title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: These chat alphabets differ from more formal and academic Arabic transliteration systems, in that they use numerals and multigraphs instead of diacritics for letters such as qāf () or Ḍād () that do not exist in the basic Latin script (ASCII), and in that what is being transcribed is an informal dialect and not Standard Arabic. These Arabic chat alphabets also differ from each other, as each is influenced by the particular phonology of the Arabic dialect being transcribed and the orthography of the dominant European language in the area—typically the language of the former colonists, and typically either French or English.


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: Because of their widespread use, including in public advertisements by large multinational companies, large players in the online industry like Google and Microsoft have introduced tools that convert text written in Arabish to Arabic (Google Translate and Microsoft Translator). Add-ons for Mozilla Firefox and Chrome also exist (Panlatin and ARABEASY Keyboard ). The Arabic chat alphabet is never used in formal settings and is rarely, if ever, used for long communications.


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: During the last decades of the 20th century, Western text-based communication technologies, such as mobile phone text messaging, the World Wide Web, email, bulletin board systems, IRC, and instant messaging became increasingly prevalent in the Arab world. Most of these technologies originally permitted the use of the Latin script only, and some still lack support for displaying Arabic script. As a result, Arabic-speaking users frequently transliterate Arabic text into Latin script when using these technologies to communicate.


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: To handle those Arabic letters that do not have an approximate phonetic equivalent in the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. For example, the numeral "3" is used to represent the Arabic letter ("")—note the choice of a visually similar character, with the numeral resembling a mirrored version of the Arabic letter. Many users of mobile phones and computers use Arabish even though their system is capable of displaying Arabic script. This may be due to a lack of an appropriate keyboard layout for Arabic, or because users are already more familiar with the QWERTY or AZERTY keyboard layout.


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: Online communication systems, such as IRC, bulletin board systems, and blogs, are often run on systems or over protocols that do not support code pages or alternate character sets. Thus, the Arabic chat alphabet has become commonplace. It can be seen even in domain names, like Qal3ah.


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: According to one 2020 paper based on a survey done in and around Nazareth, there is now "a high degree of normativization or standardisation in Arabizi orthography."


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: Because of the informal nature of this system, there is no single "correct" or "official" usage. There may be some overlap in the way various letters are transliterated.


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: Most of the characters in the system make use of the Latin character (as used in English and French) that best approximates phonetically the Arabic letter that one would otherwise use (for example, corresponds to "b"). Regional variations in the pronunciation of an Arabic letter can also produce some variation in its transliteration (e.g. might be transliterated as "j" by a speaker of the Levantine dialect, or as "g" by a speaker of the Egyptian dialect).


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: Those letters that do not have a close phonetic approximation in the Latin script are often expressed using numerals or other characters, so that the numeral graphically approximates the Arabic letter that one would otherwise use (e.g. is represented using the numeral "3" because the latter looks like a vertical reflection of the former).


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: Since many letters are distinguished from others solely by a dot above or below the main portion of the character, the transliterations of these letters frequently use the same letter or number with an apostrophe added before or after (e.g. "'3" is used to represent ).


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: Each of the different varieties of Arabic chat alphabets is influenced by the particular phonology of the Arabic dialect being transcribed and the orthography of the dominant European language in the area—typically the language of the former colonists. Below are some examples of Arabic chat alphabet varieties.


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: The frequent use of "y" and "w" to represent ى and و demonstrates the influence of English orthography on the romanization of Egyptian Arabic.


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: Additionally, the letter qāf (ق) is usually pronounced as a glottal stop, like a Hamza (ء) in Metropolitan (Cairene) Egyptian Arabic—unlike Standard Arabic in which it represents a voiceless uvular stop. Therefore, in Egyptian "Arabizi", the numeral 2 can represent either a Hamza or a qāf pronounced as a glottal stop.


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: The use of ch to represent ش demonstrates the influence of French orthography on the romanization of Moroccan Arabic or Darija. French became the primary European language in Morocco as a result of French colonialism.


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: One of the characteristics of Franco-Arabic as it's used to transcribe Darija is the presence of long consonant clusters that are typically unorthodox in other languages. These clusters represents the deletion of short vowels and the syllabification of medial consonants in the phonology of Darija, a feature shared with and derived from Amazigh languages.


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: The use of ch to represent ("kāf") indicates one of the Palestinian Arabic variant pronunciations of the letter in one of its subdialects, in which it is sometimes palatalized to (as in English "chip"). Where this palatalization appears in other dialects, the Arabic letter is typically respelled to either or .


