title: Tube Alloys

text: When Moon examined the suggestion that gaseous thermal diffusion be the method of choice to the MAUD committee, there was no agreement to move forward with it. The committee consulted with Peierls and Simon over the separation method and concluded that "ordinary" gaseous diffusion was the best method to pursue. This relies on Graham's Law, the fact that the gases diffuse through porous materials at rates determined by their molecular weight. Francis William Aston applied this method in 1913 when he separated two isotopes of neon by diffusing a sample thousands of times through a pipe clay. Thick materials like pipe clay proved too slow to be efficient on an industry scale. Simon proposed using a metal foil punctured with millions of microscopic holes would allow the separation process to move faster. He estimated that a plant that separated of uranium-235 from natural uranium per day would cost about £5,000,000 to build, and £1,500,000 per year to run, in which time it would consume £2,000,000 of uranium and other raw materials. The MAUD Committee realised an atomic bomb was not just feasible, but inevitable.


title: Tube Alloys

text: In 1941, Frisch moved to London to work with Chadwick and his cyclotron. Frisch built a Clusius tube there to study the properties of uranium hexafluoride. Frisch and Chadwick discovered it is one of the gases for which the Clusius method will not work. This was only a minor setback because Simon was already in progress of establishing the alternative method of separation through ordinary gaseous diffusion.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The chemical problems of producing gaseous compounds of uranium and pure uranium metal were studied at the University of Birmingham and by ICI. Michael Clapham, who at the time was working on print technology at the Kynoch Works in Aston in Birmingham, carried out early experiments with uranium production processes. Philip Baxter from ICI, where he had experience working with fluorine compounds, made the first small batch of gaseous uranium hexafluoride for Chadwick in 1940. ICI received a formal £5,000 contract in December 1940 to make of this vital material for the future work. The prototype gaseous diffusion equipment itself was manufactured by Metropolitan-Vickers (MetroVick) at Trafford Park, Manchester, at a cost of £150,000 for four units. They were installed at the M. S. Factory located in a valley near Rhydymwyn, in Wales; M. S. stood for the Ministry of Supply. The building used was known as P6 and test equipment was installed. These units were tested by a team of about seventy under the guidance of Peierls and Fuchs. The results of the experiments led to the building of the gaseous diffusion factory at Capenhurst, Cheshire. ICI pilot plants for producing of pure uranium metal and of uranium hexafluoride per day commenced operation in Widnes in mid-1943.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The breakthrough with plutonium was by Bretscher and Norman Feather at the Cavendish Laboratory. They realised that a slow neutron reactor fuelled with uranium would theoretically produce substantial amounts of plutonium-239 as a by-product. This is because uranium-238 absorbs slow neutrons and forms a short-lived new isotope, uranium-239. The new isotope's nucleus rapidly emits an electron through beta decay producing a new element with an atomic mass of 239 and an atomic number of 93. This element's nucleus also emits an electron and becomes a new element with an atomic number 94 and a much greater half-life. Bretscher and Feather showed theoretically feasible grounds that element 94 would be fissilereadily split by both slow and fast neutrons with the added advantage of being chemically different from uranium.


title: Tube Alloys

text: This new development was also confirmed in independent work by Edwin M. McMillan and Philip Abelson at Berkeley Radiation Laboratory also in 1940. Nicholas Kemmer of the Cambridge team proposed the names neptunium for the new element 93 and plutonium for 94 by analogy with the outer planets Neptune and Pluto beyond Uranus (uranium being element 92). The Americans fortuitously suggested the same names. The production and identification of the first sample of plutonium in 1941 is generally credited to Glenn Seaborg, using a cyclotron rather than a reactor at the University of California. In 1941, neither team knew of the existence of the other.


title: Tube Alloys

text: Chadwick voiced concerns about the need for such pure plutonium to make a feasible bomb. He also suspected the gun method of detonation for a plutonium bomb would lead to premature detonations due to impurities. After Chadwick met Robert Oppenheimer at the Los Alamos Laboratory in 1943, he learned of a proposed bomb design which they were calling an implosion. The sub-critical mass of plutonium was supposed to be surrounded by explosives arranged to detonate simultaneously. This would cause the plutonium core to be compressed and become supercritical. The core would be surrounded by a depleted uranium tamper which would reflect the neutrons back into the reaction, and contribute to the explosion by fissioning itself. This design solved Chadwick's worries about purity because it did not require the level needed for the gun-type fission weapon. The biggest problem with this method was creating the explosive lenses. Chadwick took this information with him and described the method to Oliphant who then took it with him to England.


title: Tube Alloys

text: Halban's heavy water team from France continued its slow neutron research at Cambridge University; but the project was given a low priority since it was not considered relevant to bomb making. It suddenly acquired military significance when it was realised that it provided the route to plutonium. The British Government wanted the Cambridge team to be relocated to North America, in proximity to the raw materials it required, and where the American research was being done. But Sir John Anderson wanted the British team to retain its own identity, and was concerned that since the Americans were working on nuclear reactor designs using nuclear graphite instead of heavy water as a neutron moderator, that team might not receive a fair share of resources. The Americans had their own concerns, particularly about security, since only one of the six senior scientists in the group was British. They also had concerns about patent rights; that the French team would attempt to patent nuclear technology based on the pre-war work. As a compromise, Thomson suggested relocating the team to Canada.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The Canadian government was approached, and Jack Mackenzie, the president of the National Research Council of Canada, immediately welcomed and supported the proposal. The costs and salaries would be divided between the British and Canadian governments, but the British share would come from a billion dollar war gift from Canada. The first eight staff arrived in Montreal at the end of 1942, and occupied a house belonging to McGill University. Three months later they moved into a area in a new building at the University of Montreal. The laboratory grew quickly to over 300 staff; about half were Canadians recruited by George Laurence. A subgroup of theoreticians was recruited and headed by a Czechoslovak physicist, George Placzek. Placzek proved to be a very capable group leader, and was generally regarded as the only member of the staff with the stature of the highest scientific rank and with close personal contacts with many key physicists involved in the Manhattan project. Friedrich Paneth became head of the chemistry division, and Pierre Auger of the experimental physics division. Von Halban was the director of the laboratory, but he proved to be an unfortunate choice as he was a poor administrator, and did not work well with the National Research Council of Canada. The Americans saw him as a security risk, and objected to the French atomic patents claimed by the Paris Group (in association with ICI).


title: Tube Alloys

text: Sir John Anderson was eager to invite Niels Bohr to the Tube Alloys project because he was a world-famous scientist who would not only contribute his expertise to the project, but also help the British government gain leverage in dealings with the Manhattan Project.


title: Tube Alloys

text: In September 1943, word reached Bohr in Denmark that the Nazis considered his family to be Jewish, and that they were in danger of being arrested. The Danish resistance helped Bohr and his wife escape by sea to Sweden on 29 September 1943. When the news of Bohr's escape reached Britain, Lord Cherwell sent a telegram asking Bohr to come to Britain. Bohr arrived in Scotland on 6 October in a de Havilland Mosquito operated by the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC).


title: Tube Alloys

text: At the invitation of the director of the Manhattan Project, Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves Jr., Bohr visited the Manhattan Project sites in November 1943. Groves offered Bohr substantial pay, but Bohr initially refused the offer because he wanted to make sure the relationship between the United States and Great Britain remained a real co-operative partnership. In December 1943, after a meeting with Albert Einstein, Bohr and his son Aage committed to working on the Manhattan Project. Bohr made a substantial contribution to the atomic bomb development effort. He also attempted to prevent a post-war atomic arms race with the Soviet Union, which he believed to be a serious threat. In 1944, Bohr presented several key points he believed to be essential concerning international nuclear weapon control. He urged that Britain and the United States should inform the Soviet Union about the Manhattan Project in order to decrease the likelihood of its feeling threatened on the premise that the other nations were building a bomb behind its back. His beliefs stemmed from his conviction that the Russians already knew about the Manhattan Project, leading him to believe there was no point in hiding it from them.


title: Tube Alloys

text: Bohr's evidence came from an interpretation of a letter he received from a Soviet friend and scientist in Russia, which he showed to the British security services. He reasoned that the longer the United States and Britain hid their nuclear advances, the more threatened the Russians would feel and the more inclined to speed up their effort to produce an atomic bomb of their own. With the help of U.S. Supreme Court justice Felix Frankfurter, Bohr met on 26 August 1944 with the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was initially sympathetic to his ideas about controlling nuclear weapons. But Churchill was adamantly opposed to informing the Soviet Union of such work. At the Second Quebec Conference in September 1944, Roosevelt sided with Churchill, deciding it would be in the nation's best interest to keep the atomic bomb project a secret. Moreover, they decided Bohr was potentially dangerous and that security measures must be taken in order to prevent him from leaking information to the rest of the world, Russia in particular.


title: Tube Alloys

text: In August 1940, a British mission, led by Tizard and with members including Cockcroft, was sent to America to create relations and help advance the research towards war technology with the Americans. Several military technologies were shared, including advances in radar, anti-submarine warfare, aeronautical engineering and explosives. The American radar programme in particular was reinvigorated with an added impetus to the development of microwave radar and proximity fuzes. This prompted the Americans to create the MIT Radiation Laboratory, which would later serve as a model for the Los Alamos Laboratory. The mission did not spend much time on nuclear fission, with only two meetings of the subject, mainly about uranium enrichment. In particular, Cockcroft did not report Peierls' and Frisch's findings. Nonetheless, there were important repercussions. A barrier had been broken and a pathway to exchange technical information between the two countries was developed. Moreover, the notion of civilian scientists playing an important role in the development of military technologies was strengthened on both sides of the Atlantic.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The MAUD Committee reports urged the co-operation with the United States should be continued in the research of nuclear fission. Charles C. Lauritsen, a Caltech physicist working at the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC), was in London during this time and was invited to sit in on a MAUD meeting. The committee pushed for rapid development of nuclear weapons using gaseous-diffusion as their isotope separation device. Once he returned to the United States, he was able to brief Vannevar Bush, the director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), concerning the details discussed during the meeting.


