title: Water bottle

text: Chemicals used for making some types of bottles have been shown to be detrimental to the health of humans. Inhalation of chemicals used in the manufacture of plastics is a hazard for the factory workers who handle the material. In many developing countries, plastic waste is burned rather than recycled or deposited in landfills. Rural residents of developing countries who burn plastic as a disposal method are not protected from the chemical inhalation hazards associated with this practice. It is important to dispose of water that has been stored in PET bottles that have been exposed to high temperatures for a prolonged period of time or are beyond the expiration date because harmful chemicals may leach from the plastic.


title: Water bottle

text: Bottle manufacturing relies on petroleum and natural resources. Some creating processes release toxic chemicals into the air and water supply that can immensely affect nervous systems, blood cells, kidneys, immune systems, and can cause cancer and birth defects. Most disposable water bottles are made from petroleum found polyethylene terephthalate (PET). While PET is considered less toxic than many other types of plastic, the Berkeley Ecology Center found that manufacturing PET makes toxic emissions in the form of nickel, ethylbenzene, ethylene oxide and benzene at levels 100 times higher than those created to make the same amount of glass.


title: Water bottle

text: Water bottles made of glass, aluminium and steel are the most readily recyclable. HDPE and LDPE bottles can be recycled as well.


title: Water bottle

text: Because the manufacturing and transportation of disposable water bottles requires petroleum, a non-renewable resource, the single-serve bottled water industry has come under pressure from concerned consumers. The Pacific Institute calculates that it required about 17 million barrels of oil to make the disposable plastic bottles for single-serve water that Americans consumed in 2006. To sustain the consumptive use of products relying on plastic components and level of manufactured demand for plastic water bottles, the end result is shortages of fossil fuels. Furthermore, it means not only a shortage of the raw materials to make plastics, but also a shortage of the energy required to fuel their production.


title: Water bottle

text: Single-serve bottled water industry has responded to consumer concern about the environmental impact of disposable water bottles by significantly reducing the amount of plastic used in bottles. The reduced plastic content also results in a lower weight product that uses less energy to transport. Other bottle manufacturing companies are experimenting with alternative materials such as corn starch to make new bottles that are more readily biodegradable.


title: Water bottle

text: The lowest impact water bottles are those made of glass or metal. They are not made from petroleum and are easily recyclable. By choosing to continuously fill any multi-use water bottle, the consumer keeps disposable bottles out of the waste stream and minimizes environmental impact.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Gloria Evangelina Anzaldúa (September 26, 1942 – May 15, 2004) was an American scholar of Chicana cultural theory, feminist theory, and queer theory. She loosely based her best-known book, "", on her life growing up on the Mexico–Texas border and incorporated her lifelong experiences of social and cultural marginalization into her work. She also developed theories about the marginal, in-between, and mixed cultures that develop along borders, including on the concepts of Nepantla, Coyoxaulqui imperative, new tribalism, and spiritual activism.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa was born in the Rio Grande Valley of south Texas on September 26, 1942, to Urbano Anzaldúa and Amalia Anzaldúa "née" García, oldest of four children. Gloria Anzaldúa's great-grandfather, Urbano Sr., once a precinct judge in Hidalgo County, was the first owner of the Jesús María Ranch on which she was born. Her mother grew up on an adjoining ranch, Los Vergeles ("the gardens"), which was owned by her family, and she met and married Urbano Anzaldúa when both were very young. Anzaldúa was a descendant of many of the prominent Spanish explorers and settlers to come to the Americas in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and also had indigenous ancestry. The surname Anzaldúa is of Basque origin. Her paternal grandmother was of Spanish and German ancestry, descending from some of the earliest settlers of the South Texas range country. She has described her father's family as being "very poor aristocracy, but aristocracy anyway" and her mother as "very india, working class, with maybe some black blood which is always looked down on in the valley where I come from." She also believed she had Jewish ancestry because of her father who had "very Jewish features, curly hair, the nose."<ref name="Interviews/Entrevistas"></ref>


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa has written that her family gradually lost their wealth and status over the years, eventually being reduced to poverty and being forced into migrant labor, something her family resented because "[t]o work in the fields is the lowest job, and to be a migrant worker is even lower." Her father was a tenant farmer and sharecropper who kept 60% of what he earned, while 40% went to a white-owned corporation called Rio Farms, Inc. Anzaldúa has claimed that her family lost their land due to a combination of h "taxes and dirty manipulation" from white people who were buying up land in South Texas through "trickery", and from the behavior of her "very irresponsible grandfather" who lost "a lot of land and money through carelessness." Anzaldúa was left with an inheritance of "a little piece" of twelve acres, which she deeded over to her mother Amalia. Her maternal grandmother Ramona Dávila had amassed land grants from the time Texas was part of Mexico, but the land was lost due to "carelessness, through white peoples' greed, and my grandmother not knowing English."


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa wrote that she did not call herself an "india", but still claimed Indigenous ancestry. In "Speaking across the Divide" from the Gloria E. Anzaldúa Reader, she states that her white/mestiza grandmother described her as "pura indita" due to dark spots on her buttocks. Later, Anzaldúa wrote that she "recognized myself in the faces of the braceros that worked for my father. Los braceros were mostly indios from central Mexico who came to work the fields in south Texas. I recognized the Indian aspect of mexicanos by the stories my grandmothers told and by the foods we ate." Despite her family not identifying as Mexican, Anzaldúa believed that "we were still Mexican and that all Mexicans are part Indian." Although Anzaldúa has been criticized by Indigenous scholars for allegedly appropriating Indigenous identity, Anzaldúa claimed that her Indigenous critics had "misread or has not read enough of my work." Despite claiming to be "three quarters Indian", she also wrote that she was afraid she was "violating Indian cultural boundaries" and afraid that her theories could "unwittingly contribute to the misappropriation of Native cultures" and of "people who live in real Indian bodies." She wrote that while worried that "mestizaje and a new tribalism" could "detribalize" Indigenous peoples, she believed the dialogue was imperative "no matter how risky." Writing about the "Color of Violence" conference organized by Andrea Smith in Santa Cruz, Anzaldúa accused Native American women of engaging in "a lot of finger pointing" because they had argued that non-Indigenous Chicanas use of Indigenous identity is a "continuation of the abuse of native spirituality and the Internet appropriation of Indian symbols, rituals, vision quests, and spiritual healing practices like shamanism."


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: When she was eleven, her family relocated to Hargill, Texas. She graduated as valedictorian of Edinburg High School in 1962.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa managed to pursue a university education, despite the racism, sexism and other forms of oppression she experienced as a seventh generation Tejana and Chicana. In 1968, she received a B.A. in English, Art, and Secondary Education from University of Texas–Pan American, and an M.A. in English and Education from the University of Texas at Austin. While in Austin, she joined politically active cultural poets and radical dramatists such as Ricardo Sanchez, and Hedwig Gorski.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: After obtaining a Bachelor of Arts in English from the Pan American University (now University of Texas Rio Grande Valley), Anzaldúa worked as a preschool and special education teacher. In 1977, she moved to California, where she supported herself through her writing, lectures, and occasional teaching stints about feminism, Chicano studies, and creative writing at San Francisco State University, the University of California, Santa Cruz, Florida Atlantic University, and other universities.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: She is perhaps most famous for co-editing "" (1981) with Cherríe Moraga, editing "Making Face, Making Soul/Haciendo Caras: Creative and Critical Perspectives by Women of Color" (1990), and co-editing "This Bridge We Call Home: Radical Visions for Transformation" (2002). She also wrote the semi-autobiographical "" (1987). At the time of her death she was close to completing the book manuscript, "Light in the Dark/Luz en lo Oscuro: Rewriting Identity, Spirituality, Reality", which she also planned to submit as her dissertation. It has now been published posthumously by Duke University Press (2015). Her children's books include "Prietita Has a Friend" (1991), "Friends from the Other Side – Amigos del Otro Lado" (1993), and "Prietita y La Llorona" (1996). She has also authored many fictional and poetic works.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: She made contributions to fields of feminism, cultural theory/Chicana, and queer theory. Her essays are considered foundational texts in the burgeoning field of Latinx philosophy.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa wrote a speech called "Speaking in Tongues: A Letter to Third World Women Writers" focusing on the shift towards an equal and just gender representation in literature but away from racial and cultural issues because of the rise of female writers and theorists. She also stressed in her essay the power of writing to create a world that would compensate for what the real world does not offer.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa's essay '"La Prieta" deals with her manifestation of thoughts and horrors that have constituted her life in Texas. Anzaldúa identifies herself as an entity without a figurative home and/or peoples to completely relate to. To supplement this deficiency, Anzaldúa created her own sanctuary, Mundo Zurdo, whereby her personality transcends the norm-based lines of relating to a certain group. Instead, in her Mundo Zurdo, she is like a "Shiva, a many-armed and legged body with one foot on brown soil, one on white, one in straight society, one in the gay world, the man's world, the women's, one limb in the literary world, another in the working class, the socialist, and the occult worlds". The passage describes the identity battles which the author had to engage in throughout her life. Since early childhood, Anzaldúa has had to deal with the challenge of being a woman of color. From the beginnings she was exposed to her own people, to her own family's racism and "fear of women and sexuality". Her family's internalized racism immediately cast her as the "other" because of their bias that being white and fair-skinned means prestige and royalty, when color subjects one to being almost the scum of society (just as her mother had complained about her "prieta" dating a "mojado" from Peru). The household she grew up in was one in which the male figure was the authoritarian head, while the female, the mother, was stuck in all the biases of this paradigm. Although this is the difficult position in which white, patriarchal society has cast women of color, gays and lesbians, she does not make them out to be the archenemy, because she believes that "casting stones is not the solution" and that racism and sexism do not come from only whites but also people of color. Throughout her life, the inner racism and sexism from her childhood would haunt her, as she often was asked to choose her loyalties, whether it be to women, to people of color, or to gays/lesbians. Her analogy to Shiva is well-fitted, as she decides to go against these conventions and enter her own world: Mundo Zurdo, which allows the self to go deeper, to transcend the lines of convention and, at the same time, to recreate the self and the society. This is for Anzaldúa a form of religion, one that allows the self to deal with the injustices that society throws at it and to come out a better person, a more reasonable person.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: An entry in the book titled "Speaking In Tongues: A Letter To Third World Women Writers", spotlights the dangers Anzaldúa considers women writers of color deal with, and these dangers are rooted in a lack of privileges. She talks about the transformation of writing styles and how we are taught not to air our truths. Folks are outcast as a result of speaking and writing with their native tongues. Anzaldúa wants more women writers of color to be visible and be well represented in text. Her essay compels us to write with compassion and with love. For writing is a form of gaining power by speaking our truths, and it is seen as a way to decolonize, to resist, and to unite women of color collectively within the feminist movement.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: She is highly known for this semi-autobiographical book, which discusses her life growing up on the Mexico–Texas border. It was selected as one of the 38 best books of 1987 by "Library Journal". "Borderlands" examines the condition of women in Chicano and Latino culture. Anzaldúa discusses several critical issues related to Chicana experiences: heteronormativity, colonialism, and male dominance. She gives a very personal account of the oppression of Chicana lesbians and talks about the gendered expectations of behavior that normalizes women's deference to male authority in her community. She develops the idea of the "new mestiza" as a "new higher consciousness" that will break down barriers and fight against the male/female dualistic norms of gender. The first half of the book is about isolation and loneliness in the borderlands between cultures. The latter half of the book is poetry. In the book, Anzaldúa uses two variations of English and six variations of Spanish. By doing this, she deliberately makes it difficult for non-bilinguals to read. Language was one of the barriers Anzaldúa dealt with as a child, and she wanted readers to understand how frustrating things are when there are language barriers. The book was written as an outlet for her anger and encourages one to be proud of one's heritage and culture.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: In chapter 3 of the book, titled "Entering Into the Serpent," Anzaldúa discusses three key women Mexican culture, "La Llorona, La Malinche, and Our Lady of Guadalupe. Known as the "Three Mothers" () she explores their relationship to Mexican culture.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa wrote "Light in the Dark" during the last decade of her life. Drawn from her unfinished dissertation for her PhD in Literature from University of California, Santa Cruz, the book is carefully organized from The Gloria Anzaldúa Papers, 1942–2004 by AnaLouise Keating, Anzaldúa's literary trustee. The book represents her most developed philosophy. Throughout "Light in the Dark", Anzaldúa weaves personal narratives into deeply engaging theoretical readings to comment on numerous contemporary issues—including the September 11 attacks, neocolonial practices in the art world, and coalitional politics. She valorizes subaltern forms and methods of knowing, being, and creating that have been marginalized by Western thought, and theorizes her writing process as a fully embodied artistic, spiritual, and political practice. "Light in the Dark" contains multiple transformative theories including include the nepantleras, the Coyolxauhqui imperative (named for the Aztec goddess Coyolxāuhqui), spiritual activism, and others.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa drew on Nepantla, a Nahuatl word that means "in the middle", to conceptualise her experience as a Chicana woman. She coined the term "Nepantlera". "Nepantleras are threshold people; they move within and among multiple, often conflicting, worlds and refuse to align themselves exclusively with any single individual, group, or belief system."