title: Arabic chat alphabet

text: The phenomenon of writing Arabic with these improvised chat alphabets has drawn sharp rebuke from a number of different segments of Arabic-speaking communities. While educators and members of the intelligentsia mourn the deterioration and degradation of the standard, literary, academic language, conservative Muslims, as well as Pan-Arabists and some Arab-nationalists, view the Arabic Chat Alphabet as a detrimental form of Westernization. Arabic chat alphabets emerged amid a growing trend among Arab youth, from Morocco to Iraq, to incorporate former colonial languages—especially English and French—into Arabic through code switching or as a form of slang. These improvised chat alphabets are used to replace Arabic script, and this raises concerns regarding the preservation of the quality of the language.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: Atlantic City International Airport is a shared civil-military airport northwest of Atlantic City, New Jersey, in Egg Harbor Township, the Pomona section of Galloway Township and in Hamilton Township. The airport is accessible via Exit 9 on the Atlantic City Expressway. The facility is operated by the South Jersey Transportation Authority (SJTA) and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which performs select management functions. Most of the land is owned by the Federal Aviation Administration and leased to the SJTA, while the SJTA owns the terminal building.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: The facility also is a base for the New Jersey Air National Guard's 177th Fighter Wing operating the F-16C/D Fighting Falcon, and the United States Coast Guard's Coast Guard Air Station Atlantic City operating the Eurocopter HH-65 Dolphin. The airport is next to the FAA's William J. Hughes Technical Center, a major research and testing hub for the Federal Aviation Administration and a training center for the Federal Air Marshal Service. It was also a designated alternative landing site for the Space Shuttle.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: The airport is served by Spirit Airlines which operates Airbus A319, Airbus A320 and Airbus A321 jetliners. Additionally, Caesars Entertainment has flights to cities east of the Mississippi River on its Total Rewards Air. This is offered as a scheduled charter year-round. United Airlines operated a series of flights starting in April 2014, but decided the flights were not viable and discontinued service on December 3, 2014.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: The South Jersey Transportation Authority has outlined plans for massive terminal expansions (on top of current initiatives) which might be needed if more airlines serve the airport. Passenger traffic at the airport in 2011 was 1,404,119, making it the 102nd busiest airport in the country. The SJTA owns a small area around the terminal and leases runways and other land from the FAA.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: In 1942, Naval Air Station Atlantic City was built on of leased private land in Egg Harbor Township, New Jersey. Its purpose was to train various carrier air groups consisting of fighter, bomber and torpedo squadrons.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: In August 1943, NAS Atlantic City changed its mission to strictly fighter training, consisting of low and high altitude gunnery tactics, field carrier landing practice (FCLP), carrier qualifications (CQ), bombing, formation tactics, fighter direction, night operations and an associated ground school curriculum.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: NAS Atlantic City was decommissioned in June 1958 and transferred to the Airways Modernization Board (AMB), later taken over by the FAA. In November 1958 the then-Federal Aviation Agency, now Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), took over operations of the AMB. The lease transferred to the FAA and was sold for $55,000. Atlantic City decided to retain 84 of the 4,312 acres. The FAA expanded the former U.S. Navy land parcel to about and established the National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center research facility that eventually became the William J. Hughes Technical Center. The South Jersey Transportation Authority (SJTA) initially leased portions of the airport from the FAA and now serves as the airport owner and operator of the facility.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: When the Navy departed in 1958, the 119th Fighter Squadron of the New Jersey Air National Guard relocated to Atlantic City from their former base at Newark International Airport with their F-84F Thunderstreak aircraft, establishing an Air National Guard base on the site of the former naval air station. The current 177th Fighter Wing of the New Jersey Air National Guard has been at this location ever since.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: During the 1960s and early 1970s, the active duty U.S. Air Force's 95th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, stationed at Dover AFB, Delaware, maintained an Operating Location and Alert Detachment of F-106 Delta Darts at Atlantic City ANGB on 24-hour alert. After the 177th Fighter Wing reequipped with the F-106 in 1973, the 177th took on the air defence alert mission.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: In the fall of 1983, American International Airways attempted to operate a small hub at the airport with Douglas DC-9-30 jetliners with passenger service to Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Fort Lauderdale, Miami, Orlando, Pittsburgh, Tampa and West Palm Beach. ACY has also had US Airways jet service to Pittsburgh as well as US Airways Express turboprops to Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington, and Continental Express turboprops and regional jets to Cleveland Hopkins International Airport. This regional jet service for Continental Airlines was operated by ExpressJet Airlines with Embraer ERJs.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: Delta Air Lines also had flights to Boston on Delta Connection regional jets operated by Atlantic Coast Airlines until a few years ago. In addition, Delta Connection via its partner Comair operated flights to Cincinnati and Orlando, which ended on May 1, 2007. WestJet had Boeing 737 jetliner flights from ACY to Toronto, but ended them on May 9, 2010, leaving the airport with no international service. On April 1, 2014, United Airlines started service from Atlantic City to Chicago–O'Hare and Houston, but the service was discontinued on December 3, 2014. Air Canada had seasonal flights to Toronto in the Summer of 2015, but has decided not to return in the Summer of 2016, once again leaving the airport without international scheduled flights. Spirit is currently the sole tenant at the airport.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: Early in 2022, American Airlines announced they would start bus service from the airport to their airplanes hub located at Philadelphia International Airport. The bus service will be carried by American's bus service partner, Landline.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: Since 1958, the airport has been home to Atlantic City Air National Guard Base and the 177th Fighter Wing (177 FW), an Air Combat Command (ACC)-gained unit of the New Jersey Air National Guard, operating the F-16C/D Fighting Falcon. Since October 1998, the wing has had an active involvement in Operation Noble Eagle, Operation Southern Watch, Operation Northern Watch, Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. As an Air National Guard unit, the 177 FW has dual federal (USAF augmentation) and state (support to New Jersey) missions.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: ACY is also home to Coast Guard Air Station Atlantic City. CGAS Atlantic City was opened on May 18, 1998, and is the newest and largest single airframe unit and facility of the Coast Guard's air stations. It is a product of the merging of the former CGAS Brooklyn/Floyd Bennett Field, NY and Group Air Station Cape May, NJ into one unit. CGAS Atlantic City consists of 10 HH-65C Dolphin helicopters and it maintains two Dolphin helicopters in 30-minute response status. Approximately, 250 aviation personnel comprise the facility's full-time staff, augmented by additional part-time Coast Guard Reserve and Coast Guard Auxiliary personnel. CGAS Atlantic City also provides aircrews and aircraft to the Washington, D.C., area as part of Operation Noble Eagle, the Department of Defense USNORTHCOM / NORAD mission to protect U.S. airspace and, in this case, specifically around the nation's capital.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: Atlantic City International Airport covers at an elevation of 75 feet (23 m) above mean sea level. It has two runways: 4/22 is 6,144 by 150 feet (1,873 x 46 m) asphalt/concrete; 13/31 is 10,000 by 150 feet (3,048 x 46 m) asphalt.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: Atlantic City International Airport has one terminal. Several charter carriers operate out of the terminal, along with scheduled flights of Spirit Airlines. The terminal has a small layout, making it an alternative to Philadelphia International Airport or Newark Liberty International Airport.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: Passengers enter the terminal on the lower-level which has the check-in counters, a small grill and a gift shop. Baggage claim is on this level, with three carousels. After check-in, passengers proceed to the security checkpoint, also on this level. After the security checkpoint, stairs and escalators lead to the departures level. The 10 gates are here, with several open for use by charters and several used by the scheduled carriers. All gates are uniform, with no customization by the airlines. Also on the second level are a café, a bar and a newsstand.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: Atlantic City International Airport has a six-story parking garage with a covered walkway within steps to the terminal building. Surface parking is within walking distance and shuttle service is provided from the economy parking area to the terminal building.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: Taxi service is available at curbside and a shuttle service is provided by the Atlantic City Jitney Association, located in the airport terminal, outside of baggage claim. A shuttle bus brings passengers to the Egg Harbor City rail station, which provides service to the Atlantic City Line, which runs between the 30th Street Station in Philadelphia to the Atlantic City Rail Terminal. Shuttles to the Egg Harbor rail station connect to shuttles to the visitor's center at the FAA Technical Center and the Stockton University, as well as bus lines to the PATCO Speedline at the Lindenwold station.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: The South Jersey Transportation Authority will begin construction of a new aircraft rescue and firefighting station at Atlantic City International Airport. The new 45,000 square foot building will feature vehicle bays, administrative and staff living areas, enhanced equipment and apparatus facilities as well as room for training requirements.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: Work began in August 2011 upgrading the passenger screening facilities at airport. The checkpoint expansion will consist of the addition of three new screening lanes as well as improvements to the airport's infrastructure. The TSA will supply the new screening equipment for the expanded area. The expansion also includes development of a Federal Inspection Services station. Under this project, equipment will include additional passenger loading bridges and gates, new technological upgrades, baggage carousel improvements, added retail space and improved check-in capabilities.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: A bill has been submitted in the New Jersey legislature that would provide for a rail station at the airport that would become a part of NJ Transit's Atlantic City Line. No specific funding or budget has been drawn up, but estimates for the project are in the range of $25 million to $30 million.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: In 2017 the airport had 53,506 aircraft operations, an average of 147 per day: 41% military, 15% scheduled commercial, 35% general aviation and 9% air taxi. 46 aircraft were then based at this airport: 24% single-engine, 4% jet, 24% helicopter and 48% military.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: A technology park housing Next Generation Air Transportation System is currently under construction on the airport property on a lot near Amelia Earhart Boulevard and Delilah Road. The seven-building complex is set to contain of offices, laboratories and research facilities. The park will focus on developing new computer equipment that will transform the country's air-traffic control program into a satellite-based system. The first of the buildings was originally set to open in April 2012 and will contain a lab for the FAA as well as research space for other tenants.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: A second office park, the NextGen International Aviation Center for Excellence, is set to be built in nearby Hamilton Township, adjacent to the Hamilton Mall and Atlantic City Race Course, the latter of which is set to be renovated. A new transportation center at the site would transfer workers between the two complexes.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: In 2009, the SJTA awarded a contract to a Ventnor City-based construction firm to construct a hotel on a property leased from the FAA at the intersection of Tilton and Delilah Roads. Plans call for a 135-room hotel including some extended-stay suites, about of conference space, of retail space and possibly a restaurant. The hotel would be built to accommodate a new flood of business travelers brought by the NextGen technical park.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: The SJTA revealed plans for a major road improvement project that would link the airport directly to the Atlantic City Expressway, with construction beginning in 2013. The plan includes new ramps with two overpasses over the expressway. The road would connect Amelia Earhart Boulevard with a bridge over Airport Circle. Plans also call for building a service road with another overpass that would provide access to Delilah Road. Another project involves the installation of an overpass at the end of Amelia Earhart Boulevard next to the entrance to the FAA tech center. The proposed roadway would intrude upon a small section of a mobile home park and land owned by Egg Harbor Township. The project was delayed due to a lack of financing. The 2018 Statewide Transportation Improvement Program included the direct connector, with an estimated cost of $60 million, to be built from 2019 to 2020.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: In February 2011, the New Jersey Legislature authorized the Atlantic City Tourism District, which would promote continued development of tourism in the region. A provision included the potential transfer of operations for ACY to the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. New Jersey Governor Chris Christie in March 2013 ordered a takeover of the airport's operations by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: On July 26, 1969, TWA Flight 5787, a Boeing 707 operating as a training flight, crashed while performing a practice missed approach with an engine out on runway 13. All five crew members aboard were killed. The NTSB subsequently attributed the cause of the accident to be poor procedures for simulating engine failures and failure to apply the correct procedure for hydraulic failure, as well as loss of hydraulic power to the rudder in a critical flight condition.


title: Atlantic City International Airport

text: On October 2, 2021, Spirit Airlines Flight 3044, an Airbus A320neo, suffered a birdstrike on takeoff, resulting in the right engine catching on fire. After performing a successful takeoff rejection, the plane was evacuated safely, with only two minor injuries reported between the 102 passengers and seven crew members.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: The extraocular muscles (extrinsic ocular muscles), are the seven extrinsic muscles of the human eye. Six of the extraocular muscles, the four recti muscles, and the superior and inferior oblique muscles, control movement of the eye and the other muscle, the levator palpebrae superioris, controls eyelid elevation. The actions of the six muscles responsible for eye movement depend on the position of the eye at the time of muscle contraction.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: Since only a small part of the eye called the fovea provides sharp vision, the eye must move to follow a target. Eye movements must be precise and fast. This is seen in scenarios like reading, where the reader must shift gaze constantly. Although under voluntary control, most eye movement is accomplished without conscious effort. Precisely how the integration between voluntary and involuntary control of the eye occurs is a subject of continuing research. It is known, however, that the vestibulo-ocular reflex plays an important role in the involuntary movement of the eye.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: The levator palpebrae superioris is responsible for raising the upper eyelid, and this can be a voluntary or involuntary action. The other six extraocular muscles are involved in movements of the eye; these are the four recti (straight) muscles, and two oblique muscles.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: The four recti muscles are named according to their relative positions of attachment – the superior rectus muscle, lateral rectus muscle, medial rectus muscle, and inferior rectus muscle. The recti muscles are all of almost equal length of around 40 mm but the lengths of their associated tendons differ.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: The movements of the extraocular muscles take place under the influence of a system of extraocular muscle pulleys, soft tissue pulleys in the orbit. The extraocular muscle pulley system is fundamental to the movement of the eye muscles, in particular also to ensure conformity to Listing's law. Certain diseases of the pulleys (heterotopy, instability, and hindrance of the pulleys) cause particular patterns of incomitant strabismus. Defective pulley functions can be improved by surgical interventions.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: Four of the extraocular muscles have their origin in the back of the orbit in a fibrous ring called the common tendinous ring: the four recti muscles. The four recti muscles attach directly to the front half of the eye (anterior to the eye's equator), and are named after their straight paths. Note that medial and lateral are relative terms. Medial indicates near the midline, and lateral describes a position away from the midline. Thus, the medial rectus is the muscle closest to the nose. The superior and inferior recti do not pull straight back on the eye, because both muscles also pull slightly medially. This posterior medial angle causes the eye to roll with contraction of either the superior rectus muscle or the inferior rectus muscle. The extent of rolling in the recti is less than the oblique, and opposite from it.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: The "superior oblique" muscle originates at the back of the orbit (a little closer to the medial rectus, though medial to it), getting rounder as it courses forward to a rigid, cartilaginous pulley, called the trochlea, on the upper, nasal wall of the orbit. The muscle becomes tendinous about 10mm before it passes through the pulley, turning sharply across the orbit, and inserts on the lateral, posterior part of the globe. Thus, the superior oblique travels posteriorly for the last part of its path, going over the top of the eye. Due to its unique path, the superior oblique, when activated, pulls the eye downward and laterally.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: The last muscle is the "inferior oblique", which originates at the lower front of the nasal orbital wall, and passes under the LR to insert on the lateral, posterior part of the globe. Thus, the inferior oblique pulls the eye upward and laterally.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: The extraocular muscles are supplied mainly by branches of the ophthalmic artery. This is done either directly or indirectly, as in the lateral rectus muscle, via the lacrimal artery, a main branch of the ophthalmic artery. Additional branches of the ophthalmic artery include the ciliary arteries, which branch into the anterior ciliary arteries. Each rectus muscle receives blood from two anterior ciliary arteries, except for the lateral rectus muscle, which receives blood from only one. The exact number and arrangement of these ciliary arteries may vary. Branches of the infraorbital artery supply the inferior rectus and inferior oblique muscles.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: The nuclei or bodies of these nerves are found in the brain stem. The nuclei of the abducens and oculomotor nerves are connected. This is important in coordinating the motion of the lateral rectus in one eye and the medial action on the other. In one eye, in two antagonistic muscles, like the lateral and medial recti, contraction of one leads to inhibition of the other. Muscles show small degrees of activity even when resting, keeping the muscles taut. This "tonic" activity is brought on by discharges of the motor nerve to the muscle.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: The extraocular muscles develop along with Tenon's capsule (part of the ligaments) and the fatty tissue of the eye socket (orbit). There are three centers of growth that are important in the development of the eye, and each is associated with a nerve. Hence the subsequent nerve supply (innervation) of the eye muscles is from three cranial nerves. The development of the extraocular muscles is dependent on the normal development of the eye socket, while the formation of the ligament is fully independent.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: The oculomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV) and abducens nerve (VI) coordinate eye movement. The oculomotor nerve controls all muscles of the eye except for the superior oblique muscle controlled by the trochlear nerve (IV), and the lateral rectus muscle controlled by the abducens nerve (VI). This means the ability of the eye to look down and inwards is controlled by the trochlear nerve (IV), the ability to look outwards is controlled by the abducens nerve (VI), and all other movements are controlled by the oculomotor nerve (III)


