title: Trey Wilson

text: Released after his death, Wilson's final film was "Great Balls of Fire!", the biopic of Jerry Lee Lewis, where he played American record producer Sam Phillips. He had been cast in the Coen brothers' film "Miller's Crossing" at the time of his death, and was replaced by Albert Finney.


title: Andika Perkasa

text: General Muhammad Andika Perkasa (born Fransiskus Xaverius Emanuel Andika Perkasa; 21 December 1964) is an Indonesian general who previously served as the 21st Commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces (). He was appointed by President of Indonesia Joko Widodo in November 2021, replacing the retiring ACM Hadi Tjahjanto.


title: Andika Perkasa

text: Upon passing out from the Military Academy in 1987, he began his career in the Infantry and was first commissioned to the 2nd Group Para Commandos, Army Special Forces Command in 1987. He then continued his studies in the United States for eight years. He became the Commander of the Presidential Security Force by 2014 and saw rapid rise through his career, holding important and strategic positions and being promoted from a one-star brigadier general to a four-star general just within five years.


title: Andika Perkasa

text: He is married to Diah Erwiany, who is the daughter of the then Indonesian State Intelligence Agency chief, Hendropriyono.


title: Andika Perkasa

text: Perkasa graduated from the Indonesian Military Academy in 1987 (Class 1987), and was commissioned to the Army Special Forces (Kopassus) as a platoon commander. He spent most of his early career as a junior officer in the army special forces for fifteen years, eventually later becoming a lieutenant colonel and a battalion commander in the unit by 2002. During his career in the army special forces, at the rank of Major in 2000–2001, he was temporarily assigned at the Department of Defence as an analyst at the Directorate of Defence Strategy Policy, then eventually assigned back to the Army special forces clandestine unit in 2002 as the Commander of Battalion 32, Group 3 "Sandi Yudha" after being promoted to lieutenant colonel.


title: Andika Perkasa

text: After serving as battalion commander in the Army special forces, he then was transferred to the territorial Army in 2002, where he became the Head section officer for Intelligence in the 051 "Wijayakarta" Military Area Command (Korem) under the Greater Jakarta Regional Command in 2002. Less than a year later, he was assigned to the Strategic Intelligence Agency (BAIS TNI). During his career in the Army special forces (Kopassus), Perkasa participated in various operations such as in East Timor (1992), Aceh (1994) and Papua, and was also involved in the 2002 capture of Al-Qaeda member Omar al-Faruq in Bogor.


title: Andika Perkasa

text: Between 2003 and 2011, as a middle-ranking officer, Perkasa went to the United States where he received military education at the National War College and Norwich University, and also studied for a master's degree at Harvard University in addition to a doctorate at George Washington University. After returning to Indonesia, he was promoted as Colonel and was appointed as the Commander of the Kodam Jaya Regional Training Regiment in 2011, and then in 2012 he was appointed as Commander of the 023 "Kawal Samudera" Military Area Command (Korem) under the 1st (I) "Bukit Barisan" Regional Command in North Sumatera.


title: Andika Perkasa

text: By 2013, he was promoted to Brigadier general and was appointed as the Head of the Army Public Relations office. Several days after the inauguration of President Joko Widodo, Perkasa was appointed as the commander of the Presidential Security Force and was promoted to Major general. By 2016, he was appointed as the commander of the 12th (XII) "Tanjungpura" Regional Command and in early 2018 he was promoted to Lieutenant general and was appointed as the Head of the Indonesian Army Doctrine, Education and Training Development Command. In July 2018, Perkasa was appointed as the Commander of the Army Strategic Command (Kostrad).


title: Andika Perkasa

text: On 22 November 2018, Perkasa was promoted to a four-star general, before being appointed and sworn in as the Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Army. Perkasa was one of the four candidates proposed by Commander of the National Armed Forces Hadi Tjahjanto to replace the retiring General Mulyono.


title: Andika Perkasa

text: As of 5 November 2021, Perkasa was the single candidate to replace the retiring ACM Hadi Tjahjanto by the President of Indonesia to the People's Representative Council. On 17 November 2021, Perkasa was officially promoted and assigned as Commander of the National Armed Forces by the President of Indonesia.


title: Andika Perkasa

text: On 30 March 2022, Perkasa lifted the ban on descendants of the Communist Party of Indonesia from joining the military, calling that the ban had "no legal basis".


title: Slush fund

text: A slush fund is a fund or account that is not properly accounted, such as money used for corrupt or illegal purposes, especially in the political sphere. Such funds may be kept hidden and maintained separately from money that is used for legitimate purposes. Slush funds may be employed by government or corporate officials in efforts to pay influential people discreetly in return for preferential treatment, advance information (such as non-public information in financial transactions), and other services. The funds themselves may not be kept secret but the source of the funds or how they were acquired or for what purposes they are used may be hidden. Use of slush funds to influence government activities may be viewed as subversive of the democratic process.


title: Slush fund

text: In accounting, the term "slush fund" describes a general ledger account of commingled funds to which all manner of transactions can be posted, with debits and credits cancelling each other.


title: Slush fund

text: Richard Nixon's "Checkers speech" of 1952 was a somewhat successful effort to dispel a scandal concerning a slush fund of campaign contributions. Years later, Nixon's presidential re-election campaign used slush funds to buy the silence of the "White House Plumbers".


title: Slush fund

text: The term "slush fund" was originally a nautical term: the slush was the fat or grease skimmed from the top of the cauldron when boiling salted meat. Ship officers would sell the fat to tallow makers, with the resulting proceeds kept as a "slush fund" for making small purchases for the ship's crew.


title: Ishwak Singh

text: Ishwak Singh is an Indian actor who primarily works in Hindi films and television shows. He is best known for his roles in the series "Paatal Lok" (2020) and "Rocket Boys" (2022). For the former, he received a nomination at the Filmfare OTT Awards.


title: Ishwak Singh

text: Singh was born in New Delhi, India. He studied to be an architect, and ventured into acting by joining Asmita Theatre, a theatre group in Delhi.


title: Ishwak Singh

text: Singh made his screen debut with "Raanjhanaa" (2013) in a small role. He expanded into films with brief roles in the 2015 films "Aligarh" and "Tamasha" and had a bigger role in the romantic drama "Tum Bin II" (2016). He then played a supporting role opposite Sonam Kapoor in the comedy "Veere Di Wedding" (2018). In 2019, he played the role of Aditya in Sanjay Leela Bhansali produced film "Malaal" which was directed by Mangesh Hadawale. The film starred Sharmin Segel and Meezaan Jafri in lead.


title: Ishwak Singh

text: In 2020, Singh starred as a young, idealistic cop in the Amazon Prime Video crime thriller series "Paatal Lok". Reviewing the series for "The Indian Express" , Shubhra Gupta labelled him as "impressive". Priyanka Roy of "The Telegraph" considered him to be "the find of the series". For which, he was nominated in the Filmfare OTT Awards for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series. The following year, he played a supporting role in Amazon Prime Video original film "Unpaused" (2020).


title: Ishwak Singh

text: In 2022, he portrayed Vikram Sarabhai in Sony LIV web series "Rocket Boys", which was directed by Abhay Pannu. "The Times of India" while reviewing the show, gave a rating 3.5 out of 5 and stated that Jim Sarbh and Ishwak Singh’s show is a glowing tribute to India's scientific luminaries. Further, they also said that the show is captivating from the start. Journalist Anuj Kumar of "The Hindu" mentioned that the lead actors Jim Sarbh and Ishwak Singh head a fantastic ensemble cast that gloriously brings to life the achievements of the scientific community in launching India’s atomic and space programs.


title: Ishwak Singh

text: Singh will next appear in the spy thriller film titled "Berlin", alongside Aparshakti Khurana and "Bas Karo Aunty" alongside Mahima Makwana.


title: Napoleonic era

text: The Napoleonic era is a period in the history of France and Europe. It is generally classified as including the fourth and final stage of the French Revolution, the first being the National Assembly, the second being the Legislative Assembly, and the third being the Directory. The Napoleonic era begins roughly with Napoleon Bonaparte's "coup d'état", overthrowing the Directory (9 November 1799), establishing the French Consulate, and ends during the Hundred Days and his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815). The Congress of Vienna soon set out to restore Europe to pre-French Revolution days. Napoleon brought political stability to a land torn by revolution and war. He made peace with the Roman Catholic Church and reversed the most radical religious policies of the Convention. In 1804 Napoleon promulgated the Civil Code, a revised body of civil law, which also helped stabilize French society. The Civil Code affirmed the political and legal equality of all adult men and established a merit-based society in which individuals advanced in education and employment because of talent rather than birth or social standing. The Civil Code confirmed many of the moderate revolutionary policies of the National Assembly but retracted measures passed by the more radical Convention. The code restored patriarchal authority in the family, for example, by making women and children subservient to male heads of households.


title: Napoleonic era

text: Whilst working to stabilise France, Napoleon also sought to extend his authority throughout Europe. Napoleon's armies conquered the Iberian and Italian peninsulas, occupied lands, and he forced Austria, Prussia, and Russia to ally with him and respect French hegemony in Europe. The United Kingdom refused to recognise French hegemony and continued the war throughout.


