTV Asia, which was broadcasting out of Hong Kong at the time. He was also the presenter of the TV show "Superhit Muqabla" which was aired on DD2 at primetime. He has also worked as a stage performer.


title: Baba Sehgal

text: He was in New York from 2001 to 2005. When he came home to Mumbai, he released his album "Welcome to Mumbai", which was his 22nd album.


title: Baba Sehgal

text: He also directed the music for the Bollywood film "Bhoot Unkle" (2006) and "Nalaik" (2005). He also anchored the TV show 'Santa and Banta news unlimited' on Zoom. His Song Trump Ka Mania supporting the then Republican nominee Donald Trump was a hit.


title: Baba Sehgal

text: Now, he makes and releases his singles on his YouTube channel "Baba Sehgal Entertainment". Some of them are "Aloo ka Parantha, Going to the Gym, Swacchh Bharat". His song "Mumbai City" is a dark hip hop rap song on Mumbai.


title: Baba Sehgal

text: In 1998, Sehgal made his acting debut in the Bollywood film "Miss 420" alongside Sheeba Akashdeep . He also sang four songs for the film's soundtrack which was released in 1994, four years before the film's theatrical release. In 1999, he played dual roles in the television film "Double Gadbad". He also composed and sang all the songs for the film's soundtrack.. In 2009, he had a part in the SAB TV comedy series "Jugni Chali Jalandhar". In 2011, he appeared in the drama serial "Rang Badalti Odhani" on Star One. Sehgal also made his Telugu film debut in "Rudhramadevi", with Anushka Shetty in the lead. It was directed by National award winner Gunasekhar. Baba Sehgal was signed to play a major negative role in another Telugu film titled "Overdose". In 2016, he played a cameo as himself in "Bank Chor". In the same year, he made his debut in Tamil cinema playing the role of a corrupt cop in "Achcham Yenbadhu Madamaiyada".


title: Cynthia Stone

text: Born in Peoria, Illinois, Stone was the daughter of banker John Boyd Stone and Dorothy Drayton. She was a graduate of Foxcroft School in Middleburg, Virginia.


title: Cynthia Stone

text: Stone had a brief career in the 1950s and 1960s as a television actress. Though she mainly appeared in guest spots in various television series, she and then-husband Jack Lemmon appeared together in the short-lived series, "Heaven for Betsy" (1952). They had previously featured in another short-lived series, "That Wonderful Guy" (1949).


title: Cynthia Stone

text: On May 7, 1950, she married actor Jack Lemmon. The couple had a son, Christopher Boyd Lemmon, in 1954, an actor and an author, but divorced in 1956. She married Cliff Robertson in 1957. They had a daughter, Stephanie, in 1959, and also divorced in 1959. In 1960, Stone married Robert MacDougal III. Stone's marriage to MacDougal lasted until she died.


title: Cynthia Stone

text: Stone founded a volunteer anti-drug program, Concern Unlimited, and she was past president and founder of the Coconut Grove Republican Women's Club.


title: Cynthia Stone

text: Stone died on December 25, 1988, aged 62. She was buried in a family plot in Springdale Cemetery in Peoria.


title: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman

text: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman is a 2003 American animated superhero film based on the animated series "The New Batman Adventures". Released in the U.S. in October 2003, the film was produced by Warner Bros. Animation and is the fourth film in the DC Animated Universe, taking place between the events of "" and the flashback sequence as depicted in "".


title: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman

text: A new heroine, Batwoman has arrived in Gotham whose identity is a mystery—even to Batman. While she claims to fight for justice, Batwoman forsakes Batman's code to never take a life. Batman must figure out who she is, while stopping the Penguin and Rupert Thorne from selling illegal weapons to the fictional nation of Kasnia. The two villains employ Carlton Duquesne, a gangster, to provide protection.


title: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman

text: Batman, with Robin, sets out to stop Batwoman from making mistakes as she tries to take out the villains and as he encounters numerous twists, setbacks, and apparent false leads in determining her true identity. The newest gadget on display is a wind glider used by Batwoman that utilizes some of the most advanced technology ever seen in Gotham City. Bruce Wayne, Batman's alter ego, also becomes romantically involved with Kathy Duquesne, the crime boss' daughter.


title: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman

text: In addition to Kathy, Bruce is introduced to two other women who, as his investigation into the Batwoman's true identity continues, seem to fall well into suspicion: Dr. Roxanne "Rocky" Ballantine, a new employee of Wayne Tech, who seemingly but briefly forms a bond with Robin's alter-ego, Tim Drake and whose technology development is used by the Batwoman against the Penguin; and Detective Harvey Bullock's new partner Sonia Alcana, who seems to know too much about the weapons being smuggled by the Penguin and Carlton Dunquesne. With Carlton unable to stop Batwoman's raids on the facilities used to hold the various weapons, the Penguin calls Bane for additional support to ensure that there are no more losses as a result of the Batwoman.


title: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman

text: Not long after Bane's arrival in Gotham, it is revealed that there is not one, but three Batwomen, all of whom were the women suspected by Batman; Kathy and Sonia met taking art classes at college and Sonia and Rocky were roommates. They all harbor grudges against the Penguin, Thorne, and Carleton Duquesne; the Penguin had framed Roxanne's fiancé Kevin, Thorne had bankrupted Sonia's family, and Carlton Duquesne's war with a rival gang got his wife (and Kathy's mother) killed. They had taken turns posing as Batwoman to remove suspicion on any one of the three. Sonia invented the Batwoman persona as a tribute to Batman, who had saved her life nine years earlier and inspired her to become a police officer.


