title: Utrecht (province)

text: The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 71.5 billion € in 2018, accounting for 9.2% of the Netherlands economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 47,900 € or 159% of the EU27 average in the same year.


title: Shaan Rahman

text: Shaan Rahman (born 30 December 1979) is an Indian composer and singer, best known for his compositions in the Malayalam cinema. Shaan made his debut as a music director in the 2009 film "Ee Pattanathil Bhootham" directed by Johny Antony. He got the chance to work in the film after the wide acceptance and popularity of his 2008 music album ""Coffee at MG Road"" which he did along with his friend, singer, and director Vineeth Sreenivasan.


title: Shaan Rahman

text: Vineeth invited him to work in his directorial debut film "Malarvaadi Arts Club" (2010). Later on, Shaan has frequently collaborated with Vineeth in his films.


title: Shaan Rahman

text: He gained popularity with the films such as "Thattathin Marayathu" (2012), "Ormayundo Ee Mukham" (2014), "Aadu" (2015),"Oru Vadakkan Selfie" (2015), "Adi Kapyare Kootamani" (2015), "Vettah" (2016), "Jacobinte Swargarajyam" (2016), "Annmariya Kalippilaanu" (2016), and the song "Jimikki Kammal" from the film "Velipadinte Pusthakam" (2017) gained nationwide acceptance with so many alternative versions of it being released online.


title: Shaan Rahman

text: Shaan's third film as music director was "Thattathin Marayathu" (2012), directed by Vineeth Sreenivasan. It's music was positively received by the public and composer M. Jayachandran went on to state that ""Muthuchippi Poloru"" was his favourite song of the year. In 2014, he made his Telugu debut with "Saheba Subramanyam" which is the remake of "Thattathin Marayathu".


title: Shaan Rahman

text: Shaan's father works for Union Cement Company (UCC) while his mother remains a housewife. He has a younger sister Sherry and a brother Shaheer. Sherry is a doctor by profession and is married to Dr. Khalid. Shaheer is studying B.A. Visual Effects at ICAT. Shaan married Zaira on 11 October 2009. They have a son Rayan. Shaan was born and brought up in Thalassery, Kannur district. He lives with his family at Kakkanad, Kochi.


title: Shaan Rahman

text: Shaan Rahmaan is also a singer and has sung songs composed by himself and for music director Deepak Dev in films like "Urumi", "Teja Bhai & Family" etc.


title: George Getty

text: George Franklin Getty (October 17, 1855 – May 31, 1930) was an American lawyer, pioneer oilman, father of industrialist J. Paul Getty, and patriarch of the Getty family.


title: George Getty

text: Getty was born in 1855 in Allegany County, Maryland, to Martha Ann (Wily) and John Getty (1835-1861), who was the son of James Getty and the grandson of another John Getty, a Presbyterian Ulster Scots peasant who immigrated to America and claimed kinship with the namesake of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. However, Robert Lenzner wrote in his book "The Great Getty" that Gettysburg was founded by the Gettys family, not Getty. Shortly after his birth Getty's family moved from Maryland to Ohio where his father died in 1861. George was forced to work at a young age until his uncle, Joseph Getty, provided funds for him to attend school. He earned a Bachelor of Science from Ohio Northern University in 1879.


title: George Getty

text: Eventually Getty married and attended law school at the University of Michigan Law School and was admitted to the bar. In 1884, George F. Getty moved to Minneapolis, Minnesota where he specialized in insurance and corporate law and made a good living in what was the "flour capital" of America. In 1890 his first child, a daughter, died in a typhoid epidemic that hit the city. In 1892, the Gettys had another child, a son, Jean Paul Getty (later known as J. Paul Getty).


title: George Getty

text: In 1904, the Gettys moved from Minnesota to Oklahoma, where George began a career as an independent oilman. Within two years, he had amassed a fortune from his Minnehoma Oil Company and moved his family to Los Angeles, California. In 1913, George lent his son Jean Paul (then aged 21) money to invest in oil wells. By 1915, Jean Paul had made his first million and the following year George and Jean Paul incorporated the Getty Oil Company, later to become Getty Oil.


title: George Getty

text: George never approved of Jean Paul's lifestyle. Perhaps this is why he did not leave the company in the sole control of his son. George F. Getty died in 1930. He left his estate, in the form of the controlling interest in the family firm "George F. Getty, Inc.", and valued at between $10 million and $15 million U.S. ($ million and $ million, respectively, in 2021), to his wife Sarah, although Jean Paul Getty became President of the firm.


title: George Getty

text: Jean Paul Getty's eldest son, George Franklin Getty's grandson, was named George Franklin Getty II (1924–1973), and was an executive in the Getty Oil company until his death. His residence, Getty House, was then donated to the city, and became the official residence of the serving Mayor of Los Angeles.


title: Power of Siberia

text: Power of Siberia (Sila Sibiri, formerly named the Yakutia–Khabarovsk–Vladivostok pipeline, also known as China–Russia East-Route Natural Gas pipeline; , ) is a Gazprom-operated pipeline in Eastern Siberia that transports natural gas from Yakutia to Primorsky Krai and China. It is a part of the eastern gas route from Siberia to China. The proposed western gas route to China is known as Power of Siberia 2 (Altai gas pipeline).


title: Power of Siberia

text: In 2007, the Ministry of Industry and Energy of Russia approved the Eastern Gas Program, which included construction of the Yakutia–Khabarovsk–Vladivostok pipeline.


title: Power of Siberia

text: On 29 October 2012, Russian president Vladimir Putin instructed Alexey Miller, CEO of Gazprom to start the construction of the pipeline. The Yakutia–Khabarovsk–Vladivostok pipeline project was officially renamed Power of Siberia at the end of 2012.


title: Power of Siberia

text: On 21 May 2014, Russia and China signed a 30-year gas deal worth $400 billion which was needed to make the project feasible. Construction was launched on 1 September 2014 in Yakutsk by Putin and Chinese deputy prime minister Zhang Gaoli. Construction of the connecting pipeline in China started on 29 June 2015.


title: Power of Siberia

text: On 4 September 2016, Miller and China National Petroleum Corporation's Chairman Wang Yilin signed an agreement to build a crossing under the Amur River for the pipeline. Two tunnels under the river were completed by China Petroleum Pipeline in March 2019.


title: Power of Siberia

text: In 2017, construction of the Atamanskaya (Zeyskaya) compressor station began. The Atamanskaya and Chayandinskaya compressor stations were completed in 2019. Construction of all compressor stations is scheduled to be completed by 2022.


title: Power of Siberia

text: The pipeline was filled with gas in October 2019. Deliveries to China started on 2 December 2019. In 2020, China has imported 4.1 billion cubic meters of natural gas from Russia through the pipeline. It is expected that amount will increase to 38 billion cubic meters by 2023.


title: Power of Siberia

text: Together with the development of the Chayanda field and the Amur Gas Processing Plant, the whole Power of Siberia project was expected to cost US$55–70 billion. , the pipeline was estimated to cost 1.1 trillion roubles, the development of the Chayanda field was estimated to cost 450 billion roubles, and the Amur Gas Processing Plant was estimated to cost 950 billion roubles.


title: Power of Siberia

text: The total length of the pipeline, when fully completed, will be . The full capacity of the pipeline would be up to per annum of natural gas, of which per annum are supplied to China. In 2019, the export to China was expected to start with per annum in 2020, and to increase gradually to per annum by 2025.


title: Power of Siberia

text: The pipeline's working pressure is ensured by nine compressor stations with a total capacity of 1,200 MW. The working pressure between the Chayanda field and the Atamanskaya compressor station is , and between the Atamanskaya compressor station and the border of China is . The Chayandinskaya compressor station has capacity of 577 MW and the Atamanskaya compressor station has capacity of 128 MW. The remaining seven compressor stations—Saldykelskaya, Olyokminskaya, Amginskaya, Nimnyrkaya, Nagornaya, Skovorodinskaya, and Sivakiskaya—have a total capacity of 481 MW.


title: Power of Siberia

text: The pipeline is able to withstand temperatures as low as . It has a nanocomposite coating to increase the lifetime of the pipeline. To withstand earthquakes, the pipeline uses materials that will deform under seismic activity. Internal coatings ensure energy efficiency by reducing the friction of the pipeline's inner surfaces. The mass of all the pipes used to construct the pipeline is more than 2.25 million tonnes (2.5 million tons).


title: Power of Siberia

text: According to the study published by the Cambridge University Press, the pipeline seems to avoid technical and legal standards applied to similar pipelines from Russia to Europe because of lower requirements in both Russia and China.


title: Power of Siberia

text: The pipeline is fed from the Chayanda field in Yakutia, which was launched in 2019. The Kovykta field in Irkutsk Oblast will start to supply to the pipeline in 2023. The first phase of the pipeline starts at the Chayanda field in Yakutia. It runs, partly within the same corridor as the Eastern Siberia–Pacific Ocean oil pipeline, through Lensk, Olyokminsk, Aldan, Neryungri, Skovorodino, and Svobodny, where the pipeline is connected to the Amur Gas Processing Plant. From there, the pipeline branches south to Blagoveshchensk on the Russia–China border. By the two tunnels under the Amur River, it is connected to the Heihe–Shanghai pipeline in China. Together they form the eastern route for gas supplies from Siberia to China.


title: Power of Siberia

text: The second phase of the pipeline connects the Kovykta field to the Chayanda field. According to the original plan, the further extension of the Power of Siberia pipeline will continue from Svobodny through Birobidzhan to Khabarovsk where the pipeline will be linked with the Sakhalin–Khabarovsk–Vladivostok pipeline. Gazprom has not published if and when this extension will be built.


title: Power of Siberia

text: Gazprom Transgaz Tomsk was the main construction contractor, while VNIPIgazdobycha, both subsidiaries of Gazprom, was the general design contractor.


title: Power of Siberia

text: Different sections of the pipeline were built by Stroytransgaz owned by Gennady Timchenko, Neftegazstroy, and Stroygazmontazh owned by Arkady Rotenberg.


title: Power of Siberia

text: Pipes were manufactured by the Vyksa Steel Works of OMK, the Chelyabinsk Pipe Rolling Plant, the Izhora Pipe Mill of Severstal, the Volzhsky Pipe Plant of TMK, Zagorsk Pipe Plant, and Pipe Innovative Technologies. Anti-corrosion nanocomposite coating of pipes was done by Metaclay, a joint venture of Rusnano and Gazprom. Compressor turbine units were supplied by UEC-Perm Engines.