title: Tube Alloys

text: In August 1941, Mark Oliphant, the director of the physics department at the University of Birmingham and an original member of the MAUD Committee, was sent to the US to assist the NDRC on radar. During his visit he met with William D. Coolidge. Coolidge was shocked when Oliphant told him the British had predicted that only ten kilograms of uranium-235 would be sufficient to supply a chain reaction effected by fast moving neutrons. While in America, Oliphant discovered that the chairman of the OSRD S-1 Section, Lyman Briggs, had locked away the MAUD reports transferred from Britain entailing the initial discoveries and had not informed the S-1 Committee members of all its findings.


title: Tube Alloys

text: Oliphant took the initiative himself to enlighten the scientific community in the U.S. of the recent groundbreaking discoveries the MAUD Committee had just exposed. Oliphant also travelled to Berkeley to meet with Ernest Lawrence, inventor of the cyclotron. After Oliphant informed Lawrence of his report on uranium, Lawrence met with NDRC chairman James Bryant Conant, George B. Pegram, and Arthur Compton to relay the details which Oliphant had directed to Lawrence. Oliphant was not only able to get in touch with Lawrence, he met with Conant and Bush to inform them of the significant data the MAUD had discovered. Oliphant's ability to inform the Americans led to Oliphant convincing Lawrence, Lawrence convincing Compton, and then George Kistiakowsky convincing Conant to move forward with nuclear weapons. These actions from Oliphant resulted in Bush taking this report directly to the president.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The American effort increased rapidly and soon outstripped the British as the American authorities were reluctant to share details with their British counterparts. However, separate research continued in each country with some exchange of information. Several of the key British scientists visited the United States early in 1942 and were given full access to all of the information available. They were astounded at the momentum the American atomic bomb project had then assumed. The British and American exchange of information and efforts continued but the nations did not combine their efforts, leading their programmes separately. Furthermore, in 1941 the British Government rebuffed and vetoed attempts and proposals by Bush and Conant to strengthen cooperation between Great Britain and America.


title: Tube Alloys

text: In June 1942, the United States Army Corps of Engineers took over the Manhattan Project from OSRD, and Groves became the project's director. He tightened security, which dried up the flow of information to Britain. American officials were particularly concerned that Akers and other people from ICI involved in the Tube Alloys project were trying to exploit American nuclear scientific knowledge to create a profitable post-war industry. In October 1942, Bush and Conant convinced Roosevelt the United States should independently develop the atomic bomb project, despite an agreement of unrestricted scientific interchange between the US and Britain.


title: Tube Alloys

text: This disastrously affected British efforts as they lacked manpower, facilities, equipment and materials. Tube Alloys, therefore, fell behind in the race with the Manhattan Project. On 30 July 1942, Anderson advised Churchill: "We must face the fact that... [our] pioneering work... is a dwindling asset and that, unless we capitalise it quickly, we shall be outstripped. We now have a real contribution to make to a 'merger'. Soon we shall have little or none." By the time Britain realised it, the position had worsened; Bush decided outside help for the Manhattan Project was no longer needed. The Military Policy Committee (MPC) supported Bush's arguments and restricted access to the classified information which Britain could utilise to develop its atomic weapons programme, even if it slowed down the American efforts.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The Americans stopped sharing any information on heavy water production, the method of electromagnetic separation, the physical or chemical properties of plutonium, the details of bomb design, or the facts about fast neutron reactions. This was a major disappointment that hindered the British and the Canadians, who were collaborating on heavy water production and several other aspects of the research programme. By 1943 Britain had stopped sending its scientists to the United States, which slowed down the pace of work there, which had relied on efforts led by British scientists. In March 1943 Conant approached the Military Policy Committee, which decided that Britain's help would benefit some areas of the project. Chadwick, William Penney, Peierls, Oliphant and other British scientists were important enough that the bomb design team at the Los Alamos Laboratory needed them, despite the risk of revealing weapon design secrets.


title: Tube Alloys

text: Churchill sought information about building Britain's own gaseous diffusion plant, a heavy water plant and an atomic reactor in Britain, despite its immense cost. A gaseous diffusion plant to produce a kilogram of weapons-grade uranium per day was estimated to cost up to £3million in research and development, and anything up to £50million to build in wartime Britain. A nuclear reactor to produce that much plutonium per day would have to be built in Canada. It would take up to five years to build and cost £5million. The project would also require facilities for producing the required heavy water (between £5million and £10million) and uranium metal (£1.5million). The project would need overwhelming priority, as it was estimated to require twenty thousand workersmany of them highly skilledhalf a million tons of steel, and an unprecedented half gigawatt of electricity. Disruption to other wartime projects would be inevitable, and it was unlikely to be ready in time to affect the outcome of the war in Europe. The unanimous response was that first another effort should be made to secure American co-operation.


title: Tube Alloys

text: In July 1943, in London, American officials cleared up some major misunderstandings about British motives, and after many months of negotiations the Quebec Agreement was signed by Churchill and Roosevelt on 19 August 1943 during the Quebec Conference. The British handed over their material to the Americans and in return received the copies of the American progress reports to the President. Tube Alloys was subsumed into the Manhattan Project. In a section of the Quebec Agreement formally entitled "Articles of Agreement governing collaboration between the authorities of the USA and UK in the matter of Tube Alloys", Britain and the USA agreed to share resources "to bring the Tube Alloys project to fruition at the earliest moment". The leaders further agreed that:


title: Tube Alloys

text: It was also agreed that "any post-war advantages of an industrial or commercial nature" would be decided at the discretion of the President. The Quebec Agreement established the Combined Policy Committee to control the Manhattan Project, consisting of Henry Stimson, Bush and Conant from the United States; Field Marshal Sir John Dill and Colonel J. J. Llewellin were the British members, and C. D. Howe was the Canadian member. Llewellin returned to the United Kingdom at the end of 1943 and was replaced on the committee by Sir Ronald Ian Campbell, who in turn was replaced by the British Ambassador to the United States, Lord Halifax, in early 1945. Dill died in Washington, D.C., in November 1944 and was replaced both as Chief of the British Joint Staff Mission and as a member of the Combined Policy Committee by Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson. The subsequent Hyde Park Agreement on 19 September 1944 extended this cooperation to the post-war period.


title: Tube Alloys

text: Akers summoned Chadwick, Oliphant, Simon and Peierls to the United States. They arrived the day the Quebec Agreement was signed, ready to assist the Manhattan Project in any way possible. Akers was generally disliked and the Americans refused to move forward with collaboration unless a top British scientist who was "accepted and sound of judgement" was appointed instead. British officials dug in over Britain's right to make its own appointments to its own government agencies. A compromise was reached, with Chadwick put in charge as Britain's technical advisor for the Combined Policy Committee, and as the head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project.


title: Tube Alloys

text: With this dispute settled collaboration could once again take place. Chadwick wanted to involve as many British scientists as possible so long as Groves accepted them. Chadwick's first choice, Joseph Rotblat refused to give up his Polish citizenship. Chadwick then turned to Otto Frisch, who to Chadwick's surprise accepted becoming a British citizen right away and began the screening process so he could travel to America. Chadwick spent the first few weeks of November 1943 acquiring a clear picture of the extensive Manhattan Project. He realised the scale of such sites as Oak Ridge, Tennessee, which was the new headquarters of the project, and could safely conclude that without similar industrial site being found in Germany the chances of the Nazi atomic bomb project being successful was very low.


title: Tube Alloys

text: With Chadwick involved the main goal was to show that the Quebec Agreement was a success. It was Britain's duty to co-operate to the fullest and speed along the process. Chadwick used this opportunity to give as many young British scientists experience as possible so they might carry that experience to post-war Britain. He eventually convinced Groves of Rotblat's integrity to the cause, and this led to Rotblat being accepted to the Manhattan Project without renouncing his nationality. Rotblat had been left in charge of the Tube Alloys research, and brought with him the results obtained since Chadwick had left.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The Montreal team in Canada depended on the Americans for heavy water from the US heavy water plant in Trail, British Columbia, which was under American contract, and for technical information about plutonium. The Americans said they would supply heavy water to the Montreal group only if it agreed to direct its research along the limited lines suggested by DuPont, its main contractor for reactor construction. Despite doing much good work, by June 1943 the Montreal Laboratory had come to a complete standstill. Morale was low and the Canadian Government proposed cancelling the project. In April 1944, a Combined Policy Committee meeting in Washington agreed Canada would build a heavy water reactor. The Americans agreed to support the project with information and visits, and to supply materials, including vital uranium and heavy water. The Montreal Laboratory would be given access to data from the Metallurgical Laboratory's research reactors at Argonne and the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, but not from the production reactors at the Hanford Site; nor was it to be given any information about the chemistry of plutonium, or methods for separating it from other elements. This arrangement was formally approved by the Combined Policy Committee meeting on 19 September 1944. John Cockcroft became the director of the Montreal Laboratory. The Chalk River Laboratories opened in 1944, and in 1946 the Montreal Laboratory was closed. The project developed the ZEEP reactor, which went critical in September 1945.