title: Napoleonic era

text: The First French Empire began to unravel in 1812, when he decided to invade Russia. Napoleon underestimated the difficulties his army would have to face whilst occupying Russia. Convinced that the Tsar was conspiring with his British enemies, Napoleon led an army of 600,000 soldiers to Moscow. He defeated the Russian army at Borodino before capturing Moscow, but the Tsar withdrew and Moscow was set ablaze, leaving Napoleon's vast army without adequate shelter or supplies. Napoleon ordered a retreat, but the bitter Russian winter and repeated Russian attacks whittled down his army, and only a battered remnant of 30,000 soldiers managed to limp back to French territory. The allies then continued a united effort against Napoleon until they had seized Paris forcing his abdication in 1814. His return to power the next year was resisted by all the allies and his army was defeated by a Prussian and Anglo-Allied force at Waterloo.


title: Leaching (chemistry)

text: Leaching is the process of a solute becoming detached or extracted from its carrier substance by way of a solvent.


title: Leaching (chemistry)

text: Leaching is a naturally occurring process which scientists have adapted for a variety of applications with a variety of methods. Specific extraction methods depend on the soluble characteristics relative to the sorbent material such as concentration, distribution, nature, and size. Leaching can occur naturally seen from plant substances (inorganic and organic), solute leaching in soil, and in the decomposition of organic materials. Leaching can also be applied affectedly to enhance water quality and contaminant removal, as well as for disposal of hazardous waste products such as fly ash, or rare earth elements (REEs). Understanding leaching characteristics is important in preventing or encouraging the leaching process and preparing for it in the case where it is inevitable.


title: Leaching (chemistry)

text: In an ideal leaching equilibrium stage, all the solute is dissolved by the solvent, leaving the carrier of the solute unchanged. The process of leaching however is not always ideal, and can be quite complex to understand and replicate, and often different methodologies will produce different results.


title: Leaching (chemistry)

text: There are many types of leaching scenarios; therefore, the extent of this topic is vast. In general, however, the three substances can be described as:


title: Leaching (chemistry)

text: Substance A and B are somewhat homogenous in a system prior to the introduction of substance C. At the beginning of the leaching process, substance C will work at dissolving the surficial substance B at a fairly high rate. The rate of dissolution will decrease substantially once it needs to penetrate through the pores of substance A in order to continue targeting substance B. This penetration can often lead to dissolution of substance A, or the product of more than one solute, both unsatisfactory if specific leaching is desired. The physiochemical and biological properties of the carrier and solute should be considered when observing the leaching process, and certain properties may be more important depending on the material, the solvent, and their availability. These specific properties can include, but are not limited to:


title: Leaching (chemistry)

text: Biological substances can experience leaching themselves, as well as be used for leaching as part of the solvent substance to recover heavy metals. Many plants experience leaching of phenolics, carbohydrates, and amino acids, and can experience as much as 30% mass loss from leaching, just from sources of water such as rain, dew, mist, and fog. These sources of water would be considered the solvent in the leaching process and can also lead to the leaching of organic nutrients from plants such as free sugars, pectic substances, and sugar alcohols. This can in turn lead to more diversity in plant species that may experience a more direct access to water. This type of leaching can often lead to the removal of an undesirable component from the solid by water, this process is called washing. A major concern for leaching of plants, is if pesticides are leached and carried through stormwater runoff,; this is not only necessary to plant health, but it is important to control because pesticides can be toxic to human and animal health.


title: Leaching (chemistry)

text: Bioleaching is a term that describes the removal of metal cations from insoluble ores by biological oxidation and complexation processes. This process is done in most part to extract copper, cobalt, nickel, zinc, and uranium from insoluble sulfides or oxides. Bioleaching processes can also be used in the re-use of fly ash by recovering aluminum using sulfuric acid.


title: Leaching (chemistry)

text: Coal fly ash is a product that experiences heavy amounts of leaching during disposal. Though the re-use of fly ash in other materials such as concrete and bricks is encouraged, still much of it in the United States is disposed of in holding ponds, lagoons, landfills, and slag heaps. These disposal sites all contain water where washing effects can cause leaching of many different major elements, depending on the type of fly ash and the location where it originated. The leaching of fly ash is only concerning if the fly ash has not been disposed of properly, such as in the case of the Kingston Fossil Plant in Roane County, Tennessee. The Tennessee Valley Authority Kingston Fossil Plant structural failure lead to massive destruction throughout the area and serious levels of contamination downstream to both Emory River and Clinch River.


title: Leaching (chemistry)

text: Leaching in soil is highly dependent on the characteristics of the soil, which makes modeling efforts difficult. Most leaching comes from infiltration of water, a washing effect much like that described for the leaching process of biological substances. The leaching is typically described by solute transport models, such as Darcy's Law, mass flow expressions, and diffusion-dispersion understandings. Leaching is controlled largely by the hydraulic conductivity of the soil, which is dependent on particle size and relative density that the soil has been consolidated to via stress. Diffusion is controlled by other factors such as pore size and soil skeleton, tortuosity of flow path, and distribution of the solvent (water) and solutes.


title: Leaching (chemistry)

text: Due to the assortment of leaching processes there are many variations in the data to be collected through laboratory methods and modeling, making it hard to interpret the data itself. Not only is the specified leaching process important, but also the focus of the experimentation itself. For instance, the focus could be directed toward mechanisms causing leaching, mineralogy as a group or individually, or the solvent that causes leaching. Most tests are done by evaluating mass loss due to a reagent, heat, or simply washing with water. A summary of various leaching processes and their respective laboratory tests can be viewed in the following table:


title: Leaching (chemistry)

text: Some recent work has been done to see if organic acids can be used to leach lithium and cobalt from spent batteries with some success. Experiments performed with varying temperatures and concentrations of malic acid show that the optimal conditions are 2.0 m/L of organic acid at a temperature of 90 °C. The reaction had an overall efficiency exceeding 90% with no harmful byproducts.


title: Leaching (chemistry)

text: The same analysis with citric acid showed similar results with an optimal temperature and concentration of 90 °C and 1.5 molar solution of citric acid.


title: Water dispenser

text: A water dispenser, known as water cooler (if used for cooling only), is a machine that dispenses and often also cools or heats up water with a refrigeration unit. It is commonly located near the restroom due to closer access to plumbing. A drain line is also provided from the water cooler into the sewer system.


title: Water dispenser

text: Water dispensers come in a variety of form factors, ranging from wall-mounted to bottle filler water dispenser combination units, to bi-level units and other formats. They are generally broken up into two categories: point-of-use (POU) water dispensers and bottled water dispensers. POU water dispensers are connected to a water supply, while bottled water dispensers require delivery (or self-pick-up) of water in large bottles from vendors. Bottled water dispensers can be top-mounted or bottom-loaded, depending on the design of the model.


title: Water dispenser

text: Bottled water dispensers typically use 11- or 22-liter (5- or 10-gallon) dispensers commonly found on top of the unit. Pressure coolers are a subcategory of water dispensers encompassing drinking water fountains and direct-piping water dispensers. Water cooler may also refer to a primitive device for keeping water cool.


title: Water dispenser

text: The wall-mounted type is connected to the building's water supply for a continuous supply of water and electricity to run a refrigeration unit to cool the incoming water, and to the building's waste disposal system to dispose of unused water. Wall-mounted water coolers are frequently used in commercial buildings like hospitals, schools, businesses, and other facilities where a facility manager is present to monitor its installation and maintenance.


title: Water dispenser

text: In the standard wall-mounted cooler, also commonly referred to as a water fountain or drinking fountain, a small tank in the machine holds chilled water so the user does not have to wait for chilled water. Water is delivered by turning or pressing a button on a spring-loaded valve located on the top of the unit, that turns off the water when released. Some devices also offer a large button on the front or side. Newer machines may not have a button at all; instead, a sensor that detects when someone is near and activates the water. Water is delivered in a stream that arches up, allowing the user to drink directly from the top of the stream of water. These devices usually dispense water directly from the municipal water supply, without treatment or filtering.


title: Water dispenser

text: Wall mount water coolers come in a wide variety of styles, from recessed models to splash resistant, contoured basins protruding out from the wall, traditional rounded square edge designs, bottle filler and water cooler combination units, bi-level designs, with other features and options. These are sometimes installed to meet local, state or federal codes.


title: Water dispenser

text: Water dispensers commonly have the water supply vessel mounted at the top of the unit. Bottom-load water dispensers have the vessel mounted at the bottom of the unit to make loading easier.


title: Water dispenser

text: There are also smaller versions of the water dispensers where the dispenser can be placed directly on top of a table. These dispensers are commonly classified as household appliances and can often be found in household kitchens and office pantries.


title: Water dispenser

text: Water dispensers can be directly connected to the in-house water source for continuous dispensing of hot and cold drinking water.


title: Water dispenser

text: It is commonly referred to as POU () water dispensers. POU units are generally more hygienic than bottled water coolers, provided the end user has access to clean water sources.


title: Water dispenser

text: A freestanding design generally involves bottles of water placed spout-down into the dispensing machine.


title: Water dispenser

text: Tabletop or kitchen worktop versions are available which utilize readily available five-liter water bottles from supermarkets. These coolers use air pumps to push the water into the cooling chamber and Peltier devices to chill the water.


title: Water dispenser

text: New development within the water cooler market is the advent of countertop appliances which are connected to the mains and provide an instant supply of not only chilled water but also hot and boiling water. This is often visible in the horeca industry.


title: Water dispenser

text: Water will flow faster when the handle is in the upright position. The water is aerated which allows the water to come through the spout at a faster rate.


