title: Joyce Kilmer

text: Alfred Joyce Kilmer (December 6, 1886 – July 30, 1918) was an American writer and poet mainly remembered for a short poem titled "Trees" (1913), which was published in the collection "Trees and Other Poems" in 1914. Though a prolific poet whose works celebrated the common beauty of the natural world as well as his Roman Catholic religious faith, Kilmer was also a journalist, literary critic, lecturer, and editor. At the time of his deployment to Europe during World War I, Kilmer was considered the leading American Roman Catholic poet and lecturer of his generation, whom critics often compared to British contemporaries G. K. Chesterton (1874–1936) and Hilaire Belloc (1870–1953). He enlisted in the New York National Guard and was deployed to France with the 69th Infantry Regiment (the famous "Fighting 69th") in 1917. He was killed by a sniper's bullet at the Second Battle of the Marne in 1918 at the age of 31. He was married to Aline Murray, also an accomplished poet and author, with whom he had five children.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: While most of his works are largely unknown today, a select few of his poems remain popular and are published frequently in anthologies. Several critics—including both Kilmer's contemporaries and modern scholars—have dismissed Kilmer's work as being too simple and overly sentimental, and suggested that his style was far too traditional, even archaic. Many writers, including notably Ogden Nash, have parodied Kilmer's work and style—as attested by the many imitations of "Trees".


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: Kilmer was born December 6, 1886, in New Brunswick, New Jersey, the fourth and youngest child, of Annie Ellen Kilburn (1849–1932), a minor writer and composer, and Dr. Frederick Barnett Kilmer (1851–1934), a physician and analytical chemist employed by the Johnson and Johnson Company and inventor of the company's baby powder. He was named Alfred Joyce Kilmer after two priests at Christ Church in New Brunswick: Alfred R. Taylor, the curate; and the Rev. Dr. Elisha Brooks Joyce (1857–1926), the rector. Christ Church is the oldest Episcopal parish in New Brunswick and the Kilmer family were parishioners. Rector Joyce, who served the parish from 1883 to 1916, baptised the young Kilmer, who remained an Episcopalian until his 1913 conversion to Catholicism. Kilmer's birthplace in New Brunswick, where the Kilmer family lived from 1886 to 1892, is still standing and houses a small museum to Kilmer, as well as a few Middlesex County government offices.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: Kilmer entered Rutgers College Grammar School (now Rutgers Preparatory School) in 1895 at the age of 8. During his years at the Grammar School, Kilmer was editor-in-chief of the school's paper, the "Argo", and loved the classics but had difficulty with Greek. He won the first Lane Classical Prize, for oratory, and obtained a scholarship to Rutgers College which he would attend the following year. Despite his difficulties with Greek and mathematics, he stood at the head of his class in preparatory school.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: After graduating from Rutgers College Grammar School in 1904, he continued his education at Rutgers College (now Rutgers University) from 1904 to 1906. At Rutgers, Kilmer was associate editor of the "Targum", the campus newspaper, and a member of the Delta Upsilon fraternity. However, he was unable to complete the curriculum's rigorous mathematics requirement and was asked to repeat his sophomore year. Under pressure from his mother, Kilmer transferred to Columbia University in New York City.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: At Columbia, Kilmer was vice-president of the Philolexian Society (a literary society), associate editor of "Columbia Spectator" (the campus newspaper), and member of the Debating Union. He completed his Bachelor of Arts (A.B.) degree and graduated from Columbia on May 23, 1908. Shortly after graduation, on June 9, 1908, he married Aline Murray (1888–1941), a fellow poet to whom he had been engaged since his sophomore year at Rutgers. The Kilmers had five children: Kenton Sinclair Kilmer (1909–1995); Rose Kilburn Kilmer (1912–1917); Deborah Clanton Kilmer (1914–1999), who became a nun ("Sister Michael") at the Saint Benedict Monastery, St. Joseph, Minnesota; Michael Barry Kilmer (1916–1927); and Christopher Kilmer (1917–1984).


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: In the autumn of 1908, Kilmer was employed teaching Latin at Morristown High School in Morristown, New Jersey. At this time, he began to submit essays to "Red Cross Notes" (including his first published piece, an essay on the "Psychology of Advertising") and his early poems to literary periodicals. Kilmer also wrote book reviews for "The Literary Digest", "Town & Country", "The Nation", and "The New York Times". By June 1909, Kilmer had abandoned any aspirations to continue teaching and relocated to New York City, where he focused solely on developing a career as a writer.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: From 1909 to 1912, Kilmer was employed by Funk and Wagnalls, which was preparing an edition of "The Standard Dictionary" that would be published in 1912. According to Hillis, Kilmer's job "was to define ordinary words assigned to him at five cents for each word defined. This was a job at which one would ordinarily earn ten to twelve dollars a week, but Kilmer attacked the task with such vigor and speed that it was soon thought wisest to put him on a regular salary."


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: In 1911, Kilmer's first book of verse was published, entitled "Summer of Love." Kilmer later wrote "...some of the poems in it, those inspired by genuine love, are not things of which to be ashamed, and you, understanding, would not be offended by the others."


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: In 1912, Kilmer became a special writer for the "New York Times Review of Books" and the "New York Times Sunday Magazine" and was often engaged in lecturing. He moved to Mahwah, New Jersey, where he resided until his service and death in World War I. By this time he had become established as a published poet and as a popular lecturer. According to Robert Holliday, Kilmer "frequently neglected to make any preparation for his speeches, not even choosing a subject until the beginning of the dinner which was to culminate in a specimen of his oratory. His constant research for the dictionary, and, later on, for his New York Times articles, must have given him a store of knowledge at his fingertips to be produced at a moment's notice for these emergencies."


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: When the Kilmers' daughter Rose (1912–1917) was stricken with poliomyelitis (also known as infantile paralysis) shortly after birth, they turned to their religious faith for comfort. A series of correspondence between Kilmer and Father James J. Daly led the Kilmers to convert to Roman Catholicism, and they were received in the church in 1913. In one of these letters, Kilmer writes that he "believed in the Catholic position, the Catholic view of ethics and aesthetics, for a long time," and he "wanted something not intellectual, some conviction not mental – in fact I wanted Faith." Kilmer would stop "every morning for months" on his way "to the office and prayed for faith," claiming that when "faith did come, it came, I think, by way of my little paralyzed daughter. Her lifeless hands led me; I think her tiny feet know beautiful paths. You understand this and it gives me a selfish pleasure to write it down."


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: With the publication of "Trees" in the magazine "Poetry" in August 1913, Kilmer gained immense popularity as a poet across the United States. He had established himself as a successful lecturer—particularly one seeking to reach a Catholic audience. His close friend and editor Robert Holliday wrote that it "is not an unsupported assertion to say that he was in his time and place the laureate of the Catholic Church." "Trees and Other Poems" (1914) was published the following year. This collection also introduced the popular poem "The House With Nobody In It". Over the next few years, Kilmer was prolific in his output, managing an intense schedule of lectures, publishing a large number of essays and literary criticism, and writing poetry. In 1915 he became poetry editor of "Current Literature" and contributing editor of "Warner's Library of the World's Best Literature". In 1916 and 1917, before the American entry into World War I, Kilmer would publish four books: "The Circus and Other Essays" (1916), a series of interviews with literary personages entitled "Literature in the Making" (1917), "Main Street and Other Poems" (1917), and "Dreams and Images: An Anthology of Catholic Poets" (1917).


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: In April 1917, a few days after the United States entered World War I, Kilmer enlisted in the Seventh Regiment of the New York National Guard. In August, Kilmer was assigned as a statistician with the 165th Infantry Regiment (better known as the re-designated "Fighting 69th", the 69th New York Infantry Regiment), of the 42nd "Rainbow" Division, and quickly rose to the rank of sergeant. Though he was eligible for commission as an officer and often recommended for such posts during the course of the war, Kilmer refused, stating that he would rather be a sergeant in the Fighting 69th than an officer in any other regiment.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: Shortly before his deployment to Europe, the Kilmers' daughter Rose had died, and twelve days later, their son Christopher was born. Before his departure, Kilmer had contracted with publishers to write a book about the war, deciding upon the title "Here and There with the Fighting Sixty-Ninth". The regiment arrived in France in November 1917, and Kilmer wrote to his wife that he had not written "anything in prose or verse since I got here—except statistics—but I've stored up a lot of memories to turn into copy when I get a chance." Kilmer did not write such a book; however, toward the end of the year, he did find time to write prose sketches and poetry. The most notable of his poems during this period was "Rouge Bouquet" (1918) which commemorated the deaths of two dozen members of his regiment in a German artillery barrage on American trench positions in the Rouge Bouquet forest north-east of the French village of Baccarat. At the time, this was a relatively quiet sector of the front, but the first battalion was struck by a German heavy artillery bombardment on the afternoon of March 7, 1918, that buried 21 men of the unit, killing 19 (of which 14 remained entombed).


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: Kilmer sought more hazardous duty and was transferred to the military intelligence section of his regiment, in April 1918. In a letter to his wife, Aline, he remarked: "Now I'm doing work I love – and work you may be proud of. None of the drudgery of soldiering, but a double share of glory and thrills." According to Hillis, Kilmer's fellow soldiers had accorded him much respect for his battlefield demeanour—"He was worshipped by the men about him. I have heard them speak with awe of his coolness and his nerve in scouting patrols in no man's land. This coolness and his habit of choosing, with typical enthusiasm, the most dangerous and difficult missions, led to his death."