title: Tube Alloys

text: William Penney, one of the Tube Alloys scientists, was an expert in shock waves. In June 1944, he went to America to work at the Los Alamos Laboratory as part of the British delegation. He worked on the means to assess the effects of a nuclear explosion, and wrote a paper on what height the bombs should be detonated at for maximum effect in attacks on Germany and Japan. He served as a member of the target committee established by Groves to select Japanese cities for atomic bombing, and on Tinian with Project Alberta as a special consultant. Along with Group Captain Leonard Cheshire, sent as a British representative, he watched the bombing of Nagasaki from the observation plane "Big Stink". He also formed part of the Manhattan Project's post-war scientific mission to Hiroshima and Nagasaki that assessed the extent of the damage caused by the bombs.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The "Smyth Report" was issued by the US War Department on 12 August 1945, giving the story of the atomic bomb and including the technical details that could now be made public. It made few references to the British contribution to the bomb, and a White Paper, "Statements Relating to the Atomic Bomb", was hurriedly drafted by Michael Perrin. This account was issued just after Clement Attlee had replaced Churchill as Prime Minister, and was the only official statement on the British contribution for fifteen years.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The Soviet Union received details of British research from its atomic spies Klaus Fuchs, Engelbert Broda, Melita Norwood and John Cairncross, a member of the notorious Cambridge Five. Alan Nunn May was recruited later in Canada. Lavrenty Beria's report to Stalin of March 1942 included the MAUD reports and other British documents passed by Cairncross.


title: Tube Alloys

text: Fuchs began disclosing information to the Soviet Union about the possible production of a British atomic bomb when he joined the Tube Alloys project, although his contribution towards Soviet espionage was more severe during the Manhattan Project. Fuchs was able to contact a London-based KPD leader, Jürgen Kuczynski, Kuczynski put him in contact with Simon Davidovitch Kremer, the secretary to the military attaché at the Soviet Union's embassy, who worked for the GRU (Russian: "Главное Разведывательное Управление"), the Red Army's foreign military intelligence directorate. After three meetings, Fuchs was teamed up with a courier so he would not have to find excuses to travel to London. She was Ursula Kuczynski, the sister of Jurgen Kuczynski. She was also a German communist, a major in Soviet Military Intelligence and an experienced agent who had worked with Richard Sorge's spy ring in the Far East.


title: Tube Alloys

text: With the end of the war the Special Relationship between Britain and the United States "became very much less special". Roosevelt died on 12 April 1945, and the Hyde Park Agreement was not binding on subsequent administrations. In fact, it was physically lost: when Wilson raised the matter in a Combined Policy Committee meeting in June, the American copy could not be found. The British sent Stimson a photocopy on 18 July 1945. Even then, Groves questioned the document's authenticity until the American copy was located years later in the papers of Vice Admiral Wilson Brown Jr., Roosevelt's naval aide, apparently misfiled by someone unaware of what Tube Alloys was—who thought it had something to do with naval guns.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The British government had trusted that America would share nuclear technology, which the British saw as a joint discovery. On 9 November 1945, Mackenzie King and the Prime Minister, Clement Attlee, went to Washington, D.C., to confer with President Harry Truman about future cooperation in nuclear weapons and nuclear power. The three leaders agreed there would be full and effective cooperation on atomic energy, but British hopes for a full resumption of cooperation on nuclear weapons were disappointed. The Americans soon made it clear that this was restricted to basic scientific research.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The passage of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (McMahon Act) in August 1946 made it clear that the UK would no longer be allowed access to the United States' atomic research. This partly resulted from the arrest for espionage of Alan Nunn May in February 1946. On 8 January 1947, Attlee formed a secret Gen 163 Cabinet committee, consisting of six cabinet ministers, which decided that Britain required the atomic bomb to maintain its position in world politics. In the words of the Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin, "That won't do at all... we've got to have this... I don't mind for myself, but I don't want any other Foreign Secretary of this country to be talked to or at by a Secretary of State in the United States as I have just had in my discussions with Mr Byrnes. We've got to have this thing over here whatever it costs... We've got to have the bloody Union Jack on top of it."


title: Tube Alloys

text: Marshal of the Royal Air Force Lord Portal, was appointed to lead the effort, code-named High Explosive Research. The Atomic Energy Research Establishment (AERE) near Harwell, Oxfordshire, was created by Cockcroft in 1946 as the main centre for military and civilian atomic energy research and development. Penney led the bomb design effort as Chief Superintendent Armament Research (CSAR, pronounced "Caesar"), in charge of the Ministry Of Supply's Armaments Research Department (ARD) at Fort Halstead in Kent and the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich. In April 1950 an abandoned Second World War airfield, RAF Aldermaston in Berkshire, was selected as the permanent home for what became the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment (AWRE). Penney assembled a team to initiate the work, firstly preparing a report describing the features, science and idea behind the American Fat Man implosion-type nuclear weapon. He broke down the development tasks required to replicate it, identifying outstanding questions that required further research on nuclear weapons.


title: Tube Alloys

text: On 3 October 1952, under the code-name "Operation Hurricane", the first British nuclear device was successfully detonated in the Monte Bello Islands off the west coast of Australia. The Sputnik crisis and the development of the British hydrogen bomb led to the Atomic Energy Act being amended in 1958, and to a resumption of the nuclear Special Relationship between America and Britain under the 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement.


title: Cepheus (constellation)

text: Cepheus is a constellation in the far northern sky, named after Cepheus, a king of Aethiopia in Greek mythology. It is one of the 48 constellations listed by the second century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 constellations in the modern times.


title: Cepheus (constellation)

text: The constellation's brightest star is Alpha Cephei, with an apparent magnitude of 2.5. Delta Cephei is the prototype of an important class of star known as a Cepheid variable. RW Cephei, an orange hypergiant, together with the red supergiants Mu Cephei, MY Cephei, SW Cephei, VV Cephei, and V354 Cephei are among the largest stars known. In addition, Cepheus also has the hyperluminous quasar S5 0014+81, which hosts an ultramassive black hole in its core, reported at 40 billion solar masses, about 10,000 times more massive than the central black hole of the Milky Way, making this among the most massive black holes currently known.


title: Cepheus (constellation)

text: Cepheus was the King of Aethiopia. He was married to Cassiopeia and was the father of Andromeda, both of whom are immortalized as modern day constellations along with Cepheus.


title: Cepheus (constellation)

text: Alpha Cephei, also known as Alderamin, is the brightest star in the constellation, with an apparent magnitude of 2.51. Delta Cephei is the prototype Cepheid variable, a yellow-hued supergiant star 980 light-years from Earth. It was discovered to be variable by John Goodricke in 1784. It varies between 3.5 and 4.4 over a period of 5 days and 9 hours. The Cepheids are a class of pulsating variable stars; Delta Cephei has a minimum size of 40 solar diameters and a maximum size of 46 solar diameters. It is also a double star; the yellow star also has a wide-set blue-hued companion of magnitude 6.3.


title: Cepheus (constellation)

text: There are three Red supergiants in the constellation that are visible to the naked eye. Mu Cephei, also is known as Herschel's Garnet Star due to its deep red colour. It is a semiregular variable star with a minimum magnitude of 5.1 and a maximum magnitude of 3.4. Its period is approximately 2 years. The star is around 5.64 AU in radius. If it were placed at the center of the Solar System, it would extend to the orbit of Jupiter. Another, VV Cephei A, like Mu Cephei, is a red supergiant and a semiregular variable star, located at least 5,000 light-years from Earth. It has a minimum magnitude of 5.4 and a maximum magnitude of 4.8, and is paired with a blue main sequence star called VV Cephei B. One of the largest stars in the galaxy, it has a diameter 1,400 times that of the Sun. VV Cephei is also an unusually long-period eclipsing binary, but the eclipses, which occur every 20.3 years, are too faint to be observed with the unaided eye. T Cephei, also a red giant, is a Mira variable with a minimum magnitude of 11.3 and a maximum magnitude of 5.2, 685 light-years from Earth. It has a period of 13 months and a diameter of between 329 to 500 solar diameters.


title: Cepheus (constellation)

text: There are several prominent double stars and binary stars in Cepheus. Omicron Cephei is a binary star with a period of 800 years. The system, 211 light-years from Earth, consists of an orange-hued giant primary of magnitude 4.9 and a secondary of magnitude 7.1. Xi Cephei is another binary star, 102 light-years from Earth, with a period of 4,000 years. It has a blue-white primary of magnitude 4.4 and a yellow secondary of magnitude 6.5.


title: Cepheus (constellation)

text: Kruger 60 is an 11th-magnitude binary star consisting of two red dwarfs. The star system is one of the nearest, being only 13 light-years away from Earth.


title: Cepheus (constellation)

text: Cepheus is most commonly depicted as holding his arms aloft, praying for the deities to spare the life of Andromeda. He also is depicted as a more regal monarch sitting on his throne.


title: Cepheus (constellation)

text: In Chinese astronomy, the stars of the constellation Cepheus are found in two areas: the Purple Forbidden enclosure (紫微垣, "Zǐ Wēi Yuán") and the Black Tortoise of the North (北方玄武, "Běi Fāng Xuán Wǔ").


