title: Mass in B minor

text: Even more exceptional, for a Lutheran composer such as Bach, is that the composition is a Missa tota. In Bach's day, Masses composed for Lutheran services usually consisted only of a Kyrie and Gloria. Bach had composed five such Kyrie–Gloria Masses before he completed his Mass in B minor: the Kyrie–Gloria Masses, BWV 233–236, in the late 1730s, and the Mass for the Dresden court, which would become Part I of his only Missa tota, in 1733. The Mass was likely never performed in its entirety during Bach's lifetime. Its earliest documented complete performance took place in 1859. With many dozens of recordings, it is among Bach's most popular vocal works.


title: Mass in B minor

text: In 2015, Bach's personal handwritten manuscript of the mass held by the Berlin State Library has been included in the UNESCO's Memory of the World Register, a project to protect and preserve culturally significant documents and manuscripts.


title: Mass in B minor

text: On 1 February 1733, Augustus II the Strong, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania and Elector of Saxony, died. Five months of mourning followed, during which all public music-making was suspended. Bach used the opportunity to work on the composition of a Missa, a portion of the liturgy sung in Latin and common to both the Lutheran and Roman Catholic rites. His aim was to dedicate the work to the new sovereign Augustus III, a convert to Catholicism, with the hope of obtaining the title "Electoral Saxon Court Composer". Upon its completion, Bach visited Augustus III in Dresden and presented him with a copy of the Kyrie–Gloria Mass BWV 232 I (early version), together with a petition to be given a court title, dated July 27, 1733; in the accompanying inscription on the wrapper of the Mass he complains that he had "innocently suffered one injury or another" in Leipzig. The petition did not meet with immediate success, but Bach eventually got his title: he was made court composer to Augustus III in 1736.


title: Mass in B minor

text: In the last years of his life, Bach expanded the Missa into a complete setting of the Latin Ordinary. It is not known what prompted this creative effort. Wolfgang Osthoff and other scholars have suggested that Bach intended the completed Mass in B minor for performance at the dedication of the new Hofkirche in Dresden, a Catholic cathedral dedicated to the Holy Trinity, which was begun in 1738 and was nearing completion by the late 1740s. However, the building was not completed until 1751 and Bach's death in July 1750 prevented his Mass from being submitted for use at the dedication. Instead, Johann Adolph Hasse's Mass in D minor was performed, a work with many similarities to Bach's Mass (the Credo movements in both works feature chant over a walking bass line, for example). In 2013, Michael Maul published research suggesting the possibility that instead, Bach compiled it for performance in Vienna at St. Stephen's Cathedral (which was Roman Catholic) on St. Cecilia's Day in 1749, as a result of his association with Count Johann Adam von Questenberg. Other explanations are less event-specific, involving Bach's interest in 'encyclopedic' projects (like "The Art of Fugue") that display a wide range of styles, and Bach's desire to preserve some of his best vocal music in a format with wider potential future use than the church cantatas they originated in (see "Movements and their sources" below).


title: Mass in B minor

text: The chronology of the Mass in B minor has attracted extensive scholarly attention. Recent literature suggests:


title: Mass in B minor

text: Bach did not give the B minor Mass a title. Instead, he organized the 1748–49 manuscript into four folders, each with a different title. That containing the Kyrie and Gloria he called "1. Missa"; that containing the Credo he titled "2. Symbolum Nicenum"; the third folder, containing the Sanctus, he called "3. Sanctus"; and the remainder, in a fourth folder he titled "4. Osanna | Benedictus | Agnus Dei et | Dona nobis pacem". John Butt writes, "The format seems purposely designed so that each of the four sections could be used separately." On the other hand, the parts in the manuscript are numbered from 1 to 4, and Bach's usual closing formula (S.D.G = Soli Deo Gloria) is only found at the end of the "Dona Nobis Pacem". Further, Butt writes, "What is most remarkable about the overall shape of the Mass in B Minor is that Bach managed to shape a coherent sequence of movements from diverse material." Butt and George Stauffer detail the ways in which Bach gave overall musical unity to the work.


title: Mass in B minor

text: The first overall title given to the work was in the 1790 estate of the recently deceased C.P.E. Bach, who inherited the score. There, it is called "Die Grosse Catholische Messe" (the "Great Catholic Mass"). It is called that as well in the estate of his last heir in 1805, suggesting to Stauffer that "the epithet reflects an oral tradition within the Bach family". The first publication of the Kyrie and Gloria, in 1833 by the Swiss collector Hans Georg Nägeli with Simrock, refers to it as "Messe" Finally, Nageli and Simrock produced the first publication in 1845, calling it the "High Mass in B Minor" ("Hohe Messe in h-moll"). The adjective "high", Butt argues, was "strongly influenced by the monumental impact of Beethoven's "Missa solemnis"." It soon fell from common usage, but the prepositional phrase "in B Minor" survives, even though it is in some ways misleading: only five of the work's 27 movements are in B minor, while twelve, including the final ones of each of the four major sections, are in D major (the relative major of B minor). The opening Kyrie, however, is in B minor, with the Christe Eleison in D major, and the second Kyrie in F-sharp minor; as Butt points out, these tonalities outline a B minor chord.


title: Mass in B minor

text: The piece is orchestrated for two flutes, two oboes d'amore (doubling on oboes), two bassoons, one natural horn (in D), three natural trumpets (in D), timpani, violins I and II, violas and basso continuo (cellos, basses, bassoons, organ and harpsichord). A third oboe is required for the Sanctus.


title: Mass in B minor

text: Bach conducted the Sanctus, in its first version, at the 1724 Christmas service in Leipzig, and re-used it in Christmas services in the mid-1740s. Scholars differ on whether he ever performed the 1733 Missa. Arnold Schering (in 1936) asserted that it was performed in Leipzig on April 26, 1733, when Augustus III of Poland visited the town, but modern scholars reject his argument for several reasons:


title: Mass in B minor

text: Scholars differ, however, on whether the Missa was performed in July in Dresden. Christoph Wolff argues that on July 26, 1733 at the Sophienkirche in Dresden, where Wilhelm Friedemann Bach had been organist since June, it "was definitely performed ... as evidenced by the extant Dresden performing parts and by the inscription on the title wrapper" given to the king the next day. Hans-Joachim Schulze made this case by pointing to the use of the past tense in the wrapper's inscription: "To his royal majesty was shown with the enclosed Missa ... the humble devotion of the author J. S. Bach." However, Joshua Rifkin rejects the argument, pointing out that the past-tense wording was typical of formal address often not related to performance. Also skeptical is Peter Williams, who notes that "there is no record of performers being assembled for such an event, and in August 1731 Friedemann reported that the Sophienkirche organ was badly out of tune." However, there is evidence of an organ recital by Bach at the Sophienkirche on 14 September 1731, and Friedemann Bach was only chosen as Organist for the institution on 23 June 1733. He would again perform a 2-hour Organ recital on 1 December 1736 at the Frauenkirche Dresden to inaugurate the new Gottfried Silbermann organ.