title: Power of Siberia

text: For China, the pipeline diversifies natural gas supplies for China. It is designed to reduce China's dependence on coal, which is more carbon intensive and causes more pollution than natural gas.


title: Power of Siberia

text: For Russia, the pipeline allows another economic partnership in the face of resistance to pipelines being built in Western Europe.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: Knuckles' Chaotix is a 1995 platform game developed by Sega for the 32X. A spin-off from the "Sonic the Hedgehog" series, it features Knuckles the Echidna and four other characters known as the Chaotix, who must prevent Doctor Robotnik and Metal Sonic from obtaining six magic rings and conquering a mysterious island. Gameplay is similar to previous "Sonic" games: players complete levels while collecting rings and defeating enemies. "Knuckles' Chaotix" introduces a partner system whereby the player is connected to another character via a tether; the tether behaves like a rubber band and must be used to maneuver the characters.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: While Sonic Team is sometimes credited with creating "Knuckles' Chaotix", it was developed by another Sega team. Production began with "Sonic Crackers", a 1994 prototype for the Sega Genesis which experimented with the tethering system and featured Sonic and Tails. "Knuckles' Chaotix" was planned as a "Sonic" game for the Sega Saturn, but transitioned to the 32X when it could not be completed in time. Sonic and Tails were replaced by Knuckles and a group of mostly pre-existing characters; Mighty the Armadillo first appeared in the arcade game "SegaSonic the Hedgehog" (1993).


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: "Knuckles' Chaotix" was released in North America and Japan in April 1995, and in Europe in June 1995. It received mixed contemporary reviews and failed commercially. Reviewers found the tethering physics cumbersome, although some appreciated it as an attempt to innovate. The level design and low difficulty level were also criticized. Journalists have described "Knuckles' Chaotix" as the last of the "classic" 2D "Sonic" games before the series moved to 3D. Some characters and concepts it introduced feature in later "Sonic" games and media, beginning with "Sonic Heroes" in 2003. Despite interest from fans, it has not been rereleased beyond a brief period through GameTap in the mid-2000s.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: "Knuckles' Chaotix" is a side-scrolling platform game similar to earlier entries in the "Sonic" series. Unlike other "Sonic" games, players are tethered to a computer or human-controlled partner; the tether behaves like a rubber band and must be properly handled to maneuver through stages. There are five playable characters, each with their own unique abilities. Knuckles the Echidna can glide and climb walls; Mighty the Armadillo can perform a wall jump; Espio the Chameleon can run along walls and ceilings; Vector the Crocodile can boost through the air and climb walls; and Charmy Bee can fly and hover. There are two other partner characters, Heavy the Robot and Bomb, who hinder players' progress due to their slow or destructive nature, respectively. The story takes place on a mysterious island and follows the group's efforts to stop Doctor Robotnik and Metal Sonic from harnessing the power of the island's mythical Chaos Rings to satisfy their evil deeds.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: The game takes place over six levels called attractions. Each attraction is divided into five acts; the fifth ends in a boss fight with Robotnik and one of his large robots. Each act has a different time of day decor, such as morning, noon, evening, and night. Like earlier "Sonic" games, players collect rings, jump to perform a spin attack to defeat enemies, and can perform a spin dash on the ground to gain speed. Power-ups include rings, shields, and speed shoes. The partner system enables players to perform actions not seen in earlier "Sonic" games. Players can call their partner if they are separated, which reunites them with the main character but costs 10 rings, or throw their partner to reach far platforms. If the partner is computer-controlled, the player can stop and anchor the partner to perform special moves such as "snapping" to a higher ledge or thrusting to gain speed.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: Before entering a stage, the player begins in a hub world where they choose a partner and level. Bonus stages are hidden throughout attractions, and can also be triggered by obtaining 20 or more rings and finding one of the giant golden rings hidden away in each level. In the bonus levels, the player is free-falling and picks up power-ups. Special stages are reached by finishing a level with 50 or more rings. In these stages, the player collects blue spheres in a forward-scrolling platformer to earn a Chaos Ring. Collecting all Chaos Rings unlocks the "good" ending, in which Sonic and Tails are seen with the Chaotix, who have freed the island from Robotnik.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: Although Sonic Team is sometimes credited for developing "Knuckles' Chaotix", it was developed by another internal Sega team, including staff who had worked on "Sonic CD" (1993). Development began around April 1994 for the Sega Genesis as an engine test, with the working title "Sonic Crackers". The prototype featured Sonic and Tails joined by an elastic band of energy; the name likely comes from clackers, a toy comprising two balls connected by string. According to the journalist Ken Horowitz, "Sonic Crackers" was most likely a ROM made to demonstrate new concepts to management. Some ideas were used in "Sonic 3D Blast" (1996), while the level design, tethering, and some music resurfaced in "Knuckles' Chaotix".


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: Sega eventually moved development to the Genesis' more powerful 32X add-on. According to Horowitz, this was because the 16-bit era of consoles was coming to an end. Former Sega of America CEO Tom Kalinske recalled that "Knuckles' Chaotix" was once intended for the Genesis' successor, the Sega Saturn, as a mainline "Sonic" game. According to Kalinske, development moved to the 32X when it became clear that the game would not be ready for the Saturn launch; Kalinske said it was "too big, it was taking too long, it was over budgeted, it was behind schedule". Because Sega needed new 32X games, Sega decided to downsize the game and introduce it quickly on 32X.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: By December 1994, Sonic and Tails had been removed and the game had been reworked to star Knuckles the Echidna, who had been introduced in "Sonic the Hedgehog 3" (1994). The project had the working title "Knuckles' Ringstar". The game also adds the characters Mighty the Armadillo, Vector the Crocodile, Espio the Chameleon and Charmy Bee. Mighty had appeared in the arcade game "SegaSonic the Hedgehog" (1993); many of Sonic's animations from "Crackers" were repurposed for Mighty. Vector the Crocodile was created for the original "Sonic the Hedgehog" (1991) but scrapped before release, and Charmy Bee originally appeared in the "Sonic the Hedgehog" manga. "Sonic" co-creator Naoto Ohshima said he was responsible for repurposing Vector and Charmy, but otherwise had no involvement with "Knuckles' Chaotix".


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: Espio was the only original character, designed by manga artist Takumi Miyake. A leaked prototype lists Espio as the featured character on the title screen instead of Knuckles, suggesting he once featured more prominently, possibly in a starring role. The 32X's processing power allowed for dynamic sprite-scaling effects, and 3D polygons in the special stages. A complex palette system allowed each level to load unique colors. The music was composed by Junko Shiratsu and Mariko Nanba.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: "Knuckles' Chaotix" was released in North America in April 1995, in Japan on April 21, 1995, and in Europe in June 1995. According to Horowitz, the game was rushed to help boost sluggish 32X sales. It quickly faded into obscurity, and is now considered a valuable collector's item due to the 32X's commercial failure. The only rerelease came in 2005, when "Knuckles' Chaotix" was briefly made available for Mac OS X and Windows computers via the subscription service GameTap.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: The "Sonic Crackers" prototype ROM was leaked online by a Belgian hacking group in June 1995 and can be played with emulators. A cartridge version was auctioned for $146.50 in 2001. While some fans speculated that the "Sonic Crackers" ROM was an April Fools' Day hoax, its authenticity has been corroborated by multiple sources, including references in an internal Sega design document and text found in a later "Knuckles' Chaotix" prototype.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: The game's presentation divided critics. The four reviewers of "Electronic Gaming Monthly" ("EGM") praised its graphics and believed the game was one of the best for the 32X, and "GameFan" considered "Knuckles' Chaotix" the best entry in the franchise since "Sonic the Hedgehog 2" (1992). On the other hand, a reviewer from "Next Generation" found the graphics garish, and felt that the game made "unimpressive attempts to show off". "GamePro", "Game Players", and "IGN" believed the game failed to push the 32X to its limits, citing the lack of graphical effects and Genesis-quality audio, though "IGN" felt some elements, such as several musical tracks, were highlights. In 2008, "GamesRadar" wrote that "Knuckles' Chaotix" was the best game for the 32X and was underrated, though it still considered the game a "wasted opportunity".


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: The "rubber band" multiplayer system was criticized, despite being acknowledged as an effort to innovate. Though "IGN" admired the attempt to "breathe life into a series that was running out of steam" and fix the lopsided multiplayer of "Sonic 2" and "Sonic 3" (1994), whereby Tails would get lost off-screen, they felt the physics were "clunky" and unorthodox. "EGM" felt the system was original, but slowed down the gameplay, as did "GamesRadar". "Next Generation" felt the bond was tiring and not truly innovative, and "GamePro" called it "Knuckles' Chaotix"s biggest flaw, finding it frustrating and choppy. The reviewer also found that the bond complicated gameplay and compared it to being handcuffed.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: The level design and low difficulty were also criticized. "GamePro" wrote that the levels, while fairly large, were not populated with enough enemies or secrets, a sentiment echoed by "IGN" and "Mean Machines Sega". "IGN" considered the boss design simplistic and the level design bland and seemingly unfinished, and "Mean Machines Sega" thought that, without enemies, "this is just not half the game it could have been". "Game Players" criticized the game's lack of replay value, saying the game's simplicity made secrets in levels impossible to miss. However, "IGN", "GameFan", and "EGM" praised the number of playable characters, and "IGN" felt the game's "marvelous" fully 3D special stages were the best of the "Sonic" series.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: "IGN" described "Knuckles' Chaotix" as "a bad game with a good foundation", and in another article, concluded that it was interesting, if flawed. "EGM" felt it was the best for the 32X but failed to live up to previous games in the "Sonic" series. "Game Players" found it a major disappointment, saying "other than a few color-enhanced backgrounds, you're gonna wonder why this isn't a Genesis title". Some journalists have referred to "Knuckles' Chaotix" as the series' declining point, and "AllGame" and "Complex" both wrote that it was among the worst games in the series.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: "Knuckles' Chaotix" is considered the last of the "classic" "Sonic" games before the 3D game "Sonic Adventure" (1998) took the series in new gameplay directions. Several of its concepts were re-used in later "Sonic" games. A similar partner system features in the Game Boy Advance game "Sonic Advance 3" (2004), and "IGN" noted similarities between the game's auto-running special stages and "Sonic and the Secret Rings" (2007). Two tracks from "Knuckles' Chaotix", "Tube Panic" and "Door Into Summer", appear in "Sonic Generations" (2011). The "Hyper Ring" power-up re-appeared in "Sonic Mania" (2017) and a recreation of "Knuckles' Chaotix"s final boss fight was added in a 2018 update.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: With the exception of Mighty, all Chaotix members have become recurring characters in the "Sonic" series. The characters initially did not reappear until "Sonic Heroes" in 2003. Director Takashi Iizuka said that Sonic Team revived the Chaotix because the studio thought they were unique and had never used them. Iizuka considers the "Heroes" version of the characters different from the 32X one, claiming to have created new characters simply using the same designs. The group had storylines in the "Sonic the Hedgehog" comic series produced by Archie Comics and "Sonic the Comic" by Fleetway Publications, as well as in the anime series "Sonic X". While "Game Informer" considered the Chaotix to be among the best characters of the franchise and are underutilized, "GamesRadar" considered the introduction of the Chaotix a negative turning point for the series as it "diluted the "Sonic"-verse by introducing tons of shitty characters". Jim Sterling felt that all the Chaotix lacked redeeming qualities, calling Vector "Idiot the Crocodile" and Espio "Generic Brooder the Chameleon". They singled out Charmy for particular ridicule, feeling he was annoying and noting his high-pitched voice. Mighty would eventually return as a playable character in "Sonic Mania Plus" in 2018.