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: The Apostolic Fathers, also known as the Ante-Nicene Fathers, were core Christian theologians among the Church Fathers who lived in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD who are believed to have personally known some of the Twelve Apostles or to have been significantly influenced by them. Their writings, though widely circulated in early Christianity, were not included in the canon of the New Testament. Many of the writings derive from the same time period and geographical location as other works of early Christian literature which came to be part of the New Testament.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: The label "Apostolic Fathers" has been applied to these writers only since the 17th century, to indicate that they were thought of as representing the generation that had personal contact with the Twelve Apostles. The earliest known use of the term "Apostolic(al) Fathers" was by William Wake in 1693, when he was chaplain in ordinary to King William and Queen Mary of England. According to the "Catholic Encyclopedia", the use of the term "Apostolic Fathers" can be traced to the title of a 1672 work by Jean-Baptiste Cotelier, "SS. Patrum qui temporibus apostolicis floruerunt opera" ("Works of the holy fathers who flourished in the apostolic times"), which was abbreviated to "Bibliotheca Patrum Apostolicorum" ("Library of the Apostolic Fathers") by L. J. Ittig in his 1699 edition of the same. The term "apostolic father" first occurs in the Hogedos of Anastasius of the seventh-century, however states that it was never used to refer to a body of writings until later.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: The history of the title for these writers was explained by Joseph Lightfoot, in his 1890 translation of the Apostolic Fathers' works:


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: ...[T]he expression ['Apostolic Fathers'] itself does not occur, so far as I have observed, until comparatively recent times. Its origin, or at least its general currency, should probably be traced to the idea of gathering together the literary remains of those who flourished in the age immediately succeeding the Apostles, and who presumably therefore were their direct personal disciples. This idea first took shape in the edition of Cotelier during the last half of the seventeenth century (A.D. 1672). Indeed such a collection would have been an impossibility a few years earlier. The first half of that century saw in print for the first time the Epistles of Clement (A.D. 1633), and of Barnabas (A.D. 1645), to say nothing of the original Greek of Polycarp's Epistle (A.D. 1633) and the Ignatian Letters in their genuine form (A.D. 1644, 1646). The materials therefore would have been too scanty for such a project at any previous epoch. In his title page however Cotelier does not use the actual expression, though he approximates to it, "SS. Patrum qui temporibus Apostolicis floruerunt opera"; but the next editor [Thomas] Ittig (1699), adopts as his title "Patres Apostolici", and thenceforward it becomes common.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: The following writings are generally grouped together as having been written by the Apostolic Fathers (in italics are writings whose authors are unknown):


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: Additionally some have argued that the Odes of Solomon was written by a student of the Apostle John around the middle of the first century.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: All or most of these works were originally written in Greek. Older English translations of these works can be found online in the "Ante-Nicene Fathers" series on the Christian Classics Ethereal Library website. Published English translations have also been made by various scholars of early Christianity, such as Joseph Lightfoot, Kirsopp Lake, Bart D. Ehrman and Michael W. Holmes. The first English translation of the Apostolic Fathers' works was published in 1693, by William Wake, then rector of Westminster St James, later Archbishop of Canterbury"." It was virtually the only English translation available until the mid-19th century. Since its publication many better manuscripts of the Apostolic Fathers' works have been discovered.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: Clement of Rome (c. 35-99) was bishop of Rome from 88 to 99. Irenaeus and Tertullian list him as the fourth bishop after Peter, Linus and Anacletus. He was said to have been consecrated by Peter the Apostle, and he is known to have been a leading member of the church in Rome in the late 1st century.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: The First Epistle of Clement () was copied and widely read and is generally considered to be the oldest Christian epistle in existence outside of the New Testament. The letter is extremely lengthy, twice as long as the Epistle to the Hebrews, and it demonstrates the author's familiarity with many books of both the Old Testament and New Testament. The epistle repeatedly refers to the Old Testament as scripture and includes numerous references to the Book of Judith, thereby establishing usage or at least familiarity with Judith in his time. Within the letter, Clement calls on the Christians of Corinth to maintain harmony and order. Tradition identifies the author as Clement, bishop of Rome, and scholarly consensus is overwhelmingly in favor of the letter's authenticity.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: The Second Epistle of Clement was traditionally ascribed by some ancient authors to Clement, but it is now generally considered to have been written later, , and therefore could not be the work of Clement, who died in 99. Doubts about the authorship of the letter had already been expressed in antiquity by Eusebius and Jerome. Whereas 1 Clement was an epistle, 2 Clement appears to be a transcript of an oral homily or sermon, making it the oldest surviving Christian sermon outside of the New Testament.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: Ignatius of Antioch (also known as Theophorus, from the Greek for "God-bearer") () was bishop of Antioch. He may have known the apostle John directly, and his thought is certainly influenced by the tradition associated with this apostle. En route to his martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote a series of letters which have been preserved as an example of the theology of the earliest Christians. Important topics addressed in these letters include ecclesiology, the sacraments, the role of bishops, and the nature of biblical Sabbath. He clearly identifies the local-church hierarchy composed of bishop, presbyters, and deacons and claims to have spoken in some of the churches through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. He is the second after Clement to mention the Pauline epistles.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: Polycarp ( – ) was bishop of Smyrna (now İzmir in Turkey). His student Irenaeus wrote that he "was not only instructed by the apostles, and conversed with many who had seen the Lord, but was also appointed bishop by apostles in Asia and in the church in Smyrna", and that he had, as a boy, listened to "the accounts which (Polycarp) gave of his intercourse with John and with the others who had seen the Lord". The options for this John are John the son of Zebedee, traditionally viewed as the author of the Fourth Gospel, or John the Presbyter. Traditional advocates follow Eusebius in insisting that the apostolic connection of Papius was with John the Evangelist, and that this John, the author of the Gospel of John, was the same as the apostle John.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: Polycarp tried and failed to persuade Anicetus, bishop of Rome, to have the West celebrate Easter on 14 Nisan, as in the East. He rejected the bishop's suggestion that the East use the Western date. In 155, the Smyrnans demanded Polycarp's execution as a Christian, and he died a martyr. His story has it that the flames built to kill him refused to burn him, and that when he was stabbed to death, so much blood issued from his body that it quenched the flames around him. Polycarp is recognized as a saint in both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: Papias of Hierapolis (c. 60 - c. 130) was bishop of Hierapolis (now Pamukkale in Turkey). Irenaeus describes him as "an ancient man who was a hearer of John and a companion of Polycarp". Eusebius adds that Papias was Bishop of Hierapolis around the time of Ignatius of Antioch. The name "Papias" (Παπίας) was very common in the region, suggesting that he was probably a native of the area.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: Papias's major work was the "Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord" (Greek: Λογίων Κυριακῶν Ἐξήγησις) in five books; it has been lost and only survives in excerpts from Iraeneus and Eusebius. Other fragments come from the works of Philip of Side and George Hamartolos, but the authenticity of those are dubious.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: Quadratus of Athens (died c. 129) was bishop of Athens. Eusebius reports that he was a disciple of the apostles ("auditor apostolorum") and that he was appointed as bishop after the martyrdom of his predecessor Publius. Quadratus's major work is the "Apology", which was apparently read to Emperor Hadrian to convince him to improve imperial policy toward Christians. It has been lost and only survives in an excerpt from Eusebius.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: The "Didache" () is a brief early Christian treatise, dated anywhere from as early as AD 50 to the end of the 1st century. It contains instructions for Christian communities. The text, parts of which may have constituted the first written catechism, has three main sections dealing with Christian lessons, rituals such as baptism and the Eucharist, and church organization. It was considered by some of the Church Fathers as part of the New Testament but rejected as spurious (non-canonical) by others. Scholars knew of the "Didache" through references in other texts, but the text had been lost; it was rediscovered in 1873 by Philotheos Bryennios, Metropolitan of Nicomedia, in the Codex Hierosolymitanus.