title: Extraocular muscles

text: Intermediate directions are controlled by simultaneous actions of multiple muscles. When one shifts the gaze horizontally, one eye will move laterally (toward the side) and the other will move medially (toward the midline). This may be neurally coordinated by the central nervous system, to make the eyes move together and almost involuntarily. This is a key factor in the study of strabismus, namely, the inability of the eyes to be directed to one point.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: There are two main kinds of movement: conjugate movement (the eyes move in the same direction) and disjunctive (opposite directions). The former is typical when shifting gaze right or left, the latter is convergence of the two eyes on a near object. Disjunction can be performed voluntarily, but is usually triggered by the nearness of the target object. A "see-saw" movement, namely, one eye looking up and the other down, is possible, but not voluntarily; this effect is brought on by putting a prism in front of one eye, so the relevant image is apparently displaced. To avoid double vision from non-corresponding points, the eye with the prism must move up or down, following the image passing through the prism. Likewise conjugate torsion (rolling) on the anteroposterior axis (from the front to the back) can occur naturally, such as when one tips one's head to one shoulder; the torsion, in the opposite direction, keeps the image vertical.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: The muscles show little inertia - a shutdown of one muscle is not due to checking of the antagonist, so the motion is not ballistic.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: The vestibulo-ocular reflex is a reflex that stabilizes gaze when the head is moved. The reflex involves compensatory eye movements driven by inhibitory and excitatory signals.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: Below is a table of each extraocular muscle and their innervation, origins and insertions, and the primary actions of the muscles (the secondary and tertiary actions are also included, where applicable).


title: Extraocular muscles

text: Damage to the cranial nerves may affect the movement of the eye. Damage may result in double vision (diplopia) because the movements of the eyes are not synchronized. Abnormalities of visual movement may also be seen on examination, such as jittering (nystagmus).


title: Extraocular muscles

text: Damage to the oculomotor nerve (III) can cause double vision and inability to coordinate the movements of both eyes (strabismus), also eyelid drooping (ptosis) and pupil dilation (mydriasis). Lesions may also lead to inability to open the eye due to paralysis of the levator palpebrae muscle. Individuals suffering from a lesion to the oculomotor nerve may compensate by tilting their heads to alleviate symptoms due to paralysis of one or more of the eye muscles it controls.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: Damage to the trochlear nerve (IV) can also cause double vision with the eye adducted and elevated. The result will be an eye which can not move downwards properly (especially downwards when in an inward position). This is due to impairment in the superior oblique muscle.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: Damage to the abducens nerve (VI) can also result in double vision. This is due to impairment in the lateral rectus muscle, supplied by the abducens nerve.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: The initial clinical examination of the extraoccular eye muscles is done by examining the movement of the globe of the eye through the "six cardinal eye movements". When the eye is turned out (temporally) and horizontally, the function of the lateral rectus muscle is tested. When the eye is turned in (nasally) and horizontally, the function of the medial rectus muscle is being tested. When turning the eye down and in, the inferior rectus is contracting. When turning it up and in the superior rectus is contracting. Paradoxically, turning the eye up and out uses the inferior oblique muscle, and turning it down and out uses the superior oblique. All of these six movements can be tested by drawing a large "H" in the air with a finger or other object in front of a patient's face and having them follow the tip of the finger or object with their eyes without moving their head. Having them focus on the object as it is moved in toward their face in the midline will test "convergence", or the eyes' ability to turn inward simultaneously to focus on a near object.


title: Extraocular muscles

text: To evaluate for weakness or imbalance of the muscles, a penlight is shone directly on the corneas. Expected normal results of the corneal light reflex is when the penlight's reflection is located in the centre of both corneas, equally.


title: The Grey Zone

text: The Grey Zone is a 2001 written and directed by Tim Blake Nelson and starring David Arquette, Steve Buscemi, Harvey Keitel, Mira Sorvino, and Daniel Benzali. It is based on the book "Auschwitz: A Doctor's Eyewitness Account" written by Dr. Miklós Nyiszli.


title: The Grey Zone

text: The title comes from a chapter in the book "The Drowned and the Saved" by Holocaust survivor Primo Levi. The film tells the story of the Jewish "Sonderkommando" XII in the Auschwitz death camp in October 1944. These prisoners were made to assist the camp's guards in shepherding their victims to the gas chambers and then disposing of their bodies in the ovens.


title: The Grey Zone

text: The film opens in October 1944, in the Auschwitz-Birkenau extermination camp. A small group of "Sonderkommando", prisoners assigned to dispose of the bodies of other dead prisoners, are plotting an insurrection that, they hope, will destroy at least one of the camp's four crematoria and gas chambers. They are receiving firearms from Polish citizens in the nearby village and gunpowder from the UNIO munitions factory; the female prisoners who work in the UNIO are smuggling the powder to the men's camp amid the bodies of their dead workers. When the women's activity is eventually discovered by the Germans they are savagely tortured but they don't reveal the plot. A Hungarian-Jewish doctor, Miklós Nyiszli, who works for the Nazi doctor Josef Mengele in an experimental medical lab, has received permission from Mengele to visit his wife and daughter in the women's labor camp. Nyiszli is concerned about the safety of his family and believes that Mengele's orders will keep them from the gas chambers.


title: The Grey Zone

text: A new trainload of Hungarian Jewish prisoners arrives and are sent to the gas chambers. As the group is given instructions about "delousing", a fearful, angry man in the group begins shouting questions at one of the "Sonderkommandos", Hoffman, who has been issuing the instructions. Hoffman beats him to death in an outburst of frustration, to make the man stop talking. After the gassing of this group, a badly shaken Hoffman finds a young girl alive beneath a pile of bodies. He removes her from the chamber and after informing the leader of the insurgency, Schlermer, takes her to a storage room and summons Nyiszli, who revives her. The group decides to hide her in the children's camp. While the prisoners hide her in a dressing room, SS-"Oberscharführer" Eric Muhsfeldt suddenly walks in. Noticing that one of the prisoners present, Abramowics, is there illegally, he shoots him, prompting the girl to scream and to be discovered. Nyiszli then takes Muhsfeldt outside and tells him about the uprising but cannot tell him where or when it will begin. Muhsfeldt agrees to protect the young girl after the uprising is suppressed.


title: The Grey Zone

text: The insurrection begins and Crematorium IV is destroyed with the smuggled explosives. All the "Sonderkommando" prisoners who survive the explosions and gunfights with the SS are captured. They are held until the fire in the crematorium is extinguished, after which they are executed. Hoffmann and a fellow prisoner, Rosenthal, conclude that the girl will not be set free after she is forced to watch the executions. After all captives are shot, the girl is allowed to flee toward the main gate of the camp. Before she can run very far, Muhsfeldt draws his pistol and shoots her. The film closes with a voice-over recitation by the dead girl.


title: The Grey Zone

text: An 80 percent scale "model" of the Birkenau camp was built near Sofia, Bulgaria for the production of the film using the original architectural plans.


title: The Grey Zone

text: In the same year that he portrayed Eric Muhsfeldt in "The Grey Zone", Keitel played the opposite role of a U.S. Army denazification investigator in the film "Taking Sides".


title: The Grey Zone

text: The film holds a 68% "fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 82 reviews, with the consensus "A grim and devastating tale of the Holocaust." In 2009, Roger Ebert included it in his "Great Movies" series.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: Speed limits in Germany (German: "Geschwindigkeitsbegrenzung") are set by the federal government. All limits are multiples of 10 km/h. There are two default speed limits: 50 km/h (31 mph) inside built-up areas and 100 km/h (62 mph) outside built-up areas. While parts of the autobahns and many other freeway-style highways have posted limits up to 130 km/h (81 mph) based on accident experience, congestion and other factors, many rural sections have no general speed limit. The German Highway Code ("Straßenverkehrsordnung") section on speed begins with the requirement which may be rendered in English:


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: Any person driving a vehicle may only drive so fast that the car is under control. Speeds must be adapted to the road, traffic, visibility and weather conditions as well as the personal skills and characteristics of the vehicle and load.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: This requirement applies to all roads, and is similar to the "reasonable speed" legal obligation levied in other nations.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: Speed limits are enforced with a small tolerance. Driving merely 3 km/h (2 mph) or faster above the posted or implied speed limit is considered a punishable infraction in Germany. The speeding fines are set by federal law ("Bußgeldkatalog", schedule of fines).