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: During the Second Battle of Marne there was heavy fighting throughout the last days of July 1918. On July 30, 1918, Kilmer volunteered to accompany Major "Wild Bill" Donovan (later, in World War II, the founder of the Office of Strategic Services, forerunner to the Central Intelligence Agency) when Donovan's battalion (1–165th Infantry) was sent to lead the day's attack.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: During the course of the day, Kilmer led a scouting party to find the position of a German machine gun. When his comrades found him, some time later, they thought at first that he was peering over the edge of a little hill, where he had crawled for a better view. When he did not answer their call, they ran to him and found him dead. According to Father Francis P. Duffy: “A bullet had pierced his brain. His body was carried in and buried by the side of Ames. God rest his dear and gallant soul.” A sniper's bullet likely killed him immediately. According to military records, Kilmer died on the battlefield near Muercy Farm, beside the Ourcq River near the village of Seringes-et-Nesles, in France, on July 30, 1918, at the age of 31. For his valor, Kilmer was posthumously awarded the Croix de Guerre (War Cross) by the French Republic.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: Kilmer was buried in the Oise-Aisne American Cemetery and Memorial, near Fere-en-Tardenois, Aisne, Picardy, France just across the road and stream from the farm where he was killed. A cenotaph erected to his memory is located on the Kilmer family plot in Elmwood Cemetery, in North Brunswick, New Jersey. A Memorial Mass was celebrated at St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York City on October 14, 1918.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: Joyce Kilmer's reputation as a poet is staked largely on the widespread popularity of one poem—"Trees" (1913). It was first published in the August 1913 issue of "Poetry: A Magazine of Verse" which had begun publishing the year before in Chicago, Illinois and was included as the title poem in a collection of poems "Trees and Other Poems" (1914). According to Kilmer's oldest son, Kenton, the poem was written on February 2, 1913, when the family resided in Mahwah, New Jersey.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: Many locations including Rutgers University (where Kilmer attended for two years), University of Notre Dame, as well as historians in Mahwah, New Jersey and in other places, have boasted that a specific tree was the inspiration for Kilmer's poem. However, Kenton Kilmer refutes these claims, remarking that,


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: The popular appeal of this simple poem is likely the source of its endurance despite the continuing negative opinion of the poem's merits from scholars and critics. According to Robert Holliday, Kilmer's friend and editor, "Trees" speaks "with authentic song to the simplest of hearts" and that "(t)he exquisite title poem now so universally known, made his reputation more than all the rest he had written put together. That impeccable lyric which made for immediate widespread popularity." Its popularity has also led to parodies of the poem—some by noted poets and writers. The pattern of its first lines ("I think that I shall never see / A poem lovely as a tree.") is of seemingly simple rhyme and meter and easy to mimic along with the poem's choice of metaphors. One of the best known parodies is "Song of the Open Road" by American humorist and poet Ogden Nash (1902–1971):


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: Kilmer's early works were inspired by, and were imitative of, the poetry of Algernon Charles Swinburne, Gerard Manley Hopkins, Ernest Dowson, Aubrey Beardsley, and William Butler Yeats (and the Celtic Revival). It was later through the influence of works by Coventry Patmore, Francis Thompson, and those of Alice Meynell and her children Viola Meynell and Francis Meynell, that Kilmer seems to have become interested in Catholicism. Kilmer wrote of his influences:


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: Because he was initially raised Episcopalian (or Anglican), Kilmer became literary editor of the Anglican weekly, "The Churchman", before his conversion to Catholicism. During this time he did considerable research into 16th and 17th century Anglican poets as well as metaphysical, or mystic poets of that time, including George Herbert, Thomas Traherne, Robert Herrick, Bishop Coxe, and Robert Stephen Hawker (the eccentric vicar of the Church of Saint Morwenna and Saint John the Baptist at Morwenstow in Cornwall)—the latter whom he referred to as "a coast life-guard in a cassock." These poets also had an influence on Kilmer's writings.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: Critics compared Kilmer to British Catholic writers Hilaire Belloc and G. K. Chesterton—suggesting that his reputation might have risen to the level where he would have been considered their American counterpart if not for his untimely death.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: Kilmer's death at age 31 denied him the opportunity to develop into a more mature poet. Because modern critics and scholars often dismiss "Trees" as simple verse, much of Kilmer's work (especially his literary criticism) has slipped into obscurity. Only a very few of his poems have appeared in anthologies, and with the exception of "Trees"—and to a much lesser extent "Rouge Bouquet" (1917–1918)—almost none have obtained lasting widespread popularity.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: The entire corpus of Kilmer's work was produced between 1909 and 1918 when Romanticism and sentimental lyric poetry fell out of favor and Modernism took root—especially with the influence of the Lost Generation. In the years after Kilmer's death, poetry went in drastically different directions, as is seen especially in the work of T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound. Kilmer's verse is conservative and traditional, and does not break the formal rules of poetics—he can be considered as one of the last poets of the Romantic era. His style has been criticized for not breaking free of traditional modes of rhyme, meter, and theme, and for being too sentimental to be taken seriously.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: In the 1940 film, "The Fighting 69th", the role of Sergeant Joyce Kilmer was portrayed by actor Jeffrey Lynn.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: Sgt. Joyce Kilmer Triangle in Midwood, Brooklyn is named after him. The triangle, a resting place on Kings Highway (Brooklyn)


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: intersecting "Quentin Road", between East 12th and 13th Streets (), is the smallest park in New York City. occupying of land.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: This park is in the Bronx, New York, bounded by the Grand Concourse, Walton Avenue, 164th and 161st Streets, near Yankee Stadium.


title: Joyce Kilmer

text: Joyce Kilmer Memorial Forest in North Carolina, part of the Nantahala National Forest, is named after Kilmer.


title: Female sperm

text: Since the late 1980s, scientists have explored how to produce sperm where all of the chromosomes come from a female donor.


title: Female sperm

text: Creating female sperm was first raised as a possibility in a patent filed in 1991 by injecting a woman's cells into a man's testicles, though the patent focused mostly on injecting altered male cells into a man's testes (to correct genetic diseases). In 1997, Japanese scientists partially confirmed such techniques by creating chicken female sperm in a similar manner. "However, the ratio of produced W chromosome-bearing (W-bearing) spermatozoa fell substantially below expectations. It is therefore concluded that most of the W-bearing PGC could not differentiate into spermatozoa because of restricted spermatogenesis." These simple transplantation methods follow from earlier observations by developmental biologists that germ stem cells are autonomous in the sense that they can begin the processes to become both sperm and eggs.


title: Female sperm

text: One potential roadblock to injecting a woman's cells into a man's testicles is that the man's immune system might attack and destroy the woman's cells. In usual circumstances, when foreign cells (such as cells or organs from other people, or infectious bacteria) are put into a human body, its immune system will reject such cells or organs. However, a special property of a man's testicles is that they are immune-privileged, that is, a man's immune system will not attack foreign cells (such as a woman's cells) injected into the sperm-producing part of the testicles. Thus, a woman's cells will remain in the man's testicles long enough to be converted into sperm.


title: Female sperm

text: However, there are more serious challenges. Biologists have well established that male sperm production relies on certain genes on the Y chromosome, which, when missing or defective, lead to such men producing little to no sperm in their testicles. An analogy, then, is that a cell from a woman has complete Y chromosome deficiency. While many genes on the Y chromosome have backups (homologues) on other chromosomes, a few genes such as RBMY on the Y chromosome do not have such backups, and their effects must be compensated for to convert cells from a woman into sperm. In 2007, a patent application was filed on methods for creating human female sperm using artificial or natural Y chromosomes and testicular transplantation. Key to successful creation of female sperm (and male eggs) will be inducing male epigenetic markings for female cells that initially have female markings, with techniques for doing so disclosed in the patent application.


title: Female sperm

text: In 2018, Chinese research scientists produced 29 viable mice offspring from two female mother mice by creating sperm-like structures from haploid embryonic stem cells using gene editing to alter imprinted regions of DNA. Experts noted that there was little chance of these techniques being applied to humans in the near future.


title: Taki Theodoracopulos

text: Panagiotis "Taki" Theodoracopulos (; ; born 11 August 1936) is a Greek journalist and writer. He has lived in New York City, London, and Gstaad.


title: Taki Theodoracopulos

text: The son of a Greek shipping magnate, Theodoracopulos was privately educated in the United States at Lawrenceville School and Blair Academy before attending the University of Virginia.


title: Taki Theodoracopulos

text: Theodoracopulos was a sportsman early in life. He represented Greece at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1962, having been a tennis player beforehand, including playing at the 1961 French Championship.


title: Taki Theodoracopulos

text: Theodoracopulos's column "High Life" has appeared in British weekly "The Spectator" since 1977, where he wrote a series of controversial articles, including one claiming that black people had lower IQs than other people, for which Boris Johnson, made editor in 1999, later apologised. He has also written for other US and UK publications. In 1984, he was arrested for the possession of cocaine, after attempting to board a plane at Heathrow Airport, and served three months in HMP Pentonville. He documented his prison experiences in "Nothing to Declare: Prison Memoirs" (1991).


title: Taki Theodoracopulos

text: In 2002, Theodoracopulos founded "The American Conservative" magazine with Pat Buchanan and Scott McConnell. He was also the publisher of the British magazine "Right Now!" He currently publishes and writes for "Taki's Magazine". In 2016, the organization Proud Boys was launched with an article by Gavin McInnes in Taki's Magazine.


title: Taki Theodoracopulos

text: He received criticism for writing in support of Greek ultranationalist political party Golden Dawn, describing them as "good old-fashioned patriotic Greeks" in a 2013 editorial. The editor of "The Spectator", Fraser Nelson, defended Taki by tweeting that "Our readers like diversity and well-written pieces that they disagree with. We have no party line." In a 2021 interview, months after many Golden Dawn leaders were convicted by Greek courts for heading a criminal organisation, the chairman of "The Spectator", Andrew Neil, who does not have influence over the magazine editorially, condemned the column, stating it was "beyond the pale". He further added that he had requested the editor to inform Taki that he should not return to that topic following its publication.


title: Taki Theodoracopulos

text: His frequent criticism of Israel led Conrad Black to accuse him of antisemitism. In 2018, he wrote an article commemorating D-Day in which he praised the Wehrmacht and asked readers to sympathize with them.


title: Taki Theodoracopulos

text: Taki has expressed racist views, directed against West Indians, Puerto Ricans, and Jews, among others. He has been accused of using the racial epithets "nigger" and "Sambo" to describe black people and he referred to Saudi royal family members as "ruling towelheads".