title: Knuckles' Chaotix

text: In 2011, Sega noted fans frequently requested "Knuckles' Chaotix" as a game desired to be rereleased. "1UP.com" and "GameSpy" expressed disappointment the 2005 compilation "Sonic Gems Collection" did not include the game. In 2010, Sonic Team head Iizuka expressed interest in developing a sequel. Also expressing interest was Christian Whitehead, the developer of the mobile versions of "Sonic CD", "Sonic the Hedgehog", and "Sonic the Hedgehog 2", saying in 2014 that he would be open to remaking "Knuckles' Chaotix" using the Retro Engine.


title: Vikas Uppal

text: Vikas Kumar "Vicky" Uppal (1 January 1986 – 30 June 2007) was a native and resident of India, said to be India's tallest man until his death on 30 June 2007 when he died during a failed brain tumor operation in Delhi. In 2004, "The Tribune" reported him to be tall and still growing, being in his late teens.


title: Vikas Uppal

text: Vicky Uppal was from the Rohtak district in the Indian state of Haryana. He was photographed for "The Hindu" in September 2006 at a rally held by the Indian National Lok Dal. He was purported by some to be tall, but other sources claimed he was tall. He could have been considered the world's tallest living man, but the "Guinness Book of Records" has strict verification criteria; hence, Guinness did not measure Uppal. He also had been said to have hands long and feet long, and appears in photographs to be proportionate, not obviously a pathological (acromegalic, for example) giant. He also acted in a Bollywood movie, "Rang De Basanti."


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: A Chinese Odyssey is a two-part 1995 Hong Kong fantasy-comedy film directed by Jeffrey Lau and starring Stephen Chow.


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: The first part is titled A Chinese Odyssey Part One: Pandora's Box, while the second part is titled A Chinese Odyssey Part Two: Cinderella. The film is very loosely based on the 16th-century Wu Cheng'en novel "Journey to the West".


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: The line "10,000 years" in the film became one of the most popular buzzwords for Chinese-language films, with a Google search count of 21.9 million.


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: 500 years ago, during their journey to the west to fetch the Buddhist scriptures, Monkey got annoyed with the constant nagging of his master, Longevity Monk, and decided to betray him. He was intercepted and subdued by Guanyin, who decided to give him a second chance after Longevity Monk pleaded for leniency and sacrificed himself.


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: Monkey is reincarnated in the present as Joker, chief of a group of outlaws. Joker and his gang are attacked by two demons, Spider Woman and Bak Jing-jing, who threaten and force them to do their bidding. Joker's second-in-command (a reincarnation of Pigsy) secretly overhears the demons' plan to capture Longevity Monk and feast on his flesh to gain immortality. Joker subsequently falls in love with Bak Jing-jing. Grandpa Buddha shows up in disguise as a bunch of grapes, informs Joker about the danger he is in, and gives him a magic mirror which can reveal a being's true form.


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: The group are attacked by Bull King, who is also after Longevity Monk. Joker and Pigsy flee with Bak Jing-jing and Spider Woman to Waterfall Cave, where the two demons starts fighting over Joker. Bak Jing-jing and Joker eventually flee from the cave while Spider Woman is impregnated with Pigsy's child by accident. As Bak Jing-jing has been poisoned by Spider Woman, Joker goes back to the cave to ask for the antidote, but is imprisoned by Spider Woman. In the meantime, outside the cave, Bak Jing-jing is captured by Bull King, who cures her of the poison.


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: Inside the cave, Joker finds Pandora's Box, which can open up a time portal when moonlight shines on it and when "Prajñāpāramitā" is chanted. He also overhears Guanyin's voice, telling him that he was actually Monkey in his past life and is destined to continue his quest to escort his master on the journey to the west. His true destiny will be revealed after he gets three marks on the sole of his foot. Meanwhile, Bull King and Bak Jing-jing enter the cave and fight with Spider Woman. Bak Jing-jing commits suicide after mistakenly believing that Joker has betrayed her love and fathered a child with Spider Woman.


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: Joker finds Bak Jing-jing and tries to save her by travelling back in time with the aid of Pandora's Box, but each time he arrives a few seconds too late to stop her from committing suicide. He finally manages to make it on time to prevent Bak Jing-jing from slitting her throat, but she sacrifices herself to save him from Bull King. Joker travels back in time again, but ends up going back in time by 500 years. Outside the cave, he encounters a fairy, Zixia, who confiscates Pandora's Box and sears three dots on the sole of his foot to mark him as her servant. This fulfils his true destiny as Monkey. He looks in the magic mirror given to him by Grandpa Buddha earlier and is shocked to see a reflection of himself as Monkey.


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: After travelling back in time, Joker learns more about his past life and reunites with his master, Longevity Monk, and his fellows, Pigsy and Sandy. However, he does not want to accept his fate as Monkey because he just wants to get back Pandora's Box and return to 500 years later to save Bak Jing-jing. Zixia falls in love with him after he pulls out her sword from its scabbard because she made a promise to marry the person who can unsheathe her sword.


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: Zixia and Longevity Monk are captured by Bull King, who wants to take Zixia as his concubine and feast on Longevity Monk's flesh to become immortal. Pigsy and Sandy try to rescue their master but he refuses to leave unless Joker promises to fulfil his destiny. Joker goes off in search of Zixia and rescues her, after which they flee from Bull King. In the ensuing fight between Joker and his companions against Bull King, Joker falls off a cliff and finds himself back in Waterfall Cave, where he meets Grandpa Buddha and Bak Jing-jing. Bak Jing-jing agrees to marry Joker initially, but she leaves later and tells him to save Zixia because she knows he's actually in love with someone else. Shortly after, Spider Woman comes to Waterfall Cave and kills everyone, including Joker. At the point of death, Joker realises the one he truly loves is Zixia.


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: Joker, as a ghost, hears Guanyin's voice inside the cave again, reminding him about his destiny. He decides to accept his fate and puts on the golden circlet, therefore transforming into Monkey. He returns to the world and rushes to Bull King's city to save his master and stop Bull King's wedding ceremony with Zixia. As he is now Monkey, he must relinquish all his human desires, including love, so he tells Zixia he is not Joker and pretends to scorn her.


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: Monkey and Bull King engage in battle. When Bull King realises he is losing, he uses Princess Iron Fan's magic fan to churn up strong winds that will blow the entire city towards the sun and kill everyone in the process. Monkey succeeds in stopping Bull King and saves everyone, but Zixia sacrifices herself to save him. As she dies, Monkey reveals his love for her and, as a result, his circlet tightens and causes him to feel extreme agony. In anger, he beats up Bull King before escaping together with his master, Pigsy and Sandy by using Pandora's Box.


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: Monkey wakes up later and finds himself in a cave, but with his master and fellows this time. Outside the cave, in a busy city, Monkey sees the incarnations of Joker and Zixia in a standoff on top of a wall. He uses his powers to possess Joker's body and gave Zixia a long and passionate kiss before leaving Joker's body. Joker recovers and is surprised to see himself locked in an embrace with Zixia, but accepts and continues the romance with her. They notice Monkey walking away in the crowd below and laugh at his appearance. Monkey does not turn back until outside the gates where he gave a final glance at the embracing couple and continues on the journey to the west with his companions.


