title: Parmalat

text: In 1997, Parmalat expanded into financial markets, financing several international acquisitions, especially in the Western Hemisphere, with debt. But by 2001, many of the new divisions were producing losses, and the company financing shifted largely to the use of derivatives, apparently at least in part with the intention of hiding the extent of its losses and debt. In February 2003, chief financial officer Fausto Tonna unexpectedly announced a new €300 million bond issue. This came as a surprise both to the markets and to the CEO, Calisto Tanzi. Tanzi forced Tonna to resign and replaced him with Alberto Ferraris. According to an interview he later gave "Time" magazine, Ferraris was surprised to discover that, though now CFO, he still did not have access to some of the corporate books, which were being handled by chief accounting officer Luciano Del Soldato. He began making some inquiries and began to suspect that the company's total debt was more than double that on the balance sheet.


title: Parmalat

text: The plan for a €300 million fundraising effort was dropped in September 2003 and the company's shares depreciated significantly as a result of the publicised concerns raised over transactions with mutual fund Epicurum, a Cayman-based company linked to Parmalat by November. Ferraris resigned less than a week after the public fall-out and was replaced by Del Soldato. Del Soldato resigned the next month, unable to get cash from Epicurum fund, needed to pay debts and make bond payments totalling at least €150 million. Bonlat was a subsidiary of Parmalat set up in the Cayman Islands. Bonlat's bank, Bank of America, then released a document showing €3.95 billion in Parmalat's bank account as a forgery. Tanzi resigned as chairman and CEO. Hundreds of thousands of investors lost their money and would never recover it.


title: Parmalat

text: Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi changed bankruptcy laws by decree to allow a company to seek accelerated protection from creditors, by giving extraordinary powers to a government-appointment administrator ("commissario"). Enrico Bondi was named "commissario".


title: Parmalat

text: Calisto Tanzi was detained hours after the firm was declared officially insolvent in late December and admitted that there was a hole of €8 billion in Parmalat's accounts, but denied any cover-up. The arrest of five other executives followed. The auditors of the administration eventually determined that the debts amounted to €14.3 billion, which was almost eight times the sum originally stated. Several of the company's subsidiaries subsequently went insolvent, including its Brazilian, Argentinian and American operations and its football club in Parma.


title: Parmalat

text: Tanzi was eventually charged with financial fraud and money laundering. Among the questionable accounting practices used by Parmalat were selling itself credit-linked notes, in effect placing a bet on its own creditworthiness to conjure up an asset out of thin air. After his arrest, Tanzi reportedly admitted during questioning at Milan's San Vittore prison that he diverted funds from Parmalat into Parmatour and elsewhere. The family football and tourism enterprises were financial disasters as well, as Tanzi attempted to rival Berlusconi by buying Odeon TV, only to sell it at a loss of about €45 million. Tanzi was sentenced to 10 years in prison for fraud relating to the collapse of the dairy group. The other seven defendants, including executives and bankers, were acquitted. Another eight defendants settled out of court in September 2008. New leadership at Parmalat began investigating and suing Bank of America, Deloitte and Grant Thornton International - the bank and auditing firms that were alleged to have helped in perpetuing the fraud of earlier management at Parmalat.


title: Parmalat

text: In 2007, Deloitte settled on paying $149M to Parmalat. Bank of America, Parmalat's bank in many Special-purpose entities, settled for $100M payment to Parmalat in 2009. Grant Thornton International, Parmalat's auditing company, settled after repeated lawsuits for $4.4M with Parmalat. The new management at Parmalat recovered about $700M in payments from the banks and auditing firms it sued for negligence and aiding in the fraud of former Parmalat leadership.


title: Parmalat

text: In 2005, Vicenzi bought from Parmalat the unprofitable bakery plant of Nusco, opened in 1984 for political reasons because it was the home town of Democrazia Cristiana chieftain Ciriaco De Mita.


title: Parmalat

text: By 2011, Parmalat had grown cash to €1.5 billion. Lactalis quickly purchased nearly 30% of the company on the open market and in July 2011 succeeded in its €2.5 billion takeover offer, reaching a control of 80% shares at €2.6 per share.


title: Parmalat

text: In 2015 revenues reached €6.42 billion and EBITDA €444.5 million. Lactalis prepared to delist Parmalat in 2016 with a buyout offer at €2.8 per share to acquire the remaining 12%, then raised to €3 but eventually failed due to opposition by hedge fund Amber and others. In December 2018, Lactalis was thought to have almost reached 95% shares at an open market price of around €2.85/share and to be about to launch a new takeover and delisting offer. Lactalis acquired 7% of the shares from Amber and other shareholders which had opposed the 2016 takeover, and confirmed the delisting for March 2019.


title: Parmalat

text: Lactalis moved all strategic activities to France and gradually wound down operations in Italy. In 2019, the future of the historical factory in Rome was also in doubt.


title: Flight jacket

text: A flight jacket is a casual jacket that was originally created for pilots and eventually became part of popular culture and apparel. It has evolved into various styles and silhouettes, including the "letterman" jacket and the fashionable "bomber" jacket that is known today.


title: Flight jacket

text: In World War I, most airplanes did not have an enclosed cockpit, so pilots had to wear something that would keep them sufficiently warm. The U.S. Army officially established the Aviation Clothing Board in September 1917 and began distributing heavy-duty leather flight jackets; with high wraparound collars, zipper closures with wind flaps, snug cuffs and waists, and some fringed and lined with fur.


title: Flight jacket

text: Leslie Irvin first designed and manufactured the classic sheepskin flying jacket. In 1926 he set up a manufacturing company in the United Kingdom, and became the main supplier of flying jackets to the Royal Air Force during most of World War II. However, the demand during the early years of the war was so great that the Irvin company engaged subcontractors, which explains the slight variations of design and colour that can be seen in early production Irvin flying jackets.


title: Flight jacket

text: As aerospace technology improved, the altitudes at which aircraft operated increased. Some heavy bombing raids in Europe during World War II took place from altitudes of at least , where ambient temperatures could reach as cold as −50 °C (−58 °F). The cabins of these aircraft were uninsulated, so a warm, thick flight jacket was an essential piece of equipment for every member of the crew.


title: Flight jacket

text: The two most historical American flight jackets are the A-2 jacket of the Air Force and the G-1 of the Naval Aviators. Although General “Hap” Arnold cancelled the original A-2 after twelve years because he wanted "something better", the A-2 remains the most recognizable and sought-after American flight jacket. The G-1, designed by the U.S. Navy to parallel the Air Corps’ A-2, lasted until 1978, when U.S. Congress cancelled it due to its tremendous popular appeal, which was overwhelming the Navy's supply system. Their popularity evolved into symbols of honor, adventure, and style. Hollywood films like "Top Gun" boosted sales of the G-1 tremendously, making bomber jackets collector and fashion items.


title: Flight jacket

text: In addition to the A-2 and G-1 jackets, shearling jackets, originally lined with fur, are recognized for being the warmest flight jackets. Even when the fur was replaced with wool, this coat was warm enough to keep Lt. John A. Macready warm when he set a world record in April 1921, reaching an altitude of 40,000 feet in his open-cockpit airplane. Styles range from the B-3 "bomber jacket", to the M-445, the U.S. Navy's shearling jacket. Also popular in the military were, and still are, synthetic jackets. These jackets first gained esteem after General Hap Arnold rejected the A-2 jacket in 1942. Styles range from the cotton twill B-series to the standardized jacket of the U.S. Navy, the CWU-series. Both synthetic and shearling jackets are worn and collected by army buffs today, but neither has the historical status of the A-2 jacket or the G-1.


title: Flight jacket

text: Today, flight jackets are usually associated with the MA-1, a now-obsolete U.S. military jacket, which is mostly found in sage green. It is made with flight silk nylon and usually has a blaze orange lining, with the specification tag in the pocket, though earlier models had a sage-green lining and the specification tag on the neck area. It has two slanted flap pockets on the front, two inner pockets, and a zipped pocket with pen holders on the left sleeve. The lighter weight version of the MA-1 is known as the L-2B flight jacket, which in turn, replaced both the original L2 and L2A jackets, which all three differ from the MA-1 as they have snap-down epaulets and no inside pockets. The military flight jackets currently used today are the CWU-45P (for colder weather) and the CWU-36P (for warmer weather); both are made from Nomex.


title: Flight jacket

text: In the 1970s and 1990s, flight jackets became popular with scooterboys and skinheads. In the 1980s, a baseball style bomber jacket became popular. In 1993, a uniform flight jacket was worn as the "national costume" of the United States for the APEC meeting held in Seattle, Washington. In the early 2000s, the bomber jacket was popular casual wear in hip-hop fashion. The jacket has also caught on with several police departments across the United States for its sturdy design and heavy insulation. Flight jacket has had a resurgence in popularity during the 2010s in street fashion, and is a notable staple of celebrities such as Kanye West.


title: Flight jacket

text: The varsity letters were first customized by Harvard University in 1865 and originally designed to reward baseball players on their teams as a token for exceptional performance. The term "letterman" comes from the letter, which is the initial or signature icon, that is placed on the front or back of these sweaters and jackets. These "letterman" (also known as "varsity") sweaters or jackets were worn to represent the social identities of athletes and reflect a strong sense of team spirit, pride of belonging to a particular school, and values of collectivism. The letters on the jackets represented the school and were therefore placed with the intention of acknowledging scholastic achievement of the wearer.


title: Flight jacket

text: As the trend of letterman jackets spread among colleges and teenagers after WWII, the concept was expanded to award the performance of students in aspects other than sports. With the increasing number of university students due to the popularization of high school education in the US, these jackets are no longer specialized for athletic players but represent a student's identity through their school/college's initials. Similar to the flight jacket, letterman jackets have a loose-fitted silhouette that is genderless in style, although they may include a banded collar for men or a top-buttoned hood that unbuttons into an expanded collar for women.