title: Water dispenser

text: Water dispensed from water coolers may originate from many different sources, but are often classified into two major categories, namely natural mineral and spring water, and purified water.


title: Water dispenser

text: Natural mineral and spring water are waters emanating from underground geological rock formations collected from boreholes or emerging springs. Legislation in each respective country further differentiates between these two types of water and stipulates strict naming and labeling criteria based on natural source protection, total dissolved solids, and the amount of processing the water may undergo prior to bottling.


title: Water dispenser

text: Purified water is water from groundwater or municipal water supply and is produced by any one of several methods of purification including reverse osmosis, distillation, deionization, and filtration. The water is often treated by ultraviolet light or ozone for antimicrobial reasons and re-mineralized by injection of soluble inorganic salts.


title: Water dispenser

text: The delivery of water in a water cooler comes in two main forms, namely bottled variants, or plumbed directly from the main water supply. The water is normally pumped into a water tank to be heated or chilled, depending on the model of the water cooler. Modern versions include hybrid models that are able to utilize both methods.


title: Water dispenser

text: To install the bottle, the bottle is tipped upside down and set onto the dispenser; a probe punctures the cap of the bottle


title: Water dispenser

text: These machines come in different sizes and vary from table units, intended for occasional use to floor-mounted units intended for heavier use. Bottled water is normally delivered to households or businesses on a regular basis, where empty returnable polycarbonate bottles are exchanged for full ones. In developing markets, PET is often used for large bottles despite shrinkage and lower washing temperature will lead to making it a more challenging material to use.


title: Water dispenser

text: The bottle size varies with the size of the unit, with the larger versions in the US using bottles. This is also the most common size elsewhere, labeled as 18.9 liters in countries that use the metric system. Originally, these bottles were manufactured at 3,5 or 6 US gallon capacity (11.4, 18.9 or 22.7 liters) and supplied to rented water cooler units. These units usually do not have a place to dump excess water, only offering a small basin to catch minor spills. On the front, a lever or pushbutton dispenses the water into a cup held beneath the spigot. When the water container is empty, it is lifted off the top of the dispenser, and automatically seals to prevent any excess water still in the bottle from leaking.


title: Water dispenser

text: For many years and throughout the 20th century, glass was the main material used for bottling until the evolution of thermoplastics following World War II. PVC evolved as a multi-purpose plastic material and gained mass adoption as an ideal mass production material. Only dark green glass bottles were retained for packaging carbonated waters. The 1980s saw the re-development of PVC bottles due to cost reduction. Advances in manufacturing and materials technology such as new blow and injection molding techniques have reduced the wall thickness and weight of bottles while improving durability and increasing service life.


title: Water dispenser

text: Directly plumbed water coolers use tap water and therefore do not need bottles due to their use of the main water supply. Usually, some method of purification is used. Log reduction (e.g. 6-log reduction or 99.9999% effective) is used as a measure on the effectiveness of sanitization and disinfection.


title: Water dispenser

text: Filtration methods include reverse osmosis, ion exchange, and activated carbon. Reverse osmosis works differently from chemical or ultraviolet protection, using a membrane that has fine pores, passing HO while preventing larger molecules such as salts, carbonates, and other micro-organisms from passing through it. If there is insufficient energy to naturally force the water through the membrane, a powerful pump is required, resulting in potential high energy costs. In addition, RO units are capable of softening water. Some living micro-organisms, including viruses, are capable of passing through an RO unit filter.


title: Water dispenser

text: Deionizers or demineralizers use resins exchange to remove ions from the stream of water and are most commonly twin-bed or mixed-bed deionizers. It is often used in sterile manufacturing environments such as computer chips, where deionized water is a poor conductor of electricity.


title: Water dispenser

text: In activated carbon, raw materials such as lignite, coal, bone charcoal, coconut shells, and wood charcoal are used, developing pores during activation when partly burning away carbon layers. In most cases, activated carbon is a single-use material as regeneration is often not possible on-site. Granular activated carbon (GAC) is most commonly used in the filtration of the water cooler. Regular sanitization using hot water and steam is required to limit bacterial growth.


title: Water dispenser

text: The sanitization of water is defined by the reduction of the number of micro-organisms to a safe level. According to the AOAC suspension test method, a sanitizer should be capable of killing 99.999% of a specific bacterial test population within 30 seconds at 25°C (77°F). Sanitizers may or may not necessarily destroy pathogenic or disease-causing bacteria. The sanitizer used must comply with regulations applicable in the geographic location. In the US, sanitizers are regulated by the EPA and FDA, and must pass the AOAC test in the reduction of microbial activity of two standard test organisms ("Staphylococcus aureus" and "Escherichia coli") from a designated microbial load by a 5-log reduction.


title: Water dispenser

text: The main difference between a sanitizer and a disinfectant is that at a specific use dilution, the disinfectant must have a higher kill capability for pathogenic bacteria than that of a sanitizer. If these micro-organisms are not destroyed, the bottled water being produced may be contaminated.


title: Water dispenser

text: UVGI (ultraviolet germicidal irradiation) is a commonly used disinfection method to kill or inactivate micro-organisms and leaving them unable to perform vital cellular functions. Drawbacks to UV light water purifiers include turbidity. If the fluid is unclear, the UV light will not pass through completely, leaving the stream partially sterilized.


title: Water dispenser

text: Most modern units offer a refrigeration function to chill the water, using Vapor compression refrigeration or Thermoelectric cooling.


title: Water dispenser

text: Thermoelectric cooling is a green alternative to HFC refrigerant that uses a solid state device that acts as a heat pump to transfer heat from one side of the device to another using the Peltier effect. It is made up of numerous pairs of semiconductors enclosed by ceramic wafers. Thermoelectric coolers use direct current power rather than refrigerant gas and a compressor and have no moving parts or complex assemblies.


title: Water dispenser

text: Some versions also have a second dispenser that delivers room-temperature water or even heated water that can be used for tea, hot chocolate or other uses. The water in the alternate hot tap is generally heated with a heating element and stored in a hot tank (much like the traditional hot water heaters used in residential homes). Additionally, the hot tap is usually equipped with a push-in safety valve to prevent burns from an accidental or inadvertent pressing of the lever.


title: Water dispenser

text: Newer variants of water coolers include an additional dispenser designed to fill water bottles directly on wall-mounted units. This is increasingly common in public water coolers as they have also been spotted in public places such as airports and railway stations. These bottle filling units also can indicate the number of single-use plastic bottles saved as part of an ongoing public effort to reduce plastic pollution.


title: Water dispenser

text: Modern variants of water coolers have been equipped with options for sparkling water as a result of increasing demand for carbonated beverages and also a greater awareness to healthy living, resulting in preference for carbonated water over sweetened carbonated beverages. This works with the addition of a mixer tank filled with compressed CO located inside the cooling tank. This brings the temperature of the CO gas down to the temperature of the cooling tank. As carbonated water is dispensed, the mixer tank is automatically refilled with cold water and carbon dioxide, ensuring a continuous supply of carbonated water is readily available.


title: Water dispenser

text: All bottled water coolers need to be periodically cleaned to prevent mineral build-up inside the heating tank, also known as scaling. The frequency of the cleaning can be determined by the concentration of the minerals and the amount of water used. Descaling agents such as citric acid can be used for this cleaning process.


title: Water dispenser

text: Heating tanks will require cleaning when normal hot water flow appears to be restricted or when noisy heating cycles can be heard during operation. Additional symptoms include water coming from the cooling tank is very warm as well as a change of taste in the water resulting from mineral build-up.


title: Jo Han-chul

text: Jo Han-chul (Korean: 조한철; born June 13, 1973) is a South Korean actor. He is best known for his roles in "100 Days My Prince" (2018), "Vincenzo" (2021), "Hometown Cha-Cha-Cha" (2021), and "Jirisan" (2021).


title: Jo Han-chul

text: He graduated from the Department of Theater and Film at Cheongju University with Bachelor Degree and graduated from the Department of Acting at the Korea National University of Arts and Drama with Master Degree.


title: Jo Han-chul

text: He debuted as theater actor in 1998 in play "One Room" (). A year later he debuted in movie "Peppermint Candy" as small role.


title: Jo Han-chul

text: After two decades, his breakthrough as an actor came for his role as after-life prosecutor in a box office "". Joo wasn’t first choice choice for this work. He replaced Oh Dal-su who resigned from the movie.


title: Jo Han-chul

text: In the same year he also got his breakthrough in television drama with his role as a King in "100 Days My Prince" (Korean: 백일의 낭군님; Hanja: 百日의 郎君님; RR: Baegirui Nanggunnim; lit. Hundred-Day Husband). This 2018 historical tvN drama is the eleventh highest-rated Korean drama in cable television. He was cast as a substitute for actor Yoon Tae-young.


title: Jacob Artist

text: Jacob Artist (born October 17, 1992) is an American actor, singer, and dancer. He is best known for his roles as Jake Puckerman on the Fox musical comedy-drama series "Glee" and as Brandon Fletcher on the ABC drama-thriller series "Quantico".


title: Jacob Artist

text: Artist was born in Buffalo, New York to Darrell and Judith Artist, and grew up in Williamsville, New York. His father is African American, while his mother is of Polish descent. He has a younger sister named Jenna. He took lessons through the Community Music School in Buffalo, New York.