title: Mass in B minor

text: Scholars agree that no other public performances took place in Bach's lifetime, although Butt raises the possibility that there may have been a private performance or read-through of the Symbolum Nicenum late in Bach's life.


title: Mass in B minor

text: The first public performance of the Symbolum Nicenum section (under the title "Credo or Nicene Creed") took place 36 years after Bach's death, in Spring of 1786, led by his son Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach at a benefit concert for the Medical Institute for the Poor in Hamburg. One of Bach’s admirers Joseph Haydn had a copy of the work along with The Well Tempered Clavier.


title: Mass in B minor

text: As recounted by George Stauffer, the next documented performance (not public) in the nineteenth century was when Carl Friedrich Zelter—a key figure in the 19th-century Bach revival—led the Berlin Singakademie in read-throughs of the "Great Mass" in 1811, covering the Kyrie; in 1813 he led read-throughs of the entire work. The first public performance in the century—of just the Credo section—took place in Frankfurt in March, 1828, with over 200 performers and many instrumental additions. In the same year in Berlin, Gaspare Spontini led the Credo section, adding 15 new choral parts and numerous instruments. A number of performances of sections of the Mass took place in the following decades in Europe, but the first attested public performance of the Mass in its entirety took place in 1859 in Leipzig, with Karl Riedel and the Riedel-Verein. The first performance of the Mass in the UK was given by The Bach Choir, newly formed for this purpose by conductor Otto Goldschmidt, in 1876 in St James's Hall, London.


title: Mass in B minor

text: The Bach Choir of Bethlehem performed the American premiere of the complete Mass on March 27, 1900, in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, though there is evidence that parts of the Mass had been performed in the United States as early as 1870.


title: Mass in B minor

text: From early in the century, authors such as Albert Schweitzer, Arnold Schering, and Frederick Smend called for smaller performance forces, and experiments with (relatively) smaller groups began in the late 1920s.


title: Mass in B minor

text: The first complete recording of the work was made in 1929, with a large choir and the London Symphony Orchestra led by Albert Coates. As of 2013, a database lists over 200 recordings with many different types of forces and performance styles. The work has played a central role in the 'historical performance movement' : Nikolaus Harnoncourt made the first recording with "period instruments" in 1968, his second Bach choral recording. Joshua Rifkin's first recording using the one-voice-per-part vocal scoring he proposes was made in 1982, and won a 1983 Gramophone Award.


title: Mass in B minor

text: The Mass in B minor is widely regarded as one of the supreme achievements of classical music. Alberto Basso summarizes the work as follows: The Mass in B minor is the consecration of a whole life: started in 1733 for "diplomatic" reasons, it was finished in the very last years of Bach's life, when he had already gone blind. This monumental work is a synthesis of every stylistic and technical contribution the Cantor of Leipzig made to music. But it is also the most astounding spiritual encounter between the worlds of Catholic glorification and the Lutheran cult of the cross.


title: Mass in B minor

text: Scholars have suggested that the Mass in B minor belongs in the same category as "The Art of Fugue", as a summation of Bach's deep lifelong involvement with musical tradition—in this case, with choral settings and theology. Bach scholar Christoph Wolff describes the work as representing "a summary of his writing for voice, not only in its variety of styles, compositional devices, and range of sonorities, but also in its high level of technical polish ... Bach's mighty setting preserved the musical and artistic creed of its creator for posterity."


title: Mass in B minor

text: The Mass was described in the 19th century by the editor Hans Georg Nägeli as "The Announcement of the Greatest Musical Work of All Times and All People" ("Ankündigung des größten musikalischen Kunstwerkes aller Zeiten und Völker"). Despite being seldom performed, the Mass was appreciated by some of Bach's greatest successors: by the beginning of the 19th century Forkel and Haydn possessed copies.


title: Mass in B minor

text: Two autograph sources exist: the parts for the Kyrie and Gloria sections that Bach deposited in Dresden in 1733, and the score of the complete work that Bach compiled in 1748–50, which was inherited by C.P.E. Bach (the autograph has been published in facsimile from the source in the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin). However, for his 1786 public performance of the Symbolum Nicenum, C.P.E. Bach, as was typical practice in the era, made additions to the autograph score for performance by adding a 28-bar introduction, replacing the now-obsolete oboe d'amore with newer instruments (clarinets, oboes, or violins) and making other changes in instrumentation for his own aesthetic reasons. C.P.E. also wrote in his own solutions to reading some passages made nearly illegible by his father's late-life handwriting problems.


title: Mass in B minor

text: For this and other reasons, the Mass in B minor poses a considerable challenge to prospective editors, and substantial variations can be noted in different editions, even critical urtext editions. The Bach Gesellschaft edition, edited by Julius Rietz, was published in 1856 based on several sources but without direct access to the autograph. When access was later obtained, the textual problems were so evident that the society published a revised edition the next year. The 1857 edition was the standard for the next century, but was later recognized to be even less accurate than the 1856 version due to inadvertent incorporation of C.P.E. Bach's alterations in the autograph. Similarly, the 1954 edition by Friedrich Smend for the Neue Bach-Ausgabe was shown to have significant faults within five years of publication.


title: Mass in B minor

text: Christoph Wolff's edition, published by C.F. Peters in 1997, uses two copies of the 1748–50 manuscript made before C.P.E. Bach's adulterations to try to reconstruct Bach's original readings, and seeks to recover performance details by using all available sources, including cantata movements that Bach reworked in the B minor Mass. Joshua Rifkin's edition, published by Breitkopf & Härtel in 2006, also seeks to remove the C.P.E. Bach emendations, but differs from Wolff in arguing that the 1748–50 work is, to quote John Butt, "essentially a different entity from the 1733 Missa, and that a combination of the 'best' readings from both does not really correspond to Bach's final (and virtually completed) conception of the work"; Rifkin's version seeks to adhere to this final version.


title: Mass in B minor

text: Uwe Wolf's edition, published by Bärenreiter in 2010, relies upon x-ray spectrograph technology to differentiate J.S. Bach's handwriting from the additions made by C.P.E. Bach and others. Ulrich Leisinger's edition, published by Carus in 2014, accepts some of C.P.E. Bach's revisions and uses the 1733 Dresden parts as the primary source for the Kyrie and Gloria.