title: Apostolic Fathers

text: The 2nd-century "The" "Shepherd of Hermas" was popular in the early church and was even considered scriptural by some of the Church Fathers such as Irenaeus and Tertullian. It was written in Rome in Koine Greek. The "Shepherd" had great authority in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. The work comprises five visions, 12 mandates, and 10 parables. It relies on allegory and pays special attention to the Church, calling the faithful to repent of the sins that have harmed it.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: James Forrest (born 7 July 1991) is a Scottish professional footballer who plays as a winger for Scottish Premiership club Celtic and the Scotland national team.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest joined Celtic's youth academy in 2003 and made his first team debut in the 2009–10 season. As a young player he was widely regarded as one of the brightest talents in the Scottish game. In November 2011, the Scottish Football Association's performance director, Mark Wotte, described him as being "the light in the darkness" of Scottish football. He has progressed to become a key player in a successful era for Celtic, winning nine consecutive league championships.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest played at every youth level for Scotland, winning 13 caps for the under-19 team, scoring two goals, and four caps for the under-21 team. He made his senior international debut on 29 May 2011 against the Republic of Ireland. He was part of the Scotland squad at UEFA Euro 2020.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest was born in Prestwick, South Ayrshire and attended Prestwick Academy. He had the prospect of a professional tennis career when he was younger. He was consistently approached by Prestwick Tennis Club to play for them, but he refused as he wanted to pursue his career in football. He was described by coaches at the club as being a naturally talented player, who could just "pick up a racquet and play". His younger brother, Alan Forrest, plays football for Heart of Midlothian.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest played for South Ayr Boys Club, and consistently shone at every level. He was scouted by Celtic's talent spotter for Ayrshire, Jim Began, at the age of 11. Several other clubs such as Kilmarnock, Ayr United and Rangers were also interested in him. He signed youth terms with Celtic at the age of 13 and then joined Celtic's coaching school in Hamilton, which his coach Martin Millar credits with helping his development.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: On 30 August 2009, Forrest signed a four-year contract with Celtic. Their Head of Youth development, Chris McCart, hailed him as one of the best players in Celtic's U19 squad. Forrest had always excelled at Celtic, with a match program from 2004 singling him out for exceptional performances in the under-13 squad. He made his first team debut for Celtic on 1 May 2010, coming on as a late substitute against Motherwell. He scored the third of Celtic's goals in a 4–0 win.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: He made his first European appearance for Celtic in a Champions League qualifying game against Braga in July 2010. A few days later he won the man of the match award for his performance in the Emirates Cup game with Olympique Lyonnais. He continued this fine form into the league campaign, scoring against St Mirren in a 4–0 victory. Forrest played in both legs of Celtic's Europa League qualifier against Utrecht. Forrest was named the SPL Young Player of the Month for August 2010 In the following month Forrest opened the scoring against Hearts. He made his Old Firm debut in a 2–0 win at Ibrox in January 2011. He received the first red card of his career in the following match against Hamilton. He would score against Hearts, before being rewarded for his form with a new five-year deal on 28 January 2011. Forrest collected his first winner's medal on 21 May 2011 when he came on a late second-half substitute for Kris Commons in Celtic's 3–0 Scottish Cup Final win over Motherwell. He finished the season with 3 goals and 1 assist after 25 appearances.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: In August 2011, Scott Brown said that Forrest was the best player to come out of the Celtic youth academy since Aiden McGeady. Forrest scored his first goal of the season in a 5–1 victory against Dundee United and his performances in the month of September, including two goals in a 4–0 victory against Motherwell and another goal against Inverness Caledonian Thistle, saw him win SPL Young Player of the Month. In Celtic's Scottish League Cup quarter-final tie with Hibernian on 26 October, Forrest was credited with a match-winning performance. Celtic went in at the break 1–0 down but Forrest was instrumental in reigniting the tie after half-time, with two early goals.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: On 31 October 2011, Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur's chief scout Ian Broomfield was reported to have watched Forrest in action. Tottenham manager Harry Redknapp later confirmed this was true and that he believed Forrest to be a good player. However, he also said that at that stage he had not considered making a bid for Forrest. In November 2011, the Scottish Football Association's Dutch performance director Mark Wotte, who helped start the careers of players like Robin van Persie, Arjen Robben and Wesley Sneijder, said that he sees Forrest as being "the light in the darkness" of Scottish football. He said that if more players like Forrest are produced then the Scotland team will be able to match the performance of countries like Uruguay, who got to the 2010 World Cup semi-final and at the time were fourth in the FIFA World Rankings despite having a population smaller than Scotland's.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest played in all of Celtic's matches in the Europa League qualifiers and group stage. He scored against Dunfermline and won the SPL Young Player of the Month award for November, his second of the season. In January 2012, Forrest was named one of the 13 players to watch in 2012 by world football governing body FIFA. He scored against St Mirren and Dunfermline before his season ended after suffering an injury during Celtic's defeat to Kilmarnock in the 2012 Scottish League Cup Final. He finished the season having scored 9 goals and made 7 assists in 43 appearances and won his second major honour at the end of the season when Celtic finished as SPL Champions. His form over the season also saw him win two personal awards as both the Scottish Football Writers' Association and Professional Footballers' Association Scotland voted him their respective Young Player of the Year as well as being named in the PFA Scotland SPL Team of the Year.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest played in all four Champions League qualifiers in August 2012, as Celtic reached the group stage for the first time since 2008. He played in three out of six group stage matches and made an impact as a substitute in a 3–2 victory away to Spartak Moscow - Celtic's first away victory in the Champions League. He missed Celtic's famous 2–1 victory against Barcelona due to injury. Forrest suffered with injury throughout the season scoring four and assisting eight goals in 29 appearances. He scored his first goal of the season in a 4–0 victory against Ross County in December. He scored his first goal in the Scottish Cup against Raith Rovers. He played in both legs of Celtic's 5–0 aggregate defeat to Juventus in the last 16 of the Champions League. He scored a penalty against Dundee and scored on the final league game of the season against St Johnstone. Forrest finished the season with a second consecutive league title and his second Scottish Cup winners medal after starting Celtic's 3–0 win against Hibernian in the final.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: In July 2013, Forrest scored his first European goal for Celtic in a second round Champions League Qualifier against Cliftonville. In the following month he scored against Aberdeen in the league and scored a memorable third and decisive goal in the final moments of the second leg of the Champions League play-off against Shakhter Karagandy - which Celtic won 3–2 and qualified for the group stage for the second year in a row. Having played in every qualifying match Forrest missed all of Celtic's games in September after suffering from a virus. His return to action in October saw Forrest score an impressive goal against Hibernian and he played in four Champions League group stage matches - scoring a penalty in Celtic's 2–1 victory against Ajax. Forrest was arrested by police in November 2013 over allegations of indecent exposure and sexual assault at a nightclub in Prestwick. He would score two further goals in the league against Hearts and Aberdeen before injury ended his season in March. He scored 7 goals and assisted 5 in only 27 appearances in another injury dominated season as Celtic won three league titles in a row.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest's injury issues continued after suffering a hamstring injury against Dundee United in the first home game of the season. He only returned from injury in November and despite scoring his first goal of the season against St Mirren in December, Forrest was in and out of the team throughout the winter as both the player and coaching staff did not feel confident that Forrest's injury problems were over. Two of Forrest's three European appearances came in the Europa League including coming on as a substitute in the second leg of Celtic's 4-3 aggregate defeat to Inter Milan in the last 32 of the competition. He featured more often in the Spring and came on as a substitute in Celtic's 2–0 victory against Dundee United in the Scottish League Cup Final, scoring the second goal before earning his side a penalty which he would fail to convert. He would score two further goals in the league against St Mirren and Dundee. Forrest made 29 appearances and scored and assisted 4 goals as Celtic won the league for the fourth consecutive season.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Despite playing more games in a season free of injury Forrest only scored and assisted 2 goals in 33 appearances - scoring his two goals against Aberdeen and Hamilton in the league. He featured in much of the first half of the season, including five appearances in both the Champions League qualifiers and the Europa League group stage, before being dropped by manager Ronny Deila after rejecting a new contract. He only made nine more appearances after the new year as Celtic won the league for the fifth year in a row.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest signed a three-year contract with Celtic in August 2016. He started the season strongly scoring Celtic's first goal of the season away to Hearts and scored in the following two league games against St Johnstone and Aberdeen. In September he scored on his 200th appearance for Celtic against Alloa Athletic in the league cup and scored his fifth goal of the season against Kilmarnock. Forrest played in every match Champions League qualifier and five group stage matches including draws home and away to Manchester City. On 27 November 2016 Forrest scored the second goal and won a penalty in a man of the match performance in the League Cup final as Celtic defeated Aberdeen 3–0 to win the club's 100th trophy. After the winter break Forrest only scored two more goals against Motherwell and Kilmarnock. Forrest was an unused substitute as Celtic defeated Aberdeen 2–1 in the Scottish Cup Final to win the treble for the fourth time in their history and for the first time in 16 years. Forrest made 46 appearances and scored 8 goals and assisted 13 as Celtic finished the domestic season without defeat after 47 matches to be nicknamed the "Invincibles".