title: Jacob Artist

text: In 2010, Artist graduated from Williamsville South High School a semester early, and was accepted into the Juilliard School for dance. However, he turned Juilliard down to pursue an acting career.


title: Jacob Artist

text: After high school graduation, Artist moved to Los Angeles, where he appeared in an episode of "Bucket & Skinner's Epic Adventures" and in the television film "". In July 2012, he was cast in the Fox musical comedy-drama series "Glee" as Jake Puckerman, the younger half-brother of Noah "Puck" Puckerman. He began appearing in the fourth season premiere, and was upgraded to the main cast for the fifth season. At the series' conclusion in 2015, he had featured in 36 episodes.


title: Jacob Artist

text: In 2015, Artist joined the ABC drama-thriller series "Quantico", playing the role of Brandon Fletcher, an FBI recruit at the training academy in Quantico, Virginia. Artist guest starred as Todd Connors in the ninth episode of the FX horror anthology series "". He then starred alongside John Cusack and Ellar Coltrane in the thriller film "Blood Money". Artist has a recurring role in the second season of "The Arrangement" as Wes Blaker.


title: Jacob Artist

text: In 2019, Artist appeared in a recurring role as Isaac in the Starz surreal comedy series "Now Apocalypse" from pioneering New Queer Cinema filmmaker Gregg Araki. This was the third collaboration between Artist and Araki following his 2014 appearance in Araki's "White Bird in a Blizzard" as well as the 2015 short film "Here Now". He then starred alongside former "Quantico" co-star Johanna Braddy in the 2020 coming-of-age comedy "The Get Together".


title: Human torpedo

text: Human torpedoes or manned torpedoes are a type of diver propulsion vehicle on which the diver rides, generally in a seated position behind a fairing. They were used as secret naval weapons in World War II. The basic concept is still in use.


title: Human torpedo

text: The name was commonly used to refer to the weapons that Italy, and later (with a larger version) Britain, deployed in the Mediterranean and used to attack ships in enemy harbors. The human torpedo concept has occasionally been used by recreational divers, although this use is closer to midget submarines.


title: Human torpedo

text: The concept of a small, manned submarine carrying a bomb was developed and patented by a British naval officer in 1909, but was never used during the First World War. The Italian Navy experimented with a primitive tiny sub (Mignatta) carrying two men and a limpet mine: this craft successfully sank Austro-Hungarian battleship SMS "Viribus Unitis" on 1 November 1918.


title: Human torpedo

text: The first truly practical human torpedo was the Italian "Maiale" (nicknamed the "pig" because it was difficult to steer) used in the Second World War.


title: Human torpedo

text: The "Maiale" was electrically propelled by a motor in most of the units manufactured, with a top speed of and often required a travel time of up to two hours to its target. Two crewmen in diving suits rode astride, each equipped with an oxygen rebreather apparatus. They steered the craft to the enemy ship. The "pig" could be submerged to , and hypothetically to , when necessary. On arrival at the target, the detachable warhead was released for use as a limpet mine. If they were not detected, the operators then rode the mini sub away to safety.


title: Human torpedo

text: Development began in 1935 but the first 11 were not completed until 1939 by San Bartolomeo Torpedo Workshops in La Spezia, Italy and a larger number followed. The official Italian name for the majority of the craft that were manufactured was "Siluro a Lenta Corsa" (SLC or "Slow-running torpedo"). Two distinct models were made, Series 100 and then (in 1942) Series 200 with some improvements. At least 50 SLCs were built by September 1943.


title: Human torpedo

text: In operation, the "Maiale" torpedo was carried by another vessel (usually a conventional submarine), and launched near the target. Most manned torpedo operations were at night and during the new moon to cut down the risk of being seen. Attacks in 1940 were unsuccessful but in 1941, the Italian navy successfully entered the harbor of Alexandria and damaged the two British battleships and , as well as the tanker "Sagona". This feat encouraged the British to develop their own torpedo "chariots".


title: Human torpedo

text: The last Italian model, the SSB (for "Siluro San Bartolomeo", "San Bartolomeo Torpedo") was built with a partly enclosed cockpit, a more powerful motor and larger warhead (up from the earlier SLC's warheads). Three units were made but not operationally used because Italy surrendered in 1943.


title: Human torpedo

text: The first British version of the concept was named the Chariot manned torpedo. Two models were made; Mark I was long while Mark II was long, both suitable for carrying two men. Later versions were larger, starting with the original X-class submarine, a midget submarine, long, no longer truly a human torpedo but, similar in concept. The X-Class were capable of on the surface or submerged. They were designed to be towed to their intended area of operations by a full-size 'mother' submarine.


title: Human torpedo

text: The German navy also developed a manned torpedo by 1943, the "Neger", intended for one man, with a top speed of and carrying one torpedo; the frequent technical problems often resulted in the deaths of operators. Roughly 200 of these were made and they did manage to sink a few ships. The later "Marder" (pine marten in English) was about long and more sophisticated and could dive to depths of but with very limited endurance. About 500 were built.


title: Human torpedo

text: A typical manned torpedo has a propeller, hydroplanes, a vertical rudder and a control panel with controls for its front rider. It usually allows for two riders who sit facing forwards. It has navigation aids such as a compass, and nowadays modern aids such as sonar and GPS positioning and modulated ultrasound communications gear. It may have an air (or other breathing gas) supply so its riders do not have to drain their own apparatus while they are riding it. In some the riders' seats are enclosed; in others the seats are open at the sides as in sitting astride a horse. The seat design includes room for the riders' swimfins (if used). There are flotation tanks (typically four: left fore, right fore, left aft, right aft), which can be flooded or blown empty to adjust buoyancy and attitude.


title: Human torpedo

text: This extreme form of a genuine "human torpedo" carried a second torpedo underneath, which was launched at the target. Speed: , and about 10 hours at 3 knots. One seat. This manned torpedo was named after its inventor Richard Mohr.


title: Human torpedo

text: These very small submarines carried two torpedoes and one or two men. There were other types that never ran into production.


title: Human torpedo

text: In July 1944 Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine" introduced their "human torpedoes" to harass allied positions at Normandy anchorages. Although they could not submerge, they were difficult to observe at night and inflicted several losses on allied vessels. They were also used to harass allied vessels in the invasion of southern France but were largely ineffective.


title: Human torpedo

text: There are pictures and descriptions of modern US Chariot-like underwater frogman-carriers used by SEALs and a fast surface boat that can submerge, here:


title: Human torpedo

text: Argentina developed manned torpedoes and special mini-submarines in the 1950s, the latter with a torpedo attached under the two-men crew. Their crews were trained by , a former member of the Italian Decima MAS.


title: Human torpedo

text: In Poland, in the months before the outbreak of the Second World War, a number of volunteers came forward to pilot torpedoes against German warships. A Bureau of Living torpedoes was set up to organize and train these volunteers, and prepare suitable equipment, but nothing had come to fruition before the German invasion and occupation.