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: The first part grossed HK$25,093,380 and the second HK$20,872,117 in Hong Kong. The second part has grossed on its 2017 release in mainland China.


title: A Chinese Odyssey

text: "The Austin Chronicle" gave "Part Two" a positive review saying that "If you missed the original film - forget it, you'll never understand what's happening in this picture, but if you saw and enjoyed the first part, you'll no doubt have a great time with this terrific follow-up."


title: Chris Broussard

text: Christopher Dana Broussard (born October 28, 1968) is an American sports analyst and commentator for Fox Sports 1 and Fox Sports Radio. Best known for his coverage of the NBA, he is now a co-host on FS1's morning show "First Things First", as well as co-host of "The Odd Couple" with Rob Parker on Fox Sports Radio. Previously, he worked for "The New York Times", "ESPN The Magazine" and ESPN.com, and made appearances on ESPN's "SportsCenter", "NBA Countdown", "First Take", and "NBA Fastbreak" as an analyst.


title: Chris Broussard

text: Broussard was born in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and is an African-American of Louisiana Creole descent. Due to his father's job as a personnel manager for Traveler's Insurance Co., Broussard and his family moved often during his childhood. He lived in Cincinnati, Ohio; Indianapolis, Indiana; Syracuse, New York; Des Moines, Iowa; and Cleveland, Ohio, before finishing high school. In 1986, he graduated from Holy Name High School, a private school in the Cleveland suburb, Parma Heights, Ohio. A standout football and basketball player at Holy Name, Broussard was inducted into the school's Hall of Fame in 2016. He matriculated to Oberlin College, from which he graduated in May 1990 with a bachelor's degree in English. He played point guard on the Oberlin basketball team.


title: Chris Broussard

text: In 1990, Broussard began his sports writing career for "The Plain Dealer". He worked there for four years before moving to the "Akron Beacon Journal" where he started covering the NBA, spending two-and-a-half seasons with them as the Cleveland Cavaliers beat writer. Broussard then went on to work for "The New York Times" in 1998, where he covered the New Jersey Nets for two years, the New York Knicks for three years, and the NBA in general for one year. In September 2004 Broussard joined "ESPN The Magazine".


title: Chris Broussard

text: In 2004, in addition to his writing duties, Broussard began making regular appearances on ESPN as an NBA insider and analyst, and occasionally as a panelist on "First Take" debating sports topics with Skip Bayless. For the 2011–12 NBA season, Broussard was added to ABC's "NBA Countdown" pregame show as an NBA insider. He also spent three years as a sideline reporter for nationally-televised games on ESPN and ABC.


title: Chris Broussard

text: In April 2013, Broussard was criticized for comments he made on an ESPN "Outside the Lines" program about NBA player Jason Collins coming out as homosexual. Broussard had expressed his views on homosexuality and other sexual behaviors which he characterized as sins, stating "If you're openly living in unrepentant sin...I believe that's walking in open rebellion to God." He later released a statement clarifying his remarks, saying that he had merely offered his "personal opinion as it relates to Christianity," and conceded that he realizes "that some people disagree with my opinion and I accept and respect that."


title: Chris Broussard

text: In October 2016, Broussard left ESPN for Fox Sports 1. He has stated that he left ESPN because the network's offer to return would have relegated him strictly to a reporter's role. At that stage of his career, he found FS1's offer to be more of a commentator, analyst and personality more appealing. At FS1, Broussard is a regular panelist on "", "The Herd with Colin Cowherd", "First Things First", and "Lock It In". On August 30, 2021, Broussard became co-host of "First Things First", replacing former NFL wide receiver Brandon Marshall.


title: Chris Broussard

text: In 2018, Broussard became co-host of a daily national radio show called "The Odd Couple". His co-host is Rob Parker, another FS1 sports analyst. "The Odd Couple" can be heard on FOX Sports Radio and Sirius XM Channel 83.


title: Chris Broussard

text: He has been married to his wife, Crystal, since 1995. The couple has twin daughters has Alexis and Noelle.


title: Chris Broussard

text: He has spoken publicly about his evangelical faith, which he has had since 1989. (He was raised Catholic.)


title: Chris Broussard

text: In addition to his work as a sports commentator, Broussard is the Founder and President of The K.I.N.G. Movement, a national Christian men's organization that seeks to strengthen men in their Christian faith and lifestyle by providing support, accountability, teaching, fellowship and brotherhood. K.I.N.G. is an acronym that stands for Knowledge, Inspiration, and Nurture through God. It has chapters in various cities.


title: Amanda Hale

text: Hale is one of four children born to Irish immigrant parents in northwest London. Her cousin is scientist Martin Glennie. She had been due to go to Oxford University to study English but changed her mind and decided to become an actress.


title: Amanda Hale

text: Hale trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, graduating in 2005 with a BA in Acting Degree (H Level) and has performed on both stage and screen. Some of her earliest acting experience include a couple of plays at the National Youth Theatre.


title: Amanda Hale

text: At drama school, she won the Audience Prize and Best Fight Award at the 2003 RADA Prize Fights. She was also nominated for two "Evening Standard" Theatre Awards (the Milton Shulman Award for Outstanding Newcomer and Best Actress) in November 2007 for her critically acclaimed performance as Laura Wingfield in Tennessee Williams' classic play "The Glass Menagerie" at the Apollo Theatre in London.


title: Amanda Hale

text: In September 2009, Hale made her Royal National Theatre debut in "Our Class", a new play by Tadeusz Slobodzianek, and in October 2009, she appeared alongside Robbie Coltrane and Sharon Small in the new three-part ITV1 drama "Murderland". In April 2011, she appeared as Agnes Rackham in the BBC adaptation "The Crimson Petal and the White" with co-star Romola Garai. The following year, she collaborated again with Garai in the short film "Scrubber." In June 2013, she played Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII, in the BBC series "The White Queen", based on Philippa Gregory's best-selling historical novel series "The Cousins' War". In the same year, she starred as Elinor Dashwood in Helen Edmundson's BBC Radio 4 adaptation of "Sense and Sensibility".


title: Joy Harmon

text: Patricia Joy Harmon or Joy Patricia Harmon (born May 1, 1940) is an American baker and former actress.


title: Joy Harmon

text: The daughter of Homer Harmon, Joy Patricia Harmon was born in Jackson Heights, New York, or Flushing, New York. She and her family moved to Connecticut in 1946. She was a Miss Connecticut, She tied for fourth runner-up in the 1957 competition for Miss Connecticut.


title: Joy Harmon

text: When she was three years old, Harmon modeled clothes in Fox Movietone News newsreels. She skipped two grades in elementary school and graduated from Staples High School in Westport, Connecticut.


title: Joy Harmon

text: Harmon's stage debut came in "Pajama Tops" at the Klein Memorial Theatre in Bridgeport, Connecticut. She toured the United States in stock company productions, including "The Marriage-Go-Round", "The Solid Gold Cadillac", "The Tender Trap", "The Importance of Being Ernest", and "Susan Slept Here". On Broadway, Harmon portrayed Betty Phillips in "Make a Million" (1958). She also appeared in an off-Broadway production of "Susan Slept Here" (1961).


title: Joy Harmon

text: Harmon was a contestant during the last season of Groucho Marx's television program "You Bet Your Life" (titled "The Groucho Show" during its last season), and later a regular on Marx's program "Tell It to Groucho" (credited as "Patty Harmon"). She guest-starred on several 1960s TV series, including "Gidget", "Batman", and "The Monkees". She appeared in a cameo role as blonde Ardice in the Jack Lemmon comedy "Under the Yum Yum Tree" in 1963. She had a role as Tony Dow's girlfriend in the 1965–66 television soap opera "Never Too Young".


title: Joy Harmon

text: Harmon's stand-out acting roles include the 30-foot-tall (9 m) Merrie in "Village of the Giants" (1965, in which she captures normal-sized Johnny Crawford and suspends him from her bikini top), and the car-washing Lucille in "Cool Hand Luke" (1967) with her purportedly 41–22–36 measurements.


title: Joy Harmon

text: Harmon was married to film editor and producer Jeff Gourson from 1968 to 2001, raising three children. For a time, a son worked at Walt Disney Studios. She later established a bakery, Aunt Joy's Cakes, in Burbank, California.


title: Magnetic quantum number

text: In atomic physics, the magnetic quantum number () is one of the four quantum numbers (the other three being the principal, azimuthal, and spin) which describe the unique quantum state of an electron. The magnetic quantum number distinguishes the orbitals available within a subshell, and is used to calculate the azimuthal component of the orientation of orbital in space. Electrons in a particular subshell (such as s, p, d, or f) are defined by values of (0, 1, 2, or 3). The value of can range from to , including zero. Thus the s, p, d, and f subshells contain 1, 3, 5, and 7 orbitals each, with values of within the ranges 0, ±1, ±2, ±3 respectively. Each of these orbitals can accommodate up to two electrons (with opposite spins), forming the basis of the periodic table.


title: Magnetic quantum number

text: There is a set of quantum numbers associated with the energy states of the atom. The four quantum numbers formula_1, formula_2, formula_3, and formula_4 specify the complete quantum state of a single electron in an atom called its wavefunction or orbital. The Schrödinger equation for the wavefunction of an atom with one electron is a separable partial differential equation. (This is not the case for the neutral helium atom or other atoms with mutually interacting electrons, which require more sophisticated methods for solution) This means that the wavefunction as expressed in spherical coordinates can be broken down into the product of three functions of the radius, colatitude (or polar) angle, and azimuth:


title: Magnetic quantum number

text: The differential equation for formula_6 can be solved in the form formula_7. Because values of the azimuth angle formula_8 differing by 2formula_9 (360 degrees in radians) represent the same position in space, and the overall magnitude of formula_6 does not grow with arbitrarily large formula_8 as it would for a real exponent, the coefficient formula_12 must be quantized to integer multiples of formula_13, producing an imaginary exponent: formula_14. These integers are the magnetic quantum numbers. The same constant appears in the colatitude equation, where larger values of formula_15 tend to decrease the magnitude of formula_16, and values of formula_3 greater than the azimuthal quantum number formula_2 do not permit any solution for formula_16.


title: Magnetic quantum number

text: The axis used for the polar coordinates in this analysis is chosen arbitrarily. The quantum number formula_20 refers to the projection of the angular momentum in this arbitrarily-chosen direction, conventionally called the formula_21-direction or quantization axis. formula_22, the magnitude of the angular momentum in the formula_21-direction, is given by the formula:


title: Magnetic quantum number

text: This is a component of the atomic electron's total orbital angular momentum formula_25, whose magnitude is related to the azimuthal quantum number of its subshell formula_2 by the equation:


title: Magnetic quantum number

text: where formula_28 is the reduced Planck constant. Note that this formula_29 for formula_30 and approximates formula_31 for high formula_2. It is not possible to measure the angular momentum of the electron along all three axes simultaneously. These properties were first demonstrated in the Stern–Gerlach experiment, by Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach.


title: Magnetic quantum number

text: The energy of any wave is its frequency multiplied by Planck's constant. The wave displays particle-like packets of energy called quanta. The formula for the quantum number of each quantum state uses Planck's reduced constant, which only allows particular or discrete or quantized energy levels.


title: Magnetic quantum number

text: The quantum number formula_20 refers, loosely, to the direction of the angular momentum vector. The magnetic quantum number formula_20 only affects the electron's energy if it is in a magnetic field because in the absence of one, all spherical harmonics corresponding to the different arbitrary values of formula_20 are equivalent. The magnetic quantum number determines the energy shift of an atomic orbital due to an external magnetic field (the Zeeman effect) — hence the name "magnetic" quantum number. However, the actual magnetic dipole moment of an electron in an atomic orbital arises not only from the electron angular momentum but also from the electron spin, expressed in the spin quantum number.


title: Magnetic quantum number

text: Since each electron has a magnetic moment in a magnetic field, it will be subject to a torque which tends to make the vector formula_25 parallel to the field, a phenomenon known as Larmor precession.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Josiah Willard Gibbs (; February 11, 1839 – April 28, 1903) was an American scientist who made significant theoretical contributions to physics, chemistry, and mathematics. His work on the applications of thermodynamics was instrumental in transforming physical chemistry into a rigorous inductive science. Together with James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann, he created statistical mechanics (a term that he coined), explaining the laws of thermodynamics as consequences of the statistical properties of ensembles of the possible states of a physical system composed of many particles. Gibbs also worked on the application of Maxwell's equations to problems in physical optics. As a mathematician, he invented modern vector calculus (independently of the British scientist Oliver Heaviside, who carried out similar work during the same period).