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: The beginning of the 2017–18 season saw Forrest play in every Champions League qualifier as he helped Celtic qualify for the group stage by scoring the decisive goal away to Rosenborg in a 1–0 aggregate victory in the third round and he scored another goal in an 8–4 aggregate win against Astana in the play-off round. Forrest scored against Kilmarnock as he played as a striker in the absence of Moussa Dembélé and Leigh Griffiths. His strong start to the season continued into September as he scored twice against Ross County in the league and scored another two goals in the following match against Dundee in the League Cup.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest played in all of Celtic's group stage matches in the Champions League including an impressive performance against Bayern Munich as he provided the assist for Callum McGregor to equalise in a 2–1 defeat at Celtic Park. On 26 November 2017, Forrest scored his third goal in a League Cup final – becoming the first Celtic player since Bobby Lennox to score in three winning League Cup finals – after opening the scoring in a 2–0 win against Motherwell.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: In December, Forrest's goal tally for the season reached double figures for the first time after scoring twice against Motherwell in the league and he scored two more goals against Hamilton and Dundee before the winter break. After returning to action in January Forrest opened the scoring against Brechin City in the Scottish Cup. In the following month Forrest scored the first hat-trick of his career against Partick Thistle in a 3–2 win in the fifth round of the Scottish Cup. He played in both legs of Celtic's 3–1 aggregate defeat to Zenit in the round of 32 of the Europa League. His performances throughout the season saw him nominated for PFA Scotland Players' Player of the Year.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: On 29 April 2018, Forrest scored his first goal in an Old Firm derby as Celtic won the league for the seventh season in a row after a 5–0 win against Rangers at Celtic Park – the club's biggest winning margin in an Old Firm league fixture. Forrest played in Celtic's 2–0 victory against Motherwell in the Scottish Cup Final as Celtic became the first Scottish club to win back-to-back trebles. Forrest ended his most successful season to date having made 58 appearances – among the highest number of games played in professional football that season – and scored 17 goals and assisted 10.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest began the 2018–19 season as first choice right-winger and he scored in both legs in the first round of Champions League qualifiers against Alashkert. He conceded a penalty and was sent off as last defender in a 3–1 Europa League group stage defeat away to FC Red Bull Salzburg on 4 October 2018, at which time he was yet to score in the domestic campaign. However he kept his place for the next league fixture against St Johnstone at McDiarmid Park and responded positively, scoring four goals (the first Celtic player in six years to do so) in the first half of an eventual 6–0 win. Further goals against Hearts in the semi final of the league cup and Dundee in the league saw him win Scottish Premiership Player of the Month.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: In November he helped Celtic progress to the knock out stage of the Europe league by providing assists in wins against RB Leipzig and Rosenborg. He started Celtic's 1–0 victory against Aberdeen in the league cup final against Hearts in the league. In December Forrest scored twice against Kilmarnock in a 5–1 win.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Following the winter break Forrest opened the scoring against St Johnstone in the league and would score against the Perth side again in the Scottish Cup. He opened the scoring in a 2–1 win against Hearts in the first match of Neil Lennon's second tenure as Celtic manager. He played in both legs of the Europa League defeat against Valencia in the Europa League round of 32.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: In March Forrest opened the scoring with a long range strike against Hibernian in the Scottish Cup quarter-final. On 31 March 2019 he scored a late winning goal against Rangers in a 2–1 win in the league. On 14 April 2019 Forrest opened the scoring against Aberdeen in the Scottish Cup semi-final with a long range strike. After the match manager Neil Lennon described Forrest as “One of the best players in Britain right now”. He started Celtic's 2–1 victory against Hearts in the Scottish Cup final to complete a historic third consecutive treble.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest equalled his goal tally from the previous season with 17 goals as Celtic won an eighth consecutive Scottish league championship, and Forrest won the PFA Scotland, Scottish Football Writers' and SPFL Player of the Year awards.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest started the 2019–20 season in excellent goal scoring form with 6 goals in the month of August. He scored in both legs of Celtic's defeat to Cluj in the third round of qualifying in the Champions League. He also scored in both legs of the Europa League play-off against AIK as Celtic progressed to the group stage. In the league he scored against Motherwell. In the league cup Forrest scored the winning goal against Dunfermline with a deflected strike in extra time. In September Forrest scored the winning goal against Hamilton in the league. In the Europa League he won a penalty to help Celtic earn a 1–1 draw in their opening match against Stade Rennais.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: In October 2019 he spoke of his hope of a new contract with Celtic. On 30 October 2019, he signed a new contract with Celtic, keeping him at the club until 2023. He would score three goals in the league in October with strikes against Ross County, Aberdeen and St Mirren. On 7 Nov 2019 Forrest scored in the equalising goal in the Stadio Olimpico against Lazio in the Europa league. Celtic would go on to win the game to earn their first ever away victory in Italy. Forrest played in 5 group stage matches in the Europa league and provided assists in wins against Cluj and Stade Rennais as Celtic for the first time in their history finished top of their group. Later in November he scored two goals in a league win against Livingston. In December he scored against St Mirren and he started Celtic's 1–0 win against Rangers in the League Cup Final. Following the winter break he scored two further goals in the league against St Johnstone and Hamilton. He played in both legs of Celtic's defeat to Copenhagen in the Europa league round of 32. The Coronavirus pandemic saw the season end early as Celtic won the league for a ninth consecutive season. Forrest finished the season with 16 goals.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: In August Forrest scored his first goal of the 2020-21 campaign by opening the scoring against Motherwell in the league - making him only the ninth player in the previous 45 years to score in the 12 consecutive seasons in the top flight of Scottish football. In September he scored the winning goal against St Mirren with a header in a 2-1 league victory. On 24 September 2020 Forrest was forced off with an ankle injury against Riga in the third round of Europa league qualification. The injury would rule Forrest out until March 2021. He missed all of Celtic's Europa league group matches as well as the delayed 2020 Scottish Cup final which saw Celtic win a fourth consecutive treble against Hearts. By the time Forrest returned to action John Kennedy had been appointed caretaker manager after Celtic's faltering league campaign saw Neil Lennon resign as manager. Forrest made his return as a substitute in a 0–0 draw with Dundee United which saw Rangers confirmed as league champions. In April Forrest scored his third and fourth goals of an injury plagued season against Falkirk in the cup and Livingston in the league as Celtic finished the 2020–21 season without a trophy.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest's pre-season was disrupted as he went into self-isolation due to being a close contact to a positive Coronavirus case. He scored his first goals for Ange Postecoglou in both legs against Jablonec in the third round of Europa league qualifying. Forrest sustained an injury in the first league of the Europa league play-off against AZ Alkmaar which ruled him out until late October. On 20 November 2021 Forrest came on as a substitute and scored the only goal of the game as Celtic defeated League Cup holders St Johnstone in the semi-final of the competition. He would miss Celtic's 2–1 victory against Hibernian in the League Cup final due to injury.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest reached the mark of 100 club goals for Celtic with a hat-trick against Hibernian on 15 October 2022, becoming the 30th player in the club’s history to do so.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest has been capped for Scotland at under-16 and under-19 level. He made his Scotland under 19 debut on 20 October 2008 in a European Championship qualifier against Azerbaijan.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Following his fine club form at the start of the 2010–11 season, Forrest was called into the Scotland U21 side. On 7 September, he came off the bench for Scotland U21s and assisted in the 89th minute for Chris Maguire to score the winning goal against Austria.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: On 17 May 2011, Forrest was selected in Craig Levein's Scotland senior team to face Wales and the Republic of Ireland in the Nations Cup. He made his full international debut on 29 May 2011 in the match against the Republic of Ireland. Forrest then came on as a substitute in Scotland's 2–1 win over Denmark on 10 August.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: On 22 December 2011, it was revealed that Forrest had been invited to the Great Britain team for the 2012 Summer Olympics, but did not make the final cut for the Games.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: On 17 November 2018, Forrest scored his first two goals for Scotland in their 4–0 away victory over Albania in the UEFA Nations League. Three days later, he netted a treble as Scotland beat Israel 3–2 to qualify for the UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying play-offs. He became the first Celtic player to score a hat-trick for Scotland since Jimmy Quinn did so in 1908, and the first Scotland player to score at least two goals in consecutive matches since Denis Law in 1963. He was awarded as the 2018–19 "International Player of the Year" by the SFWA.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest was part of the Scotland squad at UEFA Euro 2020. On 14 June 2021, he made his only appearance in the tournament as a substitute in Scotland's opening game 2–0 defeat to the Czech Republic at Hampden Park.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Although Forrest's favoured position is on the right wing, he can also play on the left or as a striker.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Forrest is very quick and also has very good ball control and dribbling skills. His then manager, Neil Lennon, has said how over his first few seasons at Celtic he has been able to extend the distance of his "explosive runs" from 15 or 20 yards up to 30 or 40 yards. Forrest is also a very good finisher and, although predominantly right footed, also capable with his left. Forrest has great fitness levels and is generally able to keep playing at a very high intensity throughout the whole of a match. He has been described as a very enthusiastic player who has an incredible hunger and desire for the game and shows great bravery and vision in his play. Former Rangers winger, and Scotland under-21 teammate, Gregg Wylde described him as being the kind of player who never hides from his responsibility during a match.


title: James Forrest (footballer, born 1991)

text: Former Celtic player Bertie Auld compared him to Jimmy Johnstone, and described him as being the kind of player who "puts bums on seats" and then has the technical ability to "lift bums off the seats once the game starts".


title: Pentland Group

text: Pentland Group is a British privately owned global company that owns and invests in, primarily, retail and wholesale businesses in the sports, outdoor and sports fashion sectors. The Group is the majority shareholder of JD Sports, which operates 2,420 stores across 19 territories. The Group owns Speedo, Berghaus, Canterbury of New Zealand, Endura, Boxfresh, Ellesse, Red or Dead, SeaVees and Mitre. It is also the UK footwear licensee for Kickers and has a joint venture partnership for Lacoste footwear. The Group also holds interests directly and indirectly, through fund managers, in activities and businesses operating in sectors outside of its core trading activities, to provide the Group with an element of diversification.


title: Pentland Group

text: With annual sales of $6.4 billion, Pentland Group is headquartered in the UK and the Group employs more than 50,000 people.


title: Pentland Group

text: In 2017, Pentland Group was awarded the International Institute for Management Development (IMD) Global Family Business International Award in recognition of the group's commitment to sustainability, ethical trade, human rights, outstanding contributions to combating modern day slavery as well as its skill in regenerating itself through innovation and entrepreneurial venturing.


title: Pentland Group

text: The company was founded in 1932, when immigrant couple Berko and Minnie Rubin (from eastern Europe) created the Liverpool Shoe Company. In 1959, their 21-year-old son, Stephen Rubin, who had recently graduated from University College London with a degree in law, began working alongside his father as joint managing director.


title: Pentland Group

text: When Berko died in 1969, Stephen took on the role of chairman. He later became chairman and chief executive of Pentland, remaining so until 1998 when he split his role and appointed his son, Andrew, as chief executive.


title: Pentland Group

text: The success of Pentland Group can be traced back to August 1981, when Pentland Industries acquired 55% of Reebok for (). By 1983/84, Reebok accounted for 70% of Pentland's turnover. Pentland's shares rose from at the start of 1984 to 3 by the end of the year, and up to 10 in June 1985, while profits rose from 1 million in 1983 to 12.9 million in 1985. In 1985, Pentland listed 60% of Reebok in a flotation valuing the company at 300 million (equivalent to $ million in ).


title: Pentland Group

text: The Rubin family had initially listed their company on the London Stock Exchange in 1964, though still holding a majority of the shares. Following the exponential growth associated with their operation of Reebok, they floated an increased public offering in 1989, then bought back the entire public float in 1999, returning it to a 100% private family-held operation "to focus on longer-term investments". However, according to an article in "The Independent", prior to the company returning to a private holding, institutional investors in the City had been unhappy with the way Rubin was running the company, which was underperforming the market by 40% since it floated in 1989. In January 2019, the "underperforming" company had grown to the point where Stephen Rubin, the majority shareholder within the family, was named by "The Sunday Times" as Britain's top-ranking taxpayer, with a tax liability of £181.6m.


title: Pentland Group

text: Pentland Group acquired 45% of JD Sports Fashion plc from its founders, John Wardle and David Makin, in May 2005. Pentland Group is now the majority owner of JD Sports (55%), which has 2,500 retail outlets worldwide, including JD, Scotts, Size, Blacks, GO Outdoors and Millets in the UK.


title: Pentland Group

text: In 2013, the company reported a 45% drop in pre-tax profits to 62.9m. However, Pentland Group saw total revenues rise 14.2%, to £1.74bn, a fact Drapers magazine linked to the Olympics fuelling growth from sportswear brands such as Speedo. On the subject, Andy Rubin commented: “There’s no doubt the Olympics helped overall, but in summarizing 2012 I’d say it was really starting to deliver on the investments we have put into global growth over the last 10 years.


title: Pentland Group

text: In 2014, Pentland Group reported a total sales growth of 10% to £1.9bn and reported pre-tax earnings of £85m (Year to December 2013). Excluding income from its retail investments, turnover rose 11% to £590m, with Speedo delivering a record performance.


title: Pentland Group

text: In 2015, Pentland Group reported a revenue increase of 14%, to £2.2bn (year to December 2014). Within the Pentland Brands portfolio, Speedo achieved "record sales" for the second year in a row. From 1 January 2015, Andy Rubin was promoted to Chairman at Pentland Brands plc (a division of Pentland Group plc).


title: Pentland Group

text: In February 2016, JD Sports Fashion appointed Andy Rubin to its board as a non-executive director. This measure was a precursor to the business increasing its international expansion. In June 2016, Pentland Group announced a 10% increase in sales to £2.4bn (year to December 2015). Rugby-inspired label Canterbury Brands had "record-breaking sales", boosted by the Rugby World Cup. Operating profits, before tax and exceptional items, was up 36% year on year, to £220m.


title: Pentland Group

text: On 15 March 2017 Pentland Brands Limited, a division of Pentland Group, announced it had bought a majority stake in California-based sneaker brand, SeaVees. For the year ended December 2017, Pentland Group recorded total group revenue increase of 25 percent to 3.6 billion pounds (4.7 billion dollars). In January 2018, Pentland Group announced a 50/50 joint venture footwear partnership with the Lacoste Group.


title: Pentland Group

text: In March 2018, Pentland Brands Limited announced its acquisition of the performance cycling brand Endura. and later that year sold its Ted Baker footwear business back to the Ted Baker brand. Fuelled by a record-breaking performance from JD Sports Fashion, Pentland Group’s revenue soared 38.9% to £5.1bn for the year to 31 December 2018, with Group operating up by 9.3% to £411m. In 2018, JD Sports Fashion bought US retailer, Finish Line and opened 83 new stores, including 78 in international markets.


title: Pentland Group

text: In December 2019, Pentland Group sold 2.47 percent of its JD Sports' shares for £180m, intended for funding future group acquisitions. With the sale, it remained JD's largest shareholder, controlling 55 percent of the business. At the time, Pentland Group said it was "committed to remaining a long-term majority shareholder in JD at the same time as growing its portfolio of sports, outdoor and fashion brands through organic investment and acquisitions".


title: Pentland Group

text: In January 2020, Pentland Group brought the spinoff Speedo USA and Speedo North America back under its Speedo brand by buying it out from PVH for $170 million in cash.


title: Fay Masterson

text: Fay Masterson (born 15 April 1974) is an English actress and voice actress. She is best known for her roles as Head Girl in "The New Adventures of Pippi Longstocking, Andrea Garnett in "The Last Ship" and Gail Jones in "Fifty Shades Darker (film)" and "Fifty Shades Freed (film)".


title: Fay Masterson

text: Masterson's performance career began as a dancer which she gave up at age 11 after being cast in "The New Adventures of Pippi Longstocking". Masterson started her acting career as a child actress at age 14 with her first appearance as Head Girl in "The New Adventures of Pippi Longstocking", a fantasy-adventure, musical, family film based on the books by the late Astrid Lindgren. Fay originally auditioned for the role of Pippi Longstocking, but the role went to her former co-star Tami Erin. Ken Annakin liked her so much that he wrote the part of the head girl at the children's home just for her.


title: Fay Masterson

text: Since then she has appeared in over twenty-five films and over thirty-five television productions. She has additionally voiced characters in several video games.


title: Fay Masterson

text: These roles include guest appearances on the television series "Jupiter Moon" (1990 and 1996), "Casualty" (1993), "Game On" (1996) and "The Ruth Rendell Mysteries" (1991).


title: Fay Masterson

text: She has appeared in American films including "The Power of One" (1992), "The Man Without a Face" (1993) and "A Christmas Carol" (2009).


title: Pluralsight

text: Pluralsight, LLC is an American privately held online education company that offers a variety of video training courses for software developers, IT administrators, and creative professionals through its website. Founded in 2004 by Aaron Skonnard, , Fritz Onion, and Bill Williams, the company has its headquarters in Farmington, Utah. , it uses more than 1,400 subject-matter experts as authors, and offers more than 7,000 courses in its catalog. Since first moving its courses online in 2007, the company has expanded, developing a full enterprise platform, and adding skills assessment modules.


title: Pluralsight

text: Pluralsight was founded in 2004 as a classroom training company that involved sending an instructor to a business or training event. By 2007, the company shifted its emphasis to online video training.


title: Pluralsight

text: Since 2011, the company has seen rapid growth. It has been named to the Inc. 5000 list of fastest growing private companies, ranking as the #9 Top Education company and the #19 Top Utah company. In October 2017, Pluralsight was named #29 on MountainWest Capital Network's Utah 100 list. In 2017, it ranked #20 on the Forbes Cloud 100 list. That same year, it appeared in Great Place To Work's 2017 Best Workplaces in the small and medium-sized company category. The following year, it ranked #9 in the category.


title: Pluralsight

text: In April 2018, Pluralsight filed for an initial public offering. On May 17, 2018, the company opened on the NASDAQ exchange at a $15 share price, and closed its first day of trading at $20.


title: Pluralsight

text: In December 2020, Pluralsight announced it would be acquired by private equity firm Vista Equity Partners for $3.5 billion. Regulatory approval is expected in the first half of 2021, and Pluralsight would no longer be publicly traded.


title: Pluralsight

text: In April 2021, Vista Equity Partners successfully completed its acquisition of Pluralsight for $22.50 per share.


title: Pluralsight

text: Through a subscription business model, Pluralsight provides online professional tech training to individual and business customers. The company pays its course authors a royalty, based on how often their videos are viewed. In 2013, author Scott Allen became the first of its authors to earn over $1 million in royalties from his courses.


title: Pluralsight

text: Pluralsight was reportedly working with roughly 40% of Fortune 500 companies in 2017 and with 70% by 2019. That year, business-to-business sales accounted for 86% of the company's billings.


title: Pluralsight

text: In 2017, the company announced its participation in the Pledge 1% movement—a global initiative to encourage corporate philanthropy by asking companies to commit 1% of their efforts towards nonprofit organizations. The company launched Pluralsight One in September 2017, with the goal of improving technology education in the nonprofit sector.


title: Pluralsight

text: When Pluralsight first started, its four founders each contributed $5,000. For the first nine years, the company and its founders received no outside funding.


title: Pluralsight

text: In December 2012, the company raised $27.5 million in Series A funding from Insight Venture Partners. On March 18, 2014, it received an additional $2.5 million in Series A Funding. On August 27, 2014, it received $135 million in Series B funding from Insight Venture Partners, ICONIQ Capital, and Sorenson Capital—reported at the time to be the largest venture funding round ever received by a Utah company. Co-founder and CEO Aaron Skonnard stated that after this round of funding, the company's valuation had increased from less than $100 million in 2012 to nearly $1 billion.


title: Pluralsight

text: In December 2016, the company raised an additional $30 million in a Series C round that valued the company over $1 billion. The round included funding from existing investors Insight Venture Partners and Iconiq Capital.


title: Pluralsight

text: For most of its history, Pluralsight grew its author base and course catalog from within. Starting in 2013, it has acquired a number of e-learning and education companies to bolster its technology, course offerings, and executive leadership.


title: Pluralsight

text: On July 24, 2013, it acquired PeepCode, a provider of open source training to developers, for an undisclosed amount. This added about 100 new courses in the Open Source category to Pluralsight's course catalog, expanding it beyond its traditional realm of offerings focused mainly on developers who worked on Microsoft technologies. On August 5, it acquired Chicago-based TrainSignal, a company providing training for Information technology personnel, for $23.6 million. It absorbed 35 TrainSignal employees, and maintained its office in Chicago as a satellite. On October 31, Pluralsight acquired Tekpub, producer of a series of screencasts on new development technologies, for an undisclosed amount. Co-founder Rob Conery joined Pluralsight, and continues to produce training videos under its brand. Other authors from Tekpub, including Jon Skeet and Scott Hanselman, also became Pluralsight authors.


title: Pluralsight

text: On April 9, 2014, Pluralsight announced it acquired Digital-Tutors, a company providing training for creative professionals, for $45 million. This acquisition expanded the company's training catalog to more than 3000 titles, broadening its topic coverage to media and design. Approximately 30 employees from Digital-Tutors joined Pluralsight. Pluralsight maintained the former Digital-Tutors headquarters in Oklahoma City as a satellite office. On November 19, Pluralsight announced it had acquired Smarterer, an online skills assessment platform, for $75 million. Based in Boston, Smarterer was founded in 2010 and was backed by Google Ventures, among others. Smarterer founder and CEO Dave Balter stated that his entire 18-person staff would remain with the company.


title: Pluralsight

text: On January 26, 2015, Pluralsight announced its acquisition of Orlando-based Code School, an online training site offering video courses and exercise-based lessons related to entry-level and intermediate coding and programming. It was reported that the acquisition was for $36 million. Code School's office, and its team of 39 full-time employees, remain open in Orlando. On July 9, Pluralsight announced its acquisition of HackHands for an undisclosed amount. Founded in 2013, San Francisco-based HackHands provides on-demand live assistance for technology learners via video and audio chat, instant messaging, and screen sharing. The HackHands acquisition marked Pluralsight's seventh deal in two years.


title: Pluralsight

text: On July 19, 2016, Pluralsight announced it had acquired Train Simple, a video training company with a focus on Adobe software.


title: Pluralsight

text: On May 1, 2019, Pluralsight announced its acquisition of GitPrime, a developer team productivity tool, for $170 million in cash.


title: Pluralsight

text: On January 12, 2021, Pluralsight announced the acquisition of Next Tech, a San Diego, California provider of cloud-based computing environments, enabling the authoring and hosting of labs in software development, data science, and machine learning for an undisclosed amount.


title: Pluralsight

text: On June 2, 2021, Pluralsight announced the acquisition of A Cloud Guru, an Austin, Texas provider of an interactive, online learning platform designed to help IT professionals re-skill in cloud technology. The transaction was closed on July 8, 2021.


title: Pluralsight

text: In October 2012, Microsoft and Pluralsight announced a partnership making Pluralsight courses available to MSDN subscribers and through its DreamSpark, BizSpark, WebsiteSpark, and Engineer Excellence programs. The customized "Pluralsight Starter Subscription" consisted of several Visual Studio 2012 courses. In November 2014, the two companies partnered again, giving MSDN subscribers a 12-month access to a selection of Pluralsight's courses.


title: Pluralsight

text: In May 2013, Pluralsight launched a free programming coding bootcamp for kids ages 10 and up to help teach coding in school.


title: Pluralsight

text: In 2014, Pluralsight partnered with the state of Utah's Office of Economic Development to offer Utah K–12 teachers a free one-year subscription to their training library. Utah Governor Gary Herbert valued the donation between $5 million and $10 million.


title: Pluralsight

text: Pluralsight also partnered with LaunchCode in November 2014 to help candidates secure jobs in technology by offering one year of free access to the Pluralsight course library. In December 2014, the company supported the "Hour of Code" movement by hosting an hour of code for a week. More than 200 students across the state participated.


title: Pluralsight

text: In 2017, Pluralsight announced partnerships with Microsoft, Adobe, and Oracle, to expand their offerings and course availability.


title: Pluralsight

text: In September 2017, during a panel discussion with Ivanka Trump about increasing access to STEM-related programs in public schools, Pluralsight pledged $10 million as part of a private-sector contribution reaching over $300 million. Other participants include Amazon, Google, General Motors, and Facebook.


title: Pluralsight

text: In 2017, Google announced, in association with Pluralsight, 100,000 scholarships to help developers gain access to advanced learning curriculum in emerging technologies, including mobile and web development, machine learning, artificial intelligence, and cloud platforms in India.


title: Pluralsight

text: In 2020, Pluralsight partnered with Google and Andela for a developer skills program available to all countries in Africa. The program, Google Africa Developer Scholarship, offers all participants free access to Pluralsight's training courses.


title: South-East Asian theatre of World War II

text: The South-East Asian Theatre of World War II consisted of the campaigns of the Pacific War in the Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Indochina, Burma, India, Malaya and Singapore between 1941 to 1945.


text: Japan attacked British and American territories with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific on 7/8 December 1941. Action in this theatre ended when Japan announced an intent to surrender on 15 August 1945. The formal surrender of Japan ceremony took place on 2 September 1945.


text: Conflict in this theatre began when the Empire of Japan invaded French Indochina in September 1940 and rose to a new level following the Attack on Pearl Harbor, and simultaneous attacks on Hong Kong, the Philippines, Thailand, Singapore and Malaya on 7 and 8 December 1941. The main landing at Singora (now Songkhla) on the east side of the Isthmus of Kra preceded the bombing of Pearl Harbor by several hours.


text: Although Japan declared war on the United States and the British Empire, the declaration was not delivered until after the attacks began. On 8 December, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and the Netherlands declared war on Japan, followed by China and Australia the next day.


text: The Allies suffered many defeats in the first half of the war. Two major British warships, and were sunk by a Japanese air attack off Malaya on 10 December 1941. Following the invasion, the government of Thailand formally allied itself with Japan on 21 December. Japan invaded Hong Kong in the Battle of Hong Kong on 8 December, culminating in surrender on 25 December. January saw the invasions of Burma and the Dutch East Indies and the capture of Manila and Kuala Lumpur.


text: Japanese forces met stiff resistance from III Corps of the Indian Army, the Australian 8th Division and British units during the Battle of Malaya, but Japan's superiority in air power, tanks and infantry tactics drove the Allied units back. After being driven out of Malaya by the end of January 1942, Allied forces in Singapore, under the command of Lieutenant General Arthur Percival, surrendered to the Japanese on 15 February 1942; about 130,000 Allied troops became prisoners of war. The fall of Singapore was the largest surrender in British military history.


text: The Japanese Indian Ocean raid was a naval sortie by the Fast Carrier Strike Force of the Imperial Japanese Navy from 31 March to 10 April 1942 against Allied shipping and bases in the Indian Ocean. Following the destruction of the ABDACOM forces in the battles around Java in February and March, the Japanese sortied into the Indian Ocean to destroy British seapower there and support the invasion of Burma. The raid was only partially successful. It did not succeed in destroying Allied naval power in the Indian Ocean but it did force the British fleet to relocate from British Ceylon to Kilindini at Mombasa in Kenya, as their more forward fleet anchorages could not be adequately protected from Japanese attack. The fleet in the Indian Ocean was then gradually reduced to little more than a convoy escort force as other commitments called for the more powerful ships. From May 1942, it was also used in the invasion of Madagascar — an operation aimed at thwarting any attempt by Japan to use bases on the Vichy French controlled territory.


text: In 1942, Madras City was attacked by a Mitsubishi Rufe, (the Zero's seaplane version) operating from the carrier which dropped a single bomb near the St. George Fort. The physical damage was negligible, though the public response was major and the city was evacuated because of fears of subsequent Japanese bombing and invasion. Many rich families from Madras moved permanently to the hill stations in fear.


text: Also in 1942 in preparation for a possible Japanese invasion of India, the British began improvements to the Kodaikanal-Munnar Road to facilitate its use as an evacuation route from Kodaikanal along the southern crest of the Palani Hills to Top Station. Existing roads then continued to Munnar and down to Cochin where British ships would be available for evacuation out of India.


text: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (8,293 km² on 139 islands) are a group of islands situated in the Bay of Bengal at about 780 miles from Kolkata (known at the time as Calcutta), 740 miles from Chennai (known at the time as Madras) and 120 miles from Cape Nargis in Burma. On 23 March 1942 a Japanese invasion force seized the islands and occupied them until the end of the war.


text: On 29 December 1943, political control of the islands was theoretically passed to the Azad Hind government of Subhas Chandra Bose. Bose visited Port Blair to raise the tricolour flag of the Indian National Army. After Bose's departure the Japanese remained in effective control of the Andamans, and the sovereignty of the "Arzi Hukumat-e Hind" was largely fictional. The islands themselves were renamed "Shaheed" and "Swaraj", meaning "martyr" and "self-rule" respectively. Bose placed the islands under the governorship of Lt Col. A. D. Loganathan, and had limited involvement with the administration of the territory.


text: One of the major logistical efforts of the war was "flying the Hump" over the Himalayas and the building of the Ledo Road from India to China as a replacement for the Burma Road.


text: Qualification: For operations against Japanese aircraft and naval units by squadrons based in Ceylon during the Japanese attacks of April 1942.


text: Qualification: For operations during the 14th Army's advance from Imphal to Rangoon, the coastal amphibious assaults, and the Battle of Pegu Yomas, August 1944 to August 1945.


text: The earliest successes were gained by mine laying and submarine warfare. The Japanese minesweeping capability was never great, and when confronted with new types of mines they did not adapt quickly. Japanese shipping was driven from the Burmese coast using this type of warfare. British submarines based in British Ceylon operated against Japanese shipping.


text: It was only after the war in Europe was clearly coming to an end that large British forces were dispatched to the Indian Ocean again. Following the neutralisation of the German fleet in late 1943 and early 1944, forces from the Home Fleet were released, and the success of Operation Overlord in June meant even more craft could be sent, including precious amphibious assault shipping.


text: During late 1944, as more British aircraft carriers came into the area a series of strikes were flown against oil targets in Sumatra, such as Operation Meridian. was lent for the first attack by the United States. The oil installations were heavily damaged by the attacks, aggravating the Japanese fuel shortages due to the American blockade. The final attack was flown as the carriers were heading for Sydney to become the British Pacific Fleet.


text: After the departure of the main battle forces the Indian Ocean was left with escort carriers and older battleships as the mainstay of its naval forces. Nevertheless, during those months important operations were launched in the recapture of Burma, including landings on Ramree and Akyab and near Rangoon.


text: At the start of the war the British had two commands with responsibilities for possessions in the theatre. India Command under General Sir Archibald Wavell the Commander-in-Chief (CinC) of the Army of India and the Far East Command, first under Air Chief Marshal Robert Brooke-Popham and then from 23 December 1941 commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Royds Pownall.


text: India Command was responsible for British India, British Ceylon, and for some of the time Burma. The Far East Command based in Singapore was responsible for Hong Kong, Malaya, Singapore and other British Far East possessions including, for some of the time, Burma.


text: A month after the outbreak of war with Japan on 7 December 1941, the Allied governments jointly appointed the British Commander-in-Chief (CinC) of the Army of India, General Sir Archibald Wavell, as Supreme Allied Commander of all "American-British-Dutch-Australian" (ABDA) forces in South East Asia and the Pacific, from Burma to the Dutch East Indies.


text: However, advances made by the Japanese over the next month split the ABDA forces in two. After transferring the forces in Burma to the India Command, on 25 February 1942 Wavell resigned as commander of the ABDA and resumed his position of CinC of the Army of India. Responsibility for the South West Pacific Area passed to US General Douglas MacArthur as "Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific".


text: From February 1942 until November 1943 the India Command was responsible for the South East Asian Theatre. General Wavell was made Viceroy of India and General Claude Auchinleck became Commander-in-Chief of the India Command on 20 June 1943. In August 1943 the Allies formed a new South East Asian Command to take over strategic responsibilities for the theatre.


text: The reorganisation of the theatre command took about two months. On 4 October Winston Churchill appointed Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten supreme Allied commander of the South East Asia Command (SEAC). The American General Joseph Stilwell was the first deputy supreme Allied commander. On 15 November, Auchinleck handed over responsibility for the conduct of operations against the Japanese in the theatre to Mountbatten.


text: The initial land forces operational area for SEAC included India, Burma, British Ceylon and Malaya. Operations were also mounted in Japanese-occupied Sumatra, Thailand and French Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos).


text: In October 1944, CBI was split into US Forces China Theater (USFCT) and India-Burma Theater (USFIBT).


text: On 12 November 1944 Eleventh Army Group redesignated by Allied Land Forces South East Asia (ALFSEA) combining Commonwealth and US forces, with an HQ at Kandy. On 1 December ALFSEA HQ moved to Barrackpore, India.


text: On 15 August 1945 responsibility for the rest of the Dutch East Indies was transferred from the South West Pacific Area to SEAC.


text: British 11th Army Group ( November 1943 – 12 November 1944) was on paper the main Commonwealth army force in South East Asia which directed


text: On 12 November 1944 the 11th Army Group was redesignated Allied Land Forces South East Asia, still under SEAC, because it was felt that an inter-Allied command was better than the purely British headquarters. Command problems with General Stilwell and his interactions with the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff had precipitated the change.