title: Taki Theodoracopulos

text: In 2003, he and the then "Spectator" editor Boris Johnson were investigated by the Metropolitan Police in London after publishing an allegedly racist article attacking black lawyer and political activist Peter Herbert, which led to death threats being made against Herbert. In the article he also expressed his fondness for anti-immigration politician Enoch Powell, criticising West Indian immigration to the UK and complaining "The rivers of blood speech by Enoch was prophetic as well as true and look what the bullshitters of the time did to the great man."


title: Taki Theodoracopulos

text: Theodoracopulos has an interest in Asian martial arts, and holds a black belt in karate. He owned a 37.5-metre yacht named "Bushido" that was put up for sale in 2012.


title: United (2011 film)

text: United is a British television film directed by James Strong and written by Chris Chibnall. It is based on the true story of Manchester United's "Busby Babes" and the aftermath of the 1958 Munich air disaster, with the film's events taking place between August 1956 and May 1958. In particular, the film focuses on the experiences of assistant manager Jimmy Murphy, played by David Tennant, and Bobby Charlton, played by Jack O'Connell.


title: United (2011 film)

text: Largely filmed around the North East of England, the film was first broadcast on 24 April 2011 on BBC Two and BBC HD, but is being sold internationally as a theatrical picture by Content Media Corp. The series gained a 14.3% rating in its time slot and was generally well received by television critics.


title: United (2011 film)

text: The drama primarily focuses on the relationship between assistant manager Jimmy Murphy and the young player Bobby Charlton. The film begins in the autumn of 1956 as manager Matt Busby gives Charlton his first chance to play a match with Manchester United's first team, nicknamed the "Busby Babes" due to their unique pedigree as an almost entirely club-nurtured team of players, with the exception of a few slightly older players who have been purchased from other clubs.


title: United (2011 film)

text: The other players to come through the ranks and who feature greatly in the film include centre-half Mark Jones, left-half Duncan Edwards, right-half Eddie Colman and outside left David Pegg. A rare signing is then made when Busby signs Northern Irish goalkeeper Harry Gregg in late 1957.


title: United (2011 film)

text: Meanwhile, Busby has persuaded Football League administrator Alan Hardaker to allow his team to play in the European Cup with the proviso that they are back in time for each scheduled fixture. They first compete for this title in the 1956-57 campaign after winning the league title and able to compete in the cup again the following season after retaining their domestic crown.


title: United (2011 film)

text: The team sees success both at home and abroad. However, on the return flight from a European Cup match in Belgrade, their aeroplane crashes attempting to take off after refuelling in Munich and seven of the club's players (including Jones, Colman and Pegg) are killed. Gregg is instrumental in saving survivors from the wreckage of the plane, while Charlton suffers minor injuries. Edwards and Busby are seriously injured.


title: United (2011 film)

text: Within a week, Charlton is allowed to leave the hospital and return to England but Edwards and Busby remain in a critical condition at this stage. Murphy was not on the plane when it crashed due to his duties with the Welsh national side but flies out as soon as he can in order to visit his injured colleagues in hospital and travel home with Charlton.


title: United (2011 film)

text: Two weeks after the crash, Edwards dies in hospital, heaping fresh devastation on Charlton, who is ready to give up football until he has a visit from Murphy and is soon playing for United again.


title: United (2011 film)

text: Against the odds, Murphy vows to present a team to play their next home game and, ultimately, the 1958 FA Cup Final, taking charge of the first team until the following season as Busby recovers from his injuries.


title: United (2011 film)

text: The film was produced by World Productions with a budget of £2 million ($3.2 million). In writing his script, Chris Chibnall drew on first-hand interviews with the survivors and their families. It was shot in November and December 2010 in the north of England including the Tyneside Cinema, Tynemouth Metro Station, Newcastle Civic Centre and the Assembly Rooms. Brunton Park in Carlisle doubled for the inside of Old Trafford in the 1950s. The shoot took four six-day weeks of filming and was hindered by heavy snowfall in December; one extra day cost the production £30,000 because the project was not insured against inclement weather conditions.


title: United (2011 film)

text: In recreating the crash, it was felt it would be appropriate to see events unfold through Charlton's eyes. Jack O'Connell stated that it had a dream-like quality. "It has a lethargic feel. So it doesn't necessarily seem like reality. There's a hazy sense about it." Dougray Scott stated "We filmed the scene [of the crash] on a military base up in Newcastle...There were some people sitting in seats without a scratch on them, dead, others without a scratch on them alive, some with terrible injuries and dead. It was an emotional part of the shoot."


title: United (2011 film)

text: The score, composed by Clint Mansell, was released on iTunes in April 2011. It is Mansell's first TV film credit. The ending credit sequence features the song "Devotion" by Paul Weller.


title: United (2011 film)

text: The film gained a 2.89 million (12.8%) audience share for BBC 2 at 9pm, with a further 346,000 (1.5%) viewers watching on BBC HD.


title: United (2011 film)

text: Sandy Busby, the son of Matt Busby, said he thought the film was "very poorly done" stating that he was disappointed that the Busby family hadn't been contacted about the film, pointing out the drama is about the "Busby Babes". He went on to state he was "disgusted" with the portrayal of his father and critical about the omission of some players from the film; "Why didn't they include other players that died and were injured in the crash? If I was one of their family I would be very upset." In particular, he criticised film's portrayal of his father, which he thought made him look like a gangster; "I was disgusted with the portrayal of my father. He had this camel coat on, and a fedora, and all through the film he was never seen in a tracksuit. He was known as probably the first tracksuit manager at that time. I was disgusted."


title: United (2011 film)

text: Television reviews such as Gerard Gilbert in "The Independent" also noted a gangster-like appearance in Busby's costume, and suggested that painting Alan Hardaker as the villain seemed tame; "compared to Jimmy McGovern's "Hillsborough", with its burning righteous anger aimed at the police and "The Sun", Hardaker seemed like a flimsy scapegoat for what, au fond, was an appalling accident."


title: United (2011 film)

text: Jim White, writing for "The Telegraph" was more positive stating ""United"...is brilliant in its evocation of the pipe-puffing Fifties football orbit...the CGI evocation of immediate post-war Old Trafford, with the smokestacks brooding above the open terraces, looks more authentic than the real thing...David Tennant's performance as the central character should alert every award-giving body."


title: United (2011 film)

text: Centre-half Mark Jones was portrayed as United's captain in the film, when in real life the captain of the team was Roger Byrne, who also died in the disaster and was not credited in the film. Indeed, just six of the 17 players involved in the crash were credited in the film.


title: United (2011 film)

text: Sam Wollaston in "The Guardian" commended the smaller period details, stating "There are lots of nice little differences between football then and football now. Can you imagine any of today's lot feeling that kind of connection not just with the club but with the whole area? Or living with a landlady? Or telling a girl they were a plumber because plumbers had better prospects than footballers? Or smoking a pipe on the way out of the tunnel, as team captain Mark Jones did? Lovely...But, of course, at the heart of Chris Chibnall's poignant drama is the tragedy that claimed eight of the Busby Babes. It's beautifully done – powerful, haunting and very human. And if you didn't shed a tear, then you're harder than I am."