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: In 1863, Yale awarded Gibbs the first American doctorate in engineering. After a three-year sojourn in Europe, Gibbs spent the rest of his career at Yale, where he was a professor of mathematical physics from 1871 until his death in 1903. Working in relative isolation, he became the earliest theoretical scientist in the United States to earn an international reputation and was praised by Albert Einstein as "the greatest mind in American history." In 1901, Gibbs received what was then considered the highest honor awarded by the international scientific community, the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London, "for his contributions to mathematical physics."


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Commentators and biographers have remarked on the contrast between Gibbs's quiet, solitary life in turn of the century New England and the great international impact of his ideas. Though his work was almost entirely theoretical, the practical value of Gibbs's contributions became evident with the development of industrial chemistry during the first half of the 20th century. According to Robert A. Millikan, in pure science, Gibbs "did for statistical mechanics and thermodynamics what Laplace did for celestial mechanics and Maxwell did for electrodynamics, namely, made his field a well-nigh finished theoretical structure."


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs was born in New Haven, Connecticut. He belonged to an old Yankee family that had produced distinguished American clergymen and academics since the 17th century. He was the fourth of five children and the only son of Josiah Willard Gibbs Sr., and his wife Mary Anna, "née" Van Cleve. On his father's side, he was descended from Samuel Willard, who served as acting President of Harvard College from 1701 to 1707. On his mother's side, one of his ancestors was the Rev. Jonathan Dickinson, the first president of the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University). Gibbs's given name, which he shared with his father and several other members of his extended family, derived from his ancestor Josiah Willard, who had been Secretary of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the 18th century. His paternal grandmother, Mercy (Prescott) Gibbs, was the sister of Rebecca Minot Prescott Sherman, the wife of American founding father Roger Sherman; and he was the second cousin of Roger Sherman Baldwin, see the Amistad case below.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: The elder Gibbs was generally known to his family and colleagues as "Josiah", while the son was called "Willard". Josiah Gibbs was a linguist and theologian who served as professor of sacred literature at Yale Divinity School from 1824 until his death in 1861. He is chiefly remembered today as the abolitionist who found an interpreter for the African passengers of the ship "Amistad", allowing them to testify during the trial that followed their rebellion against being sold as slaves.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Willard Gibbs was educated at the Hopkins School and entered Yale College in 1854 at the age of 15. At Yale, Gibbs received prizes for excellence in mathematics and Latin, and he graduated in 1858, near the top of his class. He remained at Yale as a graduate student at the Sheffield Scientific School. At age 19, soon after his graduation from college, Gibbs was inducted into the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, a scholarly institution composed primarily of members of the Yale faculty.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Relatively few documents from the period survive and it is difficult to reconstruct the details of Gibbs's early career with precision. In the opinion of biographers, Gibbs's principal mentor and champion, both at Yale and in the Connecticut Academy, was probably the astronomer and mathematician Hubert Anson Newton, a leading authority on meteors, who remained Gibbs's lifelong friend and confidant. After the death of his father in 1861, Gibbs inherited enough money to make him financially independent.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Recurrent pulmonary trouble ailed the young Gibbs and his physicians were concerned that he might be susceptible to tuberculosis, which had killed his mother. He also suffered from astigmatism, whose treatment was then still largely unfamiliar to oculists, so that Gibbs had to diagnose himself and grind his own lenses. Though in later years he used glasses only for reading or other close work, Gibbs's delicate health and imperfect eyesight probably explain why he did not volunteer to fight in the Civil War of 1861–65. He was not conscripted and he remained at Yale for the duration of the war.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: In 1863, Gibbs received the first Doctorate of Philosophy (PhD) in engineering granted in the US, for a thesis entitled "On the Form of the Teeth of Wheels in Spur Gearing", in which he used geometrical techniques to investigate the optimum design for gears. In 1861, Yale had become the first US university to offer a PhD degree and Gibbs's was only the fifth PhD granted in the US in any subject.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: After graduation, Gibbs was appointed as tutor at the college for a term of three years. During the first two years, he taught Latin and during the third year, he taught "natural philosophy" (i.e., physics). In 1866, he patented a design for a railway brake and read a paper before the Connecticut Academy, entitled "The Proper Magnitude of the Units of Length", in which he proposed a scheme for rationalizing the system of units of measurement used in mechanics.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: After his term as tutor ended, Gibbs traveled to Europe with his sisters. They spent the winter of 1866–67 in Paris, where Gibbs attended lectures at the Sorbonne and the Collège de France, given by such distinguished mathematical scientists as Joseph Liouville and Michel Chasles. Having undertaken a punishing regimen of study, Gibbs caught a serious cold and a doctor, fearing tuberculosis, advised him to rest on the Riviera, where he and his sisters spent several months and where he made a full recovery.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Moving to Berlin, Gibbs attended the lectures taught by mathematicians Karl Weierstrass and Leopold Kronecker, as well as by chemist Heinrich Gustav Magnus. In August 1867, Gibbs's sister Julia was married in Berlin to Addison Van Name, who had been Gibbs's classmate at Yale. The newly married couple returned to New Haven, leaving Gibbs and his sister Anna in Germany. In Heidelberg, Gibbs was exposed to the work of physicists Gustav Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz, and chemist Robert Bunsen. At the time, German academics were the leading authorities in the natural sciences, especially chemistry and thermodynamics.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs returned to Yale in June 1869 and briefly taught French to engineering students. It was probably also around this time that he worked on a new design for a steam-engine governor, his last significant investigation in mechanical engineering. In 1871, he was appointed Professor of Mathematical Physics at Yale, the first such professorship in the United States. Gibbs, who had independent means and had yet to publish anything, was assigned to teach graduate students exclusively and was hired without salary.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs published his first work in 1873. His papers on the geometric representation of thermodynamic quantities appeared in the "Transactions of the Connecticut Academy". These papers introduced the use of different type phase diagrams, which were his favorite aids to the imagination process when doing research, rather than the mechanical models, such as the ones that Maxwell used in constructing his electromagnetic theory, which might not completely represent their corresponding phenomena. Although the journal had few readers capable of understanding Gibbs's work, he shared reprints with correspondents in Europe and received an enthusiastic response from James Clerk Maxwell at Cambridge. Maxwell even made, with his own hands, a clay model illustrating Gibbs's construct. He then produced two plaster casts of his model and mailed one to Gibbs. That cast is on display at the Yale physics department.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Maxwell included a chapter on Gibbs's work in the next edition of his "Theory of Heat", published in 1875. He explained the usefulness of Gibbs's graphical methods in a lecture to the Chemical Society of London and even referred to it in the article on "Diagrams" that he wrote for the "Encyclopædia Britannica". Prospects of collaboration between him and Gibbs were cut short by Maxwell's early death in 1879, aged 48. The joke later circulated in New Haven that "only one man lived who could understand Gibbs's papers. That was Maxwell, and now he is dead."


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs then extended his thermodynamic analysis to multi-phase chemical systems (i.e., to systems composed of more than one form of matter) and considered a variety of concrete applications. He described that research in a monograph titled "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances", published by the Connecticut Academy in two parts that appeared respectively in 1875 and 1878. That work, which covers about three hundred pages and contains exactly seven hundred numbered mathematical equations, begins with a quotation from Rudolf Clausius that expresses what would later be called the first and second laws of thermodynamics: "The energy of the world is constant. The entropy of the world tends towards a maximum."


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs's monograph rigorously and ingeniously applied his thermodynamic techniques to the interpretation of physico-chemical phenomena, explaining and relating what had previously been a mass of isolated facts and observations. The work has been described as "the "Principia" of thermodynamics" and as a work of "practically unlimited scope". It solidly laid the foundation for physical Chemistry. Wilhelm Ostwald, who translated Gibbs's monograph into German, referred to Gibbs as the "founder of chemical energetics". According to modern commentators,


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs continued to work without pay until 1880, when the new Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland offered him a position paying $3,000 per year. In response, Yale offered him an annual salary of $2,000, which he was content to accept.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: From 1880 to 1884, Gibbs worked on developing the exterior algebra of Hermann Grassmann into a vector calculus well-suited to the needs of physicists. With this object in mind, Gibbs distinguished between the dot and cross products of two vectors and introduced the concept of dyadics. Similar work was carried out independently, and at around the same time, by the British mathematical physicist and engineer Oliver Heaviside. Gibbs sought to convince other physicists of the convenience of the vectorial approach over the quaternionic calculus of William Rowan Hamilton, which was then widely used by British scientists. This led him, in the early 1890s, to a controversy with Peter Guthrie Tait and others in the pages of "Nature".


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs's lecture notes on vector calculus were privately printed in 1881 and 1884 for the use of his students, and were later adapted by Edwin Bidwell Wilson into a textbook, "Vector Analysis", published in 1901. That book helped to popularize the "del" notation that is widely used today in electrodynamics and fluid mechanics. In other mathematical work, he re-discovered the "Gibbs phenomenon" in the theory of Fourier series (which, unbeknownst to him and to later scholars, had been described fifty years before by an obscure English mathematician, Henry Wilbraham).