title: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman

text: Kathy plants a bomb in the ship taking the weapons into international waters for the exchange - but not before Bane unmasks her. Kathy and Batman narrowly escape as the bomb goes off, while Carlton forsakes his ties to Thorne and the Penguin to save his daughter's life, and Bane falls into the Gotham River. Sonia takes the fall for the Batwoman operation, resigns from the GCPD, and decides to leave Gotham. Batman gives Sonia evidence that he discovered which helps clear Rocky's fiancé. Carlton agrees to testify against Thorne and the Penguin. After she reconciles with her father, Kathy drives off with Bruce.


title: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman

text: Cherie performs the single "Betcha Never" in the Iceberg Lounge as herself. This is the only time in the DC animated universe that Paul Williams and Henry Silva did not voice the Penguin and Bane, respectively. This film marked the final performances of Bob Hastings and John Vernon as Commissioner James Gordon and Rupert Thorne before their deaths in 2014 and 2005 respectively as well as being the final film for Hastings. It additionally marked the final film appearance of Efrem Zimbalist Jr. before his death in 2014 (He would reprise Alfred one more time in the "Justice League" three-parter episode "Starcrossed" in 2004)


title: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman

text: Despite that the majority of returning characters retain the same designs from "The New Batman Adventures" era, the character animation is considerably brighter and more lively than from the series. Rupert Thorne was featured in the original show "", but not in "The New Batman Adventures". As such, the animators had to create a new appearance for him specifically for this film; he is streamlined and seems to have lost some weight compared to his previous appearance. the animation was outsourced to DR Movie.


title: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman

text: Series writers Alan Burnett and Michael Reaves wrote the script, and Kevin Conroy reprises the voice of Batman. The film also shows further continuity with previous Bruce Timm-developed Batman shows: Barbara Gordon's romantic relationship with Bruce Wayne (as mentioned in "Batman Beyond") is coming to an end, Dick Grayson has left Gotham to fight crime in Blüdhaven as Nightwing (as mentioned in "" and later making a fleeting cameo in an episode of the later released "Justice League Unlimited" titled "Grudge Match" which is set in the city of Blüdhaven), hence his absence in the film although it's not explicitly stated, and Robin and Batgirl are much older than their depictions in "The New Batman Adventures", but have not yet been forced to quit in the wake of the flashback events in "Return of the Joker" as this film is set before those events.


title: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman

text: The US DVD release of "Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman" (October 21, 2003) included the bonus short silent film Chase Me. "Chase Me" is a 2003 American direct-to-video animated short film also based on the animated series "The New Batman Adventures". The silent film was produced by Warner Bros. Animation, and follows Batman as he chases Catwoman across Gotham City. The chase sequences are accompanied by a soundtrack mix of a quiet piano score, and jazz style score that plays up the chase.


title: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman

text: The film was written by Paul Dini and Alan Burnett and was directed by Curt Geda. It was co-produced by Geda, Burnett, Margaret M. Dean, Benjamin Melniker, and Batman-producer Michael Uslan. The score is by Lolita Ritmanis.


title: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman

text: "Chase Me" is also included as part of the main feature on video streaming sites such as Amazon Video.


title: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman

text: The soundtrack album, composed by Lolita Ritmanis, produced by John Takis and mastered by James Nelson was released on March 29, 2016 by La-La Land Records. Bonus tracks and the score to the animated short "Chase Me" were also included.


title: Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman

text: The film holds approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes. DVD Talk rated the film as 3.5 stars of 5 stars as "Recommended".


title: Levittown

text: Levittown is the name of several large suburban housing developments created in the United States (including one in Puerto Rico) by William J. Levitt and his company Levitt & Sons. Built after World War II for returning white veterans and their new families, the communities offered attractive alternatives to cramped central city locations and apartments. The Veterans Administration and the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) guaranteed builders that qualified veterans could buy housing for a fraction of rental costs.


title: Levittown

text: The first Levittown home sold for $7,900 and in a short period of time, 17,000 units were sold, providing homes for 84,000 people. In addition to normal family dwellings, Levittowns provided private meeting areas, swimming pools, public parks, and recreational facilities.


title: Levittown

text: Production was modeled on assembly lines in 27 steps with construction workers trained to perform one step. A house could be built in one day, with 36 men, when effectively scheduled. This enabled quick and economical production of similar or identical homes with rapid recovery of costs. Standard Levittown houses included a white picket fence, green lawns, and modern appliances. Sales in the original Levittown began in March 1947. 1,400 homes were purchased during the first three hours.


title: Levittown

text: William J. Levitt refused to sell Levittown homes to people of color, and the FHA, upon authorizing loans for the construction of Levittown, included racial covenants in each deed, making each Levittown a segregated community.


title: Levittown

text: The first black family, the Myers, who bought a second-hand house there in Pennsylvania, in 1957 experienced attacks on their house, and up to 500 whites gathering outside their house. Martin Luther King met with the family, and their plight led to legislative change. They stayed for four years until Myers, a World War II veteran, got a job elsewhere. These events were recorded in the contemporary documentary film "Racism in America Small Town 1950s Case Study Documentary Film" which interviews white residents there but not the Myers.


title: Monoplane

text: A monoplane is a fixed-wing aircraft configuration with a single mainplane, in contrast to a biplane or other types of multiplanes, which have multiple planes.