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: The Nazi-era Road Traffic Act of 28 May 1934 imposed the first nationwide speed limit: maximum in urban areas, but no limit on rural highways or autobahns. In October 1939, the Nazis further throttled speeds in order to conserve fuel: in urban areas, elsewhere. After the war, the four Allied occupation zones established their own speed limits until the divided East German and West German republics were constituted in 1949; initially, the Nazi speed limits were restored in both East and West Germany.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: In December 1952 the West German legislature voted to abolish "all" speed limits, reverting to State-level decisions. However, rising traffic fatalities led to a partial reversal: an urban speed limit of became effective 1 September 1957, despite resistance by the German Auto Club. By 1970, fatalities had climbed to over 19,000; in 1972 a general rural speed limit of went into effect—except on motorways. At 14 November 1983 the Hamburg suburb of Buxtehude had the first implementation of limits in residential areas, a concept that became popular.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: East Germany's safety efforts primarily focused on restrictive traffic regulation; for examples, zero alcohol tolerance, on autobahns and outside cities. Within two years after German reunification in 1990, the availability of high-powered vehicles and a 54% increase in motorized traffic led to a doubling of annual traffic deaths, "despite" interim continuation of prior speed restrictions. An extensive program of the four Es (enforcement, education, engineering, and emergency response) brought the number of traffic deaths back to pre-unification levels after ten years while traffic regulations were conformed to western standards (e.g., 130 km/h (81 mph) Autobahn advisory limit, 100 km/h (62 mph) on other rural roads, and 0.5 milligrams BAC.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: German autobahns are famous for having no universal motorway speed limit, although about 30% of them do have some kind of temporary or permanent limit. Roughly 21% of German motorways have static limits (temporary or permanent) indicated by traditional traffic signs. An additional 9% are equipped with motorway control systems that can show variable speed limits depending on time, weather or traffic. Most of these are switched off (= no limit) under good conditions. In sections of the motorway system without speed limit it is common to be overtaken by cars or motorcycles travelling over 200 km/h (125 mph). However, a recommended speed limit ("Richtgeschwindigkeit") of 130 km/h (81 mph) applies. While driving at higher speeds is not punishable, the increased risk induced by higher speeds ("erhöhte Betriebsgefahr") may result in partial liability for damages. Moreover, the law forbids travel at speeds that would extend the vehicle's minimum halting distance beyond the driver's line of sight ("Sicherheitsabstand"). On all German roads, there are speed limits for trucks, buses, cars towing trailers, and small motorised vehicles (mopeds, etc.).


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: The introduction of a national speed limit for motorways and similar roads has been on the agenda of various political and environmentalist groups for decades, but at present, there are no plans on behalf of the federal government regarding the matter. However, most Germans are in favour of a general speed limit.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: In May 2020, the made a tight decision in favor of a general speed limit of 130 kilometers per hour on autobahns.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: The annual general meeting of the (ACE) also voted for a speed limit of 130 km/h on the autobahn in November 2019. The ACE chairman Stefan Heimlich welcomed the decision of the DVR and described it as „richtig und wichtig“ ("right and important").


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: The (VCD) advocates the introduction of a generally applicable maximum speed of 120 kilometers per hour on autobahns and expects this measure to provide more climate protection, higher traffic safety, fewer traffic jams due to lower speed differences and better efficiency for new vehicles, since a speed limit would end „das [...] Wettrüsten um immer schnellere Autos [...]“ ("the [ ...] arms race for ever faster cars [...]").


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: Greenpeace calls for a general speed limit on German highways, arguing that it would prevent traffic fatalities and protect the environment, that the majority of Germans are in favor of it, and that it would spur the construction of fuel-efficient cars. A general speed limit is "the fastest and cheapest measure to reduce greenhouse gases in the transport sector."


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: The nature conservation association WWF calls for a speed limit of 120 kilometers per hour on motorways.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: The Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy also advocates the introduction of a speed limit on German highways.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: The Deutsche Umwelthilfe is calling for a general speed limit of 100 km/h during the day and 120 km/h at night on autobahns, hoping that this will lead to greater climate protection and traffic safety, a better flow of traffic, a more relaxed driving situation and a redirection from building faster cars to more efficient ones.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: The Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland is in favour of a general speed limit, claiming it "would solve several problems at the same time" and "all rational reasons speak for it".


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: The Gewerkschaft der Polizei also advocates a general speed limit of 130 kilometers per hour on German motorways and argued: „Wir könnten [damit] Menschenleben retten und schwer Verletzte verhindern“ ("We could save lives and prevent seriously injured people [with that]").


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: In 2021, the Umweltbundesamt advocated the introduction of a speed limit on freeways of 120 kilometers per hour.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: The Evangelical Church in Central Germany (EKM) submitted a petition to the Bundestag in 2019 for the introduction of a general speed limit of 130 kilometers per hour on motorways in Germany. With this measure, the EKM expects, among other things, more environmental protection and traffic safety.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: The calls for the introduction of a speed limit to save energy and reduce direct and indirect health hazards of road traffic.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: According to a club-internal survey, 44% of ADAC members were against a general speed limit in 2022, while 52% are in favor of it.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: According to a survey which should primarily focus on bans and the respondents' subjective feeling of freedom associated with them conducted by the Allensbach Institute for Public Opinion Research, which belongs to the conservative political spectrum, approval of a 130 km/h speed limit on highways was 22% in 2021.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: In a representative survey conducted by the German online statistics portal Statista in 2020, 64% of the 2,115 respondents said that a 130 km/h speed limit should either "definitely" or "rather" be introduced on German highways.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: According to a 2021 survey conducted by the Versicherung Allianz Direct, around 71% of Germans are in favour of a speed limit on the autobahn.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: According to a representative poll conducted by YouGov in April 2022, 57% of the 2054 German respondents were in favor of a general speed limit of 130 km/h on autobahns, while 33% were against it and 10% were unsure.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: As part of its "TÜV Mobility Study 2022", the German Technical Inspection Agency (TÜV) asked various questions about the topic automobile in Germany. According to the study, 56% of Germans are in favor of a 130 km/h speed limit on the autobahn, while 37% are opposed to the measure.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: A majority of the CDU/CSU, SPD, AfD and FDP parliamentary groups rejected a general speed limit of 130 km/h on the autobahn in the 2019 Bundestag, the parliamentary groups from Bündnis 90/Die Grünen and the Left Party voted in favor of it. Overall, 70% of MPs voted against the speed limit, 18% in favor, 1% abstained and 11% did not take part in the vote. The SPD parliamentary group declared that it only voted against the speed limit because it did not succeed in convincing its coalition partner CDU/CSU parliamentary group of this.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: In 2020, the Bundesrat rejected a speed limit on autobahns, which was requested by its environmental committee.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: The news website Business Insider believes the lack of a general speed limit on autobahns is holding back the development of autonomous vehicles in Germany. For example, the massive differences in speed among road users on autobahns pose a problem for self-driving cars.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: The Federal Managing Director of the Deutsche Umwelthilfe sees this as a threat to the future of the German automotive industry with regard to autonomous driving: „Man kann moderne, digitale, autonome Fahrzeuge nicht testen, solange man befürchten muss, dass links ein Wagen mit 250 Stundenkilometern vorbeischießt.“ ("You cannot test modern, digital, autonomous vehicles as long as you have to fear that a car will shoot past at 250 kilometers per hour on the left.")