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov (; – 26 January 1943) was a Russian and Soviet agronomist, botanist and geneticist who identified the centers of origin of cultivated plants. He devoted his life to the study and improvement of wheat, maize and other cereal crops that sustain the global population.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: Vavilov's work was criticized by Trofim Lysenko, whose anti-Mendelian concepts of plant biology had won favor with Joseph Stalin. As a result, Vavilov was arrested and subsequently sentenced to death in July 1941. Although his sentence was commuted to twenty years' imprisonment, he died in prison in 1943. According to Lyubov Brezhneva, he was thrown to his death into a pit of lime in the prison yard. In 1955 his death sentence was retroactively pardoned under Nikita Khrushchev. By the 1960s his reputation was publicly rehabilitated and he began to be hailed as a hero of Soviet science.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: Vavilov was born into a merchant family in Moscow, the older brother of physicist Sergey Ivanovich Vavilov. His father had grown up in poverty due to recurring crop failures and food rationing, and Vavilov became obsessed from an early age with ending famine.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: Vavilov entered the Petrovskaya Agricultural Academy (now the Russian State Agrarian University – Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy) in 1906. During this time he became known for carrying a pet lizard in his pocket wherever he went. He graduated from the Petrovka in 1910 with a dissertation on snails as pests. From 1911 to 1912, he worked at the Bureau for Applied Botany and at the Bureau of Mycology and Phytopathology. From 1913 to 1914 he travelled in Europe and studied plant immunity, in collaboration with the British biologist William Bateson, who helped establish the science of genetics.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: From 1917 to 1920, he was a professor at the Faculty of Agronomy, University of Saratov. His son Oleg (with his first wife Yekaterina Sakharova) was born in 1918.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: From 1924 to 1935 he was the director of the Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences at Leningrad. Impressed with the work of Canadian phytopathologist Margaret Newton on wheat stem rust, in 1930 he attempted to hire her to work at the institute, offering a good salary and perks such as a camel caravan for her travel. She declined, but visited the institute in 1933 for three months to train 50 students in her research.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: Vavilov's first marriage ended in divorce in 1926, after which he married geneticist Elena Ivanovna Barulina, a specialist on lentils and assistant head of the institute's seed collection. Their son Yuri was born in 1928.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: While developing his theory on the centers of origin of cultivated plants, Vavilov organized a series of botanical-agronomic expeditions, and collected seeds from every corner of the globe. In 1927, he presented the centers of origin to the public on the Fifth International Congress of Genetics in Berlin ("V. Internationaler Kongress für Vererbungswissenschaft Berlin"). In Leningrad, he created the world's largest collection of plant seeds. Vavilov also formulated the law of homologous series in variation. He was a member of the USSR Central Executive Committee, President of All-Union Geographical Society and a recipient of the Lenin Prize.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: In 1932, during the sixth congress, Vavilov proposed holding the seventh International Congress of Genetics in the USSR. After some initial resistance by the organizing committee, in 1935 it agreed to hold the seventh congress in Moscow in 1937. The Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences decided to support the idea and asked the Communist Party for its approval, which it gave on 31 July 1935. Vavilov was elected chairman of the International Congress of Genetics. However, on 14 November 1936 the decided to cancel the congress. The seventh International Congress of Genetics was postponed until 1939 and took place in Edinburgh instead. The Politburo had decided to forbid Vavilov from travelling abroad and during the Congress's opening ceremony an empty chair was placed on the stage as a symbolic reminder of Vavilov's involuntary absence.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: Vavilov encountered the young Trofim Lysenko and at first he encouraged Lysenko's work. However, Vavilov changed his mind and became an outspoken critic of Lysenko, because Lysenko did not believe in genetics and Vavilov feared that Lysenko's ideas could be disastrous for Soviet agriculture. Vavilov publicly criticized Lysenko both at home and while on foreign trips. However, Stalin believed in Lysenko's theories, and as a result, so did the rest of the Soviet government. The Soviet authorities suspected that Vavilov was trying to sabotage Soviet agriculture with bad science, and their suspicions were aggravated by his associations with other scientists who had been convicted of espionage, some of whom falsely implicated Vavilov in counter-revolutionary activities. As a result, Vavilov was arrested on 6 August 1940, while on an expedition to Ukraine. He was sentenced to death in July 1941. In 1942 his sentence was commuted to twenty years imprisonment. In 1943, he died in prison as a result of the harsh conditions. The prison's medical documentation indicates that he had been admitted into the prison hospital a few days prior to his death and mention the diagnoses of lung inflammation, dystrophy and edema as well as general weakness as a complaint, but as for the immediate cause of death, the death certificate only mentions 'decline of cardiac activity'. Some authors assert that the actual cause of death was starvation.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: The Leningrad seedbank was preserved and protected through the 28-month long Siege of Leningrad. While the Soviets had ordered the evacuation of art from the Hermitage Museum, they had not evacuated the 250,000 samples of seeds, roots, and fruits stored in what was then the world's largest seedbank. A group of scientists at the Vavilov Institute boxed up a cross section of seeds, moved them to the basement, and took shifts protecting them. Those guarding the seedbank refused to eat its contents, even though by the end of the siege in the spring of 1944, a number of them had died of starvation.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: In 1943, parts of Vavilov's collection, samples stored within the territories occupied by the German armies, mainly in Ukraine and Crimea, were seized by a German unit headed by Heinz Brücher. Many of the samples were transferred to the Schutzstaffel (SS) Institute for Plant Genetics, which had been established at near Graz, Austria.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: The Royal Society of Edinburgh mentions Vavilov in the list of its former fellows, indicating that he died in a Soviet workcamp in Siberia on 26 January 1943. However, he actually died in a Soviet prison in Saratov.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: In 1955, Vavilov's life sentence was pardoned at a hearing of the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union, undertaken as part of a de-Stalinization effort to review Stalin-era death sentences. By the 1960s his reputation was publicly rehabilitated and he began to be hailed as a hero of Soviet science.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: The warrant for Vavilov's arrest was issued by 1st Lt. Vladimir Ruzin of the NKVD, with the approval of Mikhail Pankratyev, the Deputy Prosecutor of the USSR, and Lavrenty Beria. Ruzin accused Vavilov of foreign espionage and sabotage.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: Today a street in downtown Saratov bears Vavilov's name. Vavilov's monument in Saratov near the end of the Vavilov street was unveiled in 1997. The square near the monument is a common place for opposition rallies. Another monument to him is located near the entrance to the Resurrection cemetery in Saratov, where Vavilov is buried. The USSR Academy of Sciences established the Vavilov Award (1965) and the Vavilov Medal (1968).


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: Today, the N.I. Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry in St. Petersburg still maintains one of the world's largest collections of plant genetic material. The Institute began as the Bureau of Applied Botany in 1894, and was reorganized in 1924 into the All-Union Research Institute of Applied Botany and New Crops, and in 1930 into the Research Institute of Plant Industry. Vavilov was the head of the institute from 1921 to 1940. In 1968 the institute was renamed after Vavilov in time for its 75th anniversary.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: A minor planet, 2862 Vavilov, discovered in 1977 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh is named after him and his brother Sergey Ivanovich Vavilov. The crater "Vavilov" on the far side of the Moon is also named after him and his brother.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: The story of the researchers at the Vavilov Institute during the Siege of Leningrad was fictionalized by novelist Elise Blackwell in her 2003 novel "Hunger". That novel was the inspiration for the Decemberists' song "When The War Came" in the 2006 album "The Crane Wife", which also depicts the Institute during the siege and mentions Vavilov by name.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: In 1987, the Shevchenko National Prize was awarded to Anatoliy Borsyuk (film director), Serhiy Dyachenko (script writer), and Oleksandr Frolov (camera) for the film "Star of Vavilov" (Russian: "Звезда Вавилова") about Vavilov's work.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: In 1990, a six part documentary entitled Nikolai Vavilov (Russian: Николай Вавилов), was created as a joint production of the USSR and East Germany.


title: Nikolai Vavilov

text: Season 1, Episode 4 of the 2020 science documentary series, starring Neil deGrasse Tyson and based on the original series by Carl Sagan, was titled "Vavilov" and detailed his life.


The Englishman who Went up a Hill but Came down a Mountain is a 1995 romantic comedy film with a story by Ifor David Monger and Ivor Monger, written and directed by Christopher Monger. It was entered into the 19th Moscow International Film Festival and was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1995 Cannes Film Festival.


title: The Englishman who Went up a Hill but Came down a Mountain

text: The film is based on a story heard by Christopher Monger from his grandfather about the real village of Taff's Well, in the old county of Glamorgan, and its neighbouring Garth Hill. Due to 20th century urbanisation of the area, it was filmed in the more rural Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant and Llansilin in Powys.


text: In 1917, during World War I, two English cartographers, the pompous George Garrad and his junior, Reginald Anson arrive at the fictional Welsh village of Ffynnon Garw to measure its "mountain" – only to cause outrage when they conclude that it is only a hill because it is slightly short of the required height of 1,000 feet (305 m).


text: The villagers, aided and abetted by wily local, Morgan the Goat, and the Reverend Mr. Jones who, after initially opposing the scheme, grasps its symbolism in restoring the community's war-damaged self-esteem, conspire to delay the cartographers' departure while they build an earth mound on top of the hill and make it high enough to be considered a mountain.


text: The scene is set with Anson and Garrad the cartographers (who are to measure the mountain) arriving at the village, but everyone in town is at church (it being a Sunday). The only exception is Morgan the Goat who manages the local inn and is the only redhead in the village. Most of the men of the town are away at war and the film implies that the women are visiting the inn and having redheaded children. On the first day Anson and Garrad reach the top and do some preliminary measurements and come up with a height of 930 feet. Anson returns and reassures them that they have more accurate measurements to make the next day.


text: The next day, when they go to the mountain the entire village is milling around the mountain and eagerly anticipating the results. The cartographers after the measurements announce that the more accurate measurements indicate a height of 984 feet which is just 16 feet short of the 1,000 feet needed to qualify the "hill" as a mountain. The townsfolk are crestfallen and the town pastor announces a town hall meeting. In the meeting Morgan the Goat proposes that they raise the mountain by 20 feet and one of the leadership agrees saying that they have seen mountains with permanent structures atop them like tombs.


text: Morgan, the constable and the village elder return to the cartographers to persuade them to stay while they build a structure on the mountain but Anson the cartographer disagrees and says they have a tight schedule and they will be leaving in the morning.


text: The next morning, everyone rallies and starts digging earth from their backyards and transporting it to hill to add 20 or so feet to it. The first day they make a mound that is approximately 14 feet high. Meanwhile in town someone has sabotaged the car belonging to the cartographer and the pastor just to be sure also punctures a tire. The cartographers have to push the car to the mechanic who does not know anything about the car but deliberately fumbles around and breaks a part and then informs the cartographers that the part will be needed to be brought in from Cardiff.


text: When the cartographers try to catch a train from the local station, they are misinformed that the trains only carry coal by the station master who is colluding with the townspeople to keep them in the town. Morgan also enlists a local lady to entertain the two Englishmen.


text: At this point, it starts raining and the mud on the hill starts washing off down from 14 feet to 10 feet. Morgan declares an emergency and asks the mechanic to remove the tarp covering the car belonging to the cartographers and to take it to the mountain to cover the works under construction. Meanwhile, in town, the two cartographers are entertained by a local lady.


text: The rain continues all night and all day from Thursday to Sunday. On Sunday, the pastor of the church encourages the villagers to finish the work they started. Upon the suggestion of the Englishman Anson, they also cover the mound with sod before the last light. The pastor then dies and is buried on the mountain.


text: After the burial the townspeople convince Anson to stay the night and measure the mountain first thing in the morning at the break of dawn because their train leaves at around 8 AM. Anson stays on the mountain with Betty who offers to keep him company and they kiss.


text: When Anson descends from the mountain, he informs the people that the mountain is 1,002 feet high and announces his engagement. The end of the movie describes the mountain settling down to 997 feet and turning back into a hill from a mountain. The spirit of the Reverend buried on the mountain exhales "a hill" in a groan and all the people rally in modern day Wales with buckets and earth to raise the mountain again.


text: In the script there is a joke which is not obvious to non-Welsh speakers. A mechanic is asked about a nondescript broken part he has removed from a car, and replies "Well I don't know the English word, but in Welsh we call it a "be'chi'ngalw."" In Welsh, "be'chi'ngalw" is a placeholder name, like "whatchamacallit" or "thingamajig" in English. and literally means "what [do] you call" and is a contracted form of "beth dych chi'n galw". The joke is made obvious in the novel published after the film's release.


text: In regard to its humorous and affectionate description of the locals, the film has often been compared with "Waking Ned", a comedy film written and directed by Kirk Jones. The movie has resulted in a stream of visitors climbing to the summit of The Garth, and the Pentyrch History Society and the local community council have erected a notice on the mountain to explain its real historical significance.