title: Human torpedo

text: The Yugoslav Navy did not have manned torpedoes, but frogmen used the underwater device called "R-1 Diver" for a variety of missions, including: mine clearance, infiltration, clandestine surveillance and security, and assault missions on enemy shipping and naval objects.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Social stigma of obesity is broadly defined as bias or discriminatory behaviors targeted at overweight and obese individuals because of their weight. Such social stigmas can span one's entire life, as long as excess weight is present, starting from a young age and lasting into adulthood. Several studies from across the world (e.g., United States, University of Marburg, University of Leipzig) indicate overweight and obese individuals experience higher levels of stigma relative to their thinner counterparts. In addition, they marry less often, experience fewer educational and career opportunities, and on average earn a lesser income than normal weight individuals. Although public support regarding disability services, civil rights, and anti-workplace discrimination laws for obese individuals have gained support across the years, overweight and obese individuals still experience discrimination, which may have detrimental implications in relation to both physiological and psychological health. These issues are compounded by the significant negative physiological effects that are already associated with obesity, which some have proposed may be caused by stress from the social stigma of obesity, rather than from obesity per se.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Anti-fat bias refers to prejudicial assumptions that are based on an assessment of a person as being overweight or obese. It is also known as "fat shaming". Anti-fat bias can be found in many facets of society, and fat activists commonly blame popular media for the pervasiveness of this phenomenon.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Research indicates that self-reported incidents of weight-based discrimination increased from 1995 to 2006. Individuals who are subjected to weight-related stigma appear to be rated more negatively when compared with other groups, such as sexual minorities and those with mental illness.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Anti-fat bias has been observed in groups hoping to become physical education instructors. In a study published in 2007, a group of 344 psychology or physical education majors at a New Zealand University were compared, and it was found that the prospective physical education teachers were more likely to display implicit anti-fat attitudes than the psychology majors.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: A number of studies have found that health care providers frequently have explicit and/or implicit biases against overweight people, and it has been found that overweight patients may receive lower quality care as a result of their weight. Medical professionals who specialize in the treatment of obesity have been found to have strong negative associations toward obese individuals. The stress from obesity-related stigma may also cause negative health outcomes.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: In one study, preschool-aged children reported a preference for average-sized children over overweight children as friends. Overweight individuals often find themselves suffering repercussions in many facets of society, including legal and employment issues later in their life.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: According to a 2010 review of published studies, interventions seeking to reduce prejudice and social stigma against fat and obesity are largely ineffective.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: In order to understand weight-biased attitudes, theories have been proposed to explain these biases and the subsequent discrimination they cause. Christian S. Crandall discusses the "Justification of Stigmatization". Also his Social Ideology Perspective draws on traditional North American values of self-determination, individualism, and self-discipline. Based on these values, anti-fat attitudes may derive from directing blame for being overweight towards individuals who are overweight. Similarly, the attribution theory suggests that attitudes towards obese individuals are dependent on how much control they are perceived to have over their weight. Throughout the literature, numerous studies have shown support for this theory. One study conducted a multinational examination of weight bias across four countries (Canada, United States, Iceland, and Australia) with comparable obesity rates. The study found that attributions of behavioral causes of obesity were associated with greater weight bias. Similarly, viewing obesity as being caused by a lack of willpower was also associated with greater weight bias. There appears to be a decrease in weight bias when weight is attributed to factors that are less within the individual's control, or when individuals are perceived as trying to lose weight. However, evidence also exists showing that biases against obese individuals also include disgust towards them, which can persist regardless of if one knows that obesity is not caused by obese individuals' actions.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Fatphobia is a socially constructed phenomenon of particular prevalence in the western world. Societies produce the sort of bodies they need. The west values healthy and strong bodies that prioritize agility, endurance and fertility - with focus on achievement and individual responsibility. Not only do such bodies associate the western world with similar ideals, but Lloyd deMause suggests the ‘fitness/toughness craze’ may also reflect preparations for war. The ’fattening huts’ of young girls in Nigeria however, represent beauty, marriageability and money – a direct reflection of the value of economic resource and food. Fatness is a welcome sign of health, prosperity and maternity - linked to self-worth and sexuality also.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Fatphobia does not fear ‘fat’ but prejudice, discrimination, exclusion and preventable disease too - fears directly attributable to the myriad of social, political, historical, economic and cultural processes at work (that do not similarly exist in other cultures). In this way, fatphobia is a culturally-derived phenomenon influencing relationships to food as well to the female form. Trends in ‘blame, shame and stigma' have contributed to fat positivity and ‘health at every size’ movements, that create digital ‘safe spaces’ for activism and radical fat acceptance that seek to resist/shift such powerful cultural perspectives.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Anti-fat bias leads people to associate individuals who are overweight or obese with negative personality traits such as "lacking willpower", "lazy", "gluttonous", "stupid", "incompetent", or "unmotivated". This bias is not restricted to clinically obese individuals. It also encompasses those whose body shape is found to be unacceptable when compared to modern society's perception of the ideal body type (although still within the normal or overweight body mass index (BMI) range). Fat-shaming is fairly common in the United States, even though most adult Americans are overweight. "Huffington Post" wrote "two-thirds of American adults are overweight or obese. Yet overweight and obese individuals are subject to discrimination from employers, healthcare professionals, and potential romantic partners".


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Anti-fat bias can be moderated by giving a mitigating context to the individual's appearance of obesity. For example, when told an individual was obese because of "overeating" and "lack of exercise", a higher implicit bias was found among study participants than those not provided with context. When the group was told that "genetics" was to blame, they did not exhibit a lowered implicit bias after the explanation.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Anti-fat bias is not a strictly Western cultural phenomenon. Instances of implicit anti-fat bias have been found across several cultures.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Additionally, recent work around physical appearance issues, body image, and anti-fat or obesity prejudice suggests that feelings about one's own appearance may stimulate downward physical comparisons with obese individuals in order to make one feel better about one's own physical appearance.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Weight stigma is present in multiple settings including healthcare, education, interpersonal situations, multiple media forms and outlets, and across many levels of employment.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Media, in general, overrepresents underweight individuals and underrepresents overweight individuals. One-third of women in television are classified as underweight, while only 5% of the general population falls into that category. Conversely, a study on over a thousand major television characters from 2003 identified 14% of female characters and 24% of male characters to be overweight, despite the real-world percentages being more than double those reported numbers.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Even when overweight people are included in television, they often play minor, stereotyped roles. Nearly two thirds of the most popular children's movies contain negative portrayals of fat people, stereotyping them to be unintelligent, lazy, and evil. Fat television characters are more commonly seen eating and are less likely to be involved in romantic relationships compared to average weight television characters. Male characters are less commonly portrayed as having close friendships.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: In 2007, another analysis sampled 135 scenes featuring overweight individuals from popular television programs and movies and coded for anti-fat humor. The majority of anti-fat humor found was verbal and directed at the individual in their presence. Additionally, a relationship was found between audience laughter and a male character poking fun at a female character's body, but that same relationship wasn't there when it was a female character ridiculing a fat male.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: There is a great deal of empirical research to support the idea of Thin Ideal media, or the idea that the media tends to glorify and focus on thin actors and actresses, models, and other public figures while avoiding the use of overweight individuals.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Puhl et al. (2009) also reviewed how in entertainment, news reporting, and advertising, media is a particularly potent source of weight stigma. News reports have blamed individuals who are overweight and obese for various societal issues including prices of fuel, global temperature trends, and precipitating weight gain among their peers. The news media repeatedly engages in the "Headless Fatties" phenomenon, coined by Charlotte Cooper, in which images and videos only depict overweight individuals as bodies by cropping out their heads. This objectification happens in 72% of all news reports on obesity.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: The University of California, Los Angeles, conducted a study that analyzed scientific research on weight and the news reports on such research. They looked for disparities in language, the cited causes of obesity, and proposed solution. News stories were more likely than the scientific articles to dramatized language, words such as epidemic, crisis, war, and terrorism, and were more likely to cite individual behaviors as the causes and solutions to obesity, ignoring the systemic issues.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: On September 29, 2011, prominent nationally syndicated columnist Michael Kinsley (founding editor of "Slate" magazine) wrote, "New Jersey Governor Chris Christie cannot be president: He is just too fat ... why should Christie's weight be more than we can bear in a president? Why should it even be a legitimate issue if he runs? One reason is that a presidential candidate should be judged on behavior and character ... Perhaps Christie is the one to help us get our national appetites under control. But it would help if he got his own under control first." Governor Christie responded on October 4, 2011, stating "The people who pretend to be serious commentators who wrote about this are among the most ignorant I've ever heard in my life. To say that, because you're overweight, you are therefore undisciplined—you know, I don't think undisciplined people get to achieve great positions in our society, so that kind of stuff is just ignorant."


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: In 2013, Haley Morris-Cafiero's photography project "Wait Watchers", in which she photographed the reactions to her presence by random passers-by, went viral. "New York" magazine wrote, "The frequency with which Morris-Cafiero succeeds at documenting passersby's visible disdain for her body seems pretty depressing".


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: There is also evidence that especially young adults and adolescents experience weight stigma on social media. For example, a study suggests that adolescent patients with obesity experience derogatory comments about weight and visual self-presentation in their online social networks. The study found that this was particularly evident among girls and that they avoided sharing weight-related images on social media (such as close-up images of their bodies or pictures of food that they perceive as "unhealthy" or "fattening").


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: In regards to more direct weight bias, obese individuals were 40–50% more likely to report a perception of major discrimination compared to those of average weight across a multitude of settings. In the educational setting, those who are overweight as youth often face peer rejection and are bullied more. Overweight children have poorer school performance if they experience weight-based teasing. Between fifth and eighth grade, a child's increase in BMI results in a decrease in their teacher's perception of that student's ability, and 50% of principals believe fatness is just a result of lacking self control. Teachers, particularly those teaching physical education classes, sometimes express negative attitudes towards overweight individuals.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Research suggests that within the classroom teachers may perceive overweight individuals' work more poorly compared to average weight individuals. Students also perceive overweight individuals as being likely to have lower GPAs, and students are less likely to want to do groupwork with overweight individuals compared to average weight individuals. Research has also found that overweight females receive less financial support for education from their families than average weight females, after controlling for ethnicity, family size, income, and education. As individuals grow older they may be less likely to be admitted to college than individuals of an average weight, and in some cases, people were admitted to academic institutions then dismissed due to their weight.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Puhl and colleagues (2009) concluded from their review of weight stigma in education that current trends indicate students with obesity face barriers to educational success at every level of education. Reviewed research demonstrates that educators, particularly physical education teachers, report antifat attitudes toward their students with obesity, which may undermine educational achievement. Importantly, the education disparities for students with obesity appear to be strongest for students attending schools where obesity is not the norm. Several studies have evidenced that in environments such as these, students with obesity face greater educational disadvantages and are less likely to attend college, an effect that is particularly strong among women. Moreover, weight stigma in educational settings also affects interpersonal relationships (see "Interpersonal situations" below).