title: Flight jacket

text: The body of the jacket is usually made of boiled wool which provides warmth and the sleeves are generally made of leather with banded wrists and waistbands. The letter of the belonging school is mostly constructed in chenille and felt materials and made in the school's signature color. The "moss stitch" creates the chenille look of the letter with a chain stitch to provide an outline to the letter. Nowadays, Bomber Jackets are made from a variety of materials. These include leather, wool, silk, satin and suede.


title: Flight jacket

text: Since the letterman jackets represent the student's identity according to which school they come from, they are usually designed according to the school's signature color. Mostly, the school's primary signature color is applied on the body of the jacket while the sleeves are the school's secondary signature color. For example, the Harvard letterman jackets are usually crimson, blue or green on the body color and white or gold on the sleeves.


title: Flight jacket

text: Besides serving as an identity of university/college students, the letterman jacket was modified and became a popular casual wear in the hip-hop fashion segment during the early 2000s and started to evolve into the bomber jacket. Led by Kanye West, bomber jackets became an iconic hip-hop fashion item instead of being associated with the military or colleges. Teenagers often enjoy customizing their own bomber jackets with their favorite colors and own initials to represent themselves. With the global trend of hip hop in recent years, bomber jackets have become an essential fashion item that includes varied design elements.


title: Flight jacket

text: The bomber jacket originates from military clothing which trickled down into subcultures such as punk and has recently made its way into high fashion. The military bomber jacket was made to be versatile for functionality as it was a lightweight jacket that kept aircrews warm. The B-15 jacket consisted of a fur collar made of cotton which was later changed to nylon after 1945 since it was considered more suitable because it is water resistant and kept perspiration out (Cruz, 2016). Bomber jackets appeared in Europe during the late 1950s and in 1963, the jackets were popularized by European Air Forces and eventually the commercial consumer.


title: Flight jacket

text: Japan was also greatly influenced by the American fashion sense after the Second World War. Notably in 1951, Kensuke Ishizu established his brand VAN that gave Japanese youth culture stylish clothing not found locally such as oxford shirts and slim trousers. The bomber jacket remained popular during the later twentieth century as a part of the grunge and street-wear subculture, and maintains popularity today due in part to the “Kanye effect."


title: Flight jacket

text: The silhouette of the bomber jacket has not altered much compared to the original, although it has an athletic and masculine silhouette with a fitted waist and more generous fit, like the bulky sleeves and extra pockets so as to be functional. The bomber jacket trend inspired a vast majority of fashion designers to reinterpret and revisit the silhouette of menswear today. For instance, the S/S 2000 collections from Raf Simons which changed the original design into a more symmetrical form, the elongated bombers from Rick Owens, floral printed versions from Balenciaga, Dries Van Noten and many more.


title: Flight jacket

text: The bomber jacket is a neutral fashion item with no limitations when it comes to genders, ages or styles. Shapes of the bomber jackets are modified into dress-like jackets or even one-piece dresses.


title: Flight jacket

text: Due to high altitudes and breakneck speeds in less advanced airplanes compared to the modern day, Royal Flying Corps in Belgium and France started to wear heavy leather flying jackets in the 1910s as leather was considered the heaviest and strongest material for jackets. Since then, original bomber jackets were made in heavy-duty leather in order to provide warmth for military pilots.


title: Flight jacket

text: The A2 which was released by the US Army Air Corps was made with high wraparound collars, cinched cuffs and waists, and zipper closures protected by wind flaps and fur linings and had a high durability. Since then, there have been various versions of the bomber jacket, from having fur collars, cotton outers, and leather straps to knit collars and orange lining in the bomber jacket to aid in visibility in case an incident were to occur.


title: Flight jacket

text: Materials of civilian bomber-style fashion jackets are continuously changed each season to bring unconventional styles that cater to customers' needs. Not only do designers use leather and wool, but fabrics such as silk, neoprene, satin, and gauze are used. Decorative elements like ruffles, embroidered patchwork, lace-ups are also added to the bomber jackets, making them an essential fashion item that comes in various colors, fabrications, and styles.


title: Flight jacket

text: Bomber jackets originally appeared in a midnight blue hue, which was later switched to a sage green after the Korean and Vietnamese wars since it was easier for soldiers to camouflage themselves amongst the forests or countryside during the 1960s. Bomber jackets became popular in the non-military audience in the late 1960s to 1980s, especially when the English punks and skinheads started taking over the trend and changed the color into burgundy in order to distinguish themselves and their bomber jackets from the original military flight jackets. Brown is also a classic color for leather flight jackets.


title: Flight jacket

text: Due to the popularity of the jacket, both high street and high end brands have designed the bomber jacket in a variety of hues. Other than the standard navy blue, army green and black, the bomber can be found in pastel tones such as baby pink, blue, mint, or even gold and silver.<ref name="faunstudio.com/"> Many designers and fashion brands have taken inspiration from bomber jackets, featuring them in magazines and on the runway</ref>


title: Gua (chimpanzee)

text: Gua was a chimpanzee raised as though she were a human child by scientists Luella and Winthrop Kellogg alongside their infant son Donald. Gua was the first chimpanzee to be used in a cross-rearing study in the US.


title: Gua (chimpanzee)

text: Gua was born on November 15, 1930 in Havana, Cuba. She was given, along with her mother, Pati, and her father, Jack, to the old Orange Park, Florida, site of the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center, by Pierre Abreu on May 13, 1931 after the death of his mother, Madame Rosalia Abreu.


title: Gua (chimpanzee)

text: Gua was brought into the Kellogg home at the age of months, and reared with their son Donald, who was 10 months old at the time. For nine months the Kelloggs raised the two as "brother and sister", and comprehensively recorded the development of the chimpanzee and the human child. When she was around one year old, Gua often tested ahead of Donald in such tasks as responding to simple commands or using a cup and spoon. Slight differences in their placement included people recognition. Gua recognized people from their clothes and their smell while Donald recognized them by their faces.


title: Gua (chimpanzee)

text: The parting difference came with language. Donald was about 16 months and Gua was a little over a year old when they had language testing. Gua could not speak, but Donald could form words. On March 28, 1932, nine months into the experiment, the Kelloggs officially ended it as Donald began to copy Gua's sounds. Gua was returned to the primate center with Robert Yerkes in Florida, where she was the subject of further studies by Yerkes' wife Ada. The Kelloggs returned to Indiana.


title: Gua (chimpanzee)

text: Gua died of pneumonia on December 21, 1933, less than a year after she left the Kelloggs' family and just after turning three years old.


title: The Marcus King Band

text: The band is led by guitarist Marcus King. Raised in Greenville, South Carolina, King was brought up on the blues, playing shows as a pre-teen sideman with his father, the fellow bluesman Marvin King. The band includes drummer Jack Ryan, bassist Stephen Campbell, and trumpet/trombone player Justin Johnson. Touring musicians consist of saxophonist Chris Spies, and keyboard player, Dane Farnsworth of Robert Randolph and the Family Band.


title: The Marcus King Band

text: The Marcus King Band released their debut album, "Soul Insight" on October 30, 2015 on Warren Haynes' Evil Teen Records. "Soul Insight" reached #8 on the "Billboard" Blues Albums Chart.


title: The Marcus King Band

text: The band's second full-length LP and first album for Fantasy Records, "The Marcus King Band", was released on October 7, 2016. The album was produced by Haynes and recorded at Carriage House Studios in Stamford, Connecticut. "The Marcus King Band" reached No. 2 on the "Billboard" Blues Albums Chart.


title: The Marcus King Band

text: On August 22, 2018, it was announced the band would release their third full-length LP, "Carolina Confessions", on October 5, 2018, via Fantasy Records. The album was recorded at RCA Studio A in Nashville, and produced and mixed by Dave Cobb. While not entering the "Billboard" 200, it was the band's first entry on the magazine's US Top Current Albums chart, peaking at No. 55, and was another No. 2 hit on the Blues chart for them. The album also reached No. 2 on the Heatseekers Albums chart.


title: Eurodollar

text: Eurodollars are U.S. dollars held in time deposit accounts in banks outside the United States, which thus are not subject to the legal jurisdiction of the U.S. Federal Reserve. Consequently, such deposits are subject to much less regulation than deposits within the U.S. The term was originally applied to U.S. dollar accounts held in banks situated in Europe, but it expanded over the years to cover US dollar accounts held anywhere outside the U.S. Thus, a U.S. dollar-denominated deposit in Tokyo or Beijing would likewise be deemed a Eurodollar deposit (sometimes an Asiadollar). The offshore locations of the Eurodollar make it exposed to potential country risk and economic risk.


title: Eurodollar

text: There is no connection with the euro currency of the European Union. More generally, the "euro-" prefix can be used to indicate any currency held in a country where it is not the official currency, broadly termed "eurocurrency", for example, Euroyen or even Euroeuro.


title: Eurodollar

text: After World War II, the quantity of physical U.S. dollar banknotes outside the United States increased significantly, as a result of both the dollar funding of the Marshall Plan and from dollar proceeds of European exports to the U.S., which had become the largest consumer market.


title: Eurodollar

text: As a result, large amounts of U.S. dollar banknotes were in the custody of foreign banks outside the United States. Some foreign countries, including the Soviet Union, also had deposits in U.S. dollars in American banks, evidenced by certificates of deposit. Various narrations are given of the creation of the first eurodollar account, but most trace back to Communist governments keeping dollar deposits abroad.


title: Eurodollar

text: In one version, the first eurodollar account was created in France in favour of Communist China, which in 1949 managed to move almost all of its U.S. dollar banknotes to the Soviet-owned Banque Commerciale pour l'Europe du Nord in Paris before the United States froze its remaining U.S. situated assets during the Korean War.