title: Mass in B minor

text: The work consists of 27 sections. Tempo and metrical information and parodied cantata sources come from Christoph Wolff's 1997 critical urtext edition, and from George Stauffer's "Bach: The Mass in B Minor". except where noted. Regarding sources, Stauffer, summarizing current research as of 1997, states that "Specific models or fragments can be pinpointed for eleven of the work's twenty-seven movements" and that "two other movements [the "Domine Deus" and "Et resurrexit"] are most probably derived from specific, now lost sources." But Stauffer adds "there is undoubtedly much more borrowing than this." Exceptions are the opening four bars of the first Kyrie, the "Et incarnatus est" and "Confiteor".


title: Mass in B minor

text: Butt points out that "only with a musical aesthetic later than Bach's does the concept of parody (adapting existing vocal music to a new text) appear in an unfavourable light" while it was "almost unavoidable" in Bach's day. He further notes that "by abstracting movements from what he evidently considered some of his finest vocal works, originally performed for specific occasions and Sundays within the Church's year, he was doubtless attempting to preserve the pieces within the more durable context of the Latin Ordinary." Details of the parodied movements and their sources are given below.


title: Mass in B minor

text: Note the nine (trinitarian, 3 × 3) movements that follow with a largely symmetrical structure, and the "Domine Deus" in the centre.


title: Mass in B minor

text: , 237 recordings are listed on bach-cantatas, beginning with the first recording by a symphony orchestra and choir to match, conducted by Albert Coates. Beginning in the late 1960s, historically informed performances paved the way for recordings with smaller groups, boys choirs and ensembles playing "period instruments", and eventually to recordings using the one-voice-on-a-vocal-part scoring first argued for by Joshua Rifkin in 1982.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: Wild Turkey is a brand of Kentucky straight bourbon whiskey distilled and bottled by the Wild Turkey Distilling Co, a division of Campari Group. The distillery is located near Lawrenceburg, Kentucky. It offers tours and is part of the American Whiskey Trail and the Kentucky Bourbon Trail.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: In 1891, Thomas Ripy built the Old Hickory Distillery in Tyrone, Kentucky, near Lawrenceburg, on the former site of the Old Moore Distillery. After Prohibition, the Ripy family (Thomas had died in 1902) rebuilt the distillery and began to again produce bourbon. The Ripys sold the bourbon produced at this distillery to various wholesalers who bottled bourbon under their own brands. Austin Nichols was one of these wholesalers.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: The "Wild Turkey" brand is said to have arisen after an Austin Nichols executive, Thomas McCarthy, took some warehouse samples on a wild turkey hunting trip in 1940. The bourbon proved so popular among his friends they continued to ask him for "that wild turkey bourbon." Austin Nichols began to bottle Wild Turkey in 1942.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: For the next three decades, Austin Nichols remained a non-distiller producer—bottling bourbon purchased on the open market under the Wild Turkey brand. Much of this whiskey was purchased from the Ripys/Gould distillery in Tyrone. In 1971, Austin Nichols purchased the facility, then known as the Boulevard Distillery, and changed the name to the Wild Turkey Distillery.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: On May 9, 2000, a fire destroyed a seven-story aging warehouse at the company in Anderson County, Kentucky. It contained more than 17,000 wooden barrels of whiskey. Burning whiskey flowed from the warehouse and setting the woods on fire. Firefighters saved Lawrenceburg's water treatment plant from destruction. However, an estimated 20% of the whiskey flowed into the Kentucky River. The river contamination required the temporary shutdown of the water treatment plant. Officials ordered water usage restrictions. Businesses and schools were closed because of the water shortage. The alcohol spill also depleted the oxygen in the river, killing an estimated 228,000 fish along a 66-mile stretch. The EPA and the Coast Guard's Gulf Strike Team aerated the river using equipment mounted on barges. The company paid $256,000 to the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife in an effort to restore the fish population in the river.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: In 2011, Wild Turkey began to be distilled at a newly constructed facility near the old distillery. The new distillery sits where the old bottling facility was previously located.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: In 2013, Campari opened a new bottling facility at the Wild Turkey Distillery. For the previous 13 years Wild Turkey had been bottled offsite in Indiana and, later, Arkansas. In addition to the Wild Turkey products, Campari's SKYY vodka is also bottled there after being shipped from the Illinois distillery.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: Wild Turkey uses a mash consisting of a relatively lower percentage of corn than most bourbons and attempts are made to counteract the alkaline environment of the company's limestone-rich water. Additionally, the raw whiskey is distilled to about 55% alcohol by volume, much lower than the legally allowed maximum to be considered bourbon. Barrels are rotated in open houses to allow more even maturation, being aged until at least one third of the contents to be lost to evaporation before they are considered for bottling.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: The Lawrenceburg distillery bottles its bourbon and rye under the brands of "Wild Turkey" and "Russell's Reserve".


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: In 2012, Wild Turkey 101 earned an 'Editor's Choice' award from "Whisky Magazine". An aggregator from various "expert" body reviews places the 101 Single Barrel in the 97th percentile of all rated bourbons.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: In 2011, an advertisement video called "Give 'em the Bird" was featured on the product's web site, Facebook page, and YouTube page that prominently included a middle finger gesture and referred to other (non-existing) advertising videos featuring a nun and an adult blow-up doll.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: In August 2011, the review board of the Distilled Spirits Council of the United States (DISCUS), of which Campari USA is a member, ruled that the advertisement violated the council's code of ethical practices and said that "the gesture is indecent and the advertisement fails to meet contemporary standards of good taste". According to DISCUS, the company disagreed with the board's interpretation but agreed to withdraw the advertisement.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: Since then, the company has continued to use the "Give 'em the Bird" slogan and middle finger gesturing in additional advertising and promotional activities. In November 2012, Jimmy Russell, the Wild Turkey Master Distiller, publicly called for U.S. President Barack Obama to "Give us the bird", as a way of offering to provide a home for that year's White House Thanksgiving Day turkey (which is traditionally "pardoned" by the president) – saying the turkey would become the brand's official "spokesbird".


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: In 2016, Matthew McConaughey was hired as creative director and celebrity spokesman for Wild Turkey's latest campaign, to bring in more women and international customers.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: Wild Turkey is known for having a number of avian-themed nicknames given to its products, such as the Dirty Bird, the Screaming Eagle, and the Kicking Chicken.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: Wild Turkey is known for being a favorite drink of journalist Hunter S. Thompson, and is mentioned in his 1972 book "Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas" (as well as the film of the same name), and the 1973 book "Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72". In Stephen King's book "It", when asked what the bar whiskey is, the bartender replies, "For everyone else in this dump it's Four Roses, but for you I think it's Wild Turkey." David Foster Wallace's novel "Infinite Jest" has James Incandenza as an alcoholic filmmaker and tennis academy head who drinks Wild Turkey, as well as being referenced as Wallace's drink of choice in his biography, "Every Love Story is a Ghost Story". In Scott Sigler's science fiction book "Infected", main character Perry Dawsey is described several times as drinking Wild Turkey. In Patrick Neate's 2004 book "City of Tiny Lights" the private investigator anti-hero and narrator of the tale, Tommy Akhtar, subsists on a diet of mostly Wild Turkey and Benson and Hedges cigarettes, referring to them as "Benny and the Turk". In Adrian Edmondson's 1995 novel "The Gobbler", the hard-drinking central protagonist, Julian Mann, has a penchant for Wild Turkey, particularly in combination with pints of lager.