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Studies suggest that obese individuals are less likely to be hired and once hired, have greater termination rates than average weight individuals. Specifically, a national survey found that obese individuals were 26% more likely not to be hired, not receive a promotion, or to be fired compared to average weight persons. Such outcomes may be a result of employers viewing them as less agreeable, less competent and lazier than average weight individuals.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Weight stigma can lead to difficulty obtaining a job, worse job placement, lower wages and compensation, unjustified denial of promotions, harsher discipline, unfair job termination, and commonplace derogatory jokes and comments from coworkers and supervisors. In their review, Rebecca M. Puhl et al. find that employees with obesity report their weight as the most influential factor contributing to losing their job. Another review by Giel and colleagues (2010) found that certain stereotypes about employees with obesity are highly endorsed by employers and supervisors, in particular that they have poorer job performance and that they lack interpersonal skills, motivation, and self-control.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: A study by Michigan State University researchers shows evidence that overweight political candidates tend to receive fewer votes than their thinner opponents. The researchers analyzed data from the 2008 and 2012 U.S. Senate elections. Using a previously established scientific method, research assistants determined from color photos whether the candidates in 126 primary and general elections were of normal weight, overweight, or obese.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Both obese men and women were often less likely to get on the ballot in the first place. When it came to merely being overweight, women were seen underrepresented on the ballot, though men were not. This is consistent with previous research showing slightly overweight men tend not to experience the same discrimination as slightly overweight women.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: However, when it came to the voting, both male and female candidates, whether obese or simply overweight, tend to get a lower share of the vote total than their more slender opponents. Some politicians have resorted to extreme weight loss measures, including surgery, to increase their elect-ability to political office.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Medical professionals may be more likely to view obese individuals in negative terms (such as annoying or undisciplined), have less patience with obese individuals, and assume non-compliance with their treatments. As such, these individuals may receive poorer care compared to average weight people. Doctors have reported less intervention and an avoidance of weight-related discussion with obese patients. Additionally, nurses have reported a reluctance to touch obese persons during treatment. A national survey of the United States found that individuals who were overweight reported a three times higher likelihood to be denied medical care than average weight people. In the UK, 25 out of 91 primary care trusts have bans for the treatment of obese individuals in addition to weight loss requirements. Additionally, a 2012 survey revealed that 54% of doctor respondents believe the National Health Service should have the ability to withhold non-emergency treatment from obese individuals. Further, health professionals who specialize in obesity showed strong implicit and explicit anti-fat bias as measured by self-report and the Implicit Associations Test (IAT). However, such biases were mixed amongst dietitians and nutritionists.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: In their 2009 review, Puhl and colleagues found that many studies provide evidence supporting the notion that health professionals (including doctors, nurses, medical students, fitness professional, and dietitians) consistently endorse negative stereotypes about patients with obesity, in particular ascribing to them culpability for their weight status. Weight stigma in the healthcare settings leads to impaired patient-provider communication, poorer doctor-patient relationships, poorer medical care and treatment (for example doctors spending less time with patients), and avoidance of the healthcare system all together on the part of the patient. However, it is important to point out that the evidence that has been reviewed thus far comes primarily from self-report studies. Therefore, Puhl and colleagues concluded that research examining actual health outcomes is needed. Overall, the impact of weight stigma in healthcare has become so problematic that many scholars have suggested that obesity-prevention programs should make minimizing stigma a priority.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Although a less studied topic than employment and healthcare, several studies reviewed by Puhl and colleagues (2009) provide evidence that overweight and obese women in particular face weight stigma from many interpersonal sources including family, friends, and romantic partners. Another recent review by Puhl and Suh (2015) also documented that in school settings weight-based bullying is one of the most prevalent types of harassment reported by parents, teachers, and students. Experiencing interpersonal weight stigma is related to myriad negative physical and mental health consequences (see "Mental health and psychological consequences" below).


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: This external stigmatization and its internalized effects have been examined across different age groups. Overweight and obese children and adolescents experience stigmatization from parents, teachers, and peers. Peer stigmatization, especially, may be difficult for overweight adolescents considering the role of peer support in promoting identity development and self-esteem. Some research suggests that negative attitudes about being overweight are even held by overweight and obese children themselves. Specifically, weight bias may become internalized and increases throughout childhood. It then decreases and levels-off during late adolescence and adulthood.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Weight-based teasing in childhood and adolescence has been associated with a variety of damages to psychosocial health, including reduced self-esteem and lower self-concept, higher rates of depression and anxiety disorders, and even greater likelihood of entertaining suicidal thoughts. Further, weight-based teasing has been associated with higher rates of binge eating and unhealthy weight control (e.g., fasting, self-induced vomiting, laxatives, diet pills, skipped meals and smoking). Overweight adolescents who were bullied were also more likely to meet criteria for bulimia.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: A survey of 7,266 children aged 11 to 16 conducted by the World Health Organization reported higher rates of physical victimization (e.g., being shoved) with increasing body mass index (BMI) among girls. Additionally, these results showed relational victimization (i.e., being excluded or having rumors spread about you) was reported more often at increasing BMI by both girls and boys. A separate survey of 7,825 students aged 11 to 17 also noted that, compared to average-weight peers, obese boys and overweight girls were more likely to be victims of bullying. Additionally, obese girls were more likely to be victims and perpetrators of bullying than their peers. Notably, overweight and obese adolescent girls also reported higher rates of smoking, drinking, and marijuana use relative to their normal-weight peers.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: In adulthood, individuals who experience weight discrimination are more likely to identify themselves as overweight regardless of their actual weight status. The experience of weight stigma can function as motivation to avoid stigmatizing environments, and although it may motivate one to escape stigma through weight loss, it undermines one's capacity to do so. Researchers have linked weight stigma to decreases in physical activity, decreases in seeking health care and increases in maladaptive eating patterns such as binge eating. In addition, those who have experienced weight stigma have shown altered cardiovascular reactivity, increased cortisol level, oxidative stress, and inflammation.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: People who expect to be fat-shamed by healthcare providers are less likely to seek care for medical issues or for weight loss, even if the weight gain is caused by medical problems.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: In terms of psychological health, researchers found that obese individuals demonstrated a lower sense of well-being relative to non-obese individuals if they had perceived weight stigmatization even after controlling for other demographic factors such as age and sex. Overweight and obese individuals report experiencing forms of internalized stigma such as body dissatisfaction as well as decreased social support and feelings of loneliness. In addition, similar to findings in adolescence, weight stigma in adulthood is associated with lower self-esteem, higher rates of depression, anxiety, and substance abuse.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: In both adults and children with obesity, several reviews of the literature have found that across a variety of studies, there is a consistent relationship between experiencing weight stigma and many negative mental and physical health outcomes. These will be discussed separately in the sections below, although physical and mental health consequences are often intertwined, in particular those related to eating disorders.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Papadopoulos and Brennan (2015) recently found that across many reviewed studies of weight loss treatment-seeking adults, relationships emerged between experiencing weight stigma and both BMI and difficulty losing weight. However the findings are somewhat mixed. They also report evidence that experiencing weight stigma is related to poor medication adherence. Among weight loss treatment-seeking adults, experiencing weight stigma might exacerbate weight- and health-related quality of life issues. This review along with reviews by Vartanian and Smyth (2013) and Puhl and Suh (2015) have also found that across several studies and in both adults and children, experiencing weight stigma is related to decreased exercise behavior overall, as well as decreased motivation to exercise, decreased exercise self-efficacy, and increased food craving and tendency to overeat. It is important to note that these effects of weight stigma on exercise and physical activity emerge independent of body mass index, suggesting that weight stigma becomes a unique barrier to physical activity outside of barriers that may be associated with obesity in particular. Finally, across many studies, Puhl and Suh (2015) also found that experiencing weight stigma is related to many physiological consequences as well, including increased blood pressure, augmented cortisol reactivity, elevated oxidative stress, impaired glycemic control/elevated HbA, and increased systemic inflammation, all of which have notable consequences for physical health and disease.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Broadly speaking, experiencing weight stigma is associated with psychological distress. There are many negative effects connected to anti-fat bias, the most prominent being that societal bias against fat is ineffective at treating obesity, and leads to long-lasting body image issues, eating disorders, suicide, and depression.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Papadopoulos's 2015 review of the literature found that across several studies, this distress can manifest in anxiety, depression, lowered self-esteem, and substance use disorders, both in weight loss treatment-seeking individuals as well as community samples. Many empirical reviews have found that weight stigma has clear consequences for individuals suffering from eating and weight disorders (including anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder), as it plays a unique role, over and above other risk factors, in perpetuating disordered eating psychopathology. These results have emerged in both adult and adolescent, as well as in male and female samples.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Over the past few decades, many scholars have identified weight stigma as a long-standing form of social stigma and one of the last remaining socially acceptable forms of prejudice. It follows then that individuals who are targets because of overweight and obesity, still face uniquely socially acceptable discrimination. Civil rights legislation such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination based on race and several other domains, but weight is not included in this act. At the local level, only one state in the US (Michigan) has policy in place for prohibiting weight-related employment discrimination and very few local municipalities have human rights ordinances in place to protect individuals of large body size. Typically, the only type legislation that overweight and obese individuals can cite in lawsuits is related to disability. For example, the Americans with Disabilities Act is one such avenue, but as Puhl et al. (2009) report, it is difficult for many individuals with obesity to qualify as disabled according to the criteria included in this statute.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: The existing literature largely does not support the notion that weight stigma might encourage weight loss; as cited above, experiencing weight stigma (both interpersonally as well as exposure to stigmatizing media campaigns) is consistently related to a lack of motivation to exercise and a propensity to overeat. In a 2010 review examining whether weight stigma is an appropriate public health tool for treating and preventing overweight and obesity, Puhl and Heuer concluded that stigmatizing individuals with obesity is detrimental in three important ways: (1) it threatens actual physical health, (2) it perpetuates health disparities, and (3) it actually undermines obesity treatment and intervention initiatives. In line with this, another recent review of the consequences of experiencing weight stigma, this one conducted by Puhl and Suh (2015), concluded that considering the myriad negative physical and mental health consequences associated with experiencing weight stigma, it should be a target, instead of a tool, in obesity prevention and treatment. These authors further recommend that a necessary first step in reducing weight stigma is raising broader awareness of its negative consequences.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: With higher representation of black people being categorized as overweight by the BMI, the social stigma of obesity disproportionately affects black people. More than 80% of African American women are categorized as overweight using the Body Mass Index. Yet, the BMI was created based on a group of European men and cutoffs have been altered in the US in a non-scientifically verified way, with no distinguishing between appropriate cutoffs for different races.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Sociologist Sabrina Strings writes, in her book "Fearing the Black Body", about the historical ways in which fatphobia emerged out of an attempt by white people to distance themselves from black people. In 1751, Denis Diderot published the "Encyclopédie", which was the first publications to claim that black people were "fond of gluttony." In 1853, French aristocrat Arthur de Gobineau claimed, about black people, that their "gluttonous nature to be one of their more base characteristics." In 1910, Charles Davenport founded the Eugenic Record Office, and he claimed that "obesity was a vile condition to be avoided. It was, moreover, racially inherited." Eugenics sentiment toward black people regarding their size was prevalent.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Body standards differ between black and white communities, but whiteness, and therefore thinness, is seen as the cultural norm. Scholar Elizabeth Hughes discusses this in "I'm Supposed to be Thick:" Managing Body Anxieties Among Black American Women," citing the norm of a "thick" body type, in other words curvier bodies, in the black community.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Black bodies are already stigmatized, which can result in violence when interacting with the social stigma of obesity. In a 2017 article published in the African American Review, one author cited the killing of Eric Garner as an example of this, as some excuses for using excessive force on Garner were his size, as he was an overweight man. The article explains how ableism, fatphobia, and racism interact to form a "double bind" in which violence is excused because fatness is already causing inherent injury, but necessary because the size of a large black person is a threat.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: A paper published by the American Journal of Preventive Medicine titled “Intersectionality: An Understudied Framework for Addressing Weight Stigma” focused on highlighting the intersectionality between weight stigma and health-related coping responses across several non-white racial and gendered groups. The findings of this publication demonstrated that there were no significant differences in weight stigma as a function of race or gender, having an overall equal representation across all racial groups analyzed. Nonetheless, results additionally demonstrated that different racial groups had differing ways of internalizing and coping with weight and health-related stigmas, which as a result heightened health risks. Results revealed that white women and men reported higher weight bias internalization in comparison to black women and men. Additionally, Hispanic women demonstrated to cope with weight stigma via disordered eating patterns more than black and white women. The results of this research article highlighted the importance of needing to increase research and policy attention to addressing weight and health-related stigma as an issue regarding prevention and treatment for obesity in order to consequently decrease weight-driven inequalities in communities and differing groups, primarily focused on race and gender.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Preference regarding language varies widely amongst overweight individuals, though there is some consensus on generally unaccepted terms.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Person first language is not ubiquitous among fat acceptance movements, and in fact people view it as an “inherent adverse judgment.” Those who promote person-first language, i.e. using terminology such as a person with obesity, seem to have done so without consultation in fat activist groups. Critics of person-first language cite problems with the desire to separate a person from that characteristic, as separating it implies that there is something wrong with being overweight, which contributes to further stigma. Furthermore, person-first language contributes to the medicalization of obesity, as the language is commonly used when referring to disease.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: The term "fat" appears to result in more stigma and judgement from the broader community. Various studies of overweight people seeking weight loss as well as a semantics study of varied terminology used to describe an overweight individual conclude that using the word fat elicits a negative reaction from people already critical of obesity. Regarding other terms, "obesity" was found in one study to be equally as undesirable as "fat" when considering language preferences of overweight individuals.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Yet, "fat" is the preferred term within the fat acceptance movement. Fat activists have reclaimed the term as a neutral descriptor in order to work against the stigma typically associated with the term. In fact, many fat activists will censor the word "obesity" when tweeting or citing it as "ob*sity" due to its pathologizing nature. The word "obesity" directly stems from the latin word "obesus" which means "that has eaten itself fat". Fat activists will also use this latin definition to show stigma in the word "obese" itself, as it places blame on the individual for their state.