title: Eurodollar

text: In another version, the first eurodollar account was created by an English bank in favour of the Soviet Union during the Cold War, following the invasion of Hungary in 1956, as the Soviet Union feared that its deposits in North American banks would be frozen as a sanction. It therefore decided to move some of its U.S. dollars held directly in North American banks to the Moscow Narodny Bank, an English limited liability company registered in London in 1919, whose shares were owned by the Soviet Union. The English bank would then re-deposit the dollars into U.S. banks. Thus although in reality the dollars never left North America, there would be no chance of the U.S. confiscating that money, because now it belonged legally to the British bank and not directly to the Soviets, the beneficial owners. Accordingly, on 28 February 1957, the sum of $800,000 was duly transferred, creating the first eurodollars. Initially dubbed "Eurobank dollars" after the bank's telex address, they eventually became known as "eurodollars" as such deposits were at first held mostly by European banks and financial institutions. A major role was played by City of London banks, such as Midland Bank, now part of HSBC, and their offshore holding companies.


title: Eurodollar

text: In the mid-1950s, Eurodollar trading and its development into a dominant world currency began when the Soviet Union wanted better interest rates on their Eurodollars and convinced an Italian banking cartel to give them more interest than could have been earned if the dollars were deposited in the U.S. The Italian bankers then had to find customers ready to borrow the Soviet dollars and pay above the U.S. legal interest-rate caps for their use, and were able to do so; thus, Eurodollars began to be used increasingly in global finance.


title: Eurodollar

text: Eurodollars being a riskier asset than dollars held directly in U.S. bank accounts demand in compensation a higher interest rate. U.S. banks, which hold required reserve accounts at the U.S. Federal Reserve, can receive unlimited financial support from the Fed if necessary, and are thus unlikely to become bankrupt. Thus, U.S. dollar deposits in U.S. banks are inherently less risky than Eurodollar deposits in banks which have no possibility of financial support from the Fed.


title: Eurodollar

text: By the end of 1970, 385 billion eurodollars were held in offshore bank accounts. These deposits were lent on as U.S. dollar loans to businesses in other countries where interest rates on loans were perhaps much higher in the local currency, and where the businesses were exporting to the U.S. and receiving payment in dollars, thereby avoiding foreign exchange risk on their funding arrangements.


title: Eurodollar

text: Several factors led eurodollars to overtake certificates of deposit (CDs) issued by U.S. banks as the primary private short-term money market instruments by the 1980s, including:


title: Eurodollar

text: Since the Eurodollar market is not run by any government agency its growth is hard to estimate. However, the Eurodollar market is by a wide margin the largest source of global finance. In 1997, nearly 90% of all international loans were made this way.


title: Eurodollar

text: In December 1985 the Eurodollar market was estimated by J.P. Morgan Guaranty bank to have a net size of 1.668 trillion. In 2016, the Eurodollar market size was estimated at around 13.833 trillion.


title: Eurodollar

text: The Eurodollar futures contract refers to the financial futures contract based upon these deposits, traded at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME). More specifically, EuroDollar futures contracts are derivatives on the interest rate paid on those deposits. A Eurodollar future is a cash settled futures contract whose price moves in response to the LIBOR interest rate.


title: Eurodollar

text: Eurodollar futures are a way for companies and banks to lock in an interest rate today, for money they intend to borrow or lend in the future. Each CME Eurodollar futures contract has a notional or "face value" of $1,000,000, though the leverage used in futures allows one contract to be traded with a margin of about one thousand dollars.


title: Eurodollar

text: CME Eurodollar futures prices are determined by the market's forecast of the 3-month USD LIBOR interest rate expected to prevail on the settlement date. A price of 95.00 implies an interest rate of 100.00 - 95.00, or 5%. The settlement price of a contract is defined to be 100.00 minus the official British Bankers' Association fixing of 3-month LIBOR on the day the contract is settled.


title: Eurodollar

text: For example, if on a particular day an investor buys a single three-month contract at 95.00 (implied settlement LIBOR of 5.00%):


title: Eurodollar

text: On the settlement date, the settlement price is determined by the actual LIBOR fixing for that day rather than a market-determined contract price.


title: Eurodollar

text: The Eurodollar futures contract was launched in 1981, as the first cash-settled futures contract. People reportedly camped out the night before the contract's open, flooding the pit when the CME opened the doors. That trading pit was the largest pit ever, nearly the size of a football field, and quickly became one of the most active on the trading floor, with over 1500 traders and clerks coming to work every day on what was then known as the CME's upper trading floor. That floor is no longer, with the CME having moved over to the CBOT's trading floor and 98% of Eurodollar trading now done electronically.


title: Eurodollar

text: A single Eurodollar future is similar to a forward rate agreement to borrow or lend for three months starting on the contract settlement date. Buying the contract is equivalent to lending money, and selling the contract short is equivalent to borrowing money.


title: Eurodollar

text: Consider an investor who agreed to lend on a particular date for three months at 5.00% per annum (months are calculated on a 30/360 basis). Interest received in 3 months' time would be × 5.00% × 90 / 360 = .


title: Eurodollar

text: This demonstrates the similarity. However, the contract is also different from a loan in several important respects:


title: Eurodollar

text: This means that on 1 January 2011, the exchange will list 40 quarterly expirations (March, June, September, December for 2011 through 2020), the exchange will also list another four serial (monthly) expirations (January, February, April, May 2011). This extends tradeable contracts over ten years, which provides an excellent picture of the shape of the yield curve. The front-month contracts are among the most liquid futures contracts in the world, with liquidity decreasing for the further out contracts. Total open interest for all contracts is typically over 10 million.


title: Eurodollar

text: The CME Eurodollar futures contract is used to hedge interest rate swaps. There is an arbitrage relationship between the interest rate swap market, the forward rate agreement market and the Eurodollar contract. CME Eurodollar futures can be traded by implementing a spread strategy among multiple contracts to take advantage of movements in the forward curve for future pricing of interest rates.


title: Eurodollar

text: In United States banking, Eurodollars are a popular option for what are known as "sweeps". Until 21 July 2011, banks were not allowed to pay interest on corporate checking accounts. To accommodate larger businesses, banks may automatically transfer, or sweep, funds from a corporation's checking account into an overnight investment option to effectively earn interest on those funds. Banks usually allow these funds to be swept either into money market mutual funds, or alternately they may be used for bank funding by transferring to an offshore branch of a bank.


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: The Chapel Royal of St Peter ad Vincula ("St Peter in chains") is the former parish church of the Tower of London. It is situated within the Tower's Inner Ward, and the current building dates from 1520, although the church was established several centuries earlier. It is a royal peculiar, under the jurisdiction of the monarch. The chapel's name refers to Saint Peter's imprisonment under Herod Agrippa in Jerusalem. The Chapel is probably best known as the burial place of some of the most famous prisoners executed at the Tower, including Queen Anne Boleyn, Queen Catherine Howard and the "nine-day Queen", Lady Jane Grey and her husband Lord Guilford Dudley, and Sir Thomas More.


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: At the west end is a short tower, surmounted by a lantern bell-cote, and inside the church is a nave and shorter north aisle, lit by windows with cusped lights but no tracery, a typical Tudor design. The church is a Chapel Royal, and the priest responsible for it is the chaplain of the Tower, a canon and member of the Ecclesiastical Household. The canonry was abolished in 1685 but reinstated in 2012.


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: The original foundation date and location for the chapel is unknown. The chapel has been destroyed, rebuilt, relocated and renovated several times. Some have proposed that the chapel was founded before the Norman conquest of England as a parish church, predating the use of the area as a fortification. Others have concluded the chapel was founded by Henry I (r. 1100–1135), and perhaps consecrated on 1 August 1110 on the feast of St Peter ad Vincula. The chapel would have been outside the Tower's original perimeter walls so that the king could be seen worshiping in public. It would have stood in contrast to the king's use of the more private St John's Chapel, established around 1080 by William I inside the White Tower.


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: St Peter ad Vincula had been a parish church for at least a century before it became the chapel for the inhabitants of the Tower in the middle of the thirteenth century in the reign of Henry III, and the crypt under the church was built at that time. On 10 December 1241, Henry III issued a writ of liberate to have the "ecclesia sancti Petri infra ballium Turris nostrae London" (church of St Peter within the bailey of our Tower of London) enhanced. The writ indicates that by 1241 the chapel had been brought within the Tower walls. This structure had two chancels (dedicated to St Mary and St Peter). The chancel dedicated to St Peter contained Royal stalls that were wainscoted and painted, and there were two altars dedicated to St. Nicholas and St. Katherine.


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: The church, during Henry III"s reign, had an enclosed cell for an anchorite, which would have been directly attached or located nearby. Henry III supported the living expenses of at least three different recluses, both men and women, at the Tower's anchorhold: Brother William, Idonee de Boclaund (an anchoress), and Geoffrey le Hermit.


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: The chapel's dedication to St Peter ad Vincula has several possible meanings in the Norman-English context. The most obvious is in reference to the Liberation of Peter from prison, as first mentioned in Acts 12:3-19. The first prisoner of the Tower, Ranulf Flambard, the Norman Bishop of Durham, was incarcerated by Henry I on 15 August 1100.


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: The Chapel is also the regimental church of The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, whose connections with the Tower of London go back the 1685 raising of the Royal Fusiliers to guard the Tower and the Artillery train kept there. Officers of the regiment retain the right to get married there.


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: The existing building was rebuilt for Henry VIII by the then Lieutenant of the Tower, Sir Richard Cholmondeley (whose tomb is in the Church), between 1519 and 1520, after a fire destroyed the church in 1512. The rebuilt chapel was probably designed by William Vertue.


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: St Peter ad Vincula was the church of the extra-parochial area of Tower Within, part of the Liberties of the Tower of London. On 16 December 1729 the church was added to the Bills of mortality, a record of burials in London, but was excluded in 1730 because of a successful claim by the inhabitants of it being extra-parochial and outside of the normal parish system. Extra-parochial places were eliminated in the 19th century, and in 1858 the area became a civil parish, following the Extra-Parochial Places Act 1857. The Tower of London liberty was dissolved in 1894, and the parish was absorbed by St Botolph without Aldgate in 1901.