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa described herself as a very spiritual person and stated that she experienced four out-of-body experiences during her lifetime. In many of her works, she referred to her devotion to la Virgen de Guadalupe (Our Lady of Guadalupe), Nahuatl/Toltec divinities, and to the Yoruba orishás Yemayá and Oshún. In 1993, she expressed regret that scholars had largely ignored the "unsafe" spiritual aspects of "Borderlands" and bemoaned the resistance to such an important part of her work. In her later writings, she developed the concepts of spiritual activism and nepantleras to describe the ways contemporary social actors can combine spirituality with politics to enact revolutionary change.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa has written about the influence of hallucinogenic drugs on her creativity, particularly psilocybin mushrooms. During one 1975 psilocybin mushroom trip when she was "stoned out of my head", she coined the term "the multiple Glorias" or the "Gloria Multiplex" to describe her feeling of multiplicity, an insight that influenced her later writings.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldua's works weave English and Spanish together as one language, an idea stemming from her theory of "borderlands" identity. Her autobiographical essay, "La Prieta," was published in (mostly) English in "This Bridge Called My Back", and in (mostly) Spanish in "Esta puente, mi espalda: Voces de mujeres tercermundistas en los Estados Unidos". In her writing, Anzaldúa uses a unique blend of eight dialects, two variations of English and six of Spanish. In many ways, by writing in a mix of languages, Anzaldúa creates a daunting task for the non-bilingual reader to decipher the full meaning of the text. Language, clearly one of the borders Anzaldúa addressed, is an essential feature to her writing. Her book is dedicated to being proud of one's heritage and to recognizing the many dimensions of her culture.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa emphasized in her writing the connection between language and identity. She expressed dismay with people who gave up their native language in order to conform to the society they were in. Anzaldúa was often scolded for her improper Spanish accent and believed it was a strong aspect to her heritage; therefore, she labels the qualitative labeling of language "linguistic terrorism." She spent a lot of time promoting acceptance of all languages and accents. In an effort to expose her stance on linguistics and labels, Anzaldúa explained, "While I advocate putting Chicana, "tejana", working-class, dyke-feminist poet, writer theorist in front of my name, I do so for reasons different than those of the dominant culture... so that the Chicana and lesbian and all the other persons in me don't get erased, omitted, or killed."


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa experienced at a young age symptoms of the endocrine condition that caused her to stop growing physically at the age of twelve. As a child, she would wear special girdles fashioned for her by her mother in order to disguise her condition. Her mother would also ensure that a cloth was placed in Anzaldúa's underwear as a child in case of bleeding. Anzaldúa remembers, "I'd take [the bloody cloths] out into this shed, wash them out, and hang them really low on a cactus so nobody would see them... My genitals... [were] always a smelly place that dripped blood and had to be hidden." She eventually underwent a hysterectomy in 1980 when she was 38 years old to deal with uterine, cervical, and ovarian abnormalities.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa's poem "Nightvoice" alludes to a history of child sexual abuse as she writes: "blurting out everything how my cousins/took turns at night when I was five eight ten."


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: One of Anzaldúa's major contributions was her introduction to United States academic audiences of the term "mestizaje," meaning a state of being beyond ("either-or") conception, into academic writing and discussion. In her theoretical works, Anzaldúa called for a "new mestiza," which she described as an individual aware of her conflicting and meshing identities and uses these "new angles of vision" to challenge binary thinking in the Western world. The "borderlands" that she refers to in her writing are geographical as well as a reference to mixed races, heritages, religions, sexualities, and languages. Anzaldúa is primarily interested in the contradictions and juxtapositions of conflicting and intersecting identities. She points out that having to identify as a certain, labelled, sex can be detrimental to one's creativity as well as how seriously people take you as a producer of consumable goods. The "new mestiza" way of thinking is illustrated in postcolonial feminism.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa called for people of different races to confront their fears to move forward into a world that is less hateful and more useful. In "La Conciencia de la Mestiza: Towards a New Consciousness," a text often used in women's studies courses, Anzaldúa insisted that separatism invoked by Chicanos/Chicanas is not furthering the cause but instead keeping the same racial division in place. Many of Anzaldúa's works challenge the status quo of the movements in which she was involved. She challenged these movements in an effort to make real change happen to the world rather than to specific groups. Scholar Ivy Schweitzer writes, "her theorizing of a new borderlands or mestiza consciousness helped jump start fresh investigations in several fields -- feminist, Americanist [and] postcolonial."


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: In the same way that Anzaldúa often wrote that she felt that she could not be classified as only part of one race or the other, she felt that she possessed a multi-sexuality. When growing up, Anzaldúa expressed that she felt an "intense sexuality" towards her own father, children, animals, and even trees. AnaLouise Keating considered omitting Anzaldúa's sexual fantasies involving incest and bestiality for being "rather shocking" and "pretty radical", but Anzaldúa insisted that they remain because "to me, nothing is private." Anzaldúa claimed she had "sexual fantasies about father-daughter, sister-brother, woman-dog, woman-wolf, woman-jaguar, woman-tiger, or woman-panther. It was usually a cat- or dog-type animal." Anzaldúa also specified that she may have "mistaken this connection, this spiritual connection, for sexuality." She was attracted to and later had relationships with both men and women. Although she identified herself as a lesbian in most of her writing and had always experienced attraction to women, she also wrote that lesbian was "not an adequate term" to describe herself. She stated that she "consciously chose women" and consciously changed her sexual preference by changing her fantasies, arguing that "You can change your sexual preference. It's real easy." She stated that she "became a lesbian in my head first, the ideology, the politics, the aesthetics" and that the "touching, kissing, hugging, and all came later". Anzaldúa wrote extensively about her queer identity and the marginalization of queer people, particularly in communities of color.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa self-identifies in her writing as a feminist, and her major works are often associated with Chicana feminism and postcolonial feminism. Anzaldúa writes of the oppression she experiences specifically as a woman of color, as well as the restrictive gender roles that exist within the Chicano community. In "Borderlands", she also addresses topics such as sexual violence perpetrated against women of color. Her theoretical work on border culture is considered a precursor to Latinx Philosophy.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa has been criticized for neglecting and erasing Afro-Latino and Afro-Mexican history, as well as for drawing inspiration from José Vasconcelos' "La raza cósmica" without critiquing the racism, anti-blackness, and eugenics within the work of Vasconcelos.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Josefina Saldaña-Portillo's 2001 essay "Who's the Indian in Aztlán?" criticizes the "indigenous erasure" in the work of Anzaldúa as well as Anzaldúa's "appropriation of state sponsored Mexican indigenismo."