title: Social stigma of obesity

text: Fat activist Aubrey Gordon argues that "disavowing the term fat reinforces its negative meanings." Although studies have not been conducted among fat activists on preferred terminology, books such as "What We Don't Talk About When We Talk About Fat, Happy Fat," "Things No One Tells Fat Girls," and "Fat! So?" all have the word Fat in the title in a non-derogatory sense. Likewise, The National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance (NAAFA) was founded in 1969, with the descriptor of the community being "fat."


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: The 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election was held on 8 May 2022 for the 6th term of the Chief Executive (CE), the highest office of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR). Incumbent Carrie Lam, who was elected in 2017, declined to seek a second term for family reasons and finished her term on 30 June 2022. Former Chief Secretary John Lee was the sole candidate approved by the central government of China in the election and the only candidate to be nominated. He received 1,416 electoral votes (99.44%) and assumed office on 1 July 2022.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: The highest office of Hong Kong government, the Chief Executive, is selected by an Election Committee (EC) dominated by pro-Beijing politicians and tycoons. Since the terms of Article 45 of the Basic Law of Hong Kong requiring "selection of the Chief Executive by universal suffrage upon nomination by a broadly representative nominating committee in accordance with democratic procedures" have not been implemented, the progress to universal suffrage has been the dominant issue in Hong Kong politics since the transfer of sovereignty in 1997.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: Carrie Lam, then Chief Secretary, assumed office as Chief Executive in 2017. Her tenure was marred by controversies and unpopular policies, including the scandals of her cabinet ministers. In 2019, the government push for amending the extradition bill spurred massive anti-government protests calling for the withdrawal of the bill, which later evolved into blanket pro-democracy protests. The Government partially conceded and shelved the bill after violent clashes, which failed to help comforting protestors.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: A year later, the Hong Kong National Security Law was passed by China's central government to quell protests, followed by arrests of leading pro-democracy activists (also resulting in the dissolution of most pro-democracy political parties and organisations) and changing the electoral system. The changes allowed only government-defined "patriots" to rule the city, and allocated 40 legislative seats to the Election Committee (which also elects the Chief Executive), dominated by pro-Beijing members following the 2021 Hong Kong Election Committee Subsector elections. The number of directly-elected seats was reduced from 35 to 20. A new vetting mechanism would also be created to vet every candidate running for the Chief Executive, the Legislative Council and the Election Committee based on the approval of the Hong Kong Committee for Safeguarding National Security according to the review by the National Security Department of the Hong Kong Police Force (HKPF) whose decision would be final and could not be appealed. Local organisations seen as pro-Beijing would also be able to nominate candidates to the Election Committee. Ex-officio seats were also increased while directly-elected seats were decreased. Before the changes, the pro-democracy camp had expected to win a majority in the legislative election. This was the first election after massive changes to the political landscape in Hong Kong.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: This year's election was unusually quiet compared to the previous elections with no heavyweights declaring to enter the race before the nomination period started. The Chinese Government had reportedly asked Hong Kong authorities to put a hold on the election procedures in January 2022.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: Amidst the fifth wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong and following order from Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, to prioritize control of the pandemic, the Hong Kong Government invoked the Emergency Regulations Ordinance on 18 February 2022 to postpone the Chief Executive election from 27 March 2022 to 8 May 2022, despite Chief Executive Carrie Lam saying there was no need for a postponement just a week prior. Rumors grew in late March that the election could be postponed for a year with the current government's tenure extended for a year by the Chinese Parliament.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: The nomination period for the election began on 3 April and ran until 16 April. The deadline for submitting nominations was 14 April as the Easter general holidays were ahead. Candidates had to be nominated by not less than 188 members of the Election Committee, including at least 15 from each of the five sectors.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: On 4 April, Carrie Lam, eligible for re-election, announced that she would not seek a second term in office and would leave public service entirely, citing a desire to spend more time with her family. Lam said she had told the Central People's Government of her decision not to run for re-election in early 2021. Local reports then hinted John Lee, the Chief Secretary at the time, could join the race and to become the sole candidate of the election, adopting the Macanese modal of election. Hong Kong Liaison Office, the representative of the Chinese central government in Hong Kong, reportedly told Election Committee members on 6 April that Lee would be the only candidate for the post with Beijing's "blessing".


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: On 6 April, John Lee resigned as the Chief Secretary, and announced his intention to run in the upcoming chief executive election. Two days later, the resignation was approved by the State Council of China. Lee formally announced he would stand in the election later that day and held a news conference the following day.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: On 13 April, Lee was nominated as the only candidate of the election, and the candidacy was confirmed by vetting authorities on 18 April. With a total of 786 nominations, Lee has already won the support of half of the Election Committee.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: Lee was expected to secure enough nominations, and win the election without uncertainty. The pro-Beijing camp generally supported Lee as the next Chief Executive, with a campaign office composed of 16 deputy directors from a variety of backgrounds and as political heavyweights, some of those rallied for Carrie Lam, the incumbent Chief Executive, CY Leung and Donald Tsang, the former Chief Executives. The four real estate developer giants also supported Lee.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: The background of Lee, having served in the police for decades, raised concerns about his hardline attitude and inexperience. Lee was also criticised as being "surprisingly weak and unprepared" in a "carefully choreographed" press conference, without details on election manifesto. Lo Kin-hei, chairperson of Democratic Party, the pro-democracy largest party now out of parliament, said anointing Lee implies the Chinese Government chooses to proceed with hardline policies.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: Senior government loyalists also sought to play down criticism that the leadership race did not field any rivals to Lee. Maria Tam, former Convenor of National People's Congress Hong Kong delegation, said "having one person run for (chief executive) does not mean we have fewer choices".