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: The church contains many splendid monuments. In the north-west corner is a memorial to John Holland, Duke of Exeter, a Constable of the Tower, who died in 1447. Under the central arcade lies the effigy of Cholmondeley, who died in 1521, the year after he completed the rebuilding of the church. In the sanctuary, there is an impressive monument to Sir Richard Blount, who died in 1564 and is buried in the church, and his son Sir Michael, died in 1610, both Tudor Lieutenants of the Tower, who would have witnessed many of the executions. There is a fine 17th-century organ, decorated with carvings by Grinling Gibbons.


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: The church is the burial place of some of the most famous Tower prisoners, including Queen Anne Boleyn and Queen Catherine Howard, the second and fifth wives of King Henry VIII, respectively, and Lady Jane Grey, who claimed to be Queen of England for nine days in 1553. George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford, brother of Anne, was also buried here after his execution in 1536, as were Edmund Dudley and Sir Richard Empson, tax collectors for King Henry VII, and Lord Guildford Dudley, husband to Lady Jane Grey, in February 1554, after being executed on Tower Green. Others were Sir Thomas More and Bishop John Fisher, who incurred the wrath of King Henry VIII, and after their execution, they were canonised as martyrs by the Roman Catholic Church; Philip Howard, a third saint who suffered under the Tudors, was also buried here for a time before his body was relocated to Arundel. After their executions, the following people were also buried here: King Henry VIII's minister, Thomas Cromwell (1540); Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley, the brother of Jane Seymour, uncle of Edward VI, who is remembered for his unseemly conduct towards his step-niece, Elizabeth I (1549); Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset (1552); John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland and John Gates in connection with the 1553 succession crisis (1553); and James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, under the communion table (1685).


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: A list of "remarkable persons" buried in the chapel between 1534 and 1747 is listed on a table on the west wall. Thomas Babington Macaulay memorialised those buried in the chapel in his 1848 "History of England":


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: In truth there is no sadder spot on the earth than that little cemetery. Death is there associated, not, as in Westminster Abbey and Saint Paul's, with genius and virtue, with public veneration and with imperishable renown; not, as in our humblest churches and churchyards, with everything that is most endearing in social and domestic charities; but with whatever is darkest in human nature and in human destiny, with the savage triumph of implacable enemies, with the inconstancy, the ingratitude, the cowardice of friends, with all the miseries of fallen greatness and of blighted fame. Thither have been carried, through successive ages, by the rude hands of gaolers, without one mourner following, the bleeding relics of men who had been the captains of armies, the leaders of parties, the oracles of senates, and the ornaments of courts.


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: During renovation work in 1876 three burials were discovered, identified as Anne Boleyn, Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, and John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland.


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: The church is a Chapel Royal and the priest responsible for it is the chaplain of the Tower of London, a canon and member of the Ecclesiastical Household. The canonry was abolished in 1685 but reinstated in 2012. The Reverend Roger Hall, MBE was installed as a canon the same year.


title: Church of St Peter ad Vincula

text: The chapel can be visited as part of a specific tour within the Tower of London or by attending the regular Sunday morning service.


title: Great white pelican

text: The great white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus) also known as the eastern white pelican, rosy pelican or white pelican is a bird in the pelican family. It breeds from southeastern Europe through Asia and Africa, in swamps and shallow lakes.


title: Great white pelican

text: The great white pelican has been rated as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species (IUCN). It is listed under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, Annexure I under the EU Birds Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds, and Appendix II of the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. It is also listed within 108 Special Protection Areas in the European Union. It occurs within 43 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in its European range. It is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) is applied.


title: Great white pelican

text: The great white pelican is a huge birdonly the Dalmatian pelican is, on average, larger among pelicans. It measures in length with a enormous pink and yellow bill, and a dull pale-yellow gular pouch. The wingspan measures , the latter measurement being the highest among extant flying animals outside of the great albatross. The adult male measures about in length; it weighs from and larger races from the Palaearctic are usually around , with few exceeding . It has a bill measuring . The female measures about in length, and is considerably less bulky, weighing , and has a bill that measures in length. In Lake Edward, Uganda, the average weight of 52 males was found to and in 22 females it was . In South Africa, the average weight of males was and of females was . Thus the sexual dimorphism is especially pronounced in this species (perhaps the greatest known in any extant pelican), as at times the male can average more than 30% more massive than the female. The great white pelican rivals the kori bustard, which has even more pronounced sexual dimorphism, as the heaviest flying bird to reside in Africa (both averaging perhaps slightly heavier than the cape vulture and the wattled crane). There are a small few slightly heavier flying birds in the Eurasian portions of the range. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the tail , and the tarsus long. Standard measurements from different areas indicate that pelicans from the Western Palaearctic are somewhat larger than those from Asia and Africa.


title: Great white pelican

text: The male has a downward bend in the neck and the female has a shorter, straighter beak. The plumage is predominantly white except on remiges, with a faint pink tinge on the neck and a yellowish base on the foreneck. The primary feathers are black, with white shafts at the bases, occasionally with paler tips and narrow fringes. The secondary feathers are also black, but with a whitish fringe. The upperwing coverts, underwing coverts, and tertials are white. The forehead is swollen and pinkish skin surrounds the bare, dark eyes having brown-red to dark brown irides. It has fleshy-yellow legs and pointed forehead-feathers where meeting the culmen. In breeding season, the male has pinkish skin while the female has orangey skin on its face. The bill is mostly bluish grey, with a red tip, reddish maxilla edges, and a cream-yellow to yolk-yellow gular pouch. The white plumage becomes tinged-pink with a yellow patch on the breast, and the body is tinged yellowish-rosy. It also has a short, shaggy crest on the nape. The white covert feathers contrast with the solid black primary and secondary feathers. The legs are yellow-flesh to pinkish orange. Both male and female are similar, but the female is smaller and has brighter orange facial skin in the breeding season.


title: Great white pelican

text: The juvenile has darker, brownish underparts that are palest at the rump, center of the belly, and uppertail coverts. The underwing coverts are mostly dull-white, but the greater coverts are dark and there is a dark brownish bar over the lesser coverts. The rear tertials upperwing coverts mostly have paler tips with a silvery-grey tinge on the greater secondary coverts and tertials. It has dark flight feathers, and brown-edged wings. The head, neck, and upperparts, including the upperwing coverts, are mostly brownthis is the darkest part of the neck. The facial skin and the bill, including its gular pouch, are greyish to dusky greyish. The forehead, rump, and abdomen are white, and its legs and feet are grey. Its blackish tail occasionally has a silvery-grey tinge. Its underparts and back are initially browner and darker than those of the Dalmatian pelican, and the underwing is strongly patterned, similar to the juvenile brown pelican.


title: Great white pelican

text: The great white pelican is distinguished from all other pelicans by its plumage. Its face is naked and the feathering on its forehead tapers to a fine point, whereas other species are completely feathered. In flight, the white underwing with black remiges of the adult are similar only to those of the American white pelican ("P. erythrorhynchos"), but the latter has white inner secondary feathers. It differs from the Dalmatian pelican in its pure white rather than greyish-white plumage, a bare pink facial patch around the eye, and pinkish legs. The spot-billed pelican ("P. philippensis") of Asia is slightly smaller than the great white pelican, with greyish tinged white plumage, and a paler, duller-colored bill. Similarly, the pink-backed pelican ("P. rufescens") is smaller, with brownish-grey plumage, a light pink to off-grey bill, and a pinkish wash on the back.


title: Great white pelican

text: The bird is mostly silent but has a variety of low-pitched lowing, grunting, and growling calls. The flight call is a deep, quiet croak., while at breeding colonies, it gives deep "moooo" calls.


title: Great white pelican

text: The breeding range of the great white pelican extends to Ethiopia, Tanzania, Chad, northern Cameroons, and Nigeria in Africa, and has been observed or reported breeding in Zambia, Botswana, and South Africa. In the 1990s, 6,700 to 11,000 breeding pairs in 23 to 25 breeding sites, were found in the Palearctic region. A 1991 study noted about 3,070 to 4,300 pairs were present in the Soviet Union. Only two breeding colonies are located in the Mediterranean basin, one having 250 to 400 pairs in Turkey and the other having 50 to 100 pairs in northern Greece. The breeding colony at Lake Rukwa, Tanzania is the largest known breeding colony in Africa, followed by the Lake Shala, Ethiopia colony which is probably of crucial importance to the species in Africa.


title: Great white pelican

text: The African population of about 75,000 pairs of the great white pelican is resident. The ones breeding in the Palearctic region are migrants, although it is possible that the majority of the western Palearctic populations stop-over in Israel during their autumn migration. The migration routes are only partially known. Migratory populations are found from Eastern Europe to Kazakhstan during the breeding season. More than 50% of Eurasian great white pelicans breed in the Danube Delta in Romania. They also prefer staying in the Lakes near Burgas, Bulgaria and in Srebarna Lake in Bulgaria. The pelicans arrive in the Danube in late March or early April and depart after breeding from September to late November. Wintering locations for European pelicans are not exactly known but wintering birds may occur in northeastern Africa through Iraq to north India, with a particularly large number of breeders from Asia wintering around Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Northern populations migrate to China, India, Myanmar, with stragglers reaching Java and Bali in Indonesia. These are birds that are found mostly in lowlands, though in East Africa and Nepal may be found living at elevations of up to .


title: Great white pelican

text: Overall, the great white pelican is one of the most widely distributed species. Although some areas still hold quite large colonies, it ranks behind the brown pelican and possibly the Australian pelican in overall abundance. Europe now holds an estimated 7,345–10,000 breeding pairs, with over 4,000 pairs that are known to nest in Russia. During migration, more than 75,000 have been observed in Israel and, in winter, over 45,000 may stay in Pakistan. In all its colonies combined, 75,000 pairs are estimated to nest in Africa. It is possibly extinct in Serbia and Montenegro, and regionally extinct in Hungary.