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Additionally, her work "" was recognized as one of the 38 best books of 1987 by "Library Journal" and 100 Best Books of the Century by both "Hungry Mind Review" and "Utne Reader".


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Anzaldúa died on May 15, 2004, at her home in Santa Cruz, California, from complications due to diabetes. At the time of her death, she was working toward the completion of her dissertation to receive her doctorate in Literature from the University of California, Santa Cruz. It was awarded posthumously in 2005.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: The Chicana/o Latina/o Research Center (CLRC) at University of California, Santa Cruz offers the annual "Gloria E. Anzaldúa Distinguished Lecture Award" and "The Gloria E. Anzaldúa Award for Independent Scholars and Contingent Faculty" is offered annually by the American Studies Association. The latter "...honors Anzaldúa's outstanding career as an independent scholar and her labor as contingent faculty, along with her groundbreaking contributions to scholarship on women of color and to queer theory. The award includes a lifetime membership in the ASA, a lifetime electronic subscription to American Quarterly, five years access to the electronic library resources at the University of Texas at Austin, and $500".


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: In 2007, three years after Anzaldúa's death, the Society for the Study of Gloria Anzaldúa (SSGA) was established to gather scholars and community members who continue to engage Anzaldúa's work. The SSGA co-sponsors a conference – El Mundo Zurdo – every 18 months.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: The Gloria E. Anzaldúa Poetry Prize is awarded annually, in conjunction with the Anzaldúa Literary Trust, to a poet whose work explores how place shapes identity, imagination, and understanding. Special attention is given to poems that exhibit multiple vectors of thinking: artistic, theoretical, and social, which is to say, political. First place is publication by Newfound, including 25 contributor copies, and a $500 prize.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: The National Women's Studies Association honors Anzaldúa, a valued and long-active member of the organization, with the annual Gloria E. Anzaldúa Book Prize, which is designated for groundbreaking monographs in women's studies that makes significant multicultural feminist contributions to women of color/transnational scholarship.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: To commemorate what would have been Anzaldúa's 75th birthday, on September 26, 2017 Aunt Lute Books published the anthology "Imaniman: Poets Writing in the Anzaldúan Borderlands" edited by ire'ne lara silva and Dan Vera with an introduction by United States Poet Laureate Juan Felipe Herrera and featuring the work of 52 contemporary poets on the subject of Anzaldúa's continuing impact on contemporary thought and culture. On the same day, Google commemorated Anzaldúa's achievements and legacy through a Doodle in the United States.


title: Gloria E. Anzaldúa

text: Housed at the Nettie Lee Benson Latin American Collection at the University of Texas at Austin, the Gloria Evangelina Anzaldúa Papers, 1942-2004 contains over 125 feet of published and unpublished materials including manuscripts, poetry, drawings, recorded lectures, and other archival resources. AnaLouise Keating is one of the Anzaldúa Trust's trustees. Anzaldúa maintained a collection of figurines, masks, rattles, candles, and other ephemera used as altar (altares) objects at her home in Santa Cruz, California. These altares were an integral part of her spiritual life and creative process as a writer. The altar collection is presently housed by the Special Collections department of the University Library at the University of California, Santa Cruz.


title: Bowing

text: Bowing (also called stooping) is the act of lowering the torso and head as a social gesture in direction to another person or symbol. It is most prominent in Asian cultures but it is also typical of nobility and aristocracy in many European countries. It is also used in religious contexts, as a form of worship or veneration. Sometimes the gesture may be limited to lowering the head such as in Indonesia, and in many cultures several degrees of the lowness of the bow are distinguished and regarded as appropriate for different circumstances. It is especially prominent in Nepal, India, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, China, Korea, and Japan, where it may be executed standing or kneeling. Some bows are performed equally by two or more people while others are unequal – the person bowed to either does not bow in return or performs a less low bow in response. A nod of the head may be regarded as the minimal form of bow; forms of kneeling, genuflection, or prostration which involves the hands or whole body touching the ground, are the next levels of gesture.


title: Bowing

text: In European cultures—aside from bows done by performers on stage such as at the curtain call—bowing is traditionally an exclusively male practice, and women instead perform a related gesture called a "curtsey" or "curtsy". The depth of the bow was related to the difference in rank or degree of respect or gratitude. In Early Modern European courtly circles, males were expected to "bow and scrape" (hence the term "bowing and scraping" for what appears to be excessive ceremony). "Scraping" refers to the drawing back of the right leg as one bows, such that the right foot scrapes the floor or earth. Typically, while executing such a bow, the man's right hand is pressed horizontally across the abdomen while the left is held out from the body. Social bowing is all but extinct, except in some very formal settings, though hand-kissing of women by men, which of necessity includes a bow, lingers on in some cultures.


title: Bowing

text: In the British, Australian, and other Commonwealth courts, lawyers and clerks (of both sexes) are expected to perform a cursory bow of the head only to the judge when entering or leaving a law court that is in session. Similar gestures are made to the Speaker of the House of Commons when entering or leaving the chamber of the House of Commons in session, and to the monarch by their staff.


title: Bowing

text: Members of the Royal Family of the various Commonwealth Realms are either bowed or curtsied to, depending on the gender of the subject. Australians are expected to bow to the Governor-General of Australia, the spouse of the Governor-General and state Governors and Lieutenant-Governors.


title: Bowing

text: Bows are the traditional greeting in East Asia, particularly in Japan, Korea, China, and Vietnam. In China, and Vietnam, shaking hands or a slight bow have become more popular than a full bow. However, bowing is not reserved only for greetings; it can also be used as a gesture of respect, with different bows used for apologies and gratitude.


title: Bowing

text: Basic bows originate at the waist and are performed with the back straight and the hands at the sides (for men) or clasped in front (for women), and with the eyes down.


title: Bowing

text: Generally, bows can be divided into three main types: informal, formal, and very formal. Informal bows are made at about a fifteen degree angle and more formal bows at about thirty degrees. Very formal bows are deeper. In extreme cases a kneeling bow is performed, which may be so deep that the forehead touches the floor.


title: Bowing

text: There is an extremely complex etiquette surrounding bowing, including the length and depth of bow, and the appropriate response. For example, if the other person maintains his or her bow for longer than expected (generally about two or three seconds), it is polite to bow again, upon which one may receive another bow in return, often leading to an exchange of progressively lighter bows.


title: Bowing

text: Bows are a required and expected part of any apology or expression of thanks in East Asia, especially Japan and Korea.


title: Bowing

text: Bows of apology tend to be deeper and last longer than other types of bow. They occur with frequency during the apology, generally at about 45-50 degrees with the head lowered and lasting for at least the count of three but sometimes longer. The depth, frequency and duration of the bow increases with the sincerity of the apology and the severity of the offense. Bows of thanks follow the same pattern.


title: Bowing

text: Bows of apology are frequently performed at press conferences by high-ranking members of a company that has performed some misdeed, such as producing faulty parts that resulted in a death. The bows are almost invariably performed standing behind a table; the tips of the fingers touch the table while the upper body, held straight, is lowered from the waist until the face is parallel with the tabletop.


title: Bowing

text: Bows are commonly used in greeting, both when meeting and when departing. Bows almost automatically accompany the greeting phrases, but generally are no longer used among the immediate family unless addressing a family member after or in anticipation of a long absence or separation.


title: Bowing

text: Bows also replace speaking under certain circumstances. For example, when encountering again a person to whom one has already spoken that day, a silent bow replaces such phrases as "hello" or "hi".


title: Bowing

text: When addressing a subordinate, a manager, supervisor, or other leader generally only nods the head slightly (some may not bow at all), while the subordinate bends forward slightly from the waist.


title: Bowing

text: When dealing with non-East Asians, many East Asians will shake hands. Since many non-East Asians are familiar with the custom of bowing, this often leads to an awkward combined bow and handshake. Bows may be combined with handshakes or performed before or after shaking hands.


title: Bowing

text: Generally when bowing in proximity to another, as necessitated when combining bowing and shaking hands, people turn slightly to one side to avoid bumping heads.


title: Bowing

text: The kowtow is the highest sign of reverence in Han Chinese culture, but its use has become extremely rare since the collapse of Imperial China. In many situations, the standing bow has replaced the kowtow. However, in modern Chinese societies, bowing is not as formalized as in Japan, South Korea and North Korea. Bowing is normally reserved for occasions such as marriage ceremonies and as a gesture of respect for the deceased, although it still sometimes used for more formal greetings.


title: Bowing

text: As in Japan and Korea, public figures may bow formally to apologize. Chinese Premier bowed and offered his condolences to stranded railway passengers; Taiwanese Defense Minister bowed in apology following a faux pas concerning the shooting of former President in 2004.


title: Bowing

text: Similarly to East Asia, bowing is the traditional form of greeting in many South Asian and Southeast Asian countries. A gesture known as the "Añjali Mudrā" is used as a sign of respect and greeting and involves a bow of varying degrees depending on whom one performs it to and hands pressed together generally at chest level. Practised throughout South Asia and Southeast Asia, the gesture is most commonly used in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Indonesia. Gestures across the region are known by different names such as the "wai" in Thailand, "sampeah" in Cambodia and Laos, "sembah" in Indonesia, "namaste" in India and Nepal, and in Sri Lanka the gesture is used as a greeting with the word "Ayubowan".


title: Bowing

text: Bowing is an integral part of traditional martial arts. Bows are used to begin and end practice, sparring bouts and competitions, and when entering and leaving the dojo, or practice room.


title: Bowing

text: Some martial arts bows are different in terms of the position of the arms and hands. For example, a karate bow is performed with the arms at the sides, while other bows, such as a Silat bow, are performed with the hands together and the hands and the arms in front.