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: The bourbon is the drink of choice for characters in "First Blood", "The Cassandra Crossing", "Rush", "Mystic River", "In the Heat of the Night", "Silver Bullet", "Who Framed Roger Rabbit", "Bad Lieutenant", "Barb Wire", "The Eiger Sanction", "Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas", "The Punisher", "Where the Buffalo Roam", and "The Guardian". It is also referenced in numerous films, including "The Color of Money", "Let It Ride", "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation", "With Honors", "Thelma & Louise", "Death Proof", "Monster's Ball", "Freddy Got Fingered", "Out Cold", "Crazy Heart", "Cookie's Fortune", "Frankenhooker", "Trees Lounge", "Dead Man Walking" and "Tammy".


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: "NCIS" and "Justified" routinely shows characters with a bottle of the product, and on occasion television shows have made references to it, including "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" (episode "Beer Bad"), "The Sopranos" (season 3, episode 10), "Seinfeld" (season 7, episode "The Hot Tub", also season 5's episode "The Dinner Party" shows George holding a bottle), "Trigun", "True Blood" (season 3, episode "Beautifully Broken"), "Frasier" (season 2, episode "Roz in the Doghouse"), "A Very Peculiar Practice" (season 2, episode "May the Force Be with You"), "Will & Grace" (season 7), "Married... with Children" (season 8, episode "Nooner or Nothing"), and "Halt and Catch Fire (TV series)" (season 3, episode 10). On the season 2 episode "Sweetums" of "Parks and Recreation", Ron Swanson mentions his old man used to put Wild Turkey on his Cornflakes, while explaining why his family has a preternaturally high tolerance for alcohol. The title character in "Jessica Jones" is frequently shown drinking from a bottle of Wild Turkey 101, while ads for Wild Turkey can be seen on the walls of Josie's Bar in "Daredevil".


title: Wild Turkey (bourbon)

text: The cover art of the Pantera album "Reinventing the Steel" shows a shirtless man jumping through fire while holding a bottle of Wild Turkey. The label is pixelated to avoid trademark infringement, following the controversy over the original cover art of the Black Label Society album "Sonic Brew".


title: De Laval nozzle

text: A de Laval nozzle (or convergent-divergent nozzle, CD nozzle or con-di nozzle) is a tube which is pinched in the middle, making a carefully balanced, asymmetric hourglass shape. It is used to accelerate a compressible fluid to supersonic speeds in the axial (thrust) direction, by converting the thermal energy of the flow into kinetic energy. De Laval nozzles are widely used in some types of steam turbines and rocket engine nozzles. It also sees use in supersonic jet engines.


title: De Laval nozzle

text: Giovanni Battista Venturi designed converging-diverging tubes known as Venturi tubes to experiment the effects in fluid pressure reduction while flowing through chokes (Venturi effect). German engineer and inventor Ernst Körting supposedly switched to a converging-diverging nozzle in his steam jet pumps by 1878 after using convergent nozzles but these nozzles remained a company secret. Later, Swedish engineer Gustaf de Laval applied his own converging diverging nozzle design for use on his impulse turbine in the year 1888.


title: De Laval nozzle

text: Laval's Convergent-Divergent nozzle was first applied in a rocket engine by Robert Goddard. Most modern rocket engines that employ hot gas combustion use de Laval nozzles.


title: De Laval nozzle

text: Its operation relies on the different properties of gases flowing at subsonic, sonic, and supersonic speeds. The speed of a subsonic flow of gas will increase if the pipe carrying it narrows because the mass flow rate is constant. The gas flow through a de Laval nozzle is isentropic (gas entropy is nearly constant). In a subsonic flow sound will propagate through the gas. At the "throat", where the cross-sectional area is at its minimum, the gas velocity locally becomes sonic (Mach number = 1.0), a condition called choked flow. As the nozzle cross-sectional area increases, the gas begins to expand and the gas flow increases to supersonic velocities where a sound wave will not propagate backward through the gas as viewed in the frame of reference of the nozzle (Mach number > 1.0).


title: De Laval nozzle

text: As the gas exits the throat the increase in area allows for it to undergo a Joule-Thompson expansion wherein the gas expands at supersonic speeds from high to low pressure pushing the velocity of the mass flow beyond sonic speed.


title: De Laval nozzle

text: When comparing the general geometric shape of the nozzle between the rocket and the jet engine, it only looks different at first glance, when in fact is about the same essential facts are noticeable on the same geometric cross-sections - that the combustion chamber in the jet engine must have the same "throat" (narrowing) in the direction of the outlet of the gas jet, so that the turbine wheel of the first stage of the jet turbine is always positioned immediately behind that narrowing, while any on the further stages of the turbine are located at the larger outlet cross section of the nozzle, where the flow accelerates.


title: De Laval nozzle

text: A de Laval nozzle will only choke at the throat if the pressure and mass flow through the nozzle is sufficient to reach sonic speeds, otherwise no supersonic flow is achieved, and it will act as a Venturi tube; this requires the entry pressure to the nozzle to be significantly above ambient at all times (equivalently, the stagnation pressure of the jet must be above ambient).


title: De Laval nozzle

text: In addition, the pressure of the gas at the exit of the expansion portion of the exhaust of a nozzle must not be too low. Because pressure cannot travel upstream through the supersonic flow, the exit pressure can be significantly below the ambient pressure into which it exhausts, but if it is too far below ambient, then the flow will cease to be supersonic, or the flow will separate within the expansion portion of the nozzle, forming an unstable jet that may "flop" around within the nozzle, producing a lateral thrust and possibly damaging it.


title: De Laval nozzle

text: In practice, ambient pressure must be no higher than roughly 2–3 times the pressure in the supersonic gas at the exit for supersonic flow to leave the nozzle.


title: De Laval nozzle

text: As the gas enters a nozzle, it is moving at subsonic velocities. As the cross-sectional area contracts the gas is forced to accelerate until the axial velocity becomes sonic at the nozzle throat, where the cross-sectional area is the smallest. From the throat the cross-sectional area then increases, allowing the gas to expand and the axial velocity to become progressively more supersonic.


title: De Laval nozzle

text: Some typical values of the exhaust gas velocity "v" for rocket engines burning various propellants are:


title: De Laval nozzle

text: As a note of interest, "v" is sometimes referred to as the "ideal exhaust gas velocity" because it is based on the assumption that the exhaust gas behaves as an ideal gas.