text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 67% from 33 reviews. The consenus states: "With an ample serving of Hugh Grant's trademark charm, a quirky Welsh town comes together to put their town on the map in this feel-good folksy tale."


text: The "VeggieTales" episode, "King George and the Ducky", includes a skit called "The Englishman Who Went Up A Hill (And Came Down With All The Bananas)". It quickly spirals out of control with the addition of "The Swede Who Went Up A Hill (And Came Down With All The Strawberries)".


title: North Atlantic garbage patch

text: The North Atlantic garbage patch is a garbage patch of man-made marine debris found floating within the North Atlantic Gyre, originally documented in 1972. Based on a 22-year research study conducted by the Sea Education Association, the patch is estimated to be hundreds of kilometers across in size, with a density of more than 200,000 pieces of debris per square kilometer. The source of the garbage originates from human waste traveling from the rivers into the ocean and mainly consists of microplastics. The garbage patch is a large risk to wildlife and humans through plastic consumption and entanglement. There have only been a few awareness and clean-up efforts for the North Atlantic garbage patch such as The Garbage Patch State at UNESCO and The Ocean Cleanup, as most of the research and cleanup efforts have been done for the Great Pacific garbage patch, a similar garbage patch in the Great Pacific.


title: North Atlantic garbage patch

text: The patch is located from 22°N to 38°N and its western and eastern boundaries are unclear. The debris zone shifts by as much as 1,600 km (990 mi) north and south seasonally, and drifts even farther south during the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, according to the NOAA. The patch is estimated to be hundreds of kilometers across in size, with a density of more than 200,000 pieces of debris per square kilometer (one piece per five square metres, on average). The concentration of plastic in the North Atlantic garbage patch has stayed mostly constant even though the global plastic production has had a five-fold increase over the 22-year study. This may be caused by the plastics sinking beneath the surface or breaking down into smaller pieces that can pass through the net.


title: North Atlantic garbage patch

text: The North Atlantic garbage patch originates from human waste that travels from continental rivers into the ocean. Once the trash has made it into the ocean, it is centralized by gyres, which collect trash in large masses. The surface of the garbage patch consists of microplastics such as polyethylene and polypropylene which make up common household items. Denser material that is thought to exist under the surface of the ocean includes plastic called polyethylene terephthalate that is used to make soft drink and water bottles. However, these denser plastics are not observed in the North Atlantic garbage patch because the methods to collect samples only capture the surface microplastics.


title: North Atlantic garbage patch

text: A joint study by the Sea Education Association, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and the University of Hawaii at Manoa collected plastic samples in the western North Atlantic and Caribbean Sea from 1986 to 2008. Nearly 7,000 students from the SEA semester program conducted 6,136 surface plankton net tows on board SEA's sailing research vessels over 22 years, yielding more than 64,000 plastic pieces, mostly fragments less than 10mm in size with nearly all lighter than 0.05g. Nikolai Maximenko of the University of Hawaii in Honolulu developed a computer model to describe how plastics are accumulated from converging surface currents to form garbage patches.  The model uses data from more than 1,600 satellite-tracked trajectories of drifting buoys to map out surface currents.  The plastic data collected by the students at SEA validated Maximenko's model, and researchers were able to successfully predict the plastic accumulation in the North Atlantic Ocean.


title: North Atlantic garbage patch

text: Few efforts have been made to clean up the North Atlantic Garbage Patch, as removing the microplastics "would likely cause as much harm as good because of all the other small creatures in the ocean that would get filtered out too". On 11 April 2013 in order to create awareness, artist Maria Cristina Finucci founded The Garbage Patch State at UNESCO –Paris in front of Director General Irina Bokova . The federally recognized Garbage Patch State was the first of a series of events under the patronage of UNESCO and of Italian Ministry of the Environment, sparking a series of art exhibits across the world used to bring attention to the size and severity of the garbage patches and incite awareness and action.


title: North Atlantic garbage patch

text: Dutch inventor Boyan Slat and his nonprofit organization The Ocean Cleanup is developing advanced technologies to rid the oceans of plastic. Cleanup is planned to start in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch first, and eventually move around to the other patches across the globe. Aside from cleaning the microplastics from the oceans, the Ocean Cleanup is also developing technologies to remove larger pieces of plastic from rivers, which are largely attributed as the main sources of plastic in the ocean.


title: Stinger

text: A stinger (or sting) is a sharp organ found in various animals (typically insects and other arthropods) capable of injecting venom, usually by piercing the epidermis of another animal.


title: Stinger

text: An insect sting is complicated by its introduction of venom, although not all stings are venomous. Bites, which can introduce saliva as well as additional pathogens and diseases, are often confused with stings, and vice versa. Specific components of venom are believed to give rise to an allergic reaction, which in turn produces skin lesions that may vary from a small itching weal, or slightly elevated area of the skin, to large areas of inflamed skin covered by vesicles and crusted lesions.


title: Stinger

text: Stinging insects produce a painful swelling of the skin, the severity of the lesion varying according to the location of the sting, the identity of the insect and the sensitivity of the subject. Many species of bees and wasps have two poison glands, one gland secreting a toxin in which formic acid is one recognized constituent, and the other secreting an alkaline neurotoxin; acting independently, each toxin is rather mild, but when they combine through the sting, the combination has strong irritating properties. In a small number of cases, the second occasion of a bee or wasp sting causes a severe allergic reaction known as anaphylaxis.


title: Stinger

text: While the overwhelming majority of insects withdraw their stingers from their victims, a few insects leave them in the wounds. For example, of the 20,000 species of bees worldwide, only the half-dozen species of honeybees ("Apis") are reported to have a barbed stinger that cannot be withdrawn; of wasps, nearly all are reported to have smooth stingers with the exception of two species, "Polybia rejecta" and "Synoeca surinama". A few non-insect arthropods, such as scorpions, also sting.


title: Stinger

text: Among arthropods, a sting or stinger is a sharp organ, often connected with a venom gland and adapted to inflict a wound by piercing, as with the caudal sting of a scorpion. Stings are usually located at the rear of the animal. Animals with stings include bees, wasps (including hornets) and scorpions, as well as a single beetle species ("Onychocerus albitarsis") that can deliver a venomous sting from its antennae, whose terminal segments have evolved to resemble a scorpion's tail.


title: Stinger

text: In all stinging Hymenoptera the sting is a modified ovipositor. Unlike most other stings, honey bee workers' stings are strongly barbed and lodge in the flesh of mammals upon use, tearing free from the honey bee's body, killing the bee within minutes. The sting has its own ganglion, and it continues to saw into the target's flesh and release venom for several minutes. This trait is of obvious disadvantage to the individual but protects the hive from attacks by large animals; aside from the effects of the venom, the remnant also marks the stung animal with honey bee alarm pheromone. The barbs of a honey bee's attack are only suicidal if the skin is elastic, as is characteristic of vertebrates such as birds and mammals; honey bees can sting other insects repeatedly without dying.


title: Stinger

text: The sting of nearly all other bees and other sting-bearing organisms is not barbed and can be used to sting repeatedly. The description of barbed or unbarbed is not precise: there are barbs on the stings of yellowjacket wasps and the Mexican honey wasp, but the barbs are so small that the wasp can sometimes withdraw its sting apparatus from victim's skin.


title: Stinger

text: The stings of some wasps, such as those of the "Polistes versicolor", contain relatively large amounts of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) in its venoms. The 5-HT in these venoms has been found to play at least two roles: one as a pain-producing agent and the other in the distribution and penetration of the paralyzing components to vulnerable sites in the offender. This helps in the rapid immobilization of the animal or of the body parts receiving the venom.


title: Stinger

text: Spiders only bite, although some tarantulas have barbed bristles called urticating hairs. Certain caterpillars also have urticating hairs. Centipedes also possess a venomous bite rather than a sting, inflicted with a highly modified first pair of legs, called forcipules.


title: Stinger

text: Organs that perform similar functions in non-arthropods are often referred to as "stings". These organs include the modified dermal denticle of the stingray, the venomous spurs on the hind legs of the male platypus, and the cnidocyte tentacles of the jellyfish.


title: Stinger

text: The term "sting" was historically often used for the fang of a snake, although this usage is uncommon today. Snakes are said, correctly, to bite, not sting.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: The Baldwin Locomotive Works (BLW) was an American manufacturer of railroad locomotives from 1825 to 1951. Originally located in Philadelphia, it moved to nearby Eddystone, Pennsylvania, in the early 20th century. The company was for decades the world's largest producer of steam locomotives, but struggled to compete as demand switched to diesel locomotives. Baldwin produced the last of its 70,000-plus locomotives in 1951, before merging with the Lima-Hamilton Corporation on September 11, 1951, to form the Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton Corporation.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: The company has no relation to the E.M. Baldwin and Sons of New South Wales, Australia, a builder of small diesel locomotives for sugar cane railroads.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: The Baldwin Locomotive Works had a humble beginning. Matthias W. Baldwin, the founder, was a jeweler and whitesmith, who, in 1825, formed a partnership with machinist David H. Mason, and engaged in the manufacture of bookbinders' tools and cylinders for calico printing. Baldwin then designed and constructed for his own use a small stationary engine, the workmanship of which was so excellent and its efficiency so great that he was solicited to build others like it for various parties, and thus led to turn his attention to steam engineering. The original engine was in use and powered many departments of the works for well over 60 years, and is currently on display at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: In 1831, at the request of the Philadelphia Museum, Baldwin built a miniature locomotive for exhibition which was such a success that he received that year an order from a railway company for a locomotive to run on a short line to the suburbs of Philadelphia. The Camden and Amboy Railroad Company (C&A) had shortly before imported a locomotive ("John Bull") from England, which was stored in Bordentown, New Jersey. It had not yet been assembled by Isaac Dripps (under the direction of C&A president Robert L. Stevens) when Baldwin visited the spot. He inspected the detached parts and made notes of the principal dimensions. Aided by these figures, he commenced his task.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: The difficulties attending the execution of this first order were such that they are not easily understood by present-day mechanics. Modern machine tools simply did not exist; the cylinders were bored by a chisel fixed in a block of wood and turned by hand; the workmen had to be taught how to do nearly all the work; and Baldwin himself did a great deal of it with his own hands.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: It was under such circumstances that his first locomotive, christened "Old Ironsides", was completed and tried on the Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown Railroad on November 23, 1832. It was at once put in active service, and did duty for over 20 years. It was a four-wheeled engine, weighing a little over five tons; the driving wheels were in diameter, and the cylinders were of bore by stroke. The wheels were of heavy cast iron hubs, with wooden spokes and rims, and wrought iron tires, and the frame was made of wood placed outside the wheels. It had a diameter boiler which took 20 minutes to raise steam. Top speed was .