title: Bowing

text: Bowing is an important part of Japanese tea ceremony. There are three main types of bow performed in tea ceremony; they are classified as , , and . All are usually performed from a kneeling position. bows are the deepest; from a kneeling position, the bower bends forward from the waist, placing the hands palms down on the floor in front of the body, with the fingers facing. bows are performed to teachers and superiors. and bows respectively are less deep and less long. From a kneeling position and bowing from the waist, the hands are slid over the knees until the tips of the fingers touch the floor in front of the body. They are performed among persons of similar rank.


title: Bowing

text: Students of tea ceremony bow to each other and to their teacher; each class begins with bows between the teacher and students. If a senior student is teaching a junior student, bows are exchanged between the two. Before beginning a practice, a student bows to all the other students as well. This pattern is repeated when the practice ends.


title: Bowing

text: A bow is performed at the door before entering the tea room, or tea house. One then proceeds to the , or scroll alcove, and bows again. Finally one greets the teacher, and then the other students, or the other guests, with bows. This pattern is repeated when leaving the tea room as well.


title: Bowing

text: The host of a tea ceremony bows before beginning the ceremony. Bows are exchanged repeatedly throughout a tea ceremony, between the host and guest of honor, among the guests, between guests and the hosts assistants, and between the host and guests.


title: Bowing

text: In many Eastern religions bowing is used as a sign of respect in worship and has its origins in the Indian "Añjali Mudrā".


title: Bowing

text: Sikhs only bowed to their Gurus, who were the messengers of god. Their holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib is seen as the eternal guru after the death of their living gurus, as it has the word of god written by the past living gurus. In a Gurdwara, Sikhs bow to the Guru Granth Sahib and are not permitted to take part in idol worshiping, bowing to anything other than the Guru Granth Sahib or bowing to any living person.


title: Bowing

text: Bows are performed in Shinto settings. Visitors to a Shinto shrine will clap or ring a bell to attract the attention of the enshrined deity, clasp the hands in prayer, and then bow.


title: Bowing

text: Bowing is a common feature for worship in Buddhism. Zen Buddhism, for example, has a daily ritual in which practitioners do 1,080 full prostration bows, usually spread throughout the day. More casual practitioners and laypeople typically do 108 bows once a day instead.


title: Bowing

text: In the Hindu traditions people show deference by bowing or kneeling down and touching feet of an elder or respected person.


title: Bowing

text: Traditionally, a child is expected to bow down to their parents, teachers and elders during certain formal ceremonies and casual settings.


title: Bowing

text: In the Jewish setting, bowing, similar to in Christianity, is a sign of respect, and is done at certain points in Jewish services. By tradition, in the Temple in Jerusalem, kneeling was part of the regular service, but this is not part of a modern Jewish service.


title: Bowing

text: Some bows within the current liturgy are simple bows from the waist — others (especially during parts of the Amidah) involve bending the knees while saying Baruch (Blessed), bowing from the waist at Atah ([are] you) and then straightening up at Adonai (God). During the concluding "Aleinu" section of the services, congregants usually bow when they say "V'anachnu kor'im u'mishtachavim u'modim," meaning "we bend our knees, prostrate, and acknowledge our thanks." Another moment in the service which triggers the bow is during the "Bar'chu". Many bow at the mention of "Adonai" (the Jewish addressing of the Lord) at this and various other parts in the service (most likely if they are to remain standing during that prayer).


title: Bowing

text: Kneeling is retained in modern Orthodox Judaism, but only on the High Holy Days — once on each day of Rosh Hashanah (when the Aleinu prayer is recited during the Amidah), and four times on Yom Kippur — again, once for Aleinu, and three times during a central portion of the service when the details of the Avodah, the High Priest's service in the Temple are recited.


title: Bowing

text: The Talmudic texts as well as writings of Gaonim and Rishonim indicate that total prostration was common among many Jewish communities until some point during the Middle Ages. Members of the Karaite denomination practice full prostrations during prayers. Ashkenazi Jews prostrate during Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur as did Yemenite Jews during the Tachanun part of regular daily Jewish prayer until somewhat recently. Ethiopian Jews traditionally prostrated during a holiday specific to their community known as Sigd. "Sigd" comes from a root word meaning prostration in Amharic, Aramaic, and Arabic. There is a move among "Talmide haRambam", a small modern restorationist group with perspectives on Jewish law similar to that of Dor Daim, to revive prostration as a regular part of daily Jewish worship.


title: Bowing

text: Communicants of many Christian denominations bow at the mention of the name of Jesus, while inside of a church and outside of one. The origin of this practice is within Sacred Scripture, which states: "Therefore God also highly exalted Him and gave Him the name that is above every name, so that at the name of Jesus every knee should bend, in heaven and on earth and under the earth" (NRSV). This pious custom was mandated in the Second Council of Lyon, which proclaimed "Whenever that glorious name is recalled, especially during the sacred mysteries of the Mass, everyone should bow the knees of his heart which he can do even by a bow of his head." The eighteenth canon of the Church of England, mother Church of the Anglican Communion, made this external obeisance obligatory during the divine service, declaring: "When in time of divine service the Lord JESUS shall be mentioned, due and lowly reverence shall be done by all persons present, as it has been accustomed; testifying by these outward ceremonies and gestures their inward humility, Christian resolution, and due acknowledgement that the Lord JESUS CHRIST, the true eternal Son of God, is the only Saviour of the world, in whom alone all the mercies, graces, and promises of God to mankind for this life, and the life to come, are fully and wholly comprised." Likewise, in the Lutheran Churches, people are "to bow when the name of Jesus is mentioned", and in the Roman Catholic Church "at the mention of the name of Jesus, there is a slight bow of the head". John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist Churches, also taught the faithful "to bow at the Name of Jesus" and as a result, it is customary for Methodists to bow at the mention of His name, especially during the recitation of the Creed.


title: Bowing

text: In Christian liturgy, bowing is a sign of respect or deference. In many Christian denominations, individuals will bow when passing in front of the altar, or at certain points in the service (for example, when the name of Jesus Christ is spoken, as mentioned above). It may take the form of a simple bow of the head, or a slight incline of the upper body. A profound bow is a deep bow from the waist, and is often done as a substitution for genuflection.


title: Bowing

text: In Eastern Orthodoxy, there are several degrees of bowing, each with a different meaning. Strict rules exist as to which type of a bow should be used at any particular time. The rules are complicated and are not always carried out in all parishes.


title: Bowing

text: In the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, a profound bow, prostration, a slight bow of the head (during the Creed) genuflection, and kneeling are all prescribed in the liturgy at various points. In addition, there are two forms of genuflection, depending on whether or not the Blessed Sacrament is exposed on the altar or not. In addition to bowing at the mention of the name of Jesus, in the Anglican Communion, "A reverence in the form of a bow is made to an altar, because it is as it were God's throne, and in a manner represents Him." As with Anglican churches, in Lutheran and Methodist churches, when approaching the chancel, it is customary to bow towards the altar (or altar cross). In Anglican churches a bow is also made when the processional cross passes by a communicant in a church procession.


title: Bowing

text: Conservative Protestant Christians such as Brethren, Mennonite, and Seventh-day Adventists make a practice of kneeling during community prayer in the church service. Until the mid-1900s this was common practice among many Protestant Christian groups.


title: Bowing

text: According to the New Testament writer Paul, everyone on Earth will someday bow to Jesus Christ. He writes in Philippians 2:9-11, "Wherefore God also hath highly exalted him, and given him a name which is above every name: That at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth; And that every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father." KJV. He is here quoting a similar passage regarding bowing from the Old Testament, Isaiah 45:23.


title: Bowing

text: In Islam, there are two types of bowing, Sujud and Ruk'u. Sajdah or Sujud is to prostrate oneself to Allah in the direction of the Kaaba at Mecca which is done during daily prayers (salat). While in sujud, a Muslim is to praise Allah and glorify him. The position involves having the forehead, nose, both hands, knees and all toes touching the ground together.


title: Bowing

text: Ruku' is bowing down in the standing position during daily prayers (salat). The position of ruku' is established by bending over, putting one's hands on one's knees, and remaining in that position while also praising Allah and glorifying Him.


title: Bowing

text: In Islam, it is shirk (major sin) to bow to a human being with the intention to worship, or if that person is considered divine by the bower. Muslims are only supposed to bow, with the intention to worship, to Allah. Moreover, bowing as a greeting or sign of thanks or respect, without an intent to worship, is also classified as shirk (major sin) and forbidden according to a specific hadith in Sunan-at-Tirmidhi.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Trypanosoma brucei is a species of parasitic kinetoplastid belonging to the genus "Trypanosoma" that is present in sub-Saharan Africa. Unlike other protozoan parasites that normally infect blood and tissue cells, it is exclusively extracellular and inhabits the blood plasma and body fluids. It causes deadly vector-borne diseases: African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness in humans, and animal trypanosomiasis or "nagana" in cattle and horses. It is a species complex grouped into three subspecies: "T. b. brucei", "T. b. gambiense" and "T. b. rhodesiense". The first is a parasite of non-human mammals and causes "nagana", while the latter two are zoonotic infecting both humans and animals and cause African trpanosomiasis.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: "T. brucei" is transmitted between mammal hosts by an insect vector belonging to different species of tsetse fly ("Glossina"). Transmission occurs by biting during the insect's blood meal. The parasites undergo complex morphological changes as they move between insect and mammal over the course of their life cycle. The mammalian bloodstream forms are notable for their cell surface proteins, variant surface glycoproteins, which undergo remarkable antigenic variation, enabling persistent evasion of host adaptive immunity leading to chronic infection. "T. brucei" is one of only a few pathogens known to cross the blood brain barrier. There is an urgent need for the development of new drug therapies, as current treatments can have severe side effects and can prove fatal to the patient.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Whilst not historically regarded as "T. brucei" subspecies due to their different means of transmission, clinical presentation, and loss of kinetoplast DNA, genetic analyses reveal that "T. equiperdum" and "T. evansi" are evolved from parasites very similar to "T. b. brucei", and are thought to be members of the "brucei" clade.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The parasite was discovered in 1894 by Sir David Bruce, after whom the scientific name was given in 1899.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Sleeping sickness in animals were described in ancient Egyptian writings. During the Middle Ages, Arabian traders noted the prevalence of sleeping sickness among Africans and their dogs. It was a major infectious diseases in southern and eastern Africa in the 19th century. The Zulu Kingdom (now part of South Africa) was severely struck by the disease, which became known to the British as "nagana", a Zulu word for to be low or depressed in spirit. In other parts of Africa, Europeans called it the "fly disease."