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: From 1882 to 1889, Gibbs wrote five papers on physical optics, in which he investigated birefringence and other optical phenomena and defended Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light against the mechanical theories of Lord Kelvin and others. In his work on optics, just as much as in his work on thermodynamics, Gibbs deliberately avoided speculating about the microscopic structure of matter and purposefully confined his research problems to those that can be solved from broad general principles and experimentally confirmed facts. The methods that he used were highly original and the obtained results showed decisively the correctness of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs coined the term "statistical mechanics" and introduced key concepts in the corresponding mathematical description of physical systems, including the notions of chemical potential (1876), and statistical ensemble (1902). Gibbs's derivation of the laws of thermodynamics from the statistical properties of systems consisting of many particles was presented in his highly influential textbook "Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics", published in 1902, a year before his death.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs's retiring personality and intense focus on his work limited his accessibility to students. His principal protégé was Edwin Bidwell Wilson, who nonetheless explained that "except in the classroom I saw very little of Gibbs. He had a way, toward the end of the afternoon, of taking a stroll about the streets between his study in the old Sloane Laboratory and his home—a little exercise between work and dinner—and one might occasionally come across him at that time." Gibbs did supervise the doctoral thesis on mathematical economics written by Irving Fisher in 1891. After Gibbs's death, Fisher financed the publication of his "Collected Works". Another distinguished student was Lee De Forest, later a pioneer of radio technology.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs died in New Haven on April 28, 1903, at the age of 64, the victim of an acute intestinal obstruction. A funeral was conducted two days later at his home on 121 High Street, and his body was buried in the nearby Grove Street Cemetery. In May, Yale organized a memorial meeting at the Sloane Laboratory. The eminent British physicist J. J. Thomson was in attendance and delivered a brief address.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs never married, living all his life in his childhood home with his sister Julia and her husband Addison Van Name, who was the Yale librarian. Except for his customary summer vacations in the Adirondacks (at Keene Valley, New York) and later at the White Mountains (in Intervale, New Hampshire), his sojourn in Europe in 1866–69 was almost the only time that Gibbs spent outside New Haven. He joined Yale's College Church (a Congregational church) at the end of his freshman year and remained a regular attendant for the rest of his life. Gibbs generally voted for the Republican candidate in presidential elections but, like other "Mugwumps", his concern over the growing corruption associated with machine politics led him to support Grover Cleveland, a conservative Democrat, in the election of 1884. Little else is known of his religious or political views, which he mostly kept to himself.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs did not produce a substantial personal correspondence and many of his letters were later lost or destroyed. Beyond the technical writings concerning his research, he published only two other pieces: a brief obituary for Rudolf Clausius, one of the founders of the mathematical theory of thermodynamics, and a longer biographical memoir of his mentor at Yale, H. A. Newton. In Edward Bidwell Wilson's view,


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: He was a careful investor and financial manager, and at his death in 1903 his estate was valued at $100,000 (roughly $ today). For many years, he served as trustee, secretary, and treasurer of his alma mater, the Hopkins School. US President Chester A. Arthur appointed him as one of the commissioners to the National Conference of Electricians, which convened in Philadelphia in September 1884, and Gibbs presided over one of its sessions. A keen and skilled horseman, Gibbs was seen habitually in New Haven driving his sister's carriage. In an obituary published in the "American Journal of Science", Gibbs's former student Henry A. Bumstead referred to Gibbs's personal character:


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs's papers from the 1870s introduced the idea of expressing the internal energy "U" of a system in terms of the entropy "S", in addition to the usual state-variables of volume "V", pressure "p", and temperature "T". He also introduced the concept of the chemical potential formula_1 of a given chemical species, defined to be the rate of the increase in "U" associated with the increase in the number "N" of molecules of that species (at constant entropy and volume). Thus, it was Gibbs who first combined the first and second laws of thermodynamics by expressing the infinitesimal change in the internal energy, d"U", of a closed system in the form:


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: where "T" is the absolute temperature, "p" is the pressure, d"S" is an infinitesimal change in entropy and d"V" is an infinitesimal change of volume. The last term is the sum, over all the chemical species in a chemical reaction, of the chemical potential, "μ", of the "i" species, multiplied by the infinitesimal change in the number of moles, d"N" of that species. By taking the Legendre transform of this expression, he defined the concepts of enthalpy, "H" and Gibbs free energy, "G".


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: When the Gibbs free energy for a chemical reaction is negative the reaction will proceed spontaneously. When a chemical system is at equilibrium, the change in Gibbs free energy is zero. An equilibrium constant is simply related to the free energy change when the reactants are in their standard states.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: In an electrochemical reaction characterized by an electromotive force ℰ and an amount of transferred charge Q, Gibbs's starting equation becomes


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: The publication of the paper "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances" (1874–78) is now regarded as a landmark in the development of chemistry. In it, Gibbs developed a rigorous mathematical theory for various transport phenomena, including adsorption, electrochemistry, and the Marangoni effect in fluid mixtures. He also formulated the phase rule


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: for the number "F" of variables that may be independently controlled in an equilibrium mixture of "C" components existing in "P" phases. Phase rule is very useful in diverse areas, such as metallurgy, mineralogy, and petrology. It can also be applied to various research problems in physical chemistry.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Together with James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann, Gibbs founded "statistical mechanics", a term that he coined to identify the branch of theoretical physics that accounts for the observed thermodynamic properties of systems in terms of the statistics of ensembles of all possible physical states of a system composed of many particles. He introduced the concept of "phase of a mechanical system". He used the concept to define the microcanonical, canonical, and grand canonical ensembles; all related to the Gibbs measure, thus obtaining a more general formulation of the statistical properties of many-particle systems than Maxwell and Boltzmann had achieved before him.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs generalized Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of entropy formula_9 by defining the entropy of an arbitrary ensemble as


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: where formula_11 is the Boltzmann constant, while the sum is over all possible microstates formula_12, with formula_13 the corresponding probability of the microstate (see Gibbs entropy formula). This same formula would later play a central role in Claude Shannon's information theory and is therefore often seen as the basis of the modern information-theoretical interpretation of thermodynamics.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: According to Henri Poincaré, writing in 1904, even though Maxwell and Boltzmann had previously explained the irreversibility of macroscopic physical processes in probabilistic terms, "the one who has seen it most clearly, in a book too little read because it is a little difficult to read, is Gibbs, in his "Elementary Principles of Statistical Mechanics"." Gibbs's analysis of irreversibility, and his formulation of Boltzmann's H-theorem and of the ergodic hypothesis, were major influences on the mathematical physics of the 20th century.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs was well aware that the application of the equipartition theorem to large systems of classical particles failed to explain the measurements of the specific heats of both solids and gases, and he argued that this was evidence of the danger of basing thermodynamics on "hypotheses about the constitution of matter". Gibbs's own framework for statistical mechanics, based on ensembles of macroscopically indistinguishable microstates, could be carried over almost intact after the discovery that the microscopic laws of nature obey quantum rules, rather than the classical laws known to Gibbs and to his contemporaries. His resolution of the so-called "Gibbs paradox", about the entropy of the mixing of gases, is now often cited as a prefiguration of the indistinguishability of particles required by quantum physics.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: British scientists, including Maxwell, had relied on Hamilton's quaternions in order to express the dynamics of physical quantities, like the electric and magnetic fields, having both a magnitude and a direction in three-dimensional space. Following W. K. Clifford in his "Elements of Dynamic" (1888), Gibbs noted that the product of quaternions could be separated into two parts: a one-dimensional (scalar) quantity and a three-dimensional vector, so that the use of quaternions involved mathematical complications and redundancies that could be avoided in the interest of simplicity and to facilitate teaching. In his Yale classroom notes he defined distinct dot and cross products for pairs of vectors and introduced the now common notation for them. Through the 1901 textbook "Vector Analysis" prepared by E. B. Wilson from Gibbs notes, he was largely responsible for the development of the vector calculus techniques still used today in electrodynamics and fluid mechanics.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: While he was working on vector analysis in the late 1870s, Gibbs discovered that his approach was similar to the one that Grassmann had taken in his "multiple algebra". Gibbs then sought to publicize Grassmann's work, stressing that it was both more general and historically prior to Hamilton's quaternionic algebra. To establish priority of Grassmann's ideas, Gibbs convinced Grassmann's heirs to seek the publication in Germany of the essay "Theorie der Ebbe und Flut" on tides that Grassmann had submitted in 1840 to the faculty at the University of Berlin, in which he had first introduced the notion of what would later be called a vector space (linear space).


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: As Gibbs had advocated in the 1880s and 1890s, quaternions were eventually all but abandoned by physicists in favor of the vectorial approach developed by him and, independently, by Oliver Heaviside. Gibbs applied his vector methods to the determination of planetary and comet orbits. He also developed the concept of mutually reciprocal triads of vectors that later proved to be of importance in crystallography.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Though Gibbs's research on physical optics is less well known today than his other work, it made a significant contribution to classical electromagnetism by applying Maxwell's equations to the theory of optical processes such as birefringence, dispersion, and optical activity. In that work, Gibbs showed that those processes could be accounted for by Maxwell's equations without any special assumptions about the microscopic structure of matter or about the nature of the medium in which electromagnetic waves were supposed to propagate (the so-called luminiferous ether). Gibbs also stressed that the absence of a longitudinal electromagnetic wave, which is needed to account for the observed properties of light, is automatically guaranteed by Maxwell's equations (by virtue of what is now called their "gauge invariance"), whereas in mechanical theories of light, such as Lord Kelvin's, it must be imposed as an "ad hoc" condition on the properties of the aether.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Shortly afterwards, the electromagnetic nature of light was demonstrated by the experiments of Heinrich Hertz in Germany.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs worked at a time when there was little tradition of rigorous theoretical science in the United States. His research was not easily understandable to his students or his colleagues, and he made no effort to popularize his ideas or to simplify their exposition to make them more accessible. His seminal work on thermodynamics was published mostly in the "Transactions of the Connecticut Academy", a journal edited by his librarian brother-in-law, which was little read in the US and even less so in Europe. When Gibbs submitted his long paper on the equilibrium of heterogeneous substances to the academy, both Elias Loomis and H. A. Newton protested that they did not understand Gibbs's work at all, but they helped to raise the money needed to pay for the typesetting of the many mathematical symbols in the paper. Several Yale faculty members, as well as business and professional men in New Haven, contributed funds for that purpose.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Even though it had been immediately embraced by Maxwell, Gibbs's graphical formulation of the laws of thermodynamics only came into widespread use in the mid 20th century, with the work of László Tisza and Herbert Callen. According to James Gerald Crowther,