title: Great white pelican

text: Great white pelicans usually prefer shallow, (seasonally or tropical) warm fresh water. Well scattered groups of breeding pelicans occur through Eurasia from the eastern Mediterranean to Vietnam. In Eurasia, fresh or brackish waters may be inhabited and the pelicans may be found in lakes, deltas, lagoons and marshes, usually with dense reed beds nearby for nesting purposes. Additionally, sedentary populations are found year-round in Africa, south of the Sahara Desert although these are patchy. In Africa, great white pelicans occur mainly around freshwater and alkaline lakes and may also be found in coastal, estuarine areas. Beyond reed beds, African pelicans have nested on inselbergs and flat inshore islands off of Banc d'Arguin National Park.


title: Great white pelican

text: The great white pelican is highly sociable and often forms large flocks. It is well adapted for aquatic life. The short strong legs and webbed feet propel it in water and aid a rather awkward takeoff from the water surface. In flight, it is an elegant soaring bird, with the head held close to and aligned with the body. Its flight consists of a few slow wingbeats followed by a glide. Once aloft, the long-winged pelicans are powerful fliers, however, and often travel in spectacular linear, circular, or V-formation groups.


title: Great white pelican

text: The great white pelican mainly eats fish. It leaves its roost to feed early in the morning and may fly over in search of food, as has been observed in Chad and in Mogode, Cameroon. It needs from of fish every day, which corresponds to around annual fish consumption at the largest colony of the great white pelican, on Tanzania's Lake Rukwa (with almost 75,000 birds). Fish targeted are usually fairly large ones, in the weight range, and are taken based on regional abundance. Common carp are preferred in Europe, mullets in China, and Arabian toothcarp in India. In Africa, often the commonest cichlids, including many species in the "Haplochromis" and "Tilapia" genera, seem to be preferred.


title: Great white pelican

text: The pelican's pouch serves simply as a scoop. As the pelican pushes its bill underwater, the lower bill bows out, creating a large pouch which fills with water and fish. As it lifts its head, the pouch contracts, forcing out the water but retaining the fish. A group of 6 to 8 great white pelicans gather in a horseshoe formation in water to feed together. They dip their bills in unison, creating a circle of open pouches, ready to trap every fish in the area. Most feeding is cooperative and done in groups, especially in shallow waters where fish schools can be corralled easily, though they may also forage alone as well.


title: Great white pelican

text: Great white pelicans are not restricted to fish, however, and are often opportunistic foragers. In some situations, they eat chicks of other birds, such as the well documented case off the southwest coast of South Africa. Here, breeding pelicans from the Dassen Island prey on chicks weighing up to from the Cape gannet colony on Malgas Island. Similarly, in Walvis Bay, Namibia the eggs and chicks of Cape cormorants are fed regularly to young pelicans. The local pelican population is so reliant on the cormorants, that when the cormorant species experienced a population decline, the numbers of pelicans appeared to decline as well.


title: Great white pelican

text: They also rob other birds of their prey. During periods of starvation, they also eat seagulls and ducklings. The gulls are held under water and drowned before being eaten headfirst. A flock of captive great white pelicans in St James's Park, London is well known for occasionally eating local pigeons, despite being well-fed.


title: Great white pelican

text: The breeding season commences in April or May in temperate zones, is essentially all year around in Africa and runs February through April in India. Large numbers of these pelicans breed together in colonies.


title: Great white pelican

text: Nest locations vary: some populations make stick nests in trees but a majority, including all those that breed in Africa, nest exclusively in scrapes on the ground lined with grass, sticks, feathers and other material.


title: Great white pelican

text: The female can lay from 1 to 4 eggs in a clutch, with two being the average. Incubation takes 29 to 36 days. The chicks are naked when they hatch but quickly sprout blackish-brown down. The young are cared for by both parents. The colony gathers in "pods" around 20 to 25 days after the eggs hatch. The young fledge at 65 to 75 days of age. Around 64% of young successful reach adulthood, attaining sexual maturity at 3 to 4 years of age.


title: Great white pelican

text: While white pelicans are often protected from bird-eating raptors by virtue of their own great size, eagles, especially sympatric "Haliaeetus" species, may prey on their eggs, nestlings, and fledglings. Occasionally, pelicans and their young are attacked at their colonies by mammalian carnivores, such as jackals and lions. As is common in pelicans, the close approach of a large predaceous or unknown mammal, including a human, at a colony will lead the pelican to abandon its nest in self-preservation. Additionally, crocodiles, especially Nile crocodiles in Africa, readily kill and eat swimming pelicans.


title: Great white pelican

text: Since 1998, the great white pelican has been rated as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. This is because it has a large range more than 20,000 km (7700 mi) and because its population is thought not to have declined by 30% over ten years or three generations, which is not a rapid enough decline to warrant a vulnerable rating. However, the state of its overall population is not known, and although it is widespread, it is not abundant anywhere. It is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. It is listed under the Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, Appendix II of the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats and Annexure I of the EU Birds Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds. It occurs within 43 Important Bird Areas in its European range, and is listed within 108 Special Protection Areas in the European Union. This species is often kept in captivity in zoos or in semi-wild colonies such as that in St. James's Park, London. The ancestors of this colony were originally given to Charles II by the Russian ambassador in 1664 which initiated the tradition of ambassadors donating the birds.


title: Great white pelican

text: Today, because of overfishing in certain areas, white pelicans are forced to fly long distances to find food. Great white pelicans are exploited for many reasons. Their pouch is used to make tobacco bags, their skin is turned into leather, the guano is used as fertiliser, and the fat of its young is converted into oils for traditional medicine in China and India. In Ethiopia, great white pelicans are shot for their meat. Human disturbance, loss of foraging habitat and breeding sites, as well as pollution are all contributing to the decline of the great white pelican. Declines have been particularly notable in the Palaearctic.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: The fourth season of the American television drama series "Mad Men" premiered on July 25, 2010 and concluded on October 17, 2010. It consisted of thirteen episodes, each running approximately 48 minutes in length. AMC broadcast the fourth season on Sundays at 10:00 pm in the United States.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: Season four takes place between November 1964 and October 1965. It is set at the new and considerably more modern advertising agency, Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce. The main narrative of the fourth season is driven by Don Draper's identity crisis. As Don falls deeper into existential despair, he begins regularly meeting with prostitutes and faces debilitating alcoholism.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: The fourth season of "Mad Men" was widely commended by television critics, who viewed it as continuing the show's excellence in all areas of production while featuring strong character development in addition. Its seventh episode ("The Suitcase") garnered especially strong praise. The season received the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series and recognition from the American Film Institute for the show's fourth year in a row.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: An "Advertising Age" reporter's question, "Who is Don Draper?" begins the season as it picks up in November 1964, and Don avoids the question. The article is to promote the new Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce advertising agency which, despite its status as the scrappy newcomer, is struggling. The article's finished product does not go over well, making Don look like a cipher. Don comes back from this public relations disaster by cavalierly throwing a client out of his office after they show concern about his supposedly risque advertising pitch.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: The main narrative of the fourth season is driven by Don Draper's identity crisis after the dissolution of his marriage to Betty. As Don falls deeper into existential despair, his alcoholism worsens and he begins regularly meeting with prostitutes. Don's life is falling apart. He snaps at his maid. He meets with a prostitute over the holidays. He is dismissive toward his blind date. He sleeps with his well-meaning secretary Allison – breaking his own rules and her heart – and she eventually quits in a flurry of anguish and resentment. His relationship with Betty is toxic, and she makes it hard for him to see his children. He is drinking more than ever before; frequently, he blacks out.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: He makes a trip out to California to see Anna Draper and meets her niece, Stephanie. After he tries to seduce her, Stephanie tearfully tells Don that Anna is dying of cancer, a fact her family has hidden from Anna thus far. Don, unable to spend time with Anna knowing she is going to die, tells her he will return to California soon with his kids, knowing that it's a lie.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: Sally is having a difficult time at the Francis home. After a friend's mother catches Sally masturbating at a sleepover, Betty demands that Sally be sent to therapy despite Don's protestations. Sally's therapist offers comfort to Sally but additionally spends a significant amount of time analyzing Betty.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: Pete and Peggy seem to be going off on different cultural paths. Pete accepts fatherhood when Trudy gives birth to a baby girl. Peggy, meanwhile, makes friends with a group of beatniks, including Joyce, a lesbian photo editor at "Life" magazine and Abe, a liberal writer whom she starts to date. However, Peggy's relationship with Don becomes frayed after Don wins a prestigious award for a commercial whose success largely depended on Peggy. When Don causes Peggy to miss her own surprise birthday party (arranged by boyfriend Mark) in order to work on a presentation for Samsonite suitcases, the tension comes to a head. Nevertheless, the tension is defused when a drunk Duck (still longing for Peggy) shows up and punches Don after assuming the two are lovers. That night, Don and Peggy fall asleep on the couch in Don's office, and Don has a vision of a spectral Anna Draper carrying a suitcase. Anna's ghost simply smiles and walks out of the office. Don having received an urgent message from Stephanie the day prior, returns this call after waking up, who confirms that Anna Draper has indeed died. After hanging up the phone, Don turns to Peggy and breaks down in tears. Peggy comforts Don, and the two hold hands in an act of friendship.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: After Anna's death, Don cuts down on his drinking and is shown to be increasingly introspective; he begins to keep a journal and exercise regularly. He asks Faye Miller, a consultant at Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce, out on a formal date. The two become involved in a relationship. Around the same time, Roger and Joan have sex after getting mugged in a poor neighborhood. Joan becomes pregnant and decides to pass the child off as Greg's rather than take Roger's money for an abortion.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: At the agency, Roger loses the Lucky Strike account, putting the financial security of the entire company in jeopardy. Don worries about his secret after FBI agents come to the Francis home to question Betty about Don. The interrogation turns out to be a routine response to any requests for security clearance at North American Aviation, the application for which was submitted by Pete and Don's new secretary Megan Calvet. Don forces Pete to drop the aforementioned client in order to prevent any discovery of his identity theft. Furthermore, he confesses his secret to Faye, who advises Don to come clean about his past to the authorities rather than continue living in fear. Don distances himself in response to this as well as her proclamation that she cannot see herself as a mother to Don's children. He later discovers that his past mistress (from season one), Midge Daniels, is now in the throes of heroin addiction. In order to put a positive spin on being dropped from Lucky Strike (and perhaps partly motivated by Midge's desperation and inner destruction), Don writes an Op Ed in "The New York Times" proclaiming to the nation that Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce is taking a healthful stand and, from here on out, will no longer be doing business with Big Tobacco. The sensational move does not go over well with the other SCDP employees, except Megan, who admires it.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: In October 1965, Don takes his kids on a trip to California (with Megan in tow) and stops by Anna Draper's home, now occupied by Stephanie. Sally notices a message painted on the wall ("Dick + Anna 64") and asks Don who Dick is. Don responds: "That's me", and brushes the question off by claiming it's his nickname. Over the course of the weekend, Don decides that he is in love with Megan and proposes to her the morning after their return.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: Peggy and Ken, meanwhile, save the company by signing new work with Topaz Pantyhose. Betty and Henry move out of the Drapers' Ossining home after Betty fires their nanny/housekeeper over her refusal to help Betty break up the budding friendship between Sally and Glen, a neighborhood boy who warns Sally of the dangers of parents who remarry. Don announces the news of his engagement to Megan to the office and, later, over the phone to Faye, who is left in tears. Don returns to the Draper home one last time to say goodbye to Betty, who shows signs of regret towards the ending of their marriage as they leave their former home for the last time. They depart through separate exits. The season closes with Don lying awake with Megan, looking out toward the window.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: Series creator Matthew Weiner also served as showrunner and executive producer, and is credited as a writer on 10 of the 13 episodes of the season, often co-writing the episodes with another writer. Lisa Albert became consulting producer and co-wrote one episode. Writing team Andre Jacquemetton and Maria Jacquemetton were promoted to co-executive producers and co-wrote one episode together. Erin Levy was promoted to staff writer and wrote two episodes. Dahvi Waller was promoted to producer and wrote one episode. Brett Johnson was promoted to staff writer and wrote one episode. New writers in the fourth season included consulting producer Janet Leahy, who co-wrote one episode; producer Jonathan Abrahams, who wrote two episodes; co-producer Keith Huff, who co-wrote one episode; and freelance writers Tracy McMillan and Jonathan Igla, who each co-wrote one episode. Other producers included Blake McCormick, Dwayne Shattuck, and executive producer Scott Hornbacher.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: Phil Abraham directed the most episodes of the season with three, while Jennifer Getzinger, Michael Uppendahl, and series star John Slattery each directed two. The remaining episodes were directed by Lesli Linka Glatter, Scott Hornbacher, Lynn Shelton, and Matthew Weiner, who directs each season finale.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: The fourth season of "Mad Men" received widespread critical acclaim. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 97% of 35 critics have given the season a positive review. The site's consensus is: "While "Mad Men" continues to darken in tone, it remains one of the most provocative, intelligent shows on television." On Metacritic, the fourth season scored 92 out of 100 based on 30 reviews, indicating universal acclaim; it has the highest score of all "Mad Men" seasons.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: Robert Bianco of "USA Today" said that the series was "adept at changing course without diminishing its appeal or fundamentally altering its core". Maureen Ryan said that "the season was really, in the end, all about who Don Draper was and what he felt comfortable sharing, if not in interviews, in life. And it was hard not to root for Don once he'd found happiness", yet noted that season 4 was strong because of the focus on Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce. She also said that "The season began with a reporter asking, "Who is Don Draper?" He is, if nothing else, loved. And that's a far cry from the man we met in season 1, who wasn't truly known by anyone, except perhaps Anna."