title: Monoplane

text: A monoplane has inherently the highest efficiency and lowest drag of any wing configuration and is the simplest to build. However, during the early years of flight, these advantages were offset by its greater weight and lower manoeuvrability, making it relatively rare until the 1930s. Since then, the monoplane has been the most common form for a fixed-wing aircraft.


title: Monoplane

text: The inherent efficiency of the monoplane is best achieved in the cantilever wing, which carries all structural forces internally. However, to fly at practical speeds the wing must be made thin, which requires a heavy structure to make it strong and stiff enough.


title: Monoplane

text: External bracing can be used to improve structural efficiency, reducing weight and cost. For a wing of a given size, the weight reduction allows it to fly slower and with a lower-powered and more economical engine. For this reason, all monoplane wings in the pioneer era were braced and most were up until the early 1930s. However, the exposed struts or wires create additional drag, lowering aerodynamic efficiency and reducing the maximum speed.


title: Monoplane

text: High-speed and long-range designs tend to be pure cantilevers, while low-speed short-range types are often given bracing.


title: Monoplane

text: Besides the general variations in wing configuration such as tail position and use of bracing, the main distinction between types of monoplane is where the wing is mounted vertically on the fuselage.


title: Monoplane

text: Placing the wing low allows good visibility upwards and frees the central fuselage from the wing spar carry-through. By reducing pendulum stability, it makes the aircraft more manoeuvrable, as on the Spitfire; but aircraft that value stability over manoeuvrability may then need some dihedral.


title: Monoplane

text: A feature of the low-wing position is its significant ground effect, giving the plane a tendency to float farther before landing. Conversely, this ground effect permits shorter takeoffs.


title: Monoplane

text: A mid wing is mounted midway up the fuselage. The carry-through spar structure can reduce the useful fuselage volume near its centre of gravity, where space is often in most demand.


title: Monoplane

text: A shoulder wing (a category between high-wing and mid-wing) is a configuration whereby the wing is mounted near the top of the fuselage but not on the very top. It is so called because it sits on the "shoulder" of the fuselage, rather than on the pilot's shoulder. Shoulder-wings and high-wings share some characteristics, namely: they support a pendulous fuselage which requires no wing dihedral for stability; and, by comparison with a low-wing, a shoulder-wing's limited ground effect reduces float on landing. Compared to a low-wing, shoulder-wing and high-wing configurations give increased propeller clearance on multi-engined aircraft.


title: Monoplane

text: On a large aircraft, there is little practical difference between a shoulder wing and a high wing; but on light aircraft, the configuration is significant because it offers superior visibility to the pilot. On a light aircraft, the shoulder-wing may need to be swept forward to maintain correct center of gravity. Examples of light aircraft with shoulder wings include the ARV Super2, the Bölkow Junior, Saab Safari and the Barber Snark.


title: Monoplane

text: A high wing has its upper surface on or above the top of the fuselage. It shares many advantages and disadvantages with the shoulder wing, but on a light aircraft, the high wing has poorer upwards visibility. On light aircraft such as the Cessna 152, the wing is usually located above the cabin, so that the wing spar passes over the occupants heads, leaving the wing in the ideal fore-aft position.


title: Monoplane

text: An advantage of the high-wing configuration is that the fuselage is closer to the ground which eases cargo loading, especially for aircraft with a rear-fuselage cargo door. Military cargo aircraft are predominently high-wing designs with a rear cargo door.


title: Monoplane

text: A parasol wing is not directly attached to the fuselage but held above it, supported by either cabane struts or a pylon. Additional bracing may be provided by struts or wires extending from the fuselage sides.


title: Monoplane

text: The first parasol monoplanes were adaptations of shoulder wing monoplanes, since raising a shoulder mounted wing above the fuselage greatly improved visibility downwards, which was useful for reconnaissance roles, as with the widely used Morane-Saulnier L.


title: Monoplane

text: The parasol wing allows for an efficient design with good pilot visibility, and was adopted for some fighters such as the Fokker D.VIII and Morane-Saulnier AI in the later part of the First World War.


title: Monoplane

text: A parasol wing also provides a high mounting point for engines and during the interwar period was popular on flying boats, which need to lift the propellers clear of spray. Examples include the Martin M-130, Dornier Do 18 and the Consolidated PBY Catalina.


title: Monoplane

text: Compared to a biplane, a parasol wing has less bracing and lower drag. It remains a popular configuration for amphibians and small homebuilt and ultralight aircraft.


title: Monoplane

text: Although the first successful aircraft were biplanes, the first attempts at heavier-than-air flying machines were monoplanes, and many pioneers continued to develop monoplane designs. For example, the first aeroplane to be put into production was the 1907 Santos-Dumont Demoiselle, while the Blériot XI flew across the English Channel in 1909. Throughout 1909–1910, Hubert Latham set multiple altitude records in his Antoinette IV monoplane, eventually reaching .


title: Monoplane

text: The equivalent German language term is "Eindecker", as in the mid-wing Fokker Eindecker fighter of 1915 which for a time dominated the skies in what became known as the "Fokker scourge". The German military Idflieg aircraft designation system prior to 1918 prefixed monoplane type designations with an "E", until the approval of the Fokker D.VIII fighter from its former "E.V" designation. However, the success of the Fokker was short-lived, and World War I was dominated by biplanes. Towards the end of the war, the parasol monoplane became popular and successful designs were produced into the 1920s.