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: In terms of range and energy efficiency, drivers of electric cars need a stable flow of traffic that rarely requires braking and then accelerating, which is beneficial or even necessary to ensure a long-term return on investment. Such a traffic flow could be achieved with the help of a speed limit through more even speeds.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: A study from Brandenburg came to the conclusion that a speed limit on autobahns could harmonize the flow of traffic and increase the road capacity. Furthermore, if a speed limit of 130 km/h were introduced on previously unrestricted sections of the Brandenburg autobahns, the reduction in accident costs (€22.5 million) would be higher than the increase in time costs (€17.2 million) that occur at lower speeds due to longer travel times.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: Many congestion and traffic researchers believe that with a speed limit, traffic flow would improve due to smaller speed differentials and accompanying more consistent travel speeds, which would increase road capacity and reduce the risk of accidents and congestion. Some experts therefore even assume that with a speed limit, the average speed on autobahns could increase.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: Michael Müller-Görnert, transport policy spokesman for the VCD, assumes that travel times could be shorter in the long term if a speed limit is introduced.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: According to Professor Stefan Bauernschuster, Chair of Public Economics at the University of Passau, a speed limit would save time for all truck drivers as well as the up to 70% of drivers who do not drive much faster than 130 km/h, even on unlimited autobahns, because the lower probability and severity of accidents would result in fewer accident-related traffic jams and closures. Only those drivers who drive significantly faster than the recommended speed of 130 km/h would lose time as a result of the introduction of a speed limit.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: Also, according to the results of a study on the effects of a speed limit from Brandenburg, the introduction of a speed limit on highways has the potential to reduce travel times for all road users due to the harmonization of speeds and the associated reduced risk of congestion. In addition, the study concluded that one lane on highways with a speed limit can accommodate about 100 more cars per hour compared to one on unlimited highways.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: A speed limit would also reduce CO emissions. A general speed limit on autobahns is considered to be a quickly implementable, cost-effective, overviewable, realistic, consistent and certainly effective measure for climate protection.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: Tire abrasion caused by fast driving and frequent braking and acceleration, which leads to particulate matter, could also be reduced by a speed limit. The overall need for tires and thus also for natural rubber could also be reduced due to the lower wear.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: Professors Stefan Bauernschuster and Christian Traxler, from the Hertie School, argue in a 2021 study paper that since emissions of pollutants increase disproportionately at high speeds, a speed limit could be beneficial to health by reducing air pollution. Using small-scale geographic grid data from RWI Essen, they show that 14.9 million people in Germany live within two kilometers of the nearest stretch of highway without a speed limit. These values indicate that a significant portion of the population could benefit directly from the reduction in emissions associated with a speed limit.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: In addition, production costs and thus the final costs of cars could be reduced if they no longer had to be designed for high speeds.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: A speed limit could also reduce land consumption for the routing of highways and thus the costs for new construction, expansion and maintenance.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: An often cited argument for a general speed limit is also that it would reduce the number of road accidents. (For further information about safety figures on speed-limited and unlimited autobahns, see Autobahn#Safety.)


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: Some traffic researchers, such as Harald Kipke, expect the introduction of a general speed limit on autobahns to also improve safety on rural roads, because after a fast highway trip, the maximum speed of 100 km/h feels particularly slow on rural roads, making it harder for drivers to judge speeds and dangers there.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: In the wake of the 1973 oil crisis, a federal speed limit of 100 km/h (62 mph) on Autobahns was imposed to help save fuel and mitigate impending future shortages. Environmental or safety concerns were not considered at the time. The measure only lasted from December 1973 to March 1974; while the Schmidt administration and the Bundestag were in favor of keeping the speed limit, the Bundesrat successfully pushed to repeal the law in early 1974. As a compromise, a non-binding "advisory speed limit (Empfohlene Richtgeschwindigkeit)" was later introduced in 1978 on Autobahns and ""highways outside of built-up areas with a center divide or without a centre divide and a continuous lane for overtaking in both directions"".


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: As a kind of "gentlemen's agreement" between the German government and the country's car industry, German automakers then limited their high-performance cars to a top speed of 250 km/h (155 mph), a rule that is still adhered to today for standard production cars. The 1978 law is basically still in effect today, although unrestricted non-Autobahn highways have since become virtually non-existent.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: In contrast to the idea of being non-binding, a 1992 decision by Germany's Federal Court of Justice stated that the advisory speed limit must be observed, and that a motorist causing an accident at higher speeds cannot claim "unforeseeable events" as a defense. While this ruling had implications for the liability for accidents above 130 km/h, the advisory speed limit still today is not a mandatory top speed as such for travel on stretches of unrestricted Autobahn, and exceeding it is not illegal.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: The "Umweltbundesamt (Federal Environmental Agency)" repeated its recommendation of a binding blanket speed limit in early 2007, but the Merkel administration saw no need for it. A 2007 party convention held by the SPD resulted in the addition of a call for an Autobahn speed limit to the party's platform, against resistance within the SPD's own ranks. Although the SPD was in a government coalition with Angela Merkel's CDU at the time, the administration officially rejected the proposal.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: Even without a blanket speed limit, state and even local authorities have the power to restrict speeds. The district of Cologne has posted a speed limit on the heavily frequented Kölner Autobahnring / (Cologne Beltway). Effective 9 April 2008, the City-State of Bremen enacted a 120 km/h (75 mph) speed limit as state law, citing environmental concerns. Most Bremen motorways already had some speed restriction due to congestion and noise, and the new measure only affected 11 km (6.8 miles) of previously unrestricted Autobahn.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: After over a decade of almost complete absence from political discourse, the issue of imposing a blanket maximum speed limit on German Autobahns was readdressed by a German federal government committee on the future of mobility and emission reduction in January 2019. In its first preliminary report, the committee recommended higher fuel prices and the introduction of an Autobahn speed limit among other measures. German transport minister Andreas Scheuer collectively called the plans laid out in the report as „gegen jeden Menschenverstand“ ("going against all common sense"). Merkel cabinet speaker Steffen Seibert subsequently clarified that there were no plans for a general speed limit.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: Posted minimum speeds usually only apply to specific lanes like the common configuration on 6-lane roads with a minimum speed of 110 km/h (68 mph) on the left and 90 km/h (56 mph) on the centre lane. Vehicles which cannot sustain speeds of 60 km/h (37 mph) on the flat are not allowed on the Autobahn, however. Because of this, many European self-propelled cranes and other extra-heavy trucks which would be unsafe at much higher speeds, but similarly unsafe or impractical (and certainly obstructive) to drive for long distances on surface streets between job sites and depots, are engineered with maximum design speeds a little over 60 km/h - typically 62 km/h (39 mph) at governed engine speed in top gear.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: This advisory speed limit is taken into account by the case law. For instance someone who exceeds the target speed by about 60 percent, for no other reason than reaching home earlier, forbids any capacity to avoid an accident. A speed of 200 kilometres per hour makes it impossible to fastly avoid dangerous situations while compliance with 130 km/h and only moderate braking would have prevented the accident.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: Rural roads, except for motorways or other designated fast roads, have a speed limit of 100 km/h, which is routinely reduced to 70 km/h or 80 km/h where the road approaches a junction with a significant side-road. Tree-lined scenic routes, such as the German Avenue Road, often have 70 km/h limits. Lorries, some buses, and cars towing trailers have lower speed limits as well.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: In 2015, the German Safety Council recommended that the general limit is set at 80 km/h for rural roads narrower than 6 m. The proposed speed would reduce the differential with trucks 3.5 tonne lorries, which generally travel at 60 km/h. In 2013, rural roads spanned approximately 200,000 km, with at least 1,934 deaths on them.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: There is a general speed limit within built up areas, which are marked by distinctive rectangular yellow signs showing the name of the village, town or city, of 50 km/h but residential areas usually have a lower posted speed limit of 30 km/h. On arterial roads, the speed limit may be raised to 60 or 70 km/h; this higher speed limit will be posted in the usual way. Motorways crossing cities count as normal autobahns and can be used for travel within larger cities in many cases.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: There is a general speed limit of 80 km/h (50 mph) for trucks with a GVWR over 3,500 kg (7,716 lbs) and for vehicles with trailers. For vehicles with a GVWR of over 7,500 kg (16,534 lbs) the limit is set to 60 km/h (37 mph) except on autobahns (also 80 km/h). For coaches and cars with trailers the limit is increased to 100 km/h on autobahns (under certain requirements). Posted speed signs for trucks are not common, they can be seen on some dangerous curves or descents.


title: Speed limits in Germany

text: Trucks over 3,500 kg are required to have a built-in speed limiter for a maximum speed of 90 km/h (56 mph), and buses for a maximum speed of 100 km/h (62 mph). There are a few exceptions for army, police, fire brigade or scientific purposes.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: The pengő (; sometimes written as "pengo" or "pengoe" in English) was the currency of Hungary between 1 January 1927, when it replaced the korona, and 31 July 1946, when it was replaced by the forint. The pengő was subdivided into 100 fillér. Although the introduction of the pengő was part of a post-World War I stabilisation program, the currency survived for only 20 years and experienced the most serious case of hyperinflation ever recorded.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: The Hungarian participle "pengő" means 'ringing' (which in turn derives from the verb "peng", an onomatopoeic word equivalent to English 'ring') and was used from the 15th to the 17th century to refer to silver coins making a ringing sound when struck on a hard surface, thus indicating their precious metal content. (The onomatopoeic word used for gold coins is "csengő", an equivalent of English 'clinking' meaning a sharper sound; the participle used for copper coins is "kongó" meaning a deep pealing sound.) After the introduction of paper money of the Austro-Hungarian florin in Hungary, the term "pengő forint" was used to refer to florin coins literally meaning 'ringing florin', figuratively meaning 'silver florin' or 'hard currency'.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: At the beginning of the First World War precious metal coins were recalled from circulation, and in the early 1920s all coins disappeared because of the heavy inflation of the Hungarian korona. The name "pengő" was probably chosen to suggest stability. However, there was some controversy when choosing the name of the new currency, though the majority agreed that a Hungarian name should be chosen. Proposals included "turul" (a bird from Hungarian mythology), "turán" (from the geographical name and ideological term Turan), "libertás" (the colloquial name of the poltura coins issued by Francis II Rákóczi), and "máriás" (the colloquial name of coins depicting Mary, patroness of Hungary).


title: Hungarian pengő

text: The denomination of the banknotes was indicated in the languages of ethnicities living in the territory of Hungary. The name of the currency was translated as follows: "Pengö" ( "Pengö") in German, "pengő" ( "pengi") in Slovak, пенгов ( пенгова) in Cyrillic script Serbo-Croatian, пенгыв ( пенгывов, later пенге) in Rusyn, and "pengő" ( "pengei", later "penghei") in Romanian. Later "pengov" ( "pengova"), the Latin script Serbo-Croatian version was also added.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: The symbol of the pengő was a capital P placed after the numerals and it was divided into 100 fillér (symbol: f.).