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: Alan Sepinwall of HitFix felt that the fourth season was one of the strongest years, saying "this was a very different season for the show, but no less compelling. If anything, that off-kilter quality led to some of the show's best episodes ever, like "The Suitcase". "Mad Men" seasons often seem to need a handful of episodes to ramp up, but here all we really needed was the expository premiere, and we were off to the races after that. Great show. Great season." "The A.V. Club" writer Keith Phipps considered it the best season of the series so far, noting that "Matthew Weiner knows every rule of creating tense, dramatic story arcs and then willfully ignores them. Happily, his subversive tendencies have their own sort of satisfaction." Keith also observed that the best episodes of the season were light on plot, praising the "ruminative depth" of "mood pieces" like "The Good News" and "The Suitcase".


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: James Poniewozik of "Time" magazine said that Season 4 was the second-best season, slotting in just behind the first season, saying that "I think that a season that started strong—and had, through its middle, perhaps its best run of episodes ever—seemed to lose a bit of focus and momentum in its last third." Heather Havrilesky of "Salon" said that during the fourth season, "The central identity parable of "Mad Men", which seemed like a simple act of deception in the first few seasons, has deepened into something richer and more ominous. Don Draper reflects the American compulsion to sidestep the hard work of living a flawed but authentic life for the empty illusion of perfection, as shiny and skin-deep as an advertisement that promises the impossible."


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: Eric Deggans of the "Tampa Bay Times" said that "I have been told by much more accomplished storytellers than myself that this season was among the series' best. But I have been deeply ambivalent about the episodes". Deggans also criticized the lack of focus on race, as well as the show's attempts at unpredictability, comparing it to "The Sopranos". He did, however, praise the character development of Peggy Olson.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: The fourth season was celebrated with 19 nominations at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards (the most nominations the series has ever received from the Emmys), as well as many other industry honors. The series won the award for Outstanding Drama Series for the fourth year in a row, tying with "L.A. Law", "Hill Street Blues", and "The West Wing" for most wins in the category.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: Jon Hamm was once again nominated for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, while Elisabeth Moss was nominated for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series. John Slattery was honored with a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series. Christina Hendricks' performance was recognized with a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. Robert Morse received yet another nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series for his work as Bert Cooper. In addition, Cara Buono (Faye Miller) and Randee Heller (Ida Blankenship) were nominated for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series. Andre Jacquemetton and Maria Jacquemetton were nominated for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for "Blowing Smoke". Matthew Weiner also received a nomination in the same category for writing "The Suitcase".


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: The American Film Institute honored the series as one of the ten greatest television achievements of 2010, for the fourth year in a row. AFI referred to the fourth season as its finest, and praised Jon Hamm, the ensemble cast, and the storyline revolving around Don Draper's decline. AFI also exalted creator Matthew Weiner as a "master of the medium". The fourth season of "Mad Men" was nominated for the Best Television Drama Series at the 68th Golden Globe Awards. Jon Hamm was nominated for the Best Actor – Television Series Drama award for the fourth year in a row. Elisabeth Moss also received a nomination for the Best Actress – Television Series Drama award.


title: Mad Men (season 4)

text: "Mad Men" won "Dramatic Series" at the 2010 WGA Awards. The episode "The Chrysanthemum and the Sword" also won the "Episodic Drama" award. Jennifer Getzinger was nominated for a Directors Guild Award for directing "The Suitcase". The fourth season also won the Outstanding Achievement in Drama award at the 27th Television Critics Association Awards. Jon Hamm also won the Individual Achievement in Drama award for his performance as Don Draper during the fourth season.


title: Charles Pfizer

text: Karl Christian Friedrich Pfizer (; March 22, 1824 – October 19, 1906), known as Charles Pfizer, was a German-American businessman and chemist who co-founded the Pfizer pharmaceutical company with his cousin, Charles F. Erhart, in 1849, as Chas. Pfizer & Co. Inc.


title: Charles Pfizer

text: He was born Karl Christian Friedrich to Karl Frederick Pfizer and Caroline (born Klotz). Like his older cousin, future business partner and brother-in-law, Karl Erhart, Pfizer was born in Ludwigsburg, Kingdom of Württemberg (now Germany). He emigrated to the United States in October 1848.


title: Charles Pfizer

text: Pfizer married Anna Hausch, in 1859, in his hometown of Ludwigsburg, where he often visited. They had six children, five of whom survived to adulthood: Charles Jr (1860–1928), Gustavus (1861–1944), Emile (1864–1941), Helen Julia (born 1866, who married Sir Frederick Duncan, 2nd Baronet), Alice (who married Baron of Austria), and Ann (1875–1876). He built a Lutheran Church in New York.


title: Charles Pfizer

text: In 1849, he borrowed US$2,500 from his father to buy a commercial building in Williamsburg, Brooklyn. He then co-founded Chas. Pfizer & Co. Inc. The company produced santonin, an antiparasitic, later expanding production to other chemicals.


title: Charles Pfizer

text: Pfizer's partner and cousin, Charles F. Erhart, also wed his sister, Frances, becoming his brother-in-law. When Erhart died, in 1891, their partnership agreement came into effect, which stipulated that the surviving partner could buy the other's share of the company for half of its inventory value. Pfizer promptly exercised this option, paying his partner's heirs $119,350 for Erhart's half of the business. He remained as the head of the company for 51 years, until 1900, when it was incorporated. Charles Pfizer Jr. then became the company's first president; he was later succeeded by his brother, Emile.


title: Charles Pfizer

text: Pfizer died at his summer home, "Lindgate", in Newport, Rhode Island; his main residence was in Clinton Hill, Brooklyn. His death followed a fall down stairs, a few weeks prior, in which he broke an arm and was further injured.


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: A cult operating in the Welsh town of Kidwelly raped children for decades, until its perpetrators were caught in 2010. Its leader, Colin Batley, psychologically terrorised and coerced vulnerable children into performing sexual acts, by using death threats and brainwashing. Batley, three female members, and a second man were convicted of child sex offences in 2011 and jailed.