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: On the other hand, Gibbs did receive the major honors then possible for an academic scientist in the US. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1879 and received the 1880 Rumford Prize from the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for his work on chemical thermodynamics. He was also awarded honorary doctorates by Princeton University and Williams College.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: In Europe, Gibbs was inducted as honorary member of the London Mathematical Society in 1892 and elected Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1897. He was elected as corresponding member of the Prussian and French Academies of Science and received honorary doctorates from the universities of Dublin, Erlangen, and Christiania (now Oslo). The Royal Society further honored Gibbs in 1901 with the Copley Medal, then regarded as the highest international award in the natural sciences, noting that he had been "the first to apply the second law of thermodynamics to the exhaustive discussion of the relation between chemical, electrical and thermal energy and capacity for external work." Gibbs, who remained in New Haven, was represented at the award ceremony by Commander Richardson Clover, the US naval attaché in London.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: In his autobiography, mathematician Gian-Carlo Rota tells of casually browsing the mathematical stacks of Sterling Library and stumbling on a handwritten mailing list, attached to some of Gibbs's course notes, which listed over two hundred notable scientists of his day, including Poincaré, Boltzmann, David Hilbert, and Ernst Mach. From this, Rota concluded that Gibbs's work was better known among the scientific elite of his day than the published material suggests. Lynde Wheeler reproduces that mailing list in an appendix to his biography of Gibbs. That Gibbs succeeded in interesting his European correspondents in his work is demonstrated by the fact that his monograph "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances" was translated into German (then the leading language for chemistry) by Wilhelm Ostwald in 1892 and into French by Henri Louis Le Châtelier in 1899.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs's most immediate and obvious influence was on physical chemistry and statistical mechanics, two disciplines which he greatly helped to found. During Gibbs's lifetime, his phase rule was experimentally validated by Dutch chemist H. W. Bakhuis Roozeboom, who showed how to apply it in a variety of situations, thereby assuring it of widespread use. In industrial chemistry, Gibbs's thermodynamics found many applications during the early 20th century, from electrochemistry to the development of the Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: When Dutch physicist J. D. van der Waals received the 1910 Nobel Prize "for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids" he acknowledged the great influence of Gibbs's work on that subject. Max Planck received the 1918 Nobel Prize for his work on quantum mechanics, particularly his 1900 paper on Planck's law for quantized black-body radiation. That work was based largely on the thermodynamics of Kirchhoff, Boltzmann, and Gibbs. Planck declared that Gibbs's name "not only in America but in the whole world will ever be reckoned among the most renowned theoretical physicists of all times."


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: The first half of the 20th century saw the publication of two influential textbooks that soon came to be regarded as founding documents of chemical thermodynamics, both of which used and extended Gibbs's work in that field: these were "Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Processes" (1923), by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall, and "Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs" (1933), by Edward A. Guggenheim.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs's work on statistical ensembles, as presented in his 1902 textbook, has had a great impact in both theoretical physics and in pure mathematics. According to mathematical physicist Arthur Wightman,


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Initially unaware of Gibbs's contributions in that field, Albert Einstein wrote three papers on statistical mechanics, published between 1902 and 1904. After reading Gibbs's textbook (which was translated into German by Ernst Zermelo in 1905), Einstein declared that Gibbs's treatment was superior to his own and explained that he would not have written those papers if he had known Gibbs's work.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs's early papers on the use of graphical methods in thermodynamics reflect a powerfully original understanding of what mathematicians would later call "convex analysis", including ideas that, according to Barry Simon, "lay dormant for about seventy-five years". Important mathematical concepts based on Gibbs's work on thermodynamics and statistical mechanics include the Gibbs lemma in game theory, the Gibbs inequality in information theory, as well as Gibbs sampling in computational statistics.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: The development of vector calculus was Gibbs's other great contribution to mathematics. The publication in 1901 of E. B. Wilson's textbook "Vector Analysis", based on Gibbs's lectures at Yale, did much to propagate the use of vectorial methods and notation in both mathematics and theoretical physics, definitively displacing the quaternions that had until then been dominant in the scientific literature.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: At Yale, Gibbs was also mentor to Lee De Forest, who went on to invent the triode amplifier and has been called the "father of radio". De Forest credited Gibbs's influence for the realization "that the leaders in electrical development would be those who pursued the higher theory of waves and oscillations and the transmission by these means of intelligence and power." Another student of Gibbs who played a significant role in the development of radio technology was Lynde Wheeler.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs also had an indirect influence on mathematical economics. He supervised the thesis of Irving Fisher, who received the first PhD in economics from Yale in 1891. In that work, published in 1892 as "Mathematical Investigations in the Theory of Value and Prices", Fisher drew a direct analogy between Gibbsian equilibrium in physical and chemical systems, and the general equilibrium of markets, and he used Gibbs's vectorial notation. Gibbs's protégé Edwin Bidwell Wilson became, in turn, a mentor to leading American economist and Nobel Laureate Paul Samuelson. In 1947, Samuelson published "Foundations of Economic Analysis", based on his doctoral dissertation, in which he used as epigraph a remark attributed to Gibbs: "Mathematics is a language." Samuelson later explained that in his understanding of prices his "debts were not primarily to Pareto or Slutsky, but to the great thermodynamicist, Willard Gibbs of Yale."


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Mathematician Norbert Wiener cited Gibbs's use of probability in the formulation of statistical mechanics as "the first great revolution of twentieth century physics" and as a major influence on his conception of cybernetics. Wiener explained in the preface to his book "The Human Use of Human Beings" that it was "devoted to the impact of the Gibbsian point of view on modern life, both through the substantive changes it has made to working science, and through the changes it has made indirectly in our attitude to life in general."


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: When the German physical chemist Walther Nernst visited Yale in 1906 to give the Silliman lecture, he was surprised to find no tangible memorial for Gibbs. Nernst donated his $500 lecture fee to the university to help pay for a suitable monument. This was finally unveiled in 1912, in the form of a bronze bas-relief by sculptor Lee Lawrie, installed in the Sloane Physics Laboratory. In 1910, the American Chemical Society established the Willard Gibbs Award for eminent work in pure or applied chemistry. In 1923, the American Mathematical Society endowed the Josiah Willard Gibbs Lectureship, "to show the public some idea of the aspects of mathematics and its applications".


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: In 1945, Yale University created the J. Willard Gibbs Professorship in Theoretical Chemistry, held until 1973 by Lars Onsager. Onsager, who much like Gibbs, focused on applying new mathematical ideas to problems in physical chemistry, won the 1968 Nobel Prize in chemistry. In addition to establishing the Josiah Willard Gibbs Laboratories and the J. Willard Gibbs Assistant Professorship in Mathematics, Yale has also hosted two symposia dedicated to Gibbs's life and work, one in 1989 and another on the centenary of his death, in 2003. Rutgers University endowed a J. Willard Gibbs Professorship of Thermomechanics, held as of 2014 by Bernard Coleman.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs was elected in 1950 to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans. The oceanographic research ship USNS "Josiah Willard Gibbs" (T-AGOR-1) was in service with the United States Navy from 1958 to 1971. Gibbs crater, near the eastern limb of the Moon, was named in the scientist's honor in 1964.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Edward Guggenheim introduced the symbol "G" for the Gibbs free energy in 1933, and this was used also by Dirk ter Haar in 1966. This notation is now universal and is recommended by the IUPAC. In 1960, William Giauque and others suggested the name "gibbs" (abbreviated gbs.) for the unit of entropy calorie per kelvin, but this usage did not become common, and the corresponding SI unit joule per kelvin carries no special name.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: In 1954, a year before his death, Albert Einstein was asked by an interviewer who were the greatest thinkers that he had known. Einstein replied: "Lorentz", adding "I never met Willard Gibbs; perhaps, had I done so, I might have placed him beside Lorentz." Author Bill Bryson in his bestselling popular science book "A Short History of Nearly Everything" ranks Gibbs as "perhaps the most brilliant person that most people have never heard of".


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: In 1958, USS "San Carlos" was renamed USNS "Josiah Willard Gibbs" and re-designated as an oceanographic research ship.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: In 1909, the American historian and novelist Henry Adams finished an essay entitled "The Rule of Phase Applied to History", in which he sought to apply Gibbs's phase rule and other thermodynamic concepts to a general theory of human history. William James, Henry Bumstead, and others criticized both Adams's tenuous grasp of the scientific concepts that he invoked, as well as the arbitrariness of his application of those concepts as metaphors for the evolution of human thought and society. The essay remained unpublished until it appeared posthumously in 1919, in "The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma", edited by Henry Adams's younger brother Brooks.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: In the 1930s, feminist poet Muriel Rukeyser became fascinated by Willard Gibbs and wrote a long poem about his life and work ("Gibbs", included in the collection "A Turning Wind", published in 1939), as well as a book-length biography ("Willard Gibbs", 1942). According to Rukeyser:


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: In 1946, "Fortune" magazine illustrated a cover story on "Fundamental Science" with a representation of the thermodynamic surface that Maxwell had built based on Gibbs's proposal. Rukeyser called this surface a "statue of water" and the magazine saw in it "the abstract creation of a great American scientist that lends itself to the symbolism of contemporary art forms." The artwork by Arthur Lidov also included Gibbs's mathematical expression of the phase rule for heterogeneous mixtures, as well as a radar screen, an oscilloscope waveform, Newton's apple, and a small rendition of a three-dimensional phase diagram.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Gibbs's nephew, Ralph Gibbs Van Name, a professor of physical chemistry at Yale, was unhappy with Rukeyser's biography, in part because of her lack of scientific training. Van Name had withheld the family papers from her and, after her book was published in 1942 to positive literary but mixed scientific reviews, he tried to encourage Gibbs's former students to produce a more technically oriented biography. Rukeyser's approach to Gibbs was also sharply criticized by Gibbs's former student and protégé Edwin Wilson. With Van Name's and Wilson's encouragement, physicist Lynde Wheeler published a new biography of Gibbs in 1951.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Both Gibbs and Rukeyser's biography of him figure prominently in the poetry collection "True North" (1997) by Stephanie Strickland. In fiction, Gibbs appears as the mentor to character Kit Traverse in Thomas Pynchon's novel "Against the Day" (2006). That novel also prominently discusses the birefringence of Iceland spar, an optical phenomenon that Gibbs investigated.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: In 2005, the United States Postal Service issued the "American Scientists" commemorative postage stamp series designed by artist Victor Stabin, depicting Gibbs, John von Neumann, Barbara McClintock, and Richard Feynman. The first day of issue ceremony for the series was held on May 4 at Yale University's Luce Hall and was attended by John Marburger, scientific advisor to the president of the United States, Rick Levin, president of Yale, and family members of the scientists honored, including physician John W. Gibbs, a distant cousin of Willard Gibbs.