title: Hungarian pengő

text: After the First World War, according to article 206 of the Treaty of Saint-Germain, the Austro-Hungarian Bank had to be liquidated and the Austro-Hungarian krone had to be replaced with a different currency, which in the case of Hungary was the Hungarian korona. This currency suffered a high rate of inflation during the early 1920s. A stabilisation program covered by a League of Nations loan helped bring down inflation, and the korona was replaced on 1 January 1927 by a new currency, the "pengő", which was introduced by Act XXXV of 1925. It was valued at 12,500 korona, and defined as 3,800 to one kilogram of fine gold – which meant that the pengő was pegged to the gold standard, but without exchange obligation. In the beginning the cover ratio (which included gold and – up to 50% – foreign exchange) was fixed at 20%, but this had to be raised to 33.3% within five years. This goal was reached quickly: the cover ratio was 51% on 31 July 1930. Later it decreased somewhat due to the economic and financial crisis caused by the Great Depression. Until then the pengő was the most stable currency of the region.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: The effects of the Great Depression reached Hungary after 1930, with agriculture being affected the most. The pengő had to be devalued, and the country's debt increased. After a short period of recovery, war preparations – the most important of which was the Győr Program – had loosened the country's financial and monetary discipline, which in turn led to the depreciation of the pengő currency. The territories given back to Hungary by the First and Second Vienna Awards in 1938 and 1940 were economically less developed; this was an additional factor which aggravated the country's economic situation.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: The war caused enormous costs and, later, even higher losses to the relatively small and open Hungarian economy. The national bank was practically under government control, and the issue of money was proportional to budgetary demands. By this time, silver coins disappeared from circulation, and, later, even bronze and cupro-nickel coins were replaced by coins made of cheaper metal. In one of the last acts of World War II, the Szálasi government took control of banknote printing and issued notes without any cover, first in Budapest, then in Veszprém when Budapest had to be evacuated. The occupying Soviet army issued its own military money according to the Hague Conventions.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: The pengő lost value dramatically after World War II, suffering the highest rate of hyperinflation ever recorded in human history. There were several attempts to slow it down, such as a 75% capital levy in December 1945. However, this did not stop the hyperinflation, and prices continued spiraling out of control, with ever-higher denominations introduced. The denominations "milpengő" (one million pengő) and "bilpengő" (short: "b.-pengő", one trillion () P) were used to simplify calculations, cut down the number of zeros and enable the reuse of banknote designs with only the colour and denomination name changed.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: The hyperinflation was so out of control that at one stage it took about 15 hours for prices to double and about four days for the pengő to lose 90% of its original value.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: The Hungarian government introduced the adópengő () on 1 January 1946, originally as an indexed unit of account for budget planning: the idea was that by setting the value of the adópengő in terms of regular pengős every day, the adópengő would try to protect the government budget from the effects of hyperinflation. The value of the adópengő in terms of regular pengős started at par, but the rate declined to 630 pengős by 1 May 1946, and then two sextillion pengős ( = 1,000 billion billion) by 31 July the same year.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: On 29 May 1946, Ferenc Gordon (then Minister of Finance) started issuing adópengő tax bills, and on 9 July the same year, the tax bills became legal tender. According to William Bomberger and Gail Makinen in October 1983, the issuance of the tax bills escalated the hyperinflation that eventually affected both regular pengős and adópengős—but the adópengő nevertheless forced the regular pengő into disuse as prices expressed in the latter became unbearable.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: On 11 July 1946, the Hungarian National Bank released the last pengő banknotes, for 100 million B-pengős ( = 100 quintillion): the Bank also printed banknotes for one billion B-pengős ( = one sextillion), but they never entered circulation. The last adópengő banknote, for  adópengős, followed on 25 July, and was equal to 200 octillion pengős ( = 200 billion billion billion) on 31 July.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: Ultimately, only a new currency could stabilize the country's financial situation. On 1 August 1946, Hungary reintroduced the forint at a ratio of 400 octillion pengős to 1 ( = 400 billion billion billion), dropping 29 zeroes from the old currency, or  adópengős to 1.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: According to Bomberger and Makinen, the circulation of regular pengő notes peaked at around 76 septillion pengős ( = 76 million billion billion) on 15 July 1946. The conversion rate therefore reduced the peak value of all circulating pengő notes to 0.019 filler ( forint), allowing the Hungarian National Bank to start over without having to redeem regular pengő notes. By contrast, the largest tax bill in circulation ( adópengős) was worth 50 fillérs each, and remained in circulation for a short time after the reform.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: The reform also attempted to reduce the risk of hyperinflation on the forint, by setting the exchange rate for gold at 13.21 forints per gram: however, nobody could convert forints at that rate.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: In 1926, coins of 1, 2, 10, 20 and 50 fillér and 1 P were introduced. The 1f and 2f pieces were bronze, the 10f, 20f and 50f were cupro-nickel and the 1 P coins were 64% silver. In 1929, 2 P coins were introduced, also in 64% silver. Commemorative 2 P and 5 P coins were also issued on anniversaries, with a non-commemorative 5 P coin issued in 1939.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: During the Second World War, the 1 f. coin ceased production, the 2 f. coins were issued in steel and then zinc, the 10 f. and 20 f. coins were minted in steel and the 1 P, 2 P and 5 P pieces were struck in aluminium.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: In 1945, the provisional government introduced new aluminium 5 P coins, the last issued before the hyperinflation.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: The Hungarian National Bank issued the first series of 5 P, 10 P, 20 P, 50 P, 100 P banknotes in the last days of 1926. These were offset prints on watermarked paper (except for the 5 P note). The banknotes featured notable Hungarian people on the obverse and either different locations in Budapest or paintings on the reverse; the banknotes also served educational purposes.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: A new series of banknotes soon had to be printed to meet higher security standards. The engravings were executed and designed by Endre Horváth, a Hungarian graphic artist. New 5 P, 10 P, 20 P, 50 P and 100 P pengő notes were printed and a 1000 P banknote was added to this series - however, the latter had such a high value that it was rarely used except for large cash transactions between businesses and banks. This new series had almost the same features as the previous ones. 5 P notes were soon replaced with silver coins.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: After the Vienna Award, Hungary had to supply its recovered territories with money. Since increasing the amount of silver coins would have been too expensive, 1 P and 5 P notes were issued in 1941 and 1938, respectively. These notes were of simple design and poor quality. Meanwhile, a series of new banknotes including 2 P, 5 P, 10 P and 20 P denominations was issued. The designs represented ornaments based on Hungarian folk art and people.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: At the end of the Second World War, the Szálasi government and the occupying Soviet army issued provisional notes in the territories under their power without any cover, exacerbating inflation.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: In 1945 and 1946, hyperinflation caused the issuance of notes up to 100 million b.-P (100 quintillion or 10 P). During the period of hyperinflation, note designs were reused, changing the colour and replacing the word pengő with first milpengő, then b.-pengő, to generate higher denominations. The largest denomination produced was 100 million b.-P (100 quintillion or 10 P). The note was initially worth about US$0.20. Notes of one milliard b.-P (one sextillion or 10 P) were printed but never issued.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: The introduction of adópengő was an attempt to limit inflation. It slowed inflation somewhat, but did not stop the depreciation of the currency. Bonds were issued by the Ministry of Finance in denominations between and adópengő. These simple design notes on low-quality paper became legal currency in the last months of the hyperinflation, almost completely replacing the pengő.