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: John Aktins, an English naval surgeon, gave first medical description of human sleeping sickness in 1734. He attributed deaths which he called "sleepy distemper" in Guinea to the infection. Another English physician Thomas Masterman Winterbottom gave clearer description of the symptoms from Sierra Leone in 1803. Winterbottom described a key feature of the disease as swollen posterior cervical lymph nodes and slaves who developed such swellings were ruled unfit for trade. The symptom is eponymously known as "Winterbottom's sign."


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The Royal Army Medical Corps appointed David Bruce, who at the time was assistant professor of pathology at the Army Medical School in Netley with a rank of Captain in the army, in 1894 to investigate a disease known as "nagana" in South Africa. The disease caused severe problems among the local cattle and British Army horses. On 27 October 1894, Bruce and his microbiologist-wife Mary Elizabeth Bruce ("née" Steele) moved to Ubombo Hill, where the disease was most prevalent.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: On the sixth day of investigation, Bruce identified parasites from the blood of diseased cows. He initially noted them as a kind of filaria (tiny roundworms), but by the end of the year established that the parasites were "haematozoa" (protozoan) and were the cause of "nagana" . It was the discovery of "Trypanosoma brucei." The scientific name was created by British zoologists Henry George Plimmer and John Rose Bradford in 1899 as "Trypanosoma brucii" due to printer's error. The genus "Trypanosoma" was already introduced by Hungarian physician David Gruby in his description of "T. sanguinis," a species he discovered in frogs in 1843.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: In Uganda, the first case of human infection was reported in 1898. It was followed by an outbreak in 1900. By 1901, it became severe with death toll estimated to about 20,000. More than 250,000 people died in the epidemic that lasted for two decades. The disease commonly popularised as "negro lethargy." It was not known whether the human sleeping sickness and nagana were similar or the two disease were caused by similar parasites. Even the observations of Forde and Dutton did not indicate that the trypanosome was related to sleeping sickness.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The Royal Society constituted a three-member Sleeping Sickness Commission on 10 May 1902 to investigate the epidemic in Uganda. The Commission comprised George Carmichael Low from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine as the leader, his colleague Aldo Castellani and Cuthbert Christy, a medical officer on duty in Bombay, India. At the time, a debate remained on the etiology, some favoured bacterial infection while some believed as helminth infection. The first investigation focussed on "Filaria perstans" (later renamed "Mansonella perstans"), a small roundworm transmitted by flies, and bacteria as possible causes, only to discover that the epidemic was not related to these pathogens. The team was described as an "ill-assorted group" and a "queer lot", and the expedition "a failure." Low, whose conduct was described as "truculent and prone to take offence," left the Commission and Africa after three months.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: In February 1902, the British War Office, following a request from the Royal Society, appointed David Bruce to lead the second Sleeping Sickness Commission. With David Nunes Nabarro (from the University College Hospital), Bruce and his wife joined Castellani and Christy on 16 March. In November 1902, Castellani had found the trypanosomes in the cerebrospinal fluid of an infected person. He was convinced that the trypanosome was the causative parasite of sleeping sickness. Like Low, his conduct has been criticised and the Royal Society refused to publish his report. He was further infuriated when Bruce advised him not to make rash conclusion without further evidences, as there were many other parasites to consider. Castellani left Africa in April and published his report as "On the discovery of a species of "Trypanosoma" in the cerebrospinal fluid of cases of sleeping sickness" in "The Lancet." By then the Royal Society had already published the report. By August 1903, Bruce and his team established that the disease was transmitted the tsetse fly, "Glossina palpalis." However, Bruce did not understand the trypanosoma life cycle and believed that the parasites were simply transmitted from one person to another.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Around the same time, Germany sent an expeditionary team led by Robert Koch to investigate the epidemic in Togo and East Africa. In 1909, one of the team members, Friedrich Karl Kleine discovered that the parasite had developmental stages in the tsetse flies. Bruce, in the third Sleeping Sickness Commission (1908–1912) that included Albert Ernest Hamerton, H.R. Bateman and Frederick Percival Mackie, established the complete developmental stages of the trypanosome in tsetse fly"."


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: British Colonial Surgeon Robert Michael Forde was the first to find the parasite in human. He found it from an English steamboat captain who was admitted to a hospital at Bathurst, Gambia, in 1901. His report in 1902 indicates that he believed it to be a kind of filarial worm. From the same person, Forde's colleague Joseph Everett Dutton identified it as a protozoan belonging to the genus "Trypanosoma." Knowing the distinct features, Dutton proposed a new species name in 1902:


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Another human trypanosome (now called "T. brucei rhodesiense") was discovered by British parasitologists John William Watson Stephens and Harold Benjamin Fantham. In 1910, Stephens noted in his experimental infection in rats that the trypanosome, obtained from an individual from Northern Rhodesia (later Zambia), was not the same as "T. gambiense". The source of the parasite, an Englishman travelling in Rhodesia was found with the blood parasites in 1909, and was transported to and admitted at the Royal Southern Hospital in Liverpool under the care of Ronald Ross. Fantham described the parasite's morphology and found that it was a different trypanosome.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The subspecies cannot be distinguished from their structure as they are all identical under microscopes. Geographical location is the main distinction. Molecular markers have been developed for individual indentification. Serum resistance-associated ("SRA") gene is used to differentiate "T. b. rhodesiense" from other subspecies. "TgsGP" gene, found only in type 1 "T. b. gambiense" is also a specific distinction between "T. b. gambiense" strains.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The subspecies lack many of the features commonly considered necessary to constitute monophyly. As such Lukeš "et al.", 2022 proposes a new polyphyly by ecotype.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The genus name is derived from two Greek words: τρυπανον ("trypanon" or "trupanon"), which means "borer" or "auger", referring to the corkscrew-like movement; and σῶμα ("sôma"), meaning "body." The specific name is after David Bruce, who discovered the parasites in 1894. The subspecies, the human strains, are named after the regions in Africa where they were first identified: "T. brucei gambiense" was described from an Englishman in Gambia in 1901; "T. brucei rhodesiense" was found from another Englishman in Northern Rhodesia in 1909.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: "T. brucei" is a typical unicellular eukaryotic cell, and measures 8 to 50 μm in length. It has an elongated body having a streamlined and tapered shape. Its cell membrane (called pellicle) encloses the cell organelles, including the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and ribosomes. In addition, there is an unusual organelle called the kinetoplast, which is a complex of thousands of mitochondria. The kinetoplast lies near the basal body with which it is indistinguishable under microscope. From the basal body arises a single flagellum that run towards the anterior end. Along the body surface, the flagellum is attached to the cell membrane forming an undulating membrane. Only the tip of the flagellum is free at the anterior end. The cell surface of the bloodstream form features a dense coat of variant surface glycoproteins (VSGs) which is replaced by an equally dense coat of procyclins when the parasite differentiates into the procyclic phase in the tsetse fly midgut.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Trypanosomatids show several different classes of cellular organisation of which two are adopted by "T. brucei" at different stages of the life cycle:


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: These names are derived from the Greek "mastig-" meaning whip, referring to the trypanosome's whip-like flagellum. The trypanosome flagellum has two main structures. It is made up of a typical flagellar axoneme, which lies parallel to the paraflagellar rod, a lattice structure of proteins unique to the kinetoplastids, euglenoids and dinoflagellates.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The microtubules of the flagellar axoneme lie in the normal 9+2 arrangement, orientated with the + at the anterior end and the − in the basal body. The cytoskeletal structure extends from the basal body to the kinetoplast. The flagellum is bound to the cytoskeleton of the main cell body by four specialised microtubules, which run parallel and in the same direction to the flagellar tubulin.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The flagellar function is twofold — locomotion via oscillations along the attached flagellum and cell body in human blood stream and tsetse fly gut, and attachment to the salivary gland epithelium of the fly during the epimastigote stage. The flagellum propels the body in such a way that the axoneme generates the oscillation and a flagellar wave is created along the undulating membrane. As a result the body moves in a corkscrew pattern. In flagella of other organisms, the movement starts from the base towards the tip, while in "T. brucei" and other trypanosomatids, the beat originates from the tip and progresses towards the base, forcing the body to move towards the direction of the tip of the flagellum.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: "T. brucei" completes its life cycle between tsetse fly (of the genus "Glossina") and mammalian hosts, including humans, cattle, horses, and wild animals. In stressful environments, "T. brucei" produces exosomes containing the spliced leader RNA and uses the endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT) system to secrete them as extracellular vesicles. When absorbed by other trypanosomes these EVs cause repulsive movement away from the area and so away from bad environments.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Infection occurs when a vector tsetse fly bites a mammalian host. The fly injects the metacyclic trypomastigotes into the skin tissue. The trypomastigotes enter the lymphatic system and into the bloodstream. The initial trypomastigotes are short and stumpy (SS). They are protected from the host's immune system by producing antigentic variation called variant surface glycoproteins on their body surface. Once inside the bloodstream, they grow into long and slender forms (LS). Then, they multiply by binary fission. Some of the daughter cells then become short and stumpy again. Some of them remains as intermediate forms, representing a transitional stage between the long and short forms. The long slender forms are able to penetrate the blood vessel endothelium and invade extravascular tissues, including the central nervous system (CNS) and placenta in pregnant women.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Sometimes, wild animals can be infected by the tsetse fly and they act as reservoirs. In these animals, they do not produce the disease, but the live parasite can be transmitted back to the normal hosts. Besides preparation to be taken up and vectored to another host by a tsetse fly, transition from LS to SS in the mammal serves to prolong the host's lifespan controlling parasitemia aids in increasing the total transmitting duration of any particular infested host.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Unlike anopheline mosquitos and sandflies that transmit other protozoan infections in which only females are involved, both sexes of tsetse flies are blood feeders and equally transmit trypanosomes. The short and stumpy trypomastigotes (SS) are taken up by tsetse flies during a blood meal. Survival in the tsetse midgut is one reason for the particular adaptations of the SS stage. The trypomastigotes enter the midgut of the fly where they become procyclic trypomastigotes as they replace their VSG with other protein coats called procyclins. Because the fly faces digestive damage from immune factors in the bloodmeal, it produces serpins to suppress the infection. The serpins including "GmmSRPN3", "GmmSRPN5", "GmmSRPN9", and especially "GmmSRPN10" are then hijacked by the parasite to aid its own midgut infection, using them to inactivate bloodmeal trypanolytic factors which would otherwise make the fly host inhospitable.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The procyclic trypomastigotes cross the peritrophic matrix, undergo slight elongation and migrate to the anterior part of the midgut as non-proliferative long mesocyclic trypomastigotes. As they reach the proventriculus, they became thinner and undergo cytoplasmic rearrangement to give rise to proliferative epimastigotes. The epimastigotes divide asymmetrically to produce long and short epimastigotes. The long epimastigote cannot move to other places and simply die off by apoptosis. The short epimastigote migrate from the proventriculus via the foregut and proboscis to the salivary glands where they get attached to the salivary gland epithelium. Even all the short forms do not succeed in the complete migration to the salivary glands as most of them perish on the way–only up to five may survive.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: In the salivary glands, the survivors undergo phases of reproduction. The first cycle in an equal mitosis by which a mother cell produces two similar daughter epimastigotes. They remain attach to the epithelium. This phase is the main reproduction in first-stage infection to ensure sufficient number of parasites in the salivary gland. The second cycle, which usually occurs in late-stage infection, involves unequal mitosis that produces two different daughter cells from the mother epimastigote. One daughter is an epimastigote that remains non-infective and the other is a trypomastigote. The trypomastigote detach from the epithelium and undergo transformation into short and stumpy trypomastigotes. The surface procyclins are replaced with VSGs and become the infective metacyclic trypomastigotes. Complete development in the fly takes about 20 days. They are injected into the mammalian host along with the saliva on biting, and are known as salivarian.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: In the case of "T. b. brucei" infecting "Glossina palpalis gambiensis", the parasite changes the proteome contents of the fly's head and causes behavioral changes such as unnecessarily increased feeding frequency, which increases transmission opportunities. This is related to altered glucose metabolism that causes a perceived need for more calories. (The metabolic change, in turn, being due to complete absence of glucose-6-phosphate 1-dehydrogenase in infected flies.) Monoamine neurotransmitter synthesis is also altered: production of aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase involved in dopamine and serotonin synthesis, and α-methyldopa hypersensitive protein was induced. This is similar to the alterations in other dipteran vectors' head proteomes under infection by other eukaryotic parasites of mammals.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The reproduction of "T. brucei" is unusual compared to most eukaryotes. The nuclear membrane remains intact and the chromosomes do not condense during mitosis. The basal body, unlike the centrosome of most eukaryotic cells, does not play a role in the organisation of the spindle and instead is involved in division of the kinetoplast. The events of reproduction are:


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: In the 1980s, DNA analyses of the developmental stages of "T. brucei" started to indicate that the trypomastigote in the tsetse fly undergoes meiosis, i.e., a sexual reproduction stage. But it is not always necessary for a complete life cycle. The existence of meiosis-specific proteins was reported in 2011. The haploid gametes (daughter cells produced after meiosis) were discovered in 2014. The haploid trypomastigote-like gametes can interact with each other via their flagella and undergo cell fusion (the process is called syngamy). Thus, in addition to binary fission, "T. brucei" can multiply by sexual reproduction. Trypanosomes belong to the supergroup Excavata and are one of the earliest diverging lineages among eukaryotes. The discovery of sexual reproduction in "T. brucei" supports the hypothesis that meiosis and sexual reproduction are ancestral and ubiquitous features of eukaryotes.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The insect vectors for "T. brucei" are different species of tsetse fly (genus "Glossina"). The major vectors of "T. b. gambiense", causing West African sleeping sickness, are "G. palpalis", "G. tachinoides", and "G. fuscipes". While the principal vectors of "T. b. rhodesiense", causing East African sleeping sickness, are "G. morsitans", "G. pallidipes", and "G. swynnertoni". Animal trypanosomiasis is transmitted by a dozen species of "Glossina".


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: In later stages of a "T. brucei" infection of a mammalian host the parasite may migrate from the bloodstream to also infect the lymph and cerebrospinal fluids. It is under this tissue invasion that the parasites produce the sleeping sickness.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: In addition to the major form of transmission via the tsetse fly, "T. brucei" may be transferred between mammals via bodily fluid exchange, such as by blood transfusion or sexual contact, although this is thought to be rare. Newborn babies can be infected (vertical or congenital transmission) from infected mothers.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: There are four drugs generally recommended for the first-line treatment of African trypanosomiasis: suramin developed in 1921, pentamidine developed in 1941, melarsoprol developed in 1949 and eflornithine developed in 1990. These drugs ane not fully effective and are toxic to humans. In addition, drug resistance has developed in the parasites against all the drugs. The drugs are of limtied application since they are effective against specific strains of "T. brucei" and the life cycle stages of the parasites. Suram is used only for first-stage infection of "T. b. rhodensiense", pentamidine for first-stage infection of "T. b. gambiense", and eflornithine for second-stage infection of "T. b. gambiense". Melarsopol is the only drug effective against the two types of parasite in both infection stages, but is highly toxic, such that 5% of treated individuals die of brain damage (reactive encephalopathy). Another drug, nifurtimox, recommended for Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis), is itself a weak drug but in combination with melarsopol, it is used as the first-line medication against second-stage infection of "T. b. gambiense."


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Historically, arsenic and mercuric compounds were introduced in the early 20th century, with success particularly in animal infections. German physician Paul Ehrlich and his Japanese associate Kiyoshi Shiga developed the first specific trypanocidal drug in 1904 from a dye, trypan red, which they named Trypanroth. These chemical preparations were effective only at high and toxic dosages, and were not suitable for clinical use.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Animal trypanosomiasis is treated with six drugs: diminazene aceturate, homidium (homidium bromide and homidium chloride), isometamidium chloride, melarsomine, quinapyramine, and suramin. They are all highly toxic to animals, and drug resistance is prevalent. Homidium is the first prescription anti-trypanosomal drug. It was developed as a modified compound of phenantridine, which was found in 1938 to have trypanocidal activity against the bovine parasite, "T. congolense." Among its products, dimidium bromide and its derivatives were first used in 1948 in animal cases in Africa, and became known as homidium (or as ethidium bromide in molecular biology).


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Some phytochemicals have shown research promise against the "T. b. brucei" strain. Aderbauer "et al.", 2008 and Umar "et al.", 2010 find "Khaya senegalensis" is effective in vitro and Ibrahim "et al.", 2013 and 2008 in vivo (in rats). Ibrahim "et al.", 2013 find a lower dose reduces parasitemia by this subspecies and a higher dose is curative and prevents injury.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: "T. brucei" is found where its tsetse fly vectors are prevalent in continental Africa. That is to say, tropical rainforest (Af), tropical monsoon (Am), and tropical savannah (Aw) areas of continental Africa. Hence, the equatorial region of Africa is called the "sleeping sickness" belt. However, the specific type of the trypanosome differs according to geography. "T. b. rhodesiense" is found primarily in East Africa (Botswana, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe), while "T. b. gambiense" is found in Central and West Africa.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: "T. brucei" is a major cause of livestock disease in sub-Saharan Africa. It is thus of tremendous veterinary concern and one of the greatest limitations on agriculture in Africa and the economic life of sub-Saharan Africa.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: "Trypanosoma brucei gambiense" evolved from a single progenitor ~10,000 years ago. It is evolving asexually and its genome shows the Meselson effect.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: There are two subpopulations of "T. b. gambiense" that possesses two distinct groups that differ in genotype and phenotype. Group 2 is more akin to "T. b. brucei" than group 1 "T. b. gambiense".


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: All "T. b. gambiense" are resistant to killing by a serum component — trypanosome lytic factor (TLF) of which there are two types: TLF-1 and TLF-2. Group 1 "T. b. gambiense" parasites avoid uptake of the TLF particles while those of group 2 are able to either neutralize or compensate for the effects of TLF.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: In contrast, resistance in "T. b. rhodesiense" is dependent upon the expression of a serum resistance associated (SRA) gene. This gene is not found in "T. b. gambiense".


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Most genes are held on the large chromosomes, with the minichromosomes carrying only "VSG" genes. The genome has been sequenced and is available on GeneDB.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The mitochondrial genome is found condensed into the kinetoplast, an unusual feature unique to the kinetoplastid protozoans. The kinetoplast and the basal body of the flagellum are strongly associated via a cytoskeletal structure


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: In 1993, a new base, ß-d-glucopyranosyloxymethyluracil (base J), was identified in the nuclear DNA of "T. brucei."