title: De Laval nozzle

text: As an example calculation using the above equation, assume that the propellant combustion gases are: at an absolute pressure entering the nozzle "p" = 7.0 MPa and exit the rocket exhaust at an absolute pressure "p" = 0.1 MPa; at an absolute temperature of "T" = 3500 K; with an isentropic expansion factor "γ" = 1.22 and a molar mass "M" = 22 kg/kmol. Using those values in the above equation yields an exhaust velocity "v" = 2802 m/s, or 2.80 km/s, which is consistent with above typical values.


title: De Laval nozzle

text: Technical literature often interchanges without note the universal gas law constant "R", which applies to any ideal gas, with the gas law constant "R", which only applies to a specific individual gas of molar mass "M". The relationship between the two constants is "R" = "R/M".


title: De Laval nozzle

text: In accordance with conservation of mass the mass flow rate of the gas throughout the nozzle is the same regardless of the cross-sectional area.


title: De Laval nozzle

text: By Newton's third law of motion the mass flow rate can be used to determine the force exerted by the expelled gas by:


title: Brentwood, California

text: Brentwood is a city in Contra Costa County, California, United States. It is located in the East Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area. The population is 66,854 as of 2022, an increase of 287% from 23,302 at the 2000 census.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Brentwood began as a community in the late 19th century. The community is still known throughout the Bay Area for its agricultural products - primarily its cherries, corn and peaches. Due to urban sprawl many of the old farms and orchards have been replaced by suburban developments since 1990. Brentwood is increasingly residential, with the rate of population growth in the triple digits during the 1990s and 69% from 2000 through 2010. An official estimate showed the population increased nearly 21% during the period 2010 to 2016.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Brentwood was originally laid out on land donated from property owned by John Marsh, an East Contra Costa County pioneer who acquired Rancho Los Méganos, the land grant that Brentwood is built upon, in 1837 from Jose Noriega. Marsh was one of the wealthiest men in California and was instrumental in its becoming independent from Mexico and part of the United States. His letters extolling the potential for agriculture in California were published in newspapers throughout the East. They resulted in the first wagon trains to California. Marsh encouraged this, and allowed new arrivals to stay on his ranch until they could get settled. Rancho Los Méganos became the terminus of the California Trail. Brentwood was named after Marsh's ancestral home, the town of Brentwood in the County of Essex, England.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Balfour, Guthrie & Co., a British investment company, purchased the John Marsh ranch in 1910. The company invested heavily in other California agricultural properties as well. In 1910, it built the Brentwood Hotel at Oak Street and Brentwood Boulevard, across from the railroad station. This replaced an earlier hotel on the same site that had burned down in 1903. The hotel was razed in 1967, and replaced by a service station.


title: Brentwood, California

text: The city is bordered on three sides by the Contra Costa County Agricultural Core which consists of 11,000 acres of preserved and still actively productive farm land.


title: Brentwood, California

text: During the 1990s, many types of retail stores were built along the Brentwood/Antioch border on Lone Tree Way, on both sides of SR 4 B, about from downtown Brentwood. The Streets of Brentwood, an outdoor lifestyle retail center, opened in Brentwood in 2008.


title: Brentwood, California

text: The city broke ground for a new civic center in November, 2009. The Mission-style architectural inspiration for City Hall, the main building, was the 1910 Brentwood Hotel. The $60 million project, completed in May 2012, includes the 58,000-square-foot City Hall and state-of-the-art City Council Chambers, a 32,000-square-foot community center, 280-space parking garage and redevelopment of the -acre City Park. The community center also includes arts and crafts rooms as well as studios for dance classes and community exercise programs. The center received a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design silver certification for amenities such as green roofs, biosales, permeable paving and infiltration planters. City departments began moving into the new facility in October 2011, and the former city hall was demolished during November 2011.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Brentwood was home to the Julpuns who settled mainly in the upper corner of the East Bay. The Julpun were Native Americans who were a part of the Bay Miwok tribes who spoke the same language in an area, which is a branch of the Eastern Miwok Language. The Bay Miwok tribes would generally include 50-200 people in each village, where they would build their villages along the creeks since they were filled with fish. The Julpun believed that everything in the world had a life or spirit and were very in tune with the nature around them. They set things as sacred where they would pray at as part of their religious beliefs, they ended up coining Mt. Diablo, or as they call it Supremenenu, as the birthplace of the world. Due to this, they would hold the top points of Mt. Diablo to be used for sacred gatherings or religious purposes.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Back then the Julpun were never reached out too by ethnographers or linguists when the Julpun still retained their language, the Bay Miwok. They weren't mainly concentrated but spread out from the San Joaquin River to the bottom part of Marsh Creek which is now the southern part of Brentwood. Betweem 1806-1808 few of the Julpun migrated over to Mission San Jose with about 100 or so went by 1813. Later on Milliken listed down that about 141 Julpun members were baptized by 1819 from Mission San Jose. As time went on, Mission San Jose converted from religious beliefs and values to secular institutions where the Julpun members ended up leaving in 1836 back to their original territory. John Marsh ended up acquiring Rancho Los Meganos from Jose Noriega in 1837 which would cover modern Brentwood and back then cover the Julpuns territory. However, due to Mission San Jose revoking the spiritual possession it once had, the Julpuns may have went back to their territory and ended up working under John Marsh on the land where their home once was.


title: Brentwood, California

text: In present time the Julpun tribe have more or less settled around the Bay Area. Some are living in specific groups, while others are living in society where they are preserving their native culture even though they may be away from their tribes. They (the Julpun) are working with the National Park Service, where they united under one federally recognized tribe called the Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria.


title: Brentwood, California

text: As is common with many East Bay towns in Contra Costa County, Mount Diablo is clearly seen from Brentwood. Brentwood is located on the alluvial plain of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. In the picture shown at right, Brentwood lies center right and the city of Antioch, California lies center left. North Peak appears in the foreground between the two cities and largely hides the city of Oakley.


title: Brentwood, California

text: The East Bay Regional Park District is a special San Francisco Bay Area district operating in the East Bay counties of Alameda County and Contra Costa County. East Bay Regional Park District trails and parks are found in Brentwood.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Brentwood has a total area of , of which is land and or 0.13% is water. The landscape on the west is marked by rolling hills, non-native grasses, oak trees, fruit orchards, and vineyards, with a number of public golf courses.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Brentwood borders on the Mediterranean ("Csa") and Semi-arid climates ("Bsh"). Like most of East Contra Costa County, Brentwood lies in the rain shadow of Mt. Diablo and receives less rainfall than many of its neighbors. The wet season is generally October through April, though there may be a day or two of light rainfall in June or September. Summer heat is often moderated by the Delta breeze, especially in the late afternoon, causing temperatures to cool rapidly.