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: The cult sexually exploited vulnerable teenagers, using occult practices and literature as a means of justifying its abuse, and of brainwashing its victims. It was led by Colin Batley and his wife, as well as three other women. Its sexual abuse against children spanned several decades, and was carried out first in London, then in Kidwelly in southwest Wales.


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: The five members who went on trial departed from London for a single Kidwelly street in the 1990s. The leader, Colin Batley, moved first, followed by Shelly Millar, Batley's mistress, Jacqueline Marling, and their partners. Batley and three of the four female defendants were convicted of sexual offences. Colin Batley and the four female defendants indicated their membership with an ancient "Egyptian eye" tattoo of Horus, a hawk-headed god on their arms, and by collecting ancient Egyptian religious objects.


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: The cult targeted troubled, impressionable minors, forcing them to undergo an initiation ceremony that ended with sex with an adult. Children were intimidated into participating with threats of murder. One girl testified that after this ceremony (which started with Batley preaching about the occult and finished with sex), she was regularly coerced into having sex with Colin Batley at his house, and with strangers at satanic orgies. In tears, she testified, "I did it because I was told to by Colin". A victim explained, "Colin knew how to manipulate you, to make you believe anything he said". Children also obeyed his demands for sex out of "fear of angering the Gods." Batley had Rottweiler dogs that were "vicious to everyone".


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: The sexual abuse was often preceded with satanic ceremonies in which passages from the occultist Aleister Crowley's books "The Book of the Law", "The Book of Magick," and "Equinox of the Gods" were read out. One ceremony featured an altar with salted bread, a chalice of red wine, and an incense burner. At the end of these satanic ceremonies, members "became skyclad", meaning they disrobed and had sex.


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: A neighbour, John Wheatland, claimed that while working in his garden, he once saw a girl in her early teens "done up to look like a film star", who asked him whether he wanted sex. He also stated that he heard a victim crying every night.


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: Aleister Crowley, whose literature was a major source of the cult's beliefs, was an English occultist and magician who died in 1947. He wrote "The Book of the Law" in Cairo in 1904. Each member's home seemed to have a laminated version of it. The trial heard this book had "worrying trends and themes" about sex, including the statements "Let all chaste women be despised", "Sex with anyone is not just permissible, but to be encouraged. Prostitution is to be admired", and "Some of the most passionate and permanent attachments have begun with rape. Rome was founded thereon." Judge Paul Thomas QC admonished the book as "a ludicrous document".


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: Colin Batley's son Damian died on 1 February 2008, when he accidentally hanged himself during a sex act. He filmed the fatal accident on his mobile phone. An inquest was told he was found naked and hanging.


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: A neighbour said Damian's father (Colin Batley) was "laughing and joking like he didn’t have a care in the world" on the day of the funeral, which "no normal person could comprehend".


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: According to the Cult Information Centre's general secretary Ian Haworth, the Kidwelly rape cult had the characteristics that are typical of a cult, which he had "heard year after year in the 32 years I've worked full time in this field". He estimated the UK has 500 to 1,000 cults, with these operating "in major cities", as well as "in quiet, rural areas". Haworth added that cult leaders often break people down, sometimes within three or four days, with methods including depriving them of food and sleep. He said this "seems to work best on people with very healthy minds".


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: Five victims testified in court that they were lured or brought to cult members' homes where they were sexually abused, and that there were more victims who had not reported any of their abuse.


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: One 15-year-old girl who gave evidence described being shared like a "sex toy" between cult members. A second victim was raped by Batley as an 11-year-old girl, and testified, "Sex with him was a test, and if I did not pass, I would go to The Abyss." A third victim also testified to being raped by Batley when she was 11 or 12, and being coerced into having sex on camera when she was 16.


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: Annabelle Forest (a pseudonym), a daughter of cult member Jacqueline Marling, gave testimony which helped convict five abusers. She was forced at the age of seven to watch a sex act by her mother Jacqueline Marling on Colin Batley. When Forest was 11, Colin Batley raped her. In her early teens, she was coerced into group sex with Marling, which became something Forest was regularly forced to participate in. She was also coerced into a relationship with a second older male. Forest said "I was a schoolgirl by day and a sex slave at night", which "got so bad that at one point I tried to take my own life." Three months after giving birth to a child of Batley, aged 18, Forest was forced into prostitution, having sex with an estimated 1,800 men, with her entire earnings being taken by the cult. She said that during her many years of being abused and exploited: "Too many people looked away, too many people ignored the signs. It astonishes me that we lived in that small cul-de-sac for so many years and not one person saw anything that gave them cause for concern".


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: Forest detailed her experiences in her book "The Devil on the Doorstep: My Escape From a Satanic Sex Cult", which she wrote to "get others to start really paying attention to the community they live in", because "there are abused children everywhere".


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: In 2010, two adult victims, one male and one female, reported the cult's abuse to the police prompting the group's arrest the same year.


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: Chief Inspector Richard Lewis said the investigation by Dyfed–Powys Police "was a very protracted and complicated inquiry involving a very secretive group" that perpetrated "systematic and prolonged abuse of children" who "showed great courage" by reporting it. Mark Bergmanski, Detective Chief Inspector, agreed "it was a very complicated and complex inquiry".


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: The safeguarding children's board at Carmarthenshire County Council lambasted all perpetrators of "systematic, secretive and prolonged sexual abuse of children".


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: The cult's leader, Colin Batley, three female members, and a second man received prison sentences totaling 36 years, with the possibility of Colin Batley remaining in prison for life. They were found guilty on 47 charges including rape and other sexual crimes against children after a five-week trial in February and March of 2011. A fourth female member was acquitted after facing a single charge of child indecency.


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: The head of the Welsh complex case unit in the Crown Prosecution Service said, "all of those sentenced today are guilty of horrific crimes and therefore it is also right that they have received lengthy sentences."


title: Kidwelly sex cult

text: The jury deliberated for four full days, and two half days, and were offered counseling, due to the distressing nature of the offences. The defendants had denied the cult's existence for the entire trial.


title: Viscometer

text: A viscometer (also called viscosimeter) is an instrument used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. For liquids with viscosities which vary with flow conditions, an instrument called a rheometer is used. Thus, a rheometer can be considered as a special type of viscometer. Viscometers only measure under one flow condition.


title: Viscometer

text: In general, either the fluid remains stationary and an object moves through it, or the object is stationary and the fluid moves past it. The drag caused by relative motion of the fluid and a surface is a measure of the viscosity. The flow conditions must have a sufficiently small value of Reynolds number for there to be laminar flow.


title: Viscometer

text: At 20°C, the dynamic viscosity (kinematic viscosity × density) of water is 1.0038mPa·s and its kinematic viscosity (product of flow time × factor) is 1.0022mm/s. These values are used for calibrating certain types of viscometers.


title: Viscometer

text: These devices are also known as glass capillary viscometers or Ostwald viscometers, named after Wilhelm Ostwald. Another version is the Ubbelohde viscometer, which consists of a U-shaped glass tube held vertically in a controlled temperature bath. In one arm of the U is a vertical section of precise narrow bore (the capillary). Above there is a bulb, with it is another bulb lower down on the other arm. In use, liquid is drawn into the upper bulb by suction, then allowed to flow down through the capillary into the lower bulb. Two marks (one above and one below the upper bulb) indicate a known volume. The time taken for the level of the liquid to pass between these marks is proportional to the kinematic viscosity. The calibration can be done using a fluid of known properties. Most commercial units are provided with a conversion factor.


title: Viscometer

text: The time required for the test liquid to flow through a capillary of a known diameter of a certain factor between two marked points is measured. By multiplying the time taken by the factor of the viscometer, the kinematic viscosity is obtained.


title: Viscometer

text: Such viscometers can be classified as direct-flow or reverse-flow. Reverse-flow viscometers have the reservoir above the markings, and direct-flow are those with the reservoir below the markings. Such classifications exist so that the level can be determined even when opaque or staining liquids are measured, otherwise the liquid will cover the markings and make it impossible to gauge the time the level passes the mark. This also allows the viscometer to have more than 1 set of marks to allow , therefore yielding 2 timings and allowing subsequent calculation of determinability to ensure accurate results. The use of two timings in one viscometer in a single run is only possible if the sample being measured has Newtonian properties. Otherwise the change in driving head, which in turn changes the shear rate, will produce a different viscosity for the two bulbs.


title: Viscometer

text: Stokes' law is the basis of the falling-sphere viscometer, in which the fluid is stationary in a vertical glass tube. A sphere of known size and density is allowed to descend through the liquid. If correctly selected, it reaches terminal velocity, which can be measured by the time it takes to pass two marks on the tube. Electronic sensing can be used for opaque fluids. Knowing the terminal velocity, the size and density of the sphere, and the density of the liquid, Stokes' law can be used to calculate the viscosity of the fluid. A series of steel ball bearings of different diameter are normally used in the classic experiment to improve the accuracy of the calculation. The school experiment uses glycerol as the fluid, and the technique is used industrially to check the viscosity of fluids used in processes. It includes many different oils and polymer liquids .


title: Viscometer

text: In 1851, George Gabriel Stokes derived an expression for the frictional force (also called drag force) exerted on spherical objects with very small Reynolds numbers (e.g., very small particles) in a continuous viscous fluid by changing the small fluid-mass limit of the generally unsolvable Navier–Stokes equations:


title: Viscometer

text: If the particles are falling in the viscous fluid by their own weight, then a terminal velocity, also known as the settling velocity, is reached when this frictional force combined with the buoyant force exactly balance the gravitational force. The resulting settling velocity (or terminal velocity) is given by


title: Viscometer

text: A modification of the straight falling-sphere viscometer is a rolling-ball viscometer, which times a ball rolling down a slope whilst immersed in the test fluid. This can be further improved by using a patented V plate, which increases the number of rotations to distance traveled, allowing smaller, more portable devices. The controlled rolling motion of the ball avoids turbulences in the fluid, which would otherwise occur with a falling ball. This type of device is also suitable for ship board use.