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The surface of "T. brucei" and other species of trypanosomes is covered by a dense external coat called variant surface glycoprotein (VSG). VSGs are 60-kDa proteins which are densely packed (~5 x 10 molecules) to form a 12–15 nm surface coat. VSG dimers make up about 90% of all cell surface proteins in trypanosomes. They also make up ~10% of total cell protein. For this reason, these proteins are highly immunogenic and an immune response raised against a specific VSG coat will rapidly kill trypanosomes expressing this variant. However, with each cell division there is a possibility that the progeny will switch expression to change the VSG that is being expressed.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: This VSG coat enables an infecting "T. brucei" population to persistently evade the host's immune system, allowing chronic infection. VSG is highly immunogenic, and an immune response raised against a specific VSG coat rapidly kills trypanosomes expressing this variant. Antibody-mediated trypanosome killing can also be observed in vitro by a complement-mediated lysis assay. However, with each cell division there is a possibility that one or both of the progeny will switch expression to change the VSG that is being expressed. The frequency of VSG switching has been measured to be approximately 0.1% per division. As "T. brucei" populations can peak at a size of 10 within a host this rapid rate of switching ensures that the parasite population is typically highly diverse. Because host immunity against a specific VSG does not develop immediately, some parasites will have switched to an antigenically distinct VSG variant, and can go on to multiply and continue the infection. The clinical effect of this cycle is successive 'waves' of parasitemia (trypanosomes in the blood).


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Expression of "VSG" genes occurs through a number of mechanisms yet to be fully understood. The expressed VSG can be switched either by activating a different expression site (and thus changing to express the "VSG" in that site), or by changing the "VSG" gene in the active site to a different variant. The genome contains many hundreds if not thousands of "VSG" genes, both on minichromosomes and in repeated sections ('arrays') in the interior of the chromosomes. These are transcriptionally silent, typically with omitted sections or premature stop codons, but are important in the evolution of new VSG genes. It is estimated up to 10% of the "T. brucei" genome may be made up of VSG genes or pseudogenes. It is thought that any of these genes can be moved into the active site by recombination for expression. VSG silencing is largely due to the effects of histone variants H3.V and H4.V. These histones cause changes in the three-dimensional structure of the "T. brucei" genome that results in a lack of expression. VSG genes are typically located in the subtelomeric regions of the chromosomes, which makes it easier for them to be silenced when they are not being used. It remains unproven whether the regulation of VSG switching is purely stochastic or whether environmental stimuli affect switching frequency. Switching is linked to two factors: variation in activation of individual VSG genes; and differentiation to the "short stumpy" stage - triggered by conditions of high population density - which is the nonreproductive, interhost transmission stage. it also remains unexplained how this transition is timed and how the next surface protein gene is chosen. These questions of antigenic variation in "T. brucei" and other parasites are among the most interesting in the field of infection.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: "Trypanosoma brucei brucei" (as well as related species "T. equiperdum" and "T. evansi") is not human infective because it is susceptible to innate immune system 'trypanolytic' factors present in the serum of some primates, including humans. These trypanolytic factors have been identified as two serum complexes designated trypanolytic factors (TLF-1 and −2) both of which contain haptoglobin related protein (HPR) and apolipoprotein LI (ApoL1). TLF-1 is a member of the high density lipoprotein family of particles while TLF-2 is a related high molecular weight serum protein binding complex. The protein components of TLF-1 are haptoglobin related protein (HPR), apolipoprotein L-1 (apoL-1) and apolipoprotein A-1 (apoA-1). These three proteins are colocalized within spherical particles containing phospholipids and cholesterol. The protein components of TLF-2 include IgM and apolipoprotein A-I.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Trypanolytic factors are found only in a few species, including humans, gorillas, mandrills, baboons and sooty mangabeys. This appears to be because haptoglobin-related protein and apolipoprotein L-1 are unique to primates. This suggests these genes originated in the primate genome -.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Human infective subspecies "T. b. gambiense" and "T. b. rhodesiense" have evolved mechanisms of resisting the trypanolytic factors, described below.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: ApoL1 is a member of a six gene family, ApoL1-6, that have arisen by tandem duplication. These proteins are normally involved in host apoptosis or autophagic death and possess a Bcl-2 homology domain 3. ApoL1 has been identified as the toxic component involved in trypanolysis. ApoLs have been subject to recent selective evolution possibly related to resistance to pathogens.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The gene encoding ApoL1 is found on the long arm of chromosome 22 (22q12.3). Variants of this gene, termed G1 and G2, provide protection against "T. b. rhodesiense". These benefits are not without their downside as a specific ApoL1 glomerulopathy has been identified. This glomerulopathy may help to explain the greater prevalence of hypertension in African populations.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The gene encodes a protein of 383 residues, including a typical signal peptide of 12 amino acids. The plasma protein is a single chain polypeptide with an apparent molecular mass of 42 kiloDaltons. ApoL1 has a membrane pore forming domain functionally similar to that of bacterial colicins. This domain is flanked by the membrane addressing domain and both these domains are required for parasite killing.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Within the kidney, ApoL1 is found in the podocytes in the glomeruli, the proximal tubular epithelium and the arteriolar endothelium. It has a high affinity for phosphatidic acid and cardiolipin and can be induced by interferon gamma and tumor necrosis factor alpha.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Hpr is 91% identical to haptoglobin (Hp), an abundant acute phase serum protein, which possesses a high affinity for hemoglobin (Hb). When Hb is released from erythrocytes undergoing intravascular hemolysis Hp forms a complex with the Hb and these are removed from circulation by the CD163 scavenger receptor. In contrast to Hp–Hb, the Hpr–Hb complex does not bind CD163 and the Hpr serum concentration appears to be unaffected by hemolysis.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The association of HPR with hemoglobin allows TLF-1 binding and uptake via the trypanosome haptoglobin-hemoglobin receptor (TbHpHbR). TLF-2 enters trypanosomes independently of TbHpHbR. TLF-1 uptake increases when haptoglobin level is low. TLF-1 overtakes haptoglobin and binds free hemoglobin in the serum. However the complete absence of haptoglobin is associated with a decreased killing rate by serum.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The trypanosome haptoglobin-hemoglobin receptor is an elongated three a-helical bundle with a small membrane distal head. This protein extends above the variant surface glycoprotein layer that surrounds the parasite.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: The first step in the killing mechanism is the binding of TLF to high affinity receptors—the haptoglobin-hemoglobin receptors—that are located in the flagellar pocket of the parasite. The bound TLF is endocytosed via coated vesicles and then trafficked to the parasite lysosomes. ApoL1 is the main lethal factor in the TLFs and kills trypanosomes after insertion into endosomal / lysosomal membranes. After ingestion by the parasite, the TLF-1 particle is trafficked to the lysosome wherein ApoL1 is activated by a pH mediated conformational change. After fusion with the lysosome the pH drops from ~7 to ~5. This induces a conformational change in the ApoL1 membrane addressing domain which in turn causes a salt bridge linked hinge to open. This releases ApoL1 from the HDL particle to insert in the lysosomal membrane. The ApoL1 protein then creates anionic pores in the membrane which leads to depolarization of the membrane, a continuous influx of chloride and subsequent osmotic swelling of the lysosome. This influx in its turn leads to rupture of the lysosome and the subsequent death of the parasite.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: "Trypanosoma brucei gambiense" causes 97% of human cases of sleeping sickness. Resistance to ApoL1 is principally mediated by the hydrophobic β-sheet of the "T. b. gambiense" specific glycoprotein. Other factors involved in resistance appear to be a change in the cysteine protease activity and TbHpHbR inactivation due to a leucine to serine substitution (L210S) at codon 210. This is due to a thymidine to cytosine mutation at the second codon position.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: These mutations may have evolved due to the coexistence of malaria where this parasite is found. Haptoglobin levels are low in malaria because of the hemolysis that occurs with the release of the merozoites into the blood. The rupture of the erythrocytes results in the release of free haem into the blood where it is bound by haptoglobin. The haem is then removed along with the bound haptoglobin from the blood by the reticuloendothelial system.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: "Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense" relies on a different mechanism of resistance: the serum resistance associated protein (SRA). The "SRA" gene is a truncated version of the major and variable surface antigen of the parasite, the variant surface glycoprotein. However, it has little similarity (low sequence homology) with the VSG gene (<25%). SRA is an expression site associated gene in "T. b. rhodesiense" and is located upstream of the VSGs in the active telomeric expression site. The protein is largely localized to small cytoplasmic vesicles between the flagellar pocket and the nucleus. In "T. b. rhodesiense" the TLF is directed to SRA containing endosomes while some dispute remains as to its presence in the lysosome. SRA binds to ApoL1 using a coiled–coiled interaction at the ApoL1 SRA interacting domain while within the trypanosome lysosome. This interaction prevents the release of the ApoL1 protein and the subsequent lysis of the lysosome and death of the parasite.