title: Brentwood, California

text: The City of Brentwood operates under the City Manager form of government. Under policy direction of the City Council, the City Manager serves as the Chief Administrative Officer of the city; assumes full responsibility for planning, administering, directing, overseeing, and evaluating the activities and operations of all City departments. The following city departments report directly to the manager:


title: Brentwood, California

text: According to the California Secretary of State, as of February 10, 2019, Brentwood has 34,774 registered voters. Of those, 13,974 (40.2%) are registered Democrats, 9,710 (27.9%) are registered Republicans, and 9,376 (27%) have declined to state a political party.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Brentwood established its own city police department in 1948, when it was primarily a small farming community. It now serves an area of , divided into 4 geographic areas.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Tom Hansen, a 23-year veteran of the BPD, was appointed acting police chief in April, 2017, after then-chief Mark Evenson went on medical leave. Evenson officially retired in August, still citing unnamed health problems as the reason for his departure. City Manager Gus Vina announced that Hansen would become the permanent chief, effective December 16, 2017. Hansen has earned a bachelor's degree in criminal justice from Sacramento State and a master's degree in emergency services administration from California State University, Long Beach. His other specialized training includes participating in the West Point Leadership Program, the FBI National Academy and the Senior Management Institute of Police. Before joining BPD, Hansen was a police officer in Walnut Creek and Kensington, California.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Fire protection is provided by the East Contra Costa Fire Protection District (ECCFPD), which reports to the Contra Costa County Board of Supervisors. Resources are shared with the communities of Oakley, Bethel Island, Knightsen, Byron and Discovery Bay. It also covers certain unincorporated areas of the county. The fire district is headquartered in the Brentwood City Hall building.


title: Brentwood, California

text: The fire district had to close two fire stations in 2015 because of funding issues. This has left only three stations to cover an area of 249 square miles. One station remains open in Brentwood, Oakley, and Discovery Bay.


title: Brentwood, California

text: The Delta Patrol Station, a unit of the Contra Costa County Sheriff's office has signed an agreement with the City of Brentwood to move its existing office from Oakley to a larger space in Brentwood. The Delta Patrol Station has occupied a 1920s era building for over four decades, and has been looking for a larger facility in East County to serve the growing population for faster response in unincorporated Contra Costa County areas (e.g., Byron, Discovery Bay and Knightsen). Response time for Bethel Island is expected to remain the same.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Brentwood's public education system has about 7 elementary, 3 middle, and 4 high schools, Independence High School, Liberty High School, La Paloma High School, and Heritage High School.


title: Brentwood, California

text: The city is served by the Brentwood Union School District, Knightsen School District and the Liberty Union High School District. The Brentwood Union School District runs on a modified traditional school calendar. The Brentwood Union School District has many schools designated as a California Distinguished School. Approximately five percent of California schools are awarded this honor.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Heritage High School includes a full range of Advanced Placement courses and the highest Academic Performance Index (California public schools)(API) score in the area, stellar performing arts programs, and championship athletic teams. Heritage is also a solar school. The 2.38 kW photovoltaic project installed at Heritage High School is designed to demonstrate the benefits and opportunities created by renewable energy technology and provide a powerful learning tool for both students and the community.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Los Medanos College began operating a satellite facility (Brentwood Center) at Sand Creek Road and Brentwood Boulevard in the city. The existing Center has outgrown its limited space in a former grocery store, where it has no room for expansion. The Brentwood Center has acquired property in the southwest part of the city, where it plans to build a new campus. Construction is expected to begin in 2018 and classes are expected to begin in the spring of 2020.


title: Brentwood, California

text: The temporary Brentwood branch of the Contra Costa County Library, located at 104 Oak Street, across from the Civic Center and City Park, was razed early in 2017, along with two other city-owned buildings at 118 and 120 Oak Street to be replaced by the long-awaited new Brentwood branch library. The Brentwood City Council approved the design for the new facility in September, 2016. The facility was completed in 2018, and serves a population of more than 50,000. The library collection includes materials in both Spanish and English. It also offers a wide variety of media, including DVDs, CDs, and audiobooks, as well as a large print collection. The library offers a number of programs for all ages, including storytimes for babies and toddlers.


title: Brentwood, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that Brentwood had a population of 51,481. The population density was . The racial makeup of Brentwood was 34,969 (67.9%) White, 3,389 (6.6%) African American, 333 (0.6%) Native American, 4,051 (7.9%) Asian, 202 (0.4%) Pacific Islander, 4,964 (9.6%) from other races, and 3,573 (6.9%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13,779 persons (26.8%).


title: Brentwood, California

text: The Census reported that 51,335 people (99.7% of the population) lived in households, 141 (0.3%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 5 (0%) were institutionalized.


title: Brentwood, California

text: There were 16,494 households, out of which 8,047 (48.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 10,560 (64.0%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,823 (11.1%) had a female householder with no husband present, 825 (5.0%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 794 (4.8%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 141 (0.9%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 2,616 households (15.9%) were made up of individuals, and 1,355 (8.2%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.11. There were 13,208 families (80.1% of all households); the average family size was 3.47. The median income for a household in the town was $97,202.


title: Brentwood, California

text: The population was spread out, with 16,058 people (31.2%) under the age of 18, 3,854 people (7.5%) aged 18 to 24, 13,991 people (27.2%) aged 25 to 44, 11,703 people (22.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 5,875 people (11.4%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.4 males.


title: Brentwood, California

text: There were 17,523 housing units at an average density of , of which 16,494 were occupied, of which 12,580 (76.3%) were owner-occupied, and 3,914 (23.7%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.7%; the rental vacancy rate was 6.0%. 38,410 people (74.6% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 12,925 people (25.1%) lived in rental housing units.


title: Brentwood, California

text: As of the 2000 census, there were 23,265 residents. The population density was 2,001.2/sqmi (774/km). There were 7,788 housing units at an average density of 668.8/sqmi (259/km). The racial makeup of the town was 75.38% White, 9.40% African American, 0.75% Native American, 6.99% Asian, 0.10% Pacific Islander, 5.96% from other races, and 1.43% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.34% of the population.


title: Brentwood, California

text: There were 23,700 households, out of which 45.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69.2% were married couples living together, 7.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.4% were non-families. 19.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 2.93.


title: Brentwood, California

text: In the town the population was spread out, with 22.9% under the age of 18, 3.2% from 18 to 24, 19.4% from 25 to 44, 33.4% from 45 to 64, and 21.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.7 males.