title: Monoplane

text: Nonetheless, relatively few monoplane types were built between 1914 and the late 1920s, compared with the number of biplanes. The reasons for this were primarily practical. With the low engine powers and airspeeds available, the wings of a monoplane needed to be large in order to create enough lift while a biplane could have two smaller wings and so be made smaller and lighter.


title: Monoplane

text: Towards the end of the First World War, the inherent high drag of the biplane was beginning to restrict performance. Engines were not yet powerful enough to make the heavy cantilever-wing monoplane viable, and the braced parasol wing became popular on fighter aircraft, although few arrived in time to see combat. It remained popular throughout the 1920s.


title: Monoplane

text: On flying boats with a shallow hull, a parasol wing allows the engines to be mounted above the spray from the water when taking off and landing. This arrangement was popular on flying boats during the 1930s; a late example being the Consolidated PBY Catalina. It died out when taller hulls became the norm during World War II, allowing a high wing to be attached directly to the hull.


title: Monoplane

text: As ever-increasing engine powers made the weight of all-metal construction and the cantilever wing more practical — both first pioneered together by the revolutionary German Junkers J 1 factory demonstrator in 1915–16 — they became common during the post–World War I period, the day of the braced wing passed, and by the 1930s, the cantilever monoplane was fast becoming the standard configuration for a fixed-wing aircraft. Advanced monoplane fighter-aircraft designs were mass-produced for military services around the world in both the Soviet Union and the United States in the early–mid 1930s, with the Polikarpov I-16 and the Boeing P-26 Peashooter respectively.


title: Monoplane

text: Most military aircraft of WWII were monoplanes, as have been virtually all aircraft since, except for a few specialist types.


title: Monoplane

text: Jet and rocket engines have even more power and all modern high-speed aircraft, especially supersonic types, have been monoplanes.


title: Knowledge economy

text: The knowledge economy (or the knowledge-based economy) is an economic system in which the production of goods and services is based principally on knowledge-intensive activities that contribute to advancement in technical and scientific innovation. The key element of value is the greater dependence on human capital and intellectual property for the source of the innovative ideas, information and practices. Organisations are required to capitalise this "knowledge" into their production to stimulate and deepen the business development process. There is less reliance on physical input and natural resources. A knowledge-based economy relies on the crucial role of intangible assets within the organisations' settings in facilitating modern economic growth.


title: Knowledge economy

text: A knowledge economy features a highly skilled workforce within the microeconomic and macroeconomic environment; institutions and industries create jobs that demand specialized skills in order to meet the global market needs. Knowledge is viewed as an additional input to labour and capital. In principle, one's primary individual capital is knowledge together with the ability to perform so as to create economic value.


title: Knowledge economy

text: In a knowledge economy, highly skilled jobs require excellent technical skills and relational skills such as problem-solving, the flexibility to interface with multiple discipline areas as well as the ability to adapt to changes as opposed to moving or crafting physical objects in conventional manufacturing-based economies. A knowledge economy stands in contrast to an agrarian economy, in which the primary economic activity is subsistence farming for which the main requirement is manual labour or an industrialized economy that features mass production in which most of the workers are relatively unskilled.


title: Knowledge economy

text: A knowledge economy emphasizes the importance of skills in a service economy, the third phase of economic development, also called a post-industrial economy. It is related to an information economy, which emphasizes the importance of information as non-physical capital, and a digital economy, which emphasizes the degree to which information technology facilitates trade. For companies, intellectual property such as trade secrets, copyrighted material, and patented processes become more valuable in a knowledge economy than in earlier eras.


title: Knowledge economy

text: The global economy transition to a knowledge economy is also referred to as the Information Age, bringing about an information society.


title: Knowledge economy

text: The term "knowledge economy" was made famous by Peter Drucker as the title of Chapter 12 in his book "The Age of Discontinuity" (1969), that Drucker attributed to economist Fritz Machlup, originating in the idea of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor.


title: Knowledge economy

text: An economic system that is not knowledge-based is considered to be inconceivable. It describes the process of consumption and production activities that are satisfied from the application of workers' expertise - intellectual capital and typically represents a significant level of individual economic activities in modern developed economies through building an interconnected and advanced global economy where sources of knowledge are the critical contributors.


title: Knowledge economy

text: The present concept for "knowledge" is origins from the historical and philosophical studies by Gilbert Ryle and Israel Scheffler who conducted knowledge to the terms "procedural knowledge" and "conceptual Knowledge" and identified two types of skills: "routine competencies or facilities" and "critical skills" that is intelligent performance; and it's further elaborated by Lundvall and Johnson who defined "knowledge" economically highlighting four broad categories:


title: Knowledge economy

text: In a knowledge economy, human intellectual is the key engine of economic enhancement. It is an economy where members acquire, create, disseminate and apply knowledge for facilitating economic and social development. The World Bank has spoken of knowledge economies by associating it to a four - pillar framework that analyses the rationales of a human capital based economies:


title: Knowledge economy

text: The advancement of a knowledge-based economy occurred when global economies promote changes in material production, together with the creation of rich mechanisms of economic theories after the second world war that tend to integrate science, technology and the economy.


title: Knowledge economy

text: Peter Drucker discussed the knowledge economy in the book-"The Effective Executive 1966", where he described the difference between the manual workers and the knowledge workers. The manual worker is the one who works with their own hands and produces goods and services. In contrast, the knowledge worker works with their head, rather than hands, and produces ideas, knowledge as well as information.