title: Trypanosoma brucei

text: Baboons are known to be resistant to "T. b. rhodesiense". The baboon version of the ApoL1 gene differs from the human gene in a number of respects including two critical lysines near the C terminus that are necessary and sufficient to prevent baboon ApoL1 binding to SRA. Experimental mutations allowing ApoL1 to be protected from neutralization by SRA have been shown capable of conferring trypanolytic activity on "T. b. rhodesiense". These mutations resemble those found in baboons, but also resemble natural mutations conferring protection of humans against "T. b. rhodesiense" which are linked to kidney disease.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: The Maryland Terrapins men's basketball team represents the University of Maryland in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I competition. Maryland, a founding member of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), left the ACC in 2014 to join the Big Ten Conference.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: Gary Williams, who coached the Terrapins from 1989 to 2011, led the program to its greatest success, including two consecutive Final Fours, which culminated in the 2002 NCAA National Championship. Under Williams, Maryland appeared in 11 straight NCAA tournaments from 1994 to 2004. He retired in May 2011 and was replaced by former Texas A&M coach Mark Turgeon.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: The Terrapins played in what many consider to be the greatest Atlantic Coast Conference game in history — and one of the greatest college basketball games ever — the championship of the 1974 ACC men's basketball tournament, in which they lost 103–100 in overtime to eventual national champion North Carolina State. The game was instrumental in forcing the expansion of the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship, thus allowing for at-large bids and the inclusion of more than one team per conference. That Maryland team, with six future NBA draft picks, is considered by many to be the greatest team not to have participated in the NCAA tournament.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: Before basketball became a permanent fixture in College Park, the school—then known as Maryland Agricultural College—met with little success in its intermittent attempts to establish a basketball team. A team first appeared in 1904–05, playing only two games in an intramural/club setting. Games were played sporadically during the 1910–1911, 1912–13, 1913–1914, and the 1918–1919 seasons, going a combined 7–36. Basketball returned to stay for the 1923–24 season, when the school convinced former star quarterback H. Burton Shipley, who had been coaching at the University of Delaware, to come back to his alma mater. The Old Liners, as they were then known, joined the Southern Conference in their inaugural season. The team met with moderate success that year at 5–7 and also played its first games against future ACC rivals North Carolina and Virginia. The Old Liners had their first sustained success over the next four seasons, finishing at or above .500 in each of them and putting together an outstanding 24–9 record against Southern Conference foes. The Aggies also played their first games against what would become their two other biggest rivals in the future during that time, North Carolina State and Duke.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: The school's biggest success during its formative years took place in the early 1930s, around the time it adopted its current nickname, Terrapins. After finishing second in the conference in 1930–31, Maryland won the Southern Conference tournaments, beating Louisiana State, North Carolina, Georgia, and Kentucky over five days, a feat they followed by winning the conference regular season crown the next year. The team also had its first individual star in Louis "Bosey" Berger who was named to All-America teams both seasons. It was during this stretch that the school erected a new home for its basketball teams, Ritchie Coliseum, which housed the team until Cole Field House replaced it a quarter of a century later.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: Although the team would remain competitive throughout the rest of the decade, finishing as high as second in the conference regular season, it never again matched its achievements of the early part of the decade, and as the 1940s began, the school's basketball team fell on exceedingly hard times. Shipley tallied just one winning season in his last seven years before stepping down to focus on coaching the baseball team, a post he'd held for his entire tenure since returning to College Park. He was succeeded by Flucie Stewart. In what would become a long-running pattern at Maryland when a long-tenured head coach stepped down, Stewart would not last very long, putting together three losing seasons in three tries during his brief time at Maryland.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: The 1950s began with a new head coach leading the way, Bud Millikan. A disciple of legendary coach Henry Iba, Millikan's emphasis on defense and fundamentals would become hallmarks of the program over the next two decades. Maryland quickly reeled off seven straight winning seasons under Millikan. For the 1953–54 season, the team joined North Carolina, North Carolina State, Duke, Wake Forest, Virginia, Clemson, and South Carolina in leaving the SoCon for the newly formed Atlantic Coast Conference. That season was perhaps the finest the Terrapins had experienced to date, finishing with a 23–7 record and a conference mark good enough for second in the league. Maryland experienced its first games as a ranked team, spending the final nine weeks of the season ranked in the AP Top 20, peaking at No. 11 before settling for a final ranking of #20. It also featured the school's first win over a ranked team when it beat local rival George Washington, then-number 7 in the country. The team was led by its second All-American, Gene Shue, who was honored in both that season and the prior year.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: After that season, the team remained the only school outside of the North Carolina "Big Four" – Duke, UNC, North Carolina State, and Wake Forest – to consistently field competitive teams. In the ACC's second year, the Terps cracked the top ten for the first time, peaking at No. 6 in January before eventually finishing the season with a disappointing one-point loss to Virginia in the ACC tournament quarterfinal round.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: The Terps had another breakout season during the 1957–58 season. After a good regular season (17–6, 4th in the ACC), Maryland stunned the league by winning the ACC tournament, including wins over #6 Duke and #13 North Carolina on back to back days to capture the title as well as the league's berth in the NCAA tournament. The team routed Boston College 86–63 at Madison Square Garden with just two days of rest after the ACC tournament, advancing to the East Regionals in Charlotte. The Terps lost a tight game to Temple in the round of 16 before beating Manhattan in the consolation game to secure third place in the East.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: That would be the high-water mark for the Terps under Millikan. They experienced their first losing season under the coach the next season, although they did manage to finish third in the ACC, including its first ever win over a #1 ranked team when it beat North Carolina 69–51 in Cole Field House on February 21. By 1962–63, the bottom had dropped out and the Terps finished just 3–11 in the ACC, next to last in the standings. While Millikan managed to turn the program around in the mid-1960s, finishing in a second place tie in 1964–65 and above .500 overall again the next season, the feeling in College Park was that the game had passed the coach by, and he was replaced after the following season by assistant Frank Fellows. Fellows' tenure lasted just two seasons, both of which featured only eight wins.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: In 1969, Charles "Lefty" Driesell was hired by the University of Maryland. During his introductory press conference, he made the bold statement that he wanted to make Maryland the "UCLA of the East." At that time, UCLA was the nation's dominant college basketball program. While Driesell did not elevate Maryland to UCLA's heights, he did lead the Terrapins to eight NCAA tournament appearances, a National Invitation Tournament championship, two Atlantic Coast Conference regular season championships, and one Atlantic Coast Conference tournament championship. Maryland also attained a No. 2 Associated Press ranking during four consecutive seasons from 1972 to 1976.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: Driesell coached the Maryland Terrapins from 1969 to 1986. During his tenure, he successfully recruited numerous exceptional players, including Tom McMillen, Len Elmore, John Lucas, Albert King, Buck Williams, and Len Bias. In 1974, he signed perhaps the best college prospect of his career, future basketball Hall of Famer Moses Malone, but Malone chose instead to go to a professional basketball franchise, the Utah Stars. Malone was the first player in the modern era to proceed directly from high school into professional basketball, deciding on the day classes were scheduled to begin.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: At Maryland, Driesell began the now nationwide tradition of Midnight Madness. According to longstanding NCAA rules, college basketball teams were not permitted to begin practices until October 15. Driesell traditionally began the first practice with a requirement that his players run one mile in six minutes, but found that the players were too fatigued to practice effectively immediately afterwards. At 12:03 a.m. on October 15, 1971, Driesell held a one-mile run at the track around Byrd Stadium, where a crowd of 1,000 fans had gathered after learning of the unorthodox practice session. The event soon became a tradition to build excitement for the basketball team's upcoming season.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: In 1972, Maryland defeated Niagara, 100–69 to secure the National Invitation Tournament championship. Driesell said that the season attained the three goals he had set for the program at the time of his hiring: "national prominence", "national ranking", and "a national championship".


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: On July 12, 1973, Driesell saved the lives of at least ten children from several burning buildings. He and two other men were surf fishing around midnight in Bethany Beach, Delaware when he saw flames coming from a seashore resort. Driesell broke down a door and rescued several children from the fire that eventually destroyed four townhouses. An eyewitness, Prince George's County circuit court Judge Samuel Meloy, said, "Let's face it, Driesell was a hero. There were no injuries and it was a miracle because firemen didn't come for at least 30 minutes." Driesell said, "Don't build me up as any kind of hero. All we did was try to get the kids out. It was just lucky that we were fishing right in front of the houses." For these actions, Driesell was awarded the NCAA Award of Valor.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: In 1974, the No. 4 Terrapins played in what many consider one of the greatest college basketball games of all time, losing the ACC men's basketball tournament 103–100 in overtime to eventual national champion and No. 1 North Carolina State. Each team only played seven players each, and eight of those 14 went on to be NBA Draft picks, including six from Maryland. The game included 91 field goals made on 157 attempts between the teams, in spite of top-level defense being played. "We didn’t score 100 points or they didn’t because we were sorry defensive teams. (N.C. State) had a 7-foot-4 center" in Tommy Burleson, said Lefty Driesell. "We had (Len) Elmore, who was one of the best shot-blockers ever to play in the league." After the game, the Greensboro, N.C. crowd, traditionally unfriendly to non-North Carolina ACC teams, gave both teams a standing ovation. After the loss, Maryland declined an invitation to the NIT. Maryland's team was considered by many to be the greatest team not to have participated in the NCAA tournament because, at the time, only the winner of a conference tournament would earn a bid. It was Maryland's exclusion that finally forced an expansion to allow at-large bids and more than one team per conference.


title: Maryland Terrapins men's basketball

text: Driesell's legacy will forever be tied to one of Maryland's greatest players and one of the best college basketball players of all time, Len Bias, who played under Driesell from 1982 to 1986. As a freshman, Bias was viewed as "raw and undisciplined," but ultimately developed into an All-American player who impressed basketball fans with his amazing leaping ability, his physical stature and his ability to create plays, and was considered one of the most dynamic players in the nation. In 1984, Driesell and Bias led the team to the school's second ACC tournament Championship. In Bias's junior year, he led the ACC in scoring, was named the ACC Player of the Year, and was a consensus second-team All-American while averaging 18.9 points and 6.8 rebounds per game. His senior season was highlighted by his performance in an overtime victory against top-ranked North Carolina in which he scored 35 points, including 7 in the last 3 minutes of regulation and 4 in overtime. At the end of the year, Bias collected his second ACC Player of the Year award and was a consensus first-team All American while averaging 23.2 points and 7 rebounds per game. Scouts from various NBA teams viewed Bias as the most complete forward in the class of 1986 and was widely considered to be of equal talent to Michael Jordan, who played at North Carolina from 1981 to 1984. "Over the years, you’ve heard a lot of people say it was that jumper that separated him from Michael Jordan — and could have potentially made him a better player than Jordan in the pros," said Keith Gatlin, who was the starting point guard on the school's 1985-1986 team and lived with Bias. Together, Bias and Driesell made four straight NCAA tournaments, making the Sweet 16 in 1984 and 1985.