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Baldwin struggled to survive the Panic of 1837. Production fell from 40 locomotives in 1837 to just nine in 1840 and the company was heavily in debt. As part of the survival strategy, Matthias Baldwin took on two partners, George Vail and George Hufty. Although the partnerships proved relatively short-lived, they helped Baldwin pull through the economic hard times.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Zerah Colburn was one of many engineers who had a close association with Baldwin Locomotive Works. Between 1854 (and the start of his weekly paper, the "Railroad Advocate") and 1861, when Colburn went to work more or less permanently in London, England, the journalist was in frequent touch with M. W. Baldwin, as recorded in Zerah Colburn: The Spirit of Darkness. Colburn was full of praise for the quality of Baldwin's work.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: In the 1850s, railroad building became a national obsession, with many new carriers starting up, particularly in the Midwest and South. While this helped drive up demand for Baldwin products, it also increased competition as more companies entered the locomotive production field.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Still, Baldwin had trouble keeping pace with orders and in the early 1850s began paying workers piece-rate pay. By 1857, the company turned out 66 locomotives and employed 600 men. But another economic downturn, this time the Panic of 1857, cut into business again. Output fell by 50 percent in 1858.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: The Civil War at first appeared disastrous for Baldwin. According to John K. Brown in "The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831–1915: A Study in American Industrial Practice", at the start of the conflict Baldwin had a great dependence on Southern railways as its primary market. In 1860, nearly 80 percent of Baldwin's output went to carriers in states that would soon secede from the Union. As a result, Baldwin's production in 1861 fell more than 50 percent compared to the previous year. However, the loss in Southern sales was counterbalanced by purchases by the U.S. Military Railroads and the Pennsylvania Railroad, which saw its traffic soar, as Baldwin produced more than 100 engines for carriers during the 1861–1865 war.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: By the time Matthias Baldwin died in 1866, his company was vying with Rogers Locomotive and Machine Works for the top spot among locomotive producers. By 1870 Baldwin had taken the lead and a decade later, it was producing 2 times as many engines as its nearest competitor, according to the U.S. Manufacturing Census.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: In 1897 the Baldwin Locomotive Works was presented as one of the examples of successful shop management in a series of articles by Horace Lucian Arnold. The article specifically described the Piece Rate System used in the shop management.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Burton (1899) commented, that "in the Baldwin Locomotive Works... piecework rates are seldom altered... Some rates have remained unchanged for the past twenty years, and a workman is there more highly esteemed when he can, by his own exertions and ability, increase his weekly earnings. He has an absolute incentive to increase his output as much as he possibly can, because he knows that he will not, by increasing his own income, lead to cutting piece-work rates, and so be forced to make still further exertions in order to maintain the same weekly wage."


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Initially, Baldwin built many more steam locomotives at its cramped Broad Street Philadelphia shop but would begin an incremental shift in production to a site located at Spring Street in nearby Eddystone, Pennsylvania, in 1906. Broad Street was constricted, but even so, it was a huge complex, occupying the better part of 8 square city blocks from Broad to 18th Streets and Spring Garden Street to the Reading tracks just past Noble Street. Eddystone on the other hand was spread out over 600 acres. Its capacity was well over 3000 locomotives per year. The move from Broad Street was completed in the late 1920s.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: The American railroad industry expanded significantly between 1898 and 1907, with domestic demand for locomotives hitting its highest point in 1905. Baldwin's business boomed during this period while it modernized its Broad Street facilities. Despite this boom, Baldwin faced many challenges including the constraints of space in the Philadelphia facility, inflation, increased labor costs, Labor tensions, the substantial increase in the size of the locomotives being manufactured and the formation of the American Locomotive Company, an aggressive competitor which eventually became known simply as Alco.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Baldwin also made most of the locomotives for the East Broad Top Railroad, some of the consolidations of the Huntingdon And Broad Top Mountain Railroad, and locomotive 11 of the Morehead And Northfork Railroad, although the Everett Railroad only has a reproduction of the name plate currently.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Because Baldwin made the locomotives of both the H&BTRR and the EBTRR around the same time in the early 20th century before WWII, the locomotive number plates of the locomotives were made identical having diameter of 16 3/4", a maximum width of 5/8" and a minimum width of 3/16" with the decorations welded onto the larger plate, all being made of brass.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: From 1904 to 1943, Baldwin and Westinghouse marketed Baldwin-Westinghouse electric locomotives and A.C. electrification of railroads, particularly to the New Haven Railroad.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: In 1906 the Hepburn Act authorized greater governmental authority over railroad companies, and revitalized the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which stepped up its activities. The ICC was given the power to set maximum railroad rates, and to replace existing rates with "just-and-reasonable" maximum rates, as defined by the ICC.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: The limitation on railroad rates depreciated the value of railroad securities, and meant that railroads stopped ordering new equipment, including locomotives. This may have been a factor in precipitating the Panic of 1907, which in turn disrupted finance and investment in new plants. Both of these events had a direct negative effect on the railroad industry, especially the locomotive builders.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Baldwin's locomotive output dropped from 2,666 in 1906 to 614 in 1908. The company cut its workforce from 18,499 workers in 1907 to 4,600 the following year. Baldwin's business was further imperiled when William P. Henszey, one of Baldwin's partners, died. His death left Baldwin with a US$6 million liability. In response, Baldwin incorporated and released US$10 million worth of bonds. Samuel Vauclain wanted to use these funds to expand Baldwin's capacities so it would be prepared for another boom. While other Baldwin officers opposed this expansion, Vauclain's vision won out; Baldwin would continue to expand its Eddystone plant until its completion in 1928. By 1928, the company moved all locomotive production to this location, though the plant would never exceed more than one-third of its production capacity.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Baldwin was an important contributor to the Allied war effort in World War I. Baldwin built 5,551 locomotives for the Allies including separate designs for Russian, French, British and United States trench railways. Baldwin built railway gun carriages for the United States Navy and manufactured 6,565,355 artillery shells for Russia, Great Britain and the United States. From 1915 to 1918, Remington Arms subcontracted the production of nearly 2 million Pattern 1914 Enfield and M1917 Enfield rifles to the Baldwin Locomotive Works. Baldwin expanded their Eddystone, Pennsylvania, shop opened in 1905 into the Eddystone Arsenal which manufactured most of these rifles and artillery shells before being converted to locomotive shops when the war ended.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: After the end of World War I Baldwin continued to supply export orders, as the European powers strove to replace large numbers of locomotives worn out by the war effort and European locomotive factories were still re-tooling from armaments production back to railroad production. In 1919 and 1920 Baldwin supplied 50 4-6-0 locomotives to the Palestine Military Railway that became the Palestine Railways H class.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: After the boom years of World War I and its aftermath, Baldwin's business would decline as the Great Depression gripped the country and diesel locomotives became the growth market on American railways towards the end of the 1930s. During the 1920s the major locomotive manufacturers had strong incentives to maintain the dominance of the steam engine. The Baldwin-Westinghouse consortium, which had produced electric locomotives since 1904, was in fact the first American locomotive builder to develop a road diesel locomotive, in 1925. Its twin-engine design was not successful, and the unit was scrapped after a short testing and demonstration period. Westinghouse and Baldwin collaborated again in 1929 to build switching and road locomotives (the latter through Baldwin's subsidiary Canadian Locomotive Company). The road locomotives, Canadian National class V1-a, No. 9000 and No. 9001, proved expensive, unreliable, frequently out of service, and were soon retired. Westinghouse cancelled its efforts in the diesel locomotive field with the onset of the Great Depression, opting to supply electrical parts instead. The early, unsuccessful efforts of Baldwin-Westinghouse in developing diesel-electric locomotion for mainline service led Baldwin in the 1930s to discount the possibility that diesel could replace steam. In 1930 Samuel Vauclain, chairman of the board, stated in a speech that advances in steam technology would ensure the dominance of the steam engine until at least 1980. Baldwin's vice president and Director of Sales stated in December 1937 that "Some time in the future, when all this is reviewed, it will be found that our railroads are no more dieselized than they electrified". Baldwin had deep roots in the steam locomotive industry and may have been influenced by heavy investment in its Eddystone plant, which had left them overextended financially and operating at a fraction of capacity as the market for steam locomotives declined in the 1930s.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: In contrast, ALCO, while remaining committed to steam production, pursued R&D paths centered on both steam mainline engines and diesel switch engines in the 1920s and '30s, which would position them to compete in the future market for diesel locomotives.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: In 1928 Baldwin began an attempt to diversify its product line to include small internal combustion-electric locomotives but the Great Depression thwarted these efforts, eventually leading Baldwin to declare bankruptcy in 1935. At the invitation of the owners of the Geo D. Whitcomb Company, a small manufacturer of gasoline and diesel industrial locomotives in Rochelle, Illinois, Baldwin agreed to participate in a recapitalization program, purchasing about half of the issued stock. By March 1931 the small firm was in financial trouble and Baldwin filed a voluntary bankruptcy for Whitcomb with Baldwin gaining complete control and creating a new subsidiary, the Whitcomb Locomotive Company. This action would lead to financial losses, an ugly court battle between Baldwin and William Whitcomb, the former owner of the company, and bankruptcy for both parties.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Baldwin lost its dominant position in electric locomotives when the Pennsylvania Railroad selected General Electric's PRR GG1 instead of Baldwin's design in 1934.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: When Baldwin emerged from bankruptcy in 1938 it underwent a drastic change in management. The new management revived their development efforts with diesel power but the company was already too far behind. In 1939 Baldwin offered its first standard line of diesel locomotives, all designed for yard service. By this time, GM-EMD was already ramping up production of diesel passenger locomotives and developing its first diesel road freight locomotive.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: As the 1930s drew to a close, Baldwin's coal-country customers such as Pennsylvania Railroad, Chesapeake and Ohio, and Norfolk and Western were more reluctant than other operators to embrace diesel technology, which could undermine the demand for one of their main hauling markets. All three continued to acquire passenger steam locomotives into the early postwar years, as dieselization was gaining momentum elsewhere in the rail industry.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: In the late 1930s Baldwin and the Pennsylvania Railroad made an all-in bet on the future of steam in passenger rail service with Baldwin's duplex-drive S1 locomotive. It proved difficult to operate, prone to slipping, costly to maintain, and unsuited for its intended service. Baldwin developed a revision of the same basic design with the T1, introduced in 1943. While the T1s could operate on more tracks than the S1, they still had many of the problems of the S1 and additional mechanical problems related to their unique valve design. The whole S1-T1 venture resulted in losses for PRR and investment in a dead-end development effort for Baldwin at a critical time for both companies. In the early 1940s Baldwin embarked upon its efforts to develop steam turbine power, producing the S2 direct-drive turbine locomotive in 1944. Baldwin's steam turbine program failed to produce a single successful design. Baldwin's steam-centered development path had left them flat-footed in the efforts necessary to compete in the postwar diesel market dominated by EMD and ALCO-GE.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: The United States' entry into World War II impeded Baldwin's diesel development program when the War Production Board dictated that Alco and Baldwin produce only steamers and diesel-electric yard switching engines. The General Motors Electro-Motive Division was assigned the task of producing road freight diesels (namely, the FT series). EMD's distinct advantage over its competitors in that product line in the years that followed World War II, due to the head start in diesel R&D and production, is beyond doubt, however, assigning it solely to WPB directives is questionable. Longtime GM chairman Alfred P. Sloan presented a timeline in his memoir that belies this assumption, saying that GM's diesel-engine R&D efforts of the 1920s and 1930s, and its application of model design standardization (yielding lower unit costs) and marketing lessons learned in the automotive industry, were the principal reason for EMD's competitive advantage in the late 1940s and afterward (clearly implying that the wartime production assignments were merely nails in a coffin that Baldwin and Lima had already built for themselves before the war). In his telling, the R&D needed to adapt earlier diesels (best suited to marine and stationary use) to locomotive use (more flexible output; higher power-to-weight ratio; more reliable given more vibration and less maintenance) was a capital-intensive project that almost no one among the railroad owners or locomotive builders was willing (latter) or able (former) to invest in during the 1920s and 1930s except for the GM Research Corporation led by Charles F. Kettering, and the GM subsidiaries Winton Engine Corporation and Electro-Motive Corporation.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Baldwin made steam engines for domestic US railroads, the US Army, British Railways, and made around one thousand E or Ye type engines for the Soviet Union in the Lend Lease arrangement (of an order of 2000 or so engines with other builders contributing to the total).