title: Knowledge economy

text: Definitions around "knowledge" are considered to be vague in terms of the formalization and modelling of a knowledge economy, as it is rather a relative concept. For example, there is no sufficient evidence and consideration in whether the "information society" could serve or act as " knowledge society" interchangeably. Information in general, is not equivalent to knowledge. Their use depends on the individual and groups preferences which are "economy-dependent". Information and knowledge together are production resources that can exist without interacting with other sources. Resources are of highly independent of each other in a sense that if they connect with other available resources, they transfer into factors of productions immediately; and production factors are present only to interact with other factors. Knowledge associated with intellectual information then is said to be a production factor in the new economy that is distinguished from the traditional production factors.


title: Knowledge economy

text: From the early days of economic studies, though economists recognised the essential link between knowledge and economic growth, it was still identified only as a supplemental element in economic factors. The idea behind has transformed in recent years when new growth theory gave praise to knowledge and technology in enhancing productivity and economic advancement.


title: Knowledge economy

text: Thus far, the developed society has transitioned from an agriculture-based economy, that is, the pre-industrial age where economy and wealth is primarily based upon agriculture, to an industrial economy where the manufacturing sector was booming. In the mid-1900s, the world economies moved towards a post-industrial or mass production system, where it is driven by the service sector that creates greater wealth than the manufacturing industry; to the late 1900s - 2000s, knowledge economy emerged with the highlights of the power of knowledge and human capital sector, and is now marked as the latest stage of development in global economic restructuring. In the final decades of 20th century, the knowledge economy became greatly associated with sectors based in research-intensive and high-technology industries as a result of the steadily increased demand for sophisticated science-based innovations. Knowledge economy operates differently from the past as it has been identified by the upheavals (sometimes referred to as the knowledge revolution) in technological innovations and globally competitive need for differentiation with new goods and services, and processes that develop from the research community (i.e., R&D factors, universities, labs, educational institutes).Thomas A. Stewart points out that just as the industrial revolution did not end agriculture because people have to eat, the knowledge revolution is unlikely to end the industry because society remains in demands for physical goods and services. .


title: Knowledge economy

text: For the modern knowledge economies, especially the developed countries, information and knowledge have always taken on enormous importance in the development in either traditional or industrial economy, in particular for the efficient use of factors of production. Owners of production factors should possess and master information and knowledge so as to apply it during one's economic activity. In the knowledge economy, the specialised labor force is characterised as computer literate and well-trained in handling data, developing algorithms and simulated models, and innovating on processes and systems. Harvard Business School Professor, Michael Porter, asserts that today's economy is far more dynamic and that conventional notion of comparative advantages within a company has changed and is less relevant than the prevailing idea of competitive advantages which rests on "making more productive use of inputs, which requires continual innovation". As such, the technical STEM careers, including computer scientists, engineers, chemists, biologists, mathematicians, and scientific inventors will see continuous demand in years to come. Professor Porter further argues that a well situated clusters (that is, geographic concentrations of interconnected companies and institutions in a particular field) is vital with global economies, connect locally and globally with linked industries, manufacturers, and other entities that are related by skills, technologies, and other common inputs. Hence, knowledge is the catalyst and connective tissue in modern economies. Ruggles and Holtshouse argue the change is characterised by a dispersion of power and by managers who lead by empowering knowledge workers to contribute and make decisions.


title: Knowledge economy

text: With Earth's depleting natural resources, the need for green infrastructure, a logistics industry forced into just-in-time deliveries, growing global demand, regulatory policy governed by performance results, and a host of other items high priority is put on knowledge; and research becomes paramount. Knowledge provides the technical expertise, problem-solving, performance measurement and evaluation, and data management needed for the trans-boundary, interdisciplinary global scale of today's competition.


title: Knowledge economy

text: Worldwide examples of the knowledge economy taking place among many others include: Silicon Valley, United States; aerospace and automotive engineering in Munich, Germany; biotechnology in Hyderabad, India; electronics and digital media in Seoul, South Korea; petrochemical and energy industry in Brazil. Many other cities and regions try to follow a knowledge-driven development paradigm and increase their knowledge base by investing in higher education and research institutions in order to attract high skilled labour and better position themselves in the global competition. Yet, despite digital tools democratising access to knowledge, research shows that knowledge economy activities remain as concentrated as ever in traditional economic cores.


title: Knowledge economy

text: The prevailing and future economic development will be highly dominated by the technologies and network expansion, in particular on the knowledge-based social entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurship as a whole. The Knowledge economy is incorporating the network economy, where the relatively localised knowledge is now being shared among and across various networks for the benefit of the network members as a whole, to gain economies of scale in a wider, more open scale.


title: Knowledge economy

text: The rapid globalisation of economic activities is one of the main determinants of the emerging knowledge economy. While there are no doubts on the other stages of relative openness in the global economy, the prevailing pace and intensity of globalisation are of an extent without precedent. The fundamental microeconomic forces are the significant drives of globalizing economic activities and further demands for human intelligence. Forces such as the rapid integration of the world financial and capital market since the early 1980s, which influences essentially on each level of the developed country's financial systems; increased multinational origin of the inputs to productions of both goods and services, technology transfers and information flow etc.


title: Knowledge economy

text: The technology requirements for a national innovation system as described by the World Bank Institute must be able to disseminate a unified process by which a working method may converge scientific and technology solutions, and organizational solutions. According to the World Bank Institute's definition, such innovation would further enable the World Bank Institute's vision outlined in their Millennium Development Goals.