title: Brentwood, California

text: The median income for a household in the town was $87,068, and the median income for a family was $91,796. Males had a median income of $58,059 versus $39,585 for females. The per capita income for the town was $33,621. About 5.4% of families and 9.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.3% of those under age 18 and 3.5% of those age 65 or over.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Agriculture remains important to the local economy, but has declined in relative importance as the city has become more suburban. Local wineries including Bloomfield, Tamayo, and Hannah Nicole have gained in sales and prestige after winning numerous medals in recent years at the San Francisco Chronicle Wine Competition and the California State Fair. There is no heavy industry and only a small light industrial area in the northeastern part of the city. Brentwood underwent a strong economic boom from 2000 through 2008. Population expanded from 23,302 in 2000 to about 48,000 in 2006, a higher growth rate than other communities in the Bay Area. Some of the new neighborhoods were centered around two new golf courses, the Shadow Lakes Golf Club and the Deer Valley Golf Club, that were constructed to take advantage of the views of Mt. Diablo. The boom stalled in 2009, paralleling the economic crisis that affected all of California, but successful new home subdivisions, including a gated community (Carmel Estates), appeared again in 2010. Within an active adult community (Trilogy at the Vineyards), Club Los Meganos opened in 2010 with of athletic club, pool and cabanas, gourmet studio, spa, tennis courts, and events center. In 2013, Brentwood's economy displayed renewed economic vigor with substantial new activity in residential and commercial/retail construction. Sales offices of new home subdivisions commonly advertise new houses beginning in the $500Ks with the largest homes with many upgrades nearing $1M. The overall improvement in the Bay Area economy and anticipation for the 2015 completion of eBart and highway improvements in East Contra Costa County are playing a part in the revival of strong economic growth in Brentwood. One of the most exciting development opportunities in Brentwood is linked to the two Federal research facilities – Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories – that are located 25 minutes south of Brentwood. Brentwood has established close relations with the national labs and is a member of i-GATE, which is a regional partnership designed to promote tech-oriented business growth connected with the labs.


title: Brentwood, California

text: According to the city's 2018 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:


title: Brentwood, California

text: Public transportation is very limited, so the principal roads leading into the city are very congested with commuter traffic. No freeways served Brentwood directly until February 2008, when the John Marsh Heritage Highway (also known as the California State Route 4 Bypass or Bypass Road, now California State Route 4) was built to connect the western side of Brentwood directly with Antioch. State Route 4 passes by the western edge of Brentwood. The freeway portion of SR 4 ends just south of the Balfour Road exit. SR 4 continues as a two-lane highway to its intersection with Marsh Creek Road and the end of Vasco Road, an unnumbered highway that is the principal route to Livermore, Interstate 580, and the Silicon Valley. To the southeast of Brentwood, County Route J4, known as the Byron Highway, connects to Tracy and the San Joaquin Valley.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Local bus service is provided by Tri Delta Transit, a special purpose district providing public transportation for Eastern Contra Costa County. This district also operates express bus service to the Pittsburg/Bay Point and rail station Monday through Friday, several a day. Due to a route with a number of bus stops, it takes about two hours for the bus to reach Pittsburg/Bay Point BART from the Brentwood Park & Ride lot on Walnut Street.


title: Brentwood, California

text: A light rail Bay Area Rapid Transit expansion from Bay Point to Hillcrest Avenue, serving East Contra Costa County, known as eBart, was put into regular service in August 2018.


title: Brentwood, California

text: There is no passenger rail service to Brentwood. The nearest Altamont Corridor Express train station is in Livermore. The nearest Amtrak station is in Antioch.


title: Brentwood, California

text: There is a freight-only rail line that passes through Brentwood, which is owned by Union Pacific Railroad. However, the line has been inactive since the early 1990s. Union Pacific Railroad does have plans to reactivate this line sometime in the future.


title: Brentwood, California

text: Brentwood was one of 212 cities designated by KaBOOM! as a Playful City USA for 2010 - one of only 23 such cities in California and only three in Northern California. This is the seventh consecutive year that Brentwood has been listed. Each community selected demonstrated creative commitments to the cause of play and fitness. Brentwood was selected for a variety of reasons, including the fact that it offers the community its Wellness Policy, a community-wide aspirational goal which promotes physical activity and education as the benefits of living a healthy lifestyle. Brentwood has many parks and miles of jogging trails, to support healthy lifestyles.


title: Brentwood, California

text: The visual and performing arts are well represented in Brentwood. The city is home to the Brentwood Art Society, which sponsors events such as the annual Art, Wine, and Jazz Festival, the Artists Open Studio Tour, open mic nights, and other gatherings and shows. The Art Society is also a supporter of the Brentwood Theater Company, which since 2010 has been producing Broadway musicals and musical reviews in venues around the city. In spring 2014, a major art gallery was opened in the Streets of Brentwood shopping center.


title: Brentwood, California

text: The Brentwood Parks and Recreation Department reports that it is responsible for 72 city parks. Only four of these exceed 10 acres in size, while 23 parks cover less than one acre each.


title: Dera Baba Murad Shah

text: Dera Murad Shah is a Sufiyana Darbar located in Nakodar, Jalandhar Punjab, India. The Darbar is a symbol of love and peace where people from all different castes and religions come and pay their respects at this Darbar. The two main Darbars in Nakodar are Murad Shah Darbar and Lal Badshah.


title: Dera Baba Murad Shah

text: It is a Sufi paradise located in Jalandhar District in Nakodar and is only 24 km away from Jalandhar City and 16 km from Kala Sanghian 114 km away from Amritsar . This pilgrimage site is a Sufi paradise which is very peaceful. The tomb is built in a structural way and photographs of Murad Shah are displayed at a couple of places which look beautiful. The shrine of Murad Shah after the death of Laddi Shah was offered to the famous Punjabi singer, Gurdas Maan who has remained as a sewadaar. Various singers perform at this powerful place and also there is a mela (fair) celebrated regularly in Memory of Murad Shah and Ghulam (Laddi) Shah.


title: Dera Baba Murad Shah

text: Gurdas Maan is an ardent follower of Laddi Shah and also a frequent visitor. Sai loved Gurdas Maan very much.


title: Dera Baba Murad Shah

text: Thursdays are the most crowded day to visit this place as more than a thousand devotees visit this place on Thursdays. This is because Thursdays are regarded as special days within Sufism.


title: Dera Baba Murad Shah

text: Murad Shah became a disciple of Shere Shah. He opted Fakeeri at the age of 24 years and returned to God at the age of 28 years. Shere Shah always used to stay in lonely place and did not want people to come near him so that there would be no disturbance in his prayers. He used to be in prayers and read a book "Heer" written by Waris Shah. During the partition of India Shere Shah moved to Pakistan and gave his blessing to Murad Shah to look after the Darbar and to continue to spread the message of Sufism.


title: Dera Baba Murad Shah

text: Ghulam Shah also known as Laddi Shah became the head of the darbar after Murad Shah left this world. Sai continued to look after the darbar and continue building the darbar. Sai used to organize an annual Urs mela (fair) in the memory of Murad Shah, which he invited Qawwal's and Sufi Punjabi Singers to perform. Qaramat Ali Qawwal group performed quite frequently and still do to this day. One of the Qawwalis that Sai used to love was 'Mere Likhle Ghulama Vich Naa' which in every mehfil Sai would always listen to it. Laddi Shah departed this world on Thursday the first of May 2008.