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Baldwin obtained a short-term market boost from naval demand for diesel engines and the petroleum crisis of 1942–43, which boosted demand for their coal-fired steam locomotives while acquisition of EMD's diesel locomotives was in its most restricted period.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: In 1943 Baldwin launched its belated road diesel program, producing a prototype "Centipede" locomotive which was later rebuilt to introduce their first major product in the postwar market.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: During World War II Baldwin's contributions to the war effort included not only locomotives and switchers but also tanks. Baldwin was one of the manufacturers of several variants of the M3 tank (M3 Lee, M3A2, M3A3, M3A5) and later the M4 Sherman (M4, M4A2). A Baldwin subsidiary, the Whitcomb Locomotive Company, produced hundreds of 65-ton diesel electric locomotives for the Army and received the Army–Navy "E" award for production. Baldwin ranked 40th among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Between 1940 and 1948, domestic steam locomotive sales declined from 30 percent of the market to 2 percent. By 1949, there was no demand for steam locomotives. Baldwin's attempts to adapt to the changed market for road locomotives had been unsuccessful; the reliability of their offerings was unsatisfactory, epitomized by notorious failures such as their "Centipede" diesel locomotives and their steam turbine-electric locomotives, which proved to be money pits unsuited for their intended service. In July 1948 Westinghouse Electric, which had teamed with Baldwin to build diesel and electric locomotives and wanted to keep their main customer in the rail industry afloat, purchased 500,000 shares, or 21 percent, of Baldwin stock, which made Westinghouse Baldwin's largest shareholder. Baldwin used the money to cover various debts. Westinghouse vice president Marvin W. Smith became Baldwin's president in May 1949. In a move to diversify into the construction equipment market, Baldwin merged with Lima-Hamilton on December 4, 1950, to become Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton. However, Lima-Hamilton's locomotive technology was unused after the merger and market share continued to dwindle. By January, 1952 Baldwin closed its factory in Rochelle, Illinois and consolidated Whitcomb production at Eddystone. In 1953 Westinghouse discontinued building electrical traction equipment, so Baldwin was forced to reconfigure their drive systems based on General Electric equipment. In 1954, during which time they were being virtually shut out of the diesel market, Baldwin delivered one steam turbine-electric locomotive to the Norfolk and Western Railway, which proved unsatisfactory in service. After locomotive production ended, Hamilton continued to develop and produce engines for other purposes. Baldwin engine production was shifted to the Hamilton plant, but in 1960 the Hamilton engines ceased production, the plant was shuttered, and Baldwin engine production moved back to Eddystone. The last locomotives produced by Baldwin were three experimental RP-210 dual power passenger locomotives for the New York Central and New York, New Haven, and Hartford rail lines in 1956.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: In 1956, after 125 years of continuous locomotive production, Baldwin closed most of its Eddystone plant and ceased producing locomotives. The company instead concentrated on production of heavy construction equipment. More than 70,500 locomotives had been built when production ended. In 1965 Baldwin became a wholly owned subsidiary of Armour and Company. Greyhound Corporation purchased Armour and Company in 1970, and the decision was made to liquidate all production. In 1972 Greyhound closed Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton for good. The "replacement and renewal parts" business was acquired by Ecolaire Inc. and became the "Baldwin-Hamilton Company - A Division of Ecolaire Inc. and lasted till 1991 to receive license fees from other companies using their designs, which was lucrative. When the licenses ran out, all remaining parts were distributed, and the company dissolved.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Baldwin built many 4-4-0 "American" type locomotives (the locomotive that built America). Surviving examples of which include the 1872 "Countess of Dufferin" and 1875's Virginia and Truckee Railroad No.22 "Inyo", but it was perhaps best known for the 2-8-2 "Mikado" and 2-8-0 "Consolidation" types. It was also well known for the unique cab-forward 4-8-8-2 articulateds built for the Southern Pacific Company and massive 2-10-2 for the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. Baldwin also produced their most powerful steam engines in history, the 2-8-8-4 "Yellowstone" for the Duluth, Missabe and Iron Range Railway. The Yellowstone could put down over of Tractive force. They routinely hauled 180 car trains weighing over . The Yellowstones were so good that the DM&IR refused to part with them; they hauled ore trains well into the diesel era, and the last one retired in 1963. Three have been preserved. One of Baldwin's last new and improved locomotive designs were the 4-8-4 "Northern" locomotives. Baldwin's last domestic steam locomotives were 2-6-6-2s built for the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway in 1949. Baldwin 60000, the company's 1926 demonstration steam locomotive, is on display at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia. On a separate note, the restored and running 2-6-2 steam locomotive at Fort Edmonton Park was built by Baldwin in 1919.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: There are many Baldwin built steam locomotives currently operating in the United States, Canada, and several other countries around the world. Out of all the Baldwin built steam locomotives that are operational or have operated in recent years, the most recognized locomotives are Reading 2101, Reading 2102, Grand Canyon Railway 4960, Frisco 1522, Frisco 1630, Nickel Plate Road 587, Blue Mountain and Reading 425, Western Maryland Scenic Railroad 734, Southern Pacific 2467, Southern Pacific 2472, Spokane, Portland and Seattle 700, Southern Railway 4501, the oldest surviving 4-8-4 Northern type steam locomotive, Santa Fe 3751, and the last domestic steam locomotive Baldwin built, Chesapeake and Ohio 1309.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: In Australia, five of the twenty NSW 59 class Baldwin 2-8-2s which entered service in 1952-3 survive. NSW had several classes of 19th century Baldwin locomotives including the L.304 (later Z21) class 2-6-0s; the