title: Knowledge economy

text: The United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development report (UNCSTD, 1997) concluded that for developing countries to successfully integrate ICTs and sustainable development in order to participate in the knowledge economy they need to intervene collectively and strategically. Such collective intervention suggested would be in the development of effective national ICT policies that support the new regulatory framework, promote the selected knowledge production, and use of ICTs and harness their organizational changes to be in line with the Millennium Development Goals. The report further suggests that developing countries to develop the required ICT strategies and policies for institutions and regulations taking into account the need to be responsive to the issues of convergence.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: The was a -diameter torpedo of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), launched from surface ships. It is commonly referred to as the Long Lance by most modern English-language naval historians, a nickname given to it after the war by Samuel Eliot Morison, the chief historian of the U.S. Navy, who spent much of the war in the Pacific Theater. In Japanese references, the term is also used, in reference to its propulsion system. It was the most advanced naval torpedo in the world at the time.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: The Type 93's development (in parallel with a submarine-launched model, the Type 95) began in Japan in 1928, under the auspices of Rear Admiral Kaneji Kishimoto and Captain Toshihide Asakuma. The torpedo design was inspired by the British oxygen-enriched torpedoes used on the s. At the time, the most powerful potential enemy of the Japanese Navy was the United States Navy's Pacific Fleet. The U.S. Navy's doctrine, presuming an invasion by Japan of the Philippines (an American commonwealth at that time), called for the battle line to fight its way across the Pacific Ocean, relieve or recapture the Philippines, and destroy the Japanese fleet. Since the IJN had fewer battleships than the U.S. Navy, it planned to use light forces (light cruisers, destroyers, and submarines) to whittle down the U.S. Navy's fleet in a succession of minor battles, mostly at night. After the number of American warships was sufficiently reduced, the IJN would commit its own presumably fresh and undamaged battleships to finish off the U.S. remnants in one huge climactic battle. (This was essentially what the U.S. Navy's "War Plan Orange" expected.)


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: The Japanese Navy invested heavily in developing a large, heavy, and long-range torpedo, the Type 93. Torpedoes were the only weapon that gave small warships, such as destroyers, the potential to cripple or sink battleships. The IJN's torpedo research and development focused on using highly compressed oxygen instead of compressed air as the fuel oxidizer in the torpedo's propulsion system. These torpedoes used an otherwise normal wet-heater engine burning a fuel such as Kerosene. Since air is only 21% oxygen (and 78% nitrogen), pure oxygen provides nearly five times as much oxidizer in the same tank volume, thereby increasing torpedo range. In addition, the absence of the inert nitrogen resulted in the emission of significantly less exhaust gas, comprising only carbon dioxide, which is significantly soluble in water, and water vapor, thus greatly reducing tell-tale bubble trails.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: Compressed oxygen is dangerous to handle and required lengthy research and development, not to mention additional training for the warship's torpedomen, for safe operational use. Eventually, the IJN's weapons development engineers found that by starting the torpedo's engine with compressed air, and then gradually switching to pure oxygen, they were able to overcome the problem of explosions that had hampered it before. To conceal the use of pure oxygen from the ship's crew and any potential enemy, the oxygen tank was named the "secondary air tank". The pure oxygen torpedo was first deployed by the IJN in 1935.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: The stated range of over was effective when the targeted warship steamed straight for more than a few minutes while the torpedo approached. This sometimes occurred when USN cruisers chased IJN destroyers breaking away from the scene of the battle at high speed during the night, or when American fleet carriers, engaged in flight operations, were targeted by IJN submarines in the South Pacific in 1942–43.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: The Type 93 weighed about , with a high explosive warhead of about of Shimose type 97, explosive, which was about 7% more powerful than straight TNT.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: Rear Admiral Jungo Rai explained this weapon in the chapter "Torpedo", in collective work "The Full Particulars of Secret Weapons" (秘密兵器の全貌), first published by Koyo-sha, Japan, in 1952.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: The Type 93 torpedo had a main chamber filled with pure compressed oxygen, a joint regulator valve preventing reverse flow, and a small (approximately 13-liter) high-pressure air tank. First, compressed air was mixed with fuel, and the mixture was supplied to a heat starter. Ignition started gently, with the mixture burning steadily in the engine (if oxygen was used at this stage, explosions were common). As the compressed air was consumed and lost pressure, high-pressure oxygen was supplied from the main chamber through the joint valve into the compressed air tank. Soon the air tank was filled with pure oxygen, and combustion continued in the engine.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: The torpedo needed careful maintenance. Warships equipped with Type 93 torpedo launchers required an oxygen generator system to use this type of torpedo.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: The rotational speed of the gyrocompass was increased to 20,000 rpm for the Kaiten manned torpedo. The warhead of the Type 93 torpedo was (the same as the 1-ton gun of an Imperial Japanese battleship), increased to 1.6 tons for Kaiten.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: The Type 93 torpedo is long and weighs about three tons, while the Kaiten was long and weighed eight tons. The maximum speed of the Type 93 was and range . The Kaiten had a range of at , and at . The Kaiten had a stable slow cruising capability just beneath the surface.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: The Type 93 had a maximum range of at with a high explosive warhead. Its long range, high speed, and heavy warheads provided a formidable punch in surface battles. In contrast, the U.S. Navy's standard surface-launched torpedo of World War II, the Mark 15, had a maximum range of at , or at , with a significantly smaller warhead; torpedoes of other Allied nations did not have longer range. The Type 93 was launched from torpedo tubes mounted on the decks of IJN destroyers and cruisers; some Japanese destroyers, unlike ships of other navies, mounted their banks of torpedo tubes in turrets offering protection against splinters, and had tube loaders. The IJN armed nearly all of its cruisers with Type 93 torpedoes.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: In the early surface battles of 1942–43, Japanese destroyers and cruisers were able to launch their torpedoes from about at the unsuspecting Allied warships attempting to close to gun range. The Allied warships expected that, if torpedoes were used, they would be fired from not more than , their own typical torpedo range. The many torpedo hits suffered by Allied warships in such engagements led their officers to believe torpedoes had been fired by undetected Japanese submarines operating in concert with the surface warships. On rare occasions, stray Type 93s struck ships at a much longer range than their intended targets, leading the Allies on occasion to suspect their ships had been mined. The capabilities of the Type 93 went mostly unrecognized by the Allies until examples were captured intact in 1943.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: A version, the Type 97, was later developed for midget submarines, but was not a success, and was replaced operationally by Japan's standard aerial torpedo, the Type 91. A version for use by a few IJN submarines was designated the Type 95, and it was ultimately successful.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: A disadvantage of the Type 93 was that its Shimose explosive warhead was far more likely to detonate due to shock than a TNT-loaded torpedo. The explosion from one Type 93, with its heavy warhead, was usually enough to sink the destroyer, or heavily damage the cruiser, carrying it. As American air strikes against IJN ships became more common, captains of destroyers and cruisers under air attack had to decide whether or not to jettison torpedoes to prevent them from being detonated during the attack. In one instance, the heavy cruiser "Chikuma" jettisoned her Type 93s just before being hit by bombs from several USN dive bombers at the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands. It was initially believed that during the Battle off Samar (in the eastern Philippines) a shell from escort carrier USS "White Plains" struck the heavy cruiser "Chōkai" which detonated the cruiser's Type 93 torpedoes, causing damage that forced the ship to be scuttled; however the 2019 discovery by the RV Petrel of the wreck of the "Chōkai" with her torpedoes intact disproved this theory. The same Samar engagement saw the heavy cruiser "Suzuya" sunk by the detonation of her Type 93 torpedoes: a bomb near miss starboard amidships set off the torpedoes in the starboard tube mounts; the resultant fires propagated to other torpedoes nearby and beyond; the subsequent explosions damaged one of the boilers and the starboard engine rooms and eventually reached the main magazines.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: While the Type 93 torpedo was dangerous to its user as well as its intended target, the Imperial Japanese Navy felt that its effectiveness outweighed its risks. During the course of the war, 23 Allied warships were sunk after Type 93 hits: 11 cruisers, 11 destroyers, and one fleet aircraft carrier. Thirteen of these had been fatally hit solely by the Type 93, with the rest succumbing to a combination of bombs, gunfire, and torpedoes.