title: Dera Baba Murad Shah

text: Gurdas Maan became a disciple of Sai and Sai loved Gurdas Maan very dearly. In 2006, Sai took his pagri (turban) off during a qawwali mehfil and placed it on Gurdas Maan's head.


title: Dera Baba Murad Shah

text: After Laddi Shah left this world, Gurdas Maan now leads the melas (fairs) in memory of Laddi Shah and Murad Shah.


title: Dera Baba Murad Shah

text: Every year two Urs melas (anniversary fair) are held, one in the memory of Murad Shah and the other for Laddi Shah. Gurdas Maan leads these auspicious events by visiting the grave of Murad Shah and Laddi Shah by offering prayers. He also conducts the Jhanda Rasm (Flag Ceremony) in which the green flag is replaced which symbolizes Sufism.


title: Dera Baba Murad Shah

text: During the Urs (Anniversary) of Sai, Gurdas Maan usually offers gifts to the Mazars (tombs) of the pious Saints . He also lights incense sticks which has a great significance in Sufi rituals.


title: Crowne Plaza

text: Crowne Plaza is a British multinational chain of full service, upscale hotels headquartered in the United Kingdom. It caters to business travelers and the meetings and conventions market. It forms part of the InterContinental Hotels Group family of brands, which include InterContinental Hotels & Resorts and Holiday Inn Hotels & Resorts, and operates in nearly 100 countries with more than 431 hotels and 118,000 bedrooms, usually located in city centers, resorts, coastal towns or near major airports.


title: Crowne Plaza

text: Holiday Inn Crowne Plaza was established in 1983 as the upscale division of Holiday Inn. The first Holiday Inn Crowne Plaza hotel opened that year in Rockville, Maryland. In 1988, Bass PLC (today InterContinental Hotels Group) purchased Holiday Corporation and in 1994 the brand was renamed Crowne Plaza Hotels. In 1999, Crowne Plaza opened its first European property, in Madeira, Portugal.


title: Crowne Plaza

text: Crowne Plaza Hotels & Resorts is the title sponsor of the Crowne Plaza Invitational at Colonial - a PGA Tour golf tournament held annually in Fort Worth, Texas. Starting in 2012, they are also officially sponsoring PGA Tour's 2010's Rookie of the Year, Rickie Fowler.


title: Crowne Plaza

text: Crowne Plaza Hotels & Resorts have been the sponsor of the British FIA World Touring Car Championship driver Andy Priaulx, a multiple touring car champion, since 2006. They now continue to support him in the Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM), a popular European touring car championship, as an official sponsor of BMW Motorsport along with the American LeMans Series (ALMS) where Californian Joey Hand represents the brand for both series.


title: Danny Kamekona

text: Kamekona began his acting career on television, debuting in a 1968 episode of "Hawaii Five-O", one of 32 different appearances over 11 years. Other TV appearances included "The Brian Keith Show"; "Sanford and Son"; "Barnaby Jones"; six episodes of "Magnum, P.I."; "21 Jump Street"; "L.A. Law"; "Walker, Texas Ranger"; and his last TV appearance, in 1995's "Burke's Law". He appeared as Agawa, employed by Riochi Tanaka in the episode "The Rising Sun Of Death" of the series "Miami Vice".


title: Danny Kamekona

text: "The Karate Kid Part II" was Kamekona's debut movie appearance in 1986. Other movie appearances included "Black Widow" (with Terry O'Quinn), "Problem Child" (with Michael Richards), "Honeymoon in Vegas", and his final movie appearance, 1993's "Robot Wars".


title: Danny Kamekona

text: Actor participant in brief training scene re-enactment during PR tour of trilogy (April 23rd 1989), besides the Rose Theatre Shakespearian event day, accompanied by many of the The Karate Kid Part II cast members, and was a featured character during the tributes to Magnum, P.I..


title: Danny Kamekona

text: Kamekona was found dead in his Los Angeles, California apartment on May 2, 1996 at age 60. He had been dead for several days in his bathroom, according to friends and family members. The cause of death was never revealed.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: The national flag of the Republic of Moldova () is a vertical triband of blue, yellow, and red, charged with the coat of arms of Moldova (an eagle holding a shield charged with an aurochs) on the centre bar. The reverse is mirrored. The flag ratio is 1:2. Until further provisions, the State Flag of Moldova is used as the national flag and ensign as well; that is, civil, state and war flag and ensign.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: The blue-yellow-red tricolour of Moldova is inspired by the flag of Romania, reflecting the two countries' national and cultural affinity. On Moldova's flag, the yellow stripe is charged with the national arms. Like the Romanian coat of arms, the Moldovan arms, adopted in 1990, features a dark golden eagle holding an Orthodox Christian cross in its beak. Instead of a sword, the eagle is holding an olive branch, symbolising peace. The blue and red shield on the eagle's chest is charged with the traditional symbols of Moldova: an aurochs' head, flanked by a rose in dexter and a crescent in sinister and having a star between its horns, all of gold. These two national flags are also very similar to the flags of Chad and Andorra, which are all based on vertical stripes of blue, yellow, and red.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: Until 2010, the colour shades of the Moldavian flag were not explicitly named. The Regulation regarding the flag stated that the colours of the flag must match the ones shown in the annex. Moldavian heraldist and vexillologist Silviu Andrieș-Tabac stated in an interview that in 1990, when the flag was being created, "it was taken into account that many countries have similar tricolour flags. As a result, it was decided to abandon the ultramarine blue, which is present on the Romanian flag, in favour of the emerald-blue, used on the mural paintings of Voroneț monastery...".


title: Flag of Moldova

text: The French "Album des pavillons nationaux et des marques distinctives" (2000) by Armand du Payrat and Daniel Roudaut had suggested the following Pantone nuances, including those of the coat of arms: blue 549, yellow 143, red 186, green 340 and brown 464.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: However, a new law from 2010 defined the colours of the flag as "Berlin blue", "chrome yellow" and "vermillon red". The exact matches, according to annex no. 2, are as follows:


title: Flag of Moldova

text: In 2010 four new governmental standards, derived from the state flag, were established. The standard of the Minister of Defense has yet to be defined, its temporary replacement being the state flag. The other three standards, of the President, President of the Parliament and Prime Minister, are described as follows:


title: Flag of Moldova

text: A square flag with the coat of arms of Moldova on center, whose "aquila" is golden (instead of dark gold, or brown). The flag has a border of squares, each one measuring of the flag's width and following the pattern blue-yellow-red-yellow. The background of the flag is purple for the President, red for the President of the Parliament and blue for the Prime Minister.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: The