title: Hungarian pengő

text: The enormous amount of paper consumed during the production of adópengő notes caused a shortage of good quality security paper; this hindered the production of forint banknotes.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie is a 2016 comedy film directed by Mandie Fletcher, written by Jennifer Saunders and based on the television series "Absolutely Fabulous". It stars Saunders, Joanna Lumley, Julia Sawalha, June Whitfield (in her final film role) and Jane Horrocks, reprising their roles from the series. The film finds the drug-addicted, alcoholic PR agent Edina Monsoon and her best friend/codependent Patsy Stone on the run from the authorities after it is suspected they killed supermodel Kate Moss. The film serves as a de facto series finale for the show.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: The film premiered in London on June 29, 2016 and was released theatrically in the United Kingdom on July 1, 2016 and in the United States on July 22, 2016 by Fox Searchlight Pictures.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: The ever-glamorous and self-indulgent Edina Monsoon and Patsy Stone are now in their 60s. Edina's PR company is in decline and her attempt to release an autobiography falls through when a publisher rejects the manuscript. While setting up designer Huki Muki's fashion event, Patsy learns that supermodel Kate Moss is looking for a new PR agent, and immediately calls Edina to inform her. Their phone call is overheard by Edina's PR rival Claudia Bing when Edina accidentally leaves her phone on speaker.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: Edina and Patsy attend the fashion event with Edina's 13-year-old granddaughter Jane (who Edina calls "Lola"), while Saffron "Saffy" Monsoon, Edina's daughter and Jane's mother, goes out on a date with her new boyfriend Nick. Edina finds Kate Moss on a balcony overlooking the Thames. When both Edina and Claudia attempt to approach Kate, Edina accidentally topples Kate into the river. Among the witnesses is Lulu, one of Edina's remaining clients, who is at odds with Edina after being replaced as a performer at the event.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: Hysteria pervades the event as Kate is presumed dead. The media immediately storm the scene to report her disappearance and assumed death. Edina and Patsy, along with Jane, are taken into police custody. Saffy arrives to see them with Nick, who is revealed to be a police detective.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: After being released the following day, Edina becomes the target of hate mail and Internet trolls, while Patsy has been fired from her job because of her association with Edina. At night, the pair take a boat to the Thames to search for Kate's body, using Edina's personal assistant Bubble as a searching device, but she disappears into the water. They decide to flee the country before the media firestorm worsens, taking Jane and her credit card along. The three land in Cannes, while back in London, Saffy desperately searches for Jane, eventually discovering Edina's whereabouts through her stylist, Christopher.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: In Cannes, Edina and Patsy try to devise money-making schemes. After Patsy fails to convince a wealthy former lover to marry her, the two happen upon an elderly baroness who is the richest woman in the world. In order to gain access to her fortune, Patsy disguises herself as a man named Pat Stone and flirts with her. The following day, Patsy marries the baroness, granting Edina and Patsy the lavish lifestyle they had been pursuing, as they stay in a luxury hotel with Dame Joan Collins and Dame Edna Everage as fellow guests.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: Meanwhile, Emma Bunton, who saw Edina and Patsy in public, tells Lulu about their whereabouts. Lulu flies out to Cannes and meets with Bubble, who is alive and has bought a massive Cannes pavilion after embezzling money from Edina's company for years. Saffy arrives in Cannes with Nick and immediately heads to the hotel to find Jane, who is with Emma.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: A vengeful Lulu reports Edina and Patsy's location to the police. The police find Edina and Patsy and chase them through the town, the duo escaping in a hijacked three-wheeled delivery van. As they reach Bubble's pavilion, the van's brakes fail and they roll backwards and fall into an infinity pool attached to Bubble's house. Saffy arrives at the scene to find Edina and Patsy slowly sinking into the pool, still inside the van. Edina apologises to Saffy for being greedy, self-centred and a neglectful mother. In response, Saffy tells her that she loves her. When Bubble reveals that Kate Moss is alive, Edina immediately exits the van, realising she is innocent.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: People all over the world celebrate the fact that Kate Moss is alive. As Kate's new PR, Edina revitalises her own career and finally launches her autobiography, while Kate has been in even more demand since she was found. At Saffy's insistence, Patsy reluctantly reveals to the baroness that she is in fact a woman, not a man called "Pat". The baroness, in turn, reveals that she is actually a man.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: Multiple celebrity cameo appearances in the film were announced over the course of filming. In April 2016, Fox and the BBC confirmed a list of 60 cameos, most of which had not yet been announced, that would be featured in the film. They include:


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: Approximately 90 drag queens appeared in the film, including Daniel Lismore, The Vivienne and Charlie Hides.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: Saunders wrote and starred in "Absolutely Fabulous", a British television sitcom for the BBC, which originally ran for three series from 1992 to 1995, with intermittent additional series and specials until 2012. "Absolutely Fabulous" features the champagne-fueled duo of "international PR guru" Edina Monsoon (Saunders) and "sex-crazed magazine editor" Patsy Stone (Lumley). Additional characters include Edina's overly serious daughter Saffron (Sawalha), her daffy mother (Whitfield) and her even daffier assistant Bubble (Horrocks).


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: "Deadline Hollywood" broke the story in November 2011 that Saunders planned to begin writing a film version of the series in 2012. The film would begin with Edina and Patsy waking up hungover after a party on an oligarch's yacht, with everyone else gone and the boat somewhere the middle of the ocean. Saunders later said that she hoped to shoot the film on the French Riviera. In March 2012, Saunders confirmed that she was working on the script. She said of the plot: "Eddy and Patsy are looking for what they imagine glamorous life should be. They're constantly searching for that perfect place to sit or that perfect pair of sunglasses. It's Shangri-La and it just might be round the next corner. In the meantime, they decide to take Saffy's daughter off her—she calls her Jane, I call her Lola—but then they lose her."


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: Calling herself the "worst procrastinator in the world", Saunders said in January 2014: "Yes, well I have to do it now because I've threatened to a lot ... And then she [Lumley] kept announcing it and saying, "Yes, she's going to do it," and then Dawn French on our radio show at Christmas said, "I bet £100,000 that you don't write it," so now I have to write it, otherwise I have to pay her £100,000 ... Once you've had a bit of success, the last thing you want to do is go and make a flop. So the biggest fear in me is that it won't be good enough. I'm really nervous about it."


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: In April 2014, Saunders again confirmed on "BBC Breakfast" that she was in the process of writing the film. In April 2015, Saunders explained her delay with the script, saying, "I think that's why I didn't do it for a while ... I thought, 'Wouldn't it be awful if it was awful.'" She then quipped, "but we're all so old, and Joanna [Lumley] said to me, 'Do it before we die!' We're all on the brink." Saunders also noted, "[The film] involves all the main characters and virtually everyone that's ever been in the series—all those characters". Lumley confirmed in July 2015 that the film's script was finished and that production would begin in October. She said of the project, "We are all there, the same old gang ... It is going to be ravishingly funny! Very gorgeous ... and completely fabulous!"


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: In August 2015, "Deadline Hollywood" reported that "all of the original main cast" were confirmed, with Fox Searchlight Pictures in negotiations to co-finance and co-produce the film with BBC Films, and to handle worldwide distribution. It was also announced that Mandie Fletcher would direct, with Jon Plowman and Damian Jones as producers and Saunders, French and Maureen Vincent as executive producers. "Deadline Hollywood" later reported that Christine Langan, Steve Milne, Christian Eisenbeiss and Nichola Martin were also executive producing, with DanTram Nguyen, Vice President of Production and Katie Goodson-Thomas, Director of Production overseeing the project for Fox Searchlight Pictures.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: Principal photography began on 12 October 2015 in South of France. The BBC and Fox Searchlight subsequently released a promotional image of Saunders and Lumley in character on a yacht. Along with Sawalha, Whitfield and Horrocks, Kathy Burke was confirmed to be reprising her role as Magda, and Kate Moss, Emma Bunton and Lulu would appear in guest roles as themselves, as they had in the TV series. The cameo appearances of Harry Styles, Kelly Hoppen and Kim Kardashian were also announced as filming began. Multiple other celebrity cameos were announced during production, culminating with a 60-name list released in April 2016. "Deadline Hollywood"s Ali Jaafar wrote of the film's plot in October 2015: "Edina and Patsy are still oozing glitz and glamour, living the high life they are accustomed to; shopping, drinking and clubbing their way around London’s trendiest hotspots. Blamed for a major incident at an uber fashionable launch party, they become entangled in a media storm and are relentlessly pursued by the paparazzi. Fleeing penniless to the glamorous playground of the super-rich, the French Riviera, they hatch a plan to make their escape permanent and live the high life forevermore!"


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: In December 2015, the film sparked controversy and accusations of racism when it was announced that white Scottish comedian Janette Tough would be playing a Japanese character named Huki Muki. Korean-American comedian Margaret Cho accused the film of "yellowface", which she described as "when white people portray Asian people. And unfortunately it's happening in this film." Upon release of the film it became apparent that the character was not, in fact, Japanese but Scottish. When asked about the controversy, Saunders replied that "the whole film is about people being what they're not, Huki Muki is a brand, she is the designer and she looks a bit Japanese, but the moment she opens her mouth she's from Glasgow. There's no yellow makeup..."


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: On 10 June 2016, Australian singer Kylie Minogue released a cover version of the series' theme song "This Wheel's on Fire" as the official theme for the film. The soundtrack, which also includes songs from Paloma Faith (whose "Ready for the Good Life" appears in the film's trailer), La Roux, Jason Derulo, Eartha Kitt, Nancy Sinatra, Santigold and others, was released on 1 July 2016 via Rhino Records. It debuted at number 38 on the ARIA Albums Chart in Australia on 6 August.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: "Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie" had its world premiere at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on 29 June 2016. The film was released theatrically in the United Kingdom on 1 July 2016 by 20th Century Fox, and was subsequently released in the UK on DVD and Blu-ray on 5 December 2016. In the United States, it was released in select theaters on 22 July 2016 by Fox Searchlight Pictures.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: "Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie" has grossed $39.2 million worldwide, including $19.5 million in the United Kingdom, $4.7 million in the United States and $6.2 million in Australia.


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 58% based on 157 reviews; the average rating is 5.52/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie" picks up pretty much where its source material left off, delivering an adaptation that, as fans of this British export might say, does what it says on the tin." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 59 out of 100 based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie

text: Saunders had at one point hinted that a sequel would be considered if the film performed well at the box office. However, on 29 November 2016, Saunders confirmed that she is "not doing anything more with "Ab Fab"", as she wants to focus on new projects and spend more time with her family.


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: Elizabeth Lee Wurtzel (July 31, 1967 – January 7, 2020) was an American writer, journalist, and lawyer known for the confessional memoir "Prozac Nation", which she published at the age of 27. Her work often focused on chronicling her personal struggles with depression, addiction, career, and relationships. Wurtzel's work drove a boom in confessional writing and the personal memoir genre during the 1990s, and she was viewed as a voice of Generation X. In later life, Wurtzel worked briefly as an attorney before her death from breast cancer.


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: Wurtzel grew up in a Jewish family on the Upper West Side of New York City and attended the Ramaz School. Her parents, Lynne Winters and Donald Wurtzel, divorced when she was young, and Wurtzel was primarily raised by her mother, who worked in publishing and as a media consultant. In a 2018 article in "The Cut", Wurtzel wrote that she discovered in 2016 that her biological father was photographer Bob Adelman, who had worked with her mother in the 1960s.


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: As described in her memoir "Prozac Nation", Wurtzel's depression began between the ages of 10 and 12. Wurtzel admitted to cutting herself when she was in adolescence, and of spending her teenage years in an environment of emotional angst, substance misuse, bad relationships, and frequent fights with family members. A gifted student, Wurtzel went on to attend Harvard College, where she continued to struggle with depression and substance abuse.