title: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: Kenneth R. Jolls, a professor of chemical engineering at Iowa State University and an expert on graphical methods in thermodynamics, consulted on the design of the stamp honoring Gibbs. The stamp identifies Gibbs as a "thermodynamicist" and features a diagram from the 4th edition of Maxwell's "Theory of Heat", published in 1875, which illustrates Gibbs's thermodynamic surface for water. Microprinting on the collar of Gibbs's portrait depicts his original mathematical equation for the change in the energy of a substance in terms of its entropy and the other state variables.


title: Goblin Slayer (season 2)

text: "Goblin Slayer" is an anime series adapted from the light novels of the same title written by Kumo Kagyu and illustrated by Noboru Kannatuki. On January 31, 2021, a second season of the anime TV series was announced at GA FES 2021.


title: Zamfara State

text: Zamfara (Hausa: Jihar Zamfara Fula: Leydi Zamfara 𞤤𞤫𞤴𞤣𞤭 𞤶𞤢𞤥𞤬𞤢𞤪𞤢) is a state in northwestern Nigeria. The capital of Zamfara state is Gusau and its current Governor is Bello Matawalle. Until 1996, the area was part of Sokoto State.


title: Zamfara State

text: Zamfara is a densely populated area with the Hausa and Fulani peoples. The Zamfarawa mainly in Anka, Gummi, Bukkuyum and Talata Mafara Local Governments areas. Gobirawa populated Shinkafi Local Government. Gobirawa actually migrated from the Gobir Kingdom. Burmawa are found in Bakura and Fulani peopled Bungudu, Maradun, Gusau and are scattered all over the State. In Chafe, Bungudu and Maru, most are mainly Katsinawa, Garewatawa and Hadejawa. While, Alibawa people are located at Kaura Namoda and Zurmi, the Alawan Shehu Usmanu Fulani's are found in Birninmagaji.


title: Zamfara State

text: It is bordered to the north by the Republic of the Niger, to the south by Kaduna State, to the east by Katsina State, and to the west by the states of Sokoto, Kebbi and Niger. It has a population of 9,278,873 according to the 2006 census and contains fourteen local government areas.


title: Zamfara State

text: The people of Zamfara have over the years struggled for autonomy, but it was not until 1996 that the then military administration of the late General Sani Abacha detached the Zamfara State from Sokoto State with an area of 38,418 square kilometres. The first Governor was Jibril Yakubu.


title: Zamfara State

text: The area today called Zamfara state was one of the old states like Kano, Katsina, Gobir, Kabi and Zazzau. The earliest inhabitants of Zamfara were said to have been hunters and giants. They established their first settlement at Dutsi, which was the first capital of Zamfara. It extends up to the bend of River Rima to the north west and River Ka in the south west. Zamfara Kingdom was established in the 11th century and flourished up to 16th century as a city-state. Its capital has shifted with the fortunes of the kingdom from place to place like Dutsi and Birnin Zamfara.


title: Zamfara State

text: In the first half of the 18th century, its then capital Birnin Zamfara, was destroyed by the Gobir Kingdom and a new capital was established in Anka by the second half of the 19th century. Zamfara had many centers of commerce and scholarship that attracted many scholars like the Yandoto city. It became part of the Sokoto Caliphate after the 1804 jihad by Usman dan Fodio. In fact, Usman Danfodiyo settled in Sabon Gari where Sarkin Zamfara Abarshi had already established a garrison headquarters during the early days of his Jihad as a base from where fought Gobir and Kabi.


title: Zamfara State

text: At the wake of British colonialism, the emerging town of Gusau became an important commercial and administrative center with road and rail networks passing through it. With the creation of states during the Gowon Administration, Zamfara Kingdom became part of the then North West state and later the Sokoto State.


title: Zamfara State

text: The climate condition of Zamfara is tropical with temperatures rising up to and above between March and May. Rainy season starts in late May to September while the mild season known as Harmattan lasts from December to April. The hottest months in Zamfara are March and April that is just before the first rains. the onset of the rains bring a cooling effect with temperature dropping.


title: Zamfara State

text: Zamfara State is mainly populated by Hausa and Fulani people, with some members of Gwari, Kamuku, Kambari, Dukawa, Bussawa and Zabarma ethnic communities. Others include the Igbo, Yoruba, Kanuri, Nupe and Tiv.


title: Zamfara State

text: The state capital is an important commercial center with a heterogeneous population of people from all over Nigeria. As in all major towns in Nigeria, all the major towns in Zamfara have a large population of other peoples from different parts of Nigeria.


title: Zamfara State

text: Hausa is the official language of the state. Other main languages spoken in Zamfara are English, French, Fulfulde, Arabic; minority populations also speak languages like: Yoruba and Igbo.


title: Zamfara State

text: The Kainji languages C'Lela and Gwamhi-Wuri are spoken in Gummi LGA. Ut-Ma'in is also spoken in the state and in Kebbe, Sokoto State and in Fakai, Kebbi State.


title: Zamfara State

text: Agriculture and gold mining are the state's main occupations and the central source of income. Irrigation is required for cereals and legumes, hence the slogan "farming is our pride".


title: Zamfara State

text: Over 80 percent of the population is engaged in agriculture. Major products include millet, guinea corn, maize, rice, groundnut, cotton, tobacco and beans. The State is known as farming is our pride because Agriculture provides foodstuff, raw materials and employment opportunities to young people in the State.


title: Zamfara State

text: In 2009, gold mining became a greater source of income in Zamfara State as worldwide gold prices rose dramatically. High concentrations of lead in the ore from which gold was being extracted led to a lead poisoning outbreak in the state, requiring national and international intervention to remediate affected areas and provide medical care to children with severe lead poisoning.


title: Zamfara State

text: On 26 February 2021, 279 girls were abducted from their boarding school located in Jangebe, Zamfara during the Zamfara kidnapping. They have since been released.


title: Zamfara State

text: Islam is the principal and major religion of the state. Christianity also has many adherents. The original native religions also remain but they have the fewest followers. These religions are mainly practiced in ancient settlements like Dutsi and Kwatarkwashi. Zamfara was the first state in Nigeria to introduce Sharia law during the tenure of Ahmad Sani Yerima, the former Governor of the state.


title: Zamfara State

text: Zamfara State holds some number of tourist attractions which are of historical or religious importance. These include Jata, an ancient settlement of Zamfara located around the hill with a large cave around where traditional practices were performed.


title: Rothko Chapel

text: The Rothko Chapel is a non-denominational chapel in Houston, Texas, founded by John and Dominique de Menil. The interior serves not only as a chapel, but also as a major work of modern art: on its walls are fourteen paintings by Mark Rothko in varying hues of black. The shape of the building—an octagon inscribed in a Greek cross—and the design of the chapel were largely influenced by the artist. The chapel sits two miles southwest of downtown in the Montrose neighborhood, situated between the building housing the Menil Collection and the Chapel of Saint Basil on the campus of the University of Saint Thomas. About 110,000 people visit the chapel each year.


title: Rothko Chapel

text: Susan J. Barnes states "The Rothko Chapel...became the world's first broadly ecumenical center, a holy place open to all religions and belonging to none. It became a center for international cultural, religious, and philosophical exchanges, for colloquia and performances. And it became a place of private prayer for individuals of all faiths"


title: Rothko Chapel

text: In 1964 Rothko was commissioned by John and Dominique de Menil (also founders of the nearby Menil Collection) to create a meditative space filled with his paintings. The works are site-specific, one of the requirements of the program. As Rothko was given creative license on the design of the structure, he clashed with the project's original architect, Philip Johnson over the plans for the chapel. The plans went through several revisions and architects. Rothko continued to work first with Howard Barnstone and then with Eugene Aubry, but ultimately he did not live to see the chapel's completion in 1971. After a long struggle with depression, Rothko died by suicide in his New York studio on February 25, 1970.


title: Rothko Chapel

text: From 1973 onward, the Rothko Chapel doubled as a center for colloquiums aimed at fostering mutual understanding on issues affecting justice and freedom throughout the world. The first colloquium drew scholars from Lebanon, Iran, India, Pakistan, Nigeria, Japan, Italy, the United States and Canada. In 1981, it initiated “The Rothko Chapel Awards to Commitment to Truth and Freedom." In 1986, a second award was established to honor and emulate the spirit of Óscar Romero, Archbishop of San Salvador, who was murdered on March 24, 1980. These Rothko Chapel Awards have recognized individuals and organizations who, at great risk, denounce violations of human rights. In 1991 the Rothko Chapel marked its 20th anniversary with a joint award with the Carter-Menil Human Rights Foundation, founded in 1986 with former President Jimmy Carter. Nelson Mandela was the keynote speaker and received the special Rothko Chapel award.


title: Rothko Chapel

text: In early 1999, the Rothko Chapel closed for a major renovation. The paintings had been exhibiting premature signs of age, and the largest could not be removed for treatment. In 2000, the chapel reopened after an 18-month, $1.8 million renovation, with the artist's paintings newly restored. For its fiftieth anniversary in 2021, the Rothko Chapel underwent $30 million in restoration to hew nearer the original plan. The 2019-2021 work removed the baffled skylight in favor of a new louvered skylight designed by George Sexton Associates; re-landscaped nearby lawns and fencing; removed glass doors; and added a new visitor's center designed by Architecture Research Office.


title: Rothko Chapel

text: The chapel is an irregular octagonal brick building with gray or rose stucco walls and a skylight. It serves as a place of meditation as well as a meeting hall and is furnished with eight simple, moveable benches for meditative seating; more are provided to accommodate the audience for special events. Holy books from several religions are available.


title: Rothko Chapel

text: As renovated in 2020 by Architecture Research Office and George Sexton Associates, the louvered skylight diffuser consists of 280 reflective aluminum blades that are individually angled and spaced to ensure an even distribution of light onto the paintings along the perimeter walls.


title: Rothko Chapel

text: The chapel is associated with several works of art other than the building itself, in the fields of painting, sculpture, and music.