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Pampanga Sugar Development Company (PASUDECO) No. 2 is in static display as the "Riverland Express" at Riverbanks Center mall in Marikina, Philippines as of October 2022. It is a 2-6-0 built in 1928 by Baldwin and is one of the few surviving tender locomotives in Luzon.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Baldwin built locomotives for narrow-gauge railways as well. Some of the more notable series built for the Denver and Rio Grande were outside-framed 2-8-2 "Mikados": Fifteen class K-27's, originally built as Vauclain compounds in 1903, ten class K-36's built in 1925, and ten class K-37's originally built as standard-gauge 2-8-0s in 1902 but rebuilt for narrow gauge in the D&RGW shops in 1928. Several of all these classes survive, and most are operating today on the Durango and Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad, the Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad, while some are being restored on the East Broad Top Railroad.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: New Zealand Railways (NZR) was a major customer from 1879 when it imported six 2-8-0 based on the Denver and Rio Grande locomotives due to their similar rail gauge, these were given the road class of T. The next was a double emergency order of six 2-6-2 classed N and six 2-8-0 classed O after a British order for similar locomotives failed to meet on-time delivery and weight limitations specified in contract. Baldwins seized on the opportunity to impress the NZR with a prompt six-month delivery of all 12 locomotives. Thereafter NZR ordered Baldwin products to complement home built locomotives, including Tank versions 2-6-2 Wb and 2-6-4 Wd classes. Another four of the hard working N class were purchased in 1901. The popular 4-6-0 class of 22 Ub locomotives consisting of 10 1898 flat valve and 10 1901 piston valve (Baldwins supplying all but two) proved themselves well at the turn of the twentieth century with the last retiring as late as 1958. A requirement for a larger firebox version of the class ended up creating a whole new locomotive with the birth of the 4-6-2 wheel arrangement, the Pacific was born. They were classed as Q in NZR service and remained in use until 1957. Being a new type of locomotive, the Q class had their shortcomings but eventually performed well. In 1914 a later larger improved version, and last Baldwin product to be purchased by NZR was classed as Aa. They lasted until 1959. Like all American locomotives produced at the time, the Baldwins had 'short' lifespans built into them but the NZR were happy to re-boiler almost their whole fleet to give them a longer life of hard work. NZR were generally happy with their Baldwin fleet.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: A private Railway operating in New Zealand at the time exclusively purchased Baldwin products after facing the same difficulties with British builders the NZR had. The Wellington and Manawatu Railway (1881–1909) operated small fleets of 2-8-0(4), 2-6-2(6), 2-8-2(1), 4-6-0(2) and a large 2-8-4(1) tank locomotive. When the NZR took over the railway, its fleet was absorbed into sub-classes of those operating already in the main fleet. When NZR placed tenders for diesel locomotives in the 1950s, Baldwins applied but failed when EMD won the contract instead. Surprisingly only one NZR Baldwin product was operational, a class Wd 2-6-4 tank locomotive operated at the Ferrymead railway in Christchurch until it was taken out of service for repairs, the remains of a WMR 2-6-2 N, NZR 4-6-0 Ub, and two NZR 2-6-2 Wb tank locomotives and one Wd tank locomotive are in the early stages of restoration.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Another steam locomotive that is preserved is a steam dummy, built for Sydney Tramways, in 1891, and preserved in operational condition, at Auckland's Museum of Transport and Technology.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: A six-ton, 60-cm gauge 4-4-0 built for the Tacubaya Railroad in 1897 was the smallest ever built by Baldwin for commercial use.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: In the late 1890s, many British builders were recovering from an engineers' strike over working hours, leaving backlogs of orders yet to be fulfilled. This prompted British railways that were in immediate need for additional motive power to turn to Baldwin and other US builders. Examples of engines built in response include three batches of 2-6-0 tender engines for the Midland Railway, Great Central Railway, and Great Northern Railway, respectively, as well as the Lyn, a 2-4-2T (tank locomotive) for the gauge Lynton and Barnstaple Railway in England in 1898. The Cape Government Railways of South Africa also bought engines from Baldwin as a result of the strikes. Unfortunately, many of these engines were unpopular with the crews due to their designs being atypical, and many, including all of those built for the three standard gauge British railways and the Lynton and Barnstaple's Lyn, were scrapped when no longer needed. A replica of the latter locomotive has been constructed for the revived Lynton & Barnstaple Railway.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Also during the late 1890s, two 2-6-2T "Prairie" tank engines were built for the Victorian Railways (V.R.) who gave them an "A" classification and road numbers of 1A and 2A. They were used as a trial on the new narrow-gauge railways. Fifteen more A class locomotives were built by the V.R., numbered 3A–17A. Unfortunately, only six have survived and both of the original Baldwin engines were among those scrapped.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: To supply troops in France, 495 4-6-0PTs were built to the order of the British War Department in 1916/7. After the war surplus locomotives were sold, finding new uses in France, Britain and India.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: In Britain examples were used on the Ashover Light Railway, Glyn Valley Tramway, Snailbeach District Railways and the Welsh Highland Railway.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: The Welsh Highland Railway in Wales bought No 590, in 1923. It was apparently unpopular with crews although photographs show that it was used regularly until the railway was closed. It was scrapped in 1941 when the derelict railway's assets were requisitioned for the war effort. Some of the surviving examples in India have since been imported to the UK, one of which by the Welsh Highland Railway Ltd. who has restored it to represent the scrapped 590. Other Baldwin 4-6-0PT's imported from India include one owned by the Leighton Buzzard Railway-based Greensand Railway Trust that has been restored to working order, as well as two acquired by the Statfold Barn Railway in March 2013.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Baldwin also built six engines for the Manitou and Pike's Peak Railway, three of which were delivered in 1890, with the fourth being delivered in 1897. These engines featured steeply inclined boilers and used the Abt rack system to propel them up the average 16 percent grade. The last Baldwin engine was taken out of regular service in 1955. During the following years the engines were used as back-up engines and for snow removal. Three of the engines are currently on static display around Colorado. One (No. 1) is located at the Colorado Railroad Museum in Golden, Colorado. The other two on display are located in Manitou Springs, Colorado: one (No. 2) near city hall and the other (No. 5) at the Manitou and Pike's Peak Railway depot. The engine No. 4 is still in limited operation for photo opportunities and special events. However, it no longer completes the journey to the top of Pikes Peak due to the fact that many of the water tanks along the line have been removed. Engines No. 3 and No. 6 were scrapped and used for parts over the years.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Number 6 (builder plate number 12288), a 36" 2-6-0 was built by Baldwin in 1891 for the Surry Sussex & Southampton Railway in Virginia. The SS&S installed Southern valve gear, a graceful outside drive gear. The 6 was eventually sold to the Argent Lumber Company in South Carolina. In 1960, the 6 was purchased by southeastern Iowa's Midwest Central Railroad as part of a package deal including the 2 (below). It was the first locomotive to operate on a regular basis at the MCRR and was their main engine until 1971 when it was taken out of service for a major overhaul. Completed in 1988, this ground up rebuild included a new boiler and conversion to oil fire. A "medium" boiler repair was started in 2009, with the work completed in September 2010, in time for the 2010 Midwest Old Thresher's Reunion.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: The Midwest Central Railroad also owns Number 2, a 36" 2-6-0, which was built for the New Berlin & Winfield Railroad in 1906. The NB&W operated an line in Pennsylvania for an agricultural community. The 2 hauled freight and passengers on this small operation until the mid-1910s. In 1917, the locomotive was sold to the Argent Lumber Company in South Carolina where it worked along with the 6 in swamp trackage, hauling logs to the mill in Hardeeville. Upon arrival at the MCRR in 1960, it received substantial repairs and was put into service by the early 1970s, replacing the 6 as the MCRR's main engine. In 1987, the 2 was taken out of service for a complete rebuild which is still in progress as of January 2011.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: The Walt Disney World Railroad (WDWRR), which runs around the Magic Kingdom in Florida, has four operational Baldwin locomotives: a 1916 Class 8-C 4-4-0 No. 4 (The "Roy O. Disney"), twin locomotives Nos. 1 and 3, both 1925 Class 10-D 4-6-0 designs (The "Walter E. Disney" and the "Roger E. Broggie", respectively) and a 1928 Class 8-D 2-6-0 No. 2 (The "Lilly Belle"). They all originally worked on the Ferrocarriles Unidos de Yucatán (UdeY), a railroad that operated in the state of Yucatán in Mexico. In the late 1960s, they were all purchased by Disney imagineers Roger E. Broggie and Earl Vilmer for $8,000 each and restored to operating condition, while significantly altered from their original appearance to resemble steam locomotives from the 1880s. Three other operational Disney-owned Baldwin locomotives exist at Disneyland Park in California, where they operate on the Disneyland Railroad.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Baldwin also built many boilers and stationary steam engines for heating and powering buildings and industry.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: As well as railway locomotives, Baldwin built street tramway steam motors in large numbers for operators in the United States and worldwide. There were three basic models, with 9-inch, 11-inch and 13-inch motors, the sizes being determined by the cylinder size rather than the boiler capacity. These were largely superseded by electric tramcars, but some were built and operated well into the 20th century for systems that were never electrified. There were well over 100 built for the New South Wales Government Tramways in Sydney Australia from 1879 to 1910. Mostly 11" and 0-4-0 in configuration.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: From the early years of the 20th century Baldwin had a relationship with the Westinghouse Electric Company to build electric locomotives for the American market. The electric locomotive was increasingly popular; electrification was expensive, but for high traffic levels or mountainous terrain it could pay for itself, and in addition some cities like New York, were banning the steam locomotive because of its pollution and the propensity for accidents in smoke-choked terminals. Baldwin built or subcontracted out the bodywork and running gear, and Westinghouse built the electrical gear. Both combined to have a similar arrangement with the Netherlands and Werkspoor for the foreign markets.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Baldwin built the famed EP-1 (1906), EF-1 (1912) and EP-2 (1923) box cab electric locomotives for the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. Baldwin also delivered the EP-3 box cab electric locomotives to the Milwaukee Road for use on their line between Harlowton, Montana, and Avery, Idaho.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Baldwin built several electric locomotive types for the Pennsylvania Railroad as well including the P5A, R1 and the famed GG1. Baldwin built the first GG1 prototype electric locomotive for use on the Pennsylvania Railroad's electrified line, which was completed in 1935 between New York and Washington, D.C.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: In the waning years of steam Baldwin also undertook several attempts at alternative technologies to diesel power. In 1944 Baldwin outshopped an S2 class 6-8-6 steam turbine locomotive for the Pennsylvania Railroad.


title: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: Between 1947 and 1948 Baldwin built three coal-fired steam turbine-electric locomotives of a unique design, for passenger service on the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O), who numbered them 500 to 502 and classified them M-1. The units, which were equipped with Westinghouse electrical systems and had a 2-C1+2-C1-B wheel arrangement, were long, making them the longest locomotives ever built for passenger service. The cab was mounted in the center, with a coal bunker ahead of it and a backwards-mounted boiler behind it, the tender only carrying water. These locomotives were intended for a route from Washington, D.C., to Cincinnati, but could never travel the whole route without some sort of failure. Coal dust and water frequently got into the traction motors. These problems could have been fixed given time, but it was obvious that these locomotives would always be expensive to maintain, and all three were scrapped in 1950.