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: Battles of Solomons/Tassafaronga/Guadalcanal/Kolombangara/Ormoc Bay/Santa Cruz Islands/Vella Lavella:


title: Type 93 torpedo

text: A number are also located within the war wrecks of Chuuk (Truk) Lagoon, specifically in the holds of the Heian Maru, San Francisco Maru and Seiko Maru.


title: Alpine race

text: The Alpine race is a historical race concept defined by some late 19th-century and early 20th-century anthropologists as one of the sub-races of the Caucasian race. The origin of the Alpine race was variously identified. Ripley argued that it migrated from Central Asia during the Neolithic revolution, splitting the Nordic and Mediterranean populations. It was also identified as descending from the Celts residing in Central Europe in Neolithic times. The Alpine race is mainly distinguished by its moderate stature, neotenous features, and cranial measurements, such as high cephalic index.


title: Alpine race

text: With the rise of modern genetics, the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense has become obsolete. In 2019, the American Association of Biological Anthropologists stated: "The belief in 'races' as natural aspects of human biology, and the structures of inequality (racism) that emerge from such beliefs, are among the most damaging elements in the human experience both today and in the past."


title: Alpine race

text: The term "Alpine" ("H. Alpinus") has historically been given to denote a physical type within the Caucasian race, first defined by William Z. Ripley (1899), but originally proposed by Vacher de Lapouge. It is equivalent to Joseph Deniker's "Occidental" or "Cevenole" race, while Jan Czekanowski regarded it as a subrace consisting of a mixture of Nordic and Armenoid. In the early 20th century, the Alpine physical type was popularised by numerous anthropologists, such as Thomas Griffith Taylor and Madison Grant, as well as in Soviet era anthropology.


title: Alpine race

text: The German Nazi Party under the influence direction of Hans F. K. Günther, recognized the Germans as including five racial subtypes, described by Günther in his work "Kleine Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes" (1929): Nordic, Alpine, Mediterranean, East Baltic, and Dinaric, viewing Nordics as being at the top of the racial hierarchy. He defined each racial subtype according to general physical appearance and their psychological qualities including their "racial soul"—referring to their emotional traits and religious beliefs, and provided detailed information on their hair, eye, and skin colours, facial structure, and body types. He provided photographs of Germans identified as Nordic in places like Baden, Stuttgart, Salzburg, and Swabia; and provided photographs of Germans he identified as Nordic and Mediterranean types, especially in Bavaria and the Black Forest region of Baden. Hitler was so impressed by this work by Günther, that he made it the basis of his eugenics policy.