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: While an undergraduate at Harvard in the late 1980s, Wurtzel wrote for "The Harvard Crimson" and received the 1986 "Rolling Stone" College Journalism Award for a piece about Lou Reed. She also interned at "The Dallas Morning News", but was fired after being accused of plagiarism. She received a B.A. degree in comparative literature from Harvard in 1989.


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: Wurtzel subsequently moved to Greenwich Village in New York City and found work as a pop music critic for "The New Yorker" and "New York Magazine". "The New York Times" book critic Ken Tucker characterized her contributions to the former publication as "unintentionally hilarious." In 1997 Dwight Garner wrote in Salon.com that her column "was so roundly despised that I sometimes felt like its only friend in the world."


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: Wurtzel was best known for her best-selling memoir "Prozac Nation" (1994), published when she was 27. The book chronicles her battle with depression as a college undergraduate and her eventual treatment with the medication Prozac. Michiko Kakutani wrote in "The New York Times", "Wrenching and comical, self-indulgent and self-aware, "Prozac Nation" possesses the raw candor of Joan Didion's essays, the irritating emotional exhibitionism of Sylvia Plath's "The Bell Jar", and the wry, dark humor of a Bob Dylan song." The paperback was a "New York Times" bestseller. The film adaptation, which starred Christina Ricci, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 8, 2001.


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: Wurtzel's first book after "Prozac Nation" was titled "Bitch: In Praise of Difficult Women" (1998). The book earned a mixed review from Karen Lehrman in "The New York Times"; Lehrman wrote that while "Bitch" "is full of enormous contradictions, bizarre digressions and illogical outbursts, it is also one of the more honest, insightful and witty books on the subject of women to have come along in a while."


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: "More, Now, Again" (2001), was the follow up memoir to "Prozac Nation" and centered primarily on her addictions to cocaine and Ritalin. The book discusses her drug induced obsession with tweezing as a form of self-harm, and recounts her behavior while writing "Bitch", among other subjects. It received generally negative reviews. For "Salon", Peter Kurth wrote that Wurtzel "imagines that every word she utters and every thought that pops into her head is fraught with meaning and portent. And still her new book goes nowhere." He called the book "dysfunctional," characterized the author as an "overage adolescent," and concluded, "Sorry, Elizabeth. Wake up dead next time and you might have a book on your hands."


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: In "The Guardian", Toby Young wrote that "Wurtzel's overweening self-regard oozes from every sentence" and concluded, "In a sense, "More, Now, Again" is the reductio ad absurdum of this whole self-obsessed genre: it's a confessional memoir by someone who has nothing to confess. Wurtzel has nothing to declare apart from her self-adoration. A better title for it would be "Me, Myself, I.""


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: "[W]hat a messy load it is," wrote Pace University professor Judith Schlesinger in "The Baltimore Sun". Schlesinger wrote that Wurtzel focused on "her contempt for other people—including her readers, who are expected to wade through her sloppy story, buy her shallow rationalizations, and tolerate her incessant tone of self-congratulation and entitlement."


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: In 2004, Wurtzel applied to Yale Law School. She later wrote that she never intended to pursue a career as a lawyer, but rather had simply wanted to attend law school. She was accepted at Yale even though "Her combined LSAT score of 160 was, as she put it, 'adequately bad' ... 'Suffice it to say I was admitted for other reasons,' Wurtzel said. 'My books, my accomplishments.'" She was a summer associate at Wilmer Cutler Pickering Hale and Dorr. She received her J.D. in 2008, but failed the New York state bar exam on her first attempt.


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: The legal community criticized Wurtzel for holding herself out as a lawyer in interviews, because she was not licensed to practice law in any jurisdiction at the time. Wurtzel passed the February 2010 New York State bar exam, and was employed full-time at Boies, Schiller & Flexner in New York City from 2008 to 2012. She continued to work for the firm as a case manager and on special projects. In July 2010, she wrote in the Brennan Center for Justice blog to make a proposal for the abolition of bar exams.


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: While an intern at the "Dallas Morning News", Wurtzel was fired, reportedly for plagiarism, although a 2002 "The New York Times" interview suggested that she had fabricated quotations in an article that was never published.


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: On September 21, 2008, after the suicide of writer David Foster Wallace, Wurtzel wrote an article for "New York" magazine about the time she had spent with him. She acknowledged that "I never knew David well."


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: In January 2009, she wrote an article for "The Guardian", arguing that the vehemence of opposition demonstrated in Europe to Israel's actions in the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict, when compared to the international reaction to human rights abuses in the People's Republic of China, Darfur, and Arab countries, suggested an antisemitic undercurrent fueling the outrage.


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: In 2009, Wurtzel published an article in "Elle" magazine about societal pressures related to aging. Regretting her youth of casual sex and drug-taking, and realizing that she was not as beautiful as she once had been, she reflected that "whoever said youth is wasted on the young actually got it wrong; it's more that maturity is wasted on the old."


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: Wurtzel's publisher, Penguin, sued her in September 2012 in an effort to reclaim a $100,000 advance for a 2003 book contract for "a book for teenagers to help them cope with depression" that Wurtzel failed to complete. Of the $100,000, Penguin advanced Wurtzel $33,000 and sought interest of $7,500, claiming to have suffered detriment at Wurtzel's expense. The case was dismissed with prejudice in 2013.


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: In early 2013, Wurtzel published a "New York" magazine article lamenting the unconventional choices she had made in life, including heroin use and spending much of a lucrative publisher advance on a costly Birkin bag, and her failure to marry, form a family, buy a house, save money or invest for retirement. "At long last, I had found myself vulnerable to the worst of New York City, because at 44 my life was not so different from the way it was at 24," she wrote. The article was widely criticized. In "Slate", Amanda Marcotte called the piece Wurtzel's "latest word dump" and remarked that it was "as lengthy as it is incoherent."


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: Writing in "The New Republic", Noreen Malone said of the piece that "Wurtzel wants us to know that she's a mess, and kindly invites us to rubberneck." Prachi Gupta for "Salon" characterized the essay as "rambling" and "self-involved." In "The New Yorker", Meghan Daum called the piece "self-aggrandizing, disjointed, and, in its most egregious moments, leaves the impression that her editors might have been egging her on—or worse, taking advantage of what sometimes looks like a fairly precarious psychological state—in order to ensure maximum blogospheric outrage." By contrast, in "The New Yorker" Jia Tolentino called the piece "one of the best things she ever wrote."


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: In January 2015, Wurtzel published a short book titled "Creatocracy" under Thought Catalog's publishing imprint, TC Books. It is based on the thesis she wrote about intellectual property law upon graduation from Yale Law school.


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: Wurtzel met photo editor and aspiring novelist James Freed Jr. in October 2013 at an addiction-themed reading. They became engaged in September 2014 and married in May 2015, while she was undergoing therapy. The couple later separated, but remained close. They completed their divorce papers, but never filed them; they were still married when she died.


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: In a 2018 article in "The Cut", Wurtzel wrote that she discovered in 2016 that her biological father was photographer Bob Adelman, who had worked with her mother in the 1960s. As a result, she labeled herself a bastard.


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: In February 2015, Wurtzel announced she had breast cancer, "which like many things that happen to women is mostly a pain in the ass. But compared with being 26 and crazy and waiting for some guy to call, it's not so bad. If I can handle 39 breakups in 21 days, I can get through cancer." She said of her double mastectomy and reconstruction, "It is quite amazing. They do both at the same time. You go in with breast cancer and come out with stripper boobs."


title: Elizabeth Wurtzel

text: Wurtzel died in Manhattan from leptomeningeal disease as a complication of metastasized breast cancer on January 7, 2020, at age 52.


title: Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)

text: The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party (spelled "Ba'th" or "Baath", "resurrection" or "renaissance"; "Ḥizb al-Ba‘th al-‘Arabī al-Ishtirākī"), also referred to as the pro-Iraqi Ba'ath movement, is a Ba'athist political party which was headquartered in Baghdad, Iraq until 2003. It is one of two parties (with identical names) which emerged from the 1966 split of the original Ba'ath Party.


title: Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)

text: In 1966, the original Ba'ath Party was split in half; one half was led by the Damascus leadership of the Ba'ath Party which established a party in Syria and the other half with its leadership in Baghdad. The two Ba'ath parties retained the same name and maintained parallel structures in the Arab world, but relations became so antagonistic that Syria supported Iran against Iraq during the bloody Iran–Iraq War; it also joined the U.S.-led coalition against Iraq in the Gulf War. The Ba'athists seized power in Iraq for the first time in 1963, but were deposed several months later. The party's regional organisation governed Iraq between 1968 and 2003, for many years under the leadership of Saddam Hussein. The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region was banned in 2003 by the Coalition Provisional Authority following the invasion of Iraq.


title: Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)

text: Note: for the 1st–8th National Congresses, see the national congresses held by the unified, pre-February 1966 Ba'ath Party.


title: Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)

text: Following the 1966 Syrian coup d'état, which overthrew the Aflaqite faction led by Michel Aflaq, Salah al-Din al-Bitar, Munif al-Razzaz and others, the original Ba'ath Party split into Iraqi-dominated and a Syrian-dominated ba'ath movements. The two movements established separate National Commands; the National Command was in theory the highest party body in both movements and controlled their respective ba'athist movements. However, in both countries the National Command was under the control of its respective Regional Command. In the Iraqi-dominated Ba'ath movement, all National Command members came from their regional branch—for instance, there was always a member representing the Ba'ath Party branch in Jordan. In theory, the National Command was the highest party organ between national congresses, with the power to control the affairs of Regional Commands in other regions (countries).