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: Only the 1,461 members of the Election Committee can select the new Chief Executive. Candidates need to be nominated by at least 188 members of the Election Committee. Candidates winning more than 750 votes, half of the Election Committee, will be appointed.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: The following persons had either expressed their wish to run or were considered potential candidates but were not allowed by Beijing to run or did not enter race:


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: Lee unveiled his election manifesto on 29 April, vowed to strengthen governance, boost land and housing supply, improve Hong Kong's competitiveness and build a caring society if elected. Lee also announced legislating the city's own security law under Article 23 of the Basic Law. The manifesto was only announced nine days before election, making it the latest and also the shortest amongst all past candidates in the Chief Executive election.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: On 19 April, the YouTube channel of Lee, an SDN, was disabled in order for Google to comply with United States sanctions. Tam Yiu-chung, the campaign chief of Lee, said the move was illogical. Lee's Facebook account was not axed but was demonetized and prevented from using payments services. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China slammed Google's move, of which owned YouTube, and labelled the United States as interfering with Hong Kong 's election.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: The only election rally of Lee was on 6 May, and only joined by invitees and press. Some observers said his presentation lacked human touch. The slogan of the rally was also noticed by the public for the grammatical error, which includes the rarely used Chinese wording "我和我們" (lit. "I and We"）and erroneous English translation "We and Us". Lee's campaign office later claimed the slogan hoped to show unity, and criticised those "only insisting on their ideas" are "disrespectful".


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: This is the first sole-candidate election since the Chief Executive Election Ordinance was amended in 2006 which requires a vote of support.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: The election was held at the 1/F of Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre (HKCEC) from 9 to 11:30 a.m. on 8 May 2022, and at Penny's Bay Quarantine Centre from 9 to 10:30 a.m, where 6 electors cast their votes. Vote counting on 3/F of HKCEC finished within 23 minutes, and the election result was announced at 12:28 p.m. John Lee, the sole candidate, was declared the winner after receiving 1,416 support votes, or a record of 99.4%. Eight votes were not supporting Lee, whilst four were blank votes and 33 did not cast their ballots.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: Elites in the city and the Chinese Government congratulated the highly-anticipated victory for Lee, including the China Liaison Office in Hong Kong, Chief Executive Carrie Lam, Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce, and various pro-Beijing parties.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: The selection did not gather many attention because of its non-popular vote nature, and the rather lack of human touch by John Lee. However, the victory speech of Lee was much noticed by the public, as he mistakenly wished the mothers in Hong Kong a "Happy Christmas" on Mother's Day, and suspectedly said in Cantonese "love Hong Kong this country", which pro-Beijing politician later clarified as "love Hong Kong this home" and slammed the anti-government sentiments for spreading "misinformation".


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: League of Social Democrats (LSD), one of the only remaining pro-democracy groups, held a three-person protest before polls opened, chanting "power to the people, universal suffrage now". Vanessa Chan, chairwoman of LSD, criticised John Lee for shrinking civil liberties in his "new chapter". Stand with Hong Kong, an activist organization based in overseas, called the leadership race a "sham election", and urged "democratic countries across the world" to not recognise the race.


title: 2022 Hong Kong Chief Executive election

text: Taiwan's Mainland Affairs Council urged John Lee to "listen and respond to the public's view, and respect Hong Kong people's right to pursue democracy, and stop hurting Hong Kong's freedom and human rights." European Union (EU), in the statement, regret the violation of democratic principles and political pluralism after election overhaul, adding that the EU saw this selection process as yet another step in the dismantling of the "one country, two systems" principle. Group of Seven (G7) also released a statement, expressing grave concern over the selection as part of a continued assault on political pluralism and fundamental freedoms, and call on China to act in accordance with its legal obligations. China dismissed statements by EU and G7 as "interfering" in China's internal affairs.


title: Anna Komnene

text: Anna Komnene (; 1 December 1083 – 1153), commonly Latinized as Anna Comnena, was a Byzantine princess and author of the "Alexiad", an account of the reign of her father, the Byzantine emperor, Alexios I Komnenos. The "Alexiad" is the most important primary source of Byzantine history of the late 11th and early 12th centuries. Although she is best known as the author of the "Alexiad", Anna played an important part in the politics of the time and attempted to depose her brother, John II Komnenos, as emperor and seize the throne herself.


title: Anna Komnene

text: At birth, Anna was betrothed to Constantine Doukas, and she grew up in his mother's household. She was well-educated in "Greek literature and history, philosophy, theology, mathematics, and medicine." Anna and Constantine were next in the line to throne until Anna's younger brother, John II Komnenos, became the heir in 1092. Constantine died around 1094, and Anna married Nikephoros Bryennios in 1097. The two had several children before Nikephoros' death around 1136.


title: Anna Komnene

text: Following her father's death in 1118, Anna and her mother attempted to usurp John II Komnenos. Her husband refused to cooperate with them, and the usurpation failed. As a result, John exiled Anna to the Kecharitomene Monastery, where she spent the rest of her life. In confinement there, she wrote the "Alexiad". She died in 1153.


title: Anna Komnene

text: Anna was born on 1 December 1083 to Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina. Her father, Alexios I Komnenos, became emperor in 1081, after usurping the previous Byzantine Emperor, Nikephoros Botaneiates. Her mother, Irene Doukaina, was part of the imperial Doukas family. In the "Alexiad", Anna emphasises her affection for her parents in stating her relationship to Alexios and Irene. She was the eldest of seven children; her younger siblings were (in order) Maria, John II, Andronikos, Isaac, Eudokia, and Theodora.


title: Anna Komnene

text: Anna was born in the Porphyra Chamber of the imperial palace in Constantinople, making her a "porphyrogenita," which underscored her imperial status. She noted this status in the "Alexiad," stating that she was "born and bred in the purple."


title: Anna Komnene

text: According to Anna's description in the "Alexiad", her mother asked Anna to wait to be born until her father returned from war. Obediently, Anna waited until her father came home.


title: Anna Komnene

text: At birth, Anna was betrothed to Constantine Doukas, the son of Emperor Michael VII and Maria of Alania. The two were the heirs to the empire until sometime between c.1088 and 1092, after the birth of Anna's brother, John II Komnenos. Various scholars point out that the betrothal was probably a political match intended to establish the legitimacy of Anna's father, who had usurped the previous emperor.


title: Anna Komnene

text: Starting around 1090, Constantine's mother – Maria of Alania – raised Anna in her home. It was common in Byzantium for mothers-in-law to raise daughters-in-law. In 1094, Maria of Alania was implicated in an attempt to overthrow Alexios I Komnenos. Some scholars argue that Anna's betrothal to Constantine Doukas may not have ended there, as he was not implicated in the plot against Alexios, but it certainly ended when he died around 1094.


title: Anna Komnene

text: Some scholars have also now started to look at Anna's relationships to Maria of Alania; Anna Dalassene, Anna's paternal grandmother; and Irene Doukaina as sources of inspiration and admiration for Anna. For example, Thalia Gouma-Peterson argues that Irene Doukaina's "maternal ability to deal with the speculative and the intellectual enables the daughter to become the highly accomplished scholar she proudly claims to be in the opening pages of the "Alexiad"."


title: Anna Komnene

text: Anna wrote at the beginning of the "Alexiad" about her education, highlighting her experience with literature, Greek language, rhetoric, and sciences. Tutors trained her in subjects that included astronomy, medicine, history, military affairs, geography, and mathematics. Anna was noted for her education by the medieval scholar, Niketas Choniates, who wrote that Anna "was ardently devoted to philosophy, the queen of all sciences, and was educated in every field." Anna's conception of her education is shown in her testament, which credited her parents for allowing her to obtain an education. This testament is in contrast to a funeral oration about Anna given by her contemporary, Georgios Tornikes. In his oration he said that she had to read ancient poetry, such as the "Odyssey", in secret because her parents disapproved of its dealing with polytheism and other "dangerous exploits," which were considered "dangerous" for men and "excessively insidious" for women. Tornikes went on to say that Anna "braced the weakness of her soul" and studied the poetry "taking care not to be detected by her parents."


title: Anna Komnene

text: Anna proved to be capable not only on an intellectual level but also in practical matters. Her father placed her in charge of a large hospital and orphanage that he built for her to administer in Constantinople. The hospital was said to hold beds for 10,000 patients and orphans. Anna taught medicine at the hospital, as well as at other hospitals and orphanages. She was considered an expert on gout. Anna treated her father during his final illness.


title: Anna Komnene

text: In roughly 1097, Anna's parents married her to "Caesar" Nikephoros Bryennios, a member of the Bryennios family that had held the throne before the accession of Anna's father, Alexios I. Nikephoros was a soldier and a historian.


title: Anna Komnene

text: Most scholars agree that the marriage was a political one – it created legitimacy for Anna's paternal family through Bryennios' connections to past emperor's family. The two were an intellectual couple, and Nikephoros Bryennios tolerated and possibly encouraged Anna's scholarly interests by allowing her to participate in various scholarly circles. The couple had six known children: Eirene, Maria, Alexios, John, Andronikos, and Constantine. Only Eirene, John, and Alexios survived to adulthood.