title: Alpine race

text: Adolf Hitler utilized the term Alpine to refer to a type of the Aryan race, and in an interview spoke admiringly about his idol Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini, commending Mussolini's Alpine racial heritage saying:


title: Alpine race

text: It however fell out of popularity by the 1950s, but reappeared in the literature of Sonia Mary Cole (1963) and Carleton Coon (1969). In more recent sources, a small array of anthropologists accustomed with such usage, still use the term.


title: Alpine race

text: A typical Alpine skull is regarded as brachycephalic ('broad-headed'). As well as being broad in the crania, this thickness appears generally elsewhere in the morphology of the Alpine, as Hans Günther describes:


title: Alpine race

text: Ripley (1899) further notes that the nose of the Alpine is broader (mesorrhine) while their hair is usually a chestnut colour and their occiputs are slightly rounded. According to Robert Bennett Bean (1932) the skin pigmentation of the Alpine is an 'intermediate white', a colour in-between the lighter skinned Nordic and the darker-skinned Mediterranean. Despite the large numbers of alleged Alpines, the characteristics of the Alpines were not as widely discussed as those of the Nordics and Mediterraneans. Typically they were portrayed as "sedentary": solid peasant stock, the reliable backbone of the European population, but not outstanding for qualities of leadership or creativity. Madison Grant insisted on their "essentially peasant character".


title: Alpine race

text: According to Ripley and Coon, the Alpine race is predominant in Central Europe and parts of Western/Central Asia. Ripley argued that the Alpines had originated in Asia, and had spread westwards along with the emergence and expansion of agriculture, which they established in Europe. By migrating into Central Europe, they had separated the northern and southern branches of the earlier European stock, creating the conditions for the separate evolution of Nordics and Mediterraneans. This model was repeated in Madison Grant's book "The Passing of the Great Race" (1916), in which the Alpines were portrayed as the most populous of European and western Asian races. However, in Carleton Coon's rewrite of Ripley's "The Races of Europe", he developed a different argument that they reduced the Upper Paleolithic survivors indigenous to Europe, based on prehistoric broad-headed crania unearthed at Grenelle, France, and the findings at Furfooz in the Belgian province of Namur:


title: Alpine race

text: A debate concerning the origin of the Alpine race in Europe, involving Arthur Keith, John Myres and Alfred Cort Haddon was published by the Royal Geographical Society in 1906.


title: Svara

text: Svara or swara (Devanagari: स्वर, generally pronounced as "swar") is a Sanskrit word that connotes simultaneously a breath, a vowel, the sound of a musical note corresponding to its name, and the successive steps of the octave or "saptaka". More comprehensively, it is the ancient Indian concept about the complete dimension of musical pitch.<ref name="Vimalakānta Rôya Caudhurī 2000 https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofhind00roya/page/122 122–123"></ref> Most of the time a "svara" is identified as both musical note and tone, but a tone is a precise substitute for sur, related to tunefulness. Traditionally, Indians have just seven "svara"s/notes with short names, e.g. saa, re/ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni which Indian musicians collectively designate as "saptak" or "saptaka". It is one of the reasons why "svara" is considered a symbolic expression for the number seven.


title: Svara

text: The word "swara" or "svara" (Sanskrit: स्वर) is derived from the root "svr" which means "to sound". To be precise, the "svara" is defined in the Sanskrit "nirukta" system as:


title: Svara

text: The Kannada word "swara" and Tamil alphabet or letter "suram" do not represent a sound, but rather more generally the place of articulation (PoA) (பிறப்பிடம்), where one generates a sound, and the sounds made there can vary in pitch.


title: Svara

text: The word is found in the Vedic literature, particularly the Samaveda, where it means accent and tone, or a musical note, depending on the context. The discussion there focusses on three accent pitch or levels: "svarita" (sounded, circumflex normal), "udatta" (high, raised) and "anudatta" (low, not raised). However, scholars question whether the singing of hymns and chants were always limited to three tones during the Vedic era.


title: Svara

text: In the general sense "swara" means tone, and applies to chanting and singing. The basic "swara"s of Vedic chanting are "udatta", "anudatta" and "svarita". Vedic music has "madhyama" or "ma" as principal note so that tonal movement is possible towards lower and higher pitches, thus "ma" is taken for granted as fixed in any tonal music ("madhyama avilopi", मध्यम अविलोपी).


title: Svara

text: One-"swara" Vedic singing is called aarchika chanting, e.g. in chanting the following texts on one note:


title: Svara

text: or the like. Two-"swara" Vedic singing is called gaathika chanting, e.g. in chanting the following text on two notes:


title: Svara

text: The musical octave is said to have evolved from the elaborate and elongated chants of the "Samaveda", based on these basic "swara"s. "Siksha" is the subject that deals with phonetics and pronunciation. "Naradiya Siksha" elaborates the nature of "swara"s, both Vedic chants and the octave.


title: Svara

text: The word also appears in the Upanishads. For example, it appears in "Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana" section 111.33, where the cyclic rise and setting of sun and world, is referred to as "the music of spheres", and the sun is stated to be "humming the wheel of the world". According to Ananda Coomaraswamy, the roots ""svar"", meaning "to shine" (whence ""surya"" or sun), and ""svr"", meaning "to sound or resound" (whence ""swara"", “musical note”) and also in some contexts "to shine", are all related in the ancient Indian imagination.