title: Viscometer

text: In 1932, Fritz Höppler was granted a patent for the falling-ball viscometer, named after him – the worldwide first viscometer to determine the dynamic viscosity. More other world-firsts viscometers developed by Fritz Höppler in Medingen (Germany) are the ball pressure types consistometer and rheoviscometer, see = ball pressure viscometer.


title: Viscometer

text: Also known as the Norcross viscometer after its inventor, Austin Norcross. The principle of viscosity measurement in this rugged and sensitive industrial device is based on a piston and cylinder assembly. The piston is periodically raised by an air lifting mechanism, drawing the material being measured down through the clearance (gap) between the piston and the wall of the cylinder into the space formed below the piston as it is raised. The assembly is then typically held up for a few seconds, then allowed to fall by gravity, expelling the sample out through the same path that it entered, creating a shearing effect on the measured liquid, which makes this viscometer particularly sensitive and good for measuring certain thixotropic liquids. The time of fall is a measure of viscosity, with the clearance between the piston and inside of the cylinder forming the measuring orifice. The viscosity controller measures the time of fall (time-of-fall seconds being the measure of viscosity) and displays the resulting viscosity value. The controller can calibrate the time-of-fall value to cup seconds (known as efflux cup), Saybolt universal second (SUS) or centipoise.


title: Viscometer

text: Industrial use is popular due to simplicity, repeatability, low maintenance and longevity. This type of measurement is not affected by flow rate or external vibrations. The principle of operation can be adapted for many different conditions, making it ideal for process control environments.


title: Viscometer

text: Sometimes referred to as electromagnetic viscometer or EMV viscometer, was invented at Cambridge Viscosity (Formally Cambridge Applied Systems) in 1986. The sensor (see figure below) comprises a measurement chamber and magnetically influenced piston. Measurements are taken whereby a sample is first introduced into the thermally controlled measurement chamber where the piston resides. Electronics drive the piston into oscillatory motion within the measurement chamber with a controlled magnetic field. A shear stress is imposed on the liquid (or gas) due to the piston travel, and the viscosity is determined by measuring the travel time of the piston. The construction parameters for the annular spacing between the piston and measurement chamber, the strength of the electromagnetic field, and the travel distance of the piston are used to calculate the viscosity according to Newton's Law of Viscosity.


title: Viscometer

text: The oscillating-piston viscometer technology has been adapted for small-sample viscosity and micro-sample viscosity testing in laboratory applications. It has also been adapted to high-pressure viscosity and high-temperature viscosity measurements in both laboratory and process environments. The viscosity sensors have been scaled for a wide range of industrial applications, such as small-size viscometers for use in compressors and engines, flow-through viscometers for dip coating processes, in-line viscometers for use in refineries, and hundreds of other applications. Improvements in sensitivity from modern electronics, is stimulating a growth in oscillating-piston viscometer popularity with academic laboratories exploring gas viscosity.


title: Viscometer

text: Vibrational viscometers date back to the 1950s Bendix instrument, which is of a class that operates by measuring the damping of an oscillating electromechanical resonator immersed in a fluid whose viscosity is to be determined. The resonator generally oscillates in torsion or transversely (as a cantilever beam or tuning fork). The higher the viscosity, the larger the damping imposed on the resonator. The resonator's damping may be measured by one of several methods:


title: Viscometer

text: The vibrational instrument also suffers from a lack of a defined shear field, which makes it unsuited to measuring the viscosity of a fluid whose flow behaviour is not known beforehand.


title: Viscometer

text: Vibrating viscometers are rugged industrial systems used to measure viscosity in the process condition. The active part of the sensor is a vibrating rod. The vibration amplitude varies according to the viscosity of the fluid in which the rod is immersed. These viscosity meters are suitable for measuring clogging fluid and high-viscosity fluids, including those with fibers (up to 1000 Pa·s). Currently, many industries around the world consider these viscometers to be the most efficient system with which to measure the viscosities of a wide range of fluids; by contrast, rotational viscometers require more maintenance, are unable to measure clogging fluid, and require frequent calibration after intensive use. Vibrating viscometers have no moving parts, no weak parts and the sensitive part is typically small. Even very basic or acidic fluids can be measured by adding a protective coating, such as enamel, or by changing the material of the sensor to a material such as 316L stainless steel. Vibrating viscometers are the most widely used inline instrument to monitor the viscosity of the process fluid in tanks, and pipes.


title: Viscometer

text: The quartz viscometer is a special type of vibrational viscometer. Here, an oscillating quartz crystal is immersed into a fluid and the specific influence on the oscillating behavior defines the viscosity. The principle of quartz viscosimetry is based on the idea of W. P. Mason. The basic concept is the application of a piezoelectric crystal for the determination of viscosity. The high-frequency electric field that is applied to the oscillator causes a movement of the sensor and results in the shearing of the fluid. The movement of the sensor is then influenced by the external forces (the shear stress) of the fluid, which affects the electrical response of the sensor. The calibration procedure as a pre-condition of viscosity determination by means of a quartz crystal goes back to B. Bode, who facilitated the detailed analysis of the electrical and mechanical transmission behavior of the oscillating system. On the basis of this calibration, the quartz viscosimeter was developed which allows continuous viscosity determination in resting and flowing liquids.


title: Viscometer

text: The quartz crystal microbalance functions as a vibrational viscometer by the piezoelectric properties inherent in quartz to perform measurements of conductance spectra of liquids and thin films exposed to the surface of the crystal. From these spectra, frequency shifts and a broadening of the peaks for the resonant and overtone frequencies of the quartz crystal are tracked and used to determine changes in mass as well as the viscosity, shear modulus, and other viscoelastic properties of the liquid or thin film. One benefit of using the quartz crystal microbalance to measure viscosity is the small amount of sample required for obtaining an accurate measurement. However, due to the dependence viscoelastic properties on the sample preparation techniques and thickness of the film or bulk liquid, there can be errors up to 10% in measurements in viscosity between samples.


title: Viscometer

text: An interesting technique to measure the viscosity of a liquid using a quartz crystal microbalance which improves the consistency of measurements uses a drop method. Instead of creating a thin film or submerging the quartz crystal in a liquid, a single drop of the fluid of interest is dropped on the surface of the crystal. The viscosity is extracted from the shift in the frequency data using the following equation


title: Viscometer

text: where formula_8 is the resonant frequency, formula_9 is the density of the fluid, formula_10 is the shear modulus of the quartz, and formula_11 is the density of the quartz. An extension of this technique corrects the shift in the resonant frequency by the size of the drop deposited on the quartz crystal.


title: Viscometer

text: Rotational viscometers use the idea that the torque required to turn an object in a fluid is a function of the viscosity of that fluid. They measure the torque required to rotate a disk or bob in a fluid at a known speed.


title: Viscometer

text: "Cup and bob" viscometers work by defining the exact volume of a sample to be sheared within a test cell; the torque required to achieve a certain rotational speed is measured and plotted. There are two classical geometries in "cup and bob" viscometers, known as either the "Couette" or "Searle" systems, distinguished by whether the cup or bob rotates. The rotating cup is preferred in some cases because it reduces the onset of Taylor vortices at very high shear rates, but the rotating bob is more commonly used, as the instrument design can be more flexible for other geometries as well.


title: Viscometer

text: "Cone and plate" viscometers use a narrow-angled cone in close proximity to a flat plate. With this system, the shear rate between the geometries is constant at any given rotational speed. The viscosity can easily be calculated from shear stress (from the torque) and shear rate (from the angular velocity).


title: Viscometer

text: If a test with any geometries runs through a table of several shear rates or stresses, the data can be used to plot a flow curve, that is a graph of viscosity vs shear rate. If the above test is carried out slowly enough for the measured value (shear stress if rate is being controlled, or conversely) to reach a steady value at each step, the data is said to be at "equilibrium", and the graph is then an "equilibrium flow curve". This is preferable over non-equilibrium measurements, as the data can usually be replicated across multiple other instruments or with other geometries.


title: Viscometer

text: Rheometers and viscometers work with torque and angular velocity. Since viscosity is normally considered in terms of shear stress and shear rates, a method is needed to convert from "instrument numbers" to "rheology numbers". Each measuring system used in an instrument has its associated "form factors" to convert torque to shear stress and to convert angular velocity to shear rate.


title: Viscometer

text: Note: The shear stress varies across the radius for a parallel plate. The above formula refers to the 3/4 radius position if the test sample is Newtonian.


title: Viscometer

text: The EMS viscometer measures the viscosity of liquids through observation of the rotation of a sphere driven by electromagnetic interaction: Two magnets attached to a rotor create a rotating magnetic field. The sample ③ to be measured is in a small test tube ②. Inside the tube is an aluminium sphere ④. The tube is located in a temperature-controlled chamber ① and set such that the sphere is situated in the centre of the two magnets.


title: Viscometer

text: The rotating magnetic field induces eddy currents in the sphere. The resulting Lorentz interaction between the magnetic field and these eddy currents generate torque that rotates the sphere. The rotational speed of the sphere depends on the rotational velocity of the magnetic field, the magnitude of the magnetic field and the viscosity of the sample around the sphere. The motion of the sphere is monitored by a video camera ⑤ located below the cell. The torque applied to the sphere is proportional to the difference in the angular velocity of the magnetic field and the one of the sphere . There is thus a linear relationship between and the viscosity of the liquid.


title: Viscometer

text: This new measuring principle was developed by Sakai et al. at the University of Tokyo. The EMS viscometer distinguishes itself from other rotational viscometers by three main characteristics:


title: Viscometer

text: By modifying the classic Couette-type rotational viscometer, it is possible to combine the accuracy of kinematic viscosity determination with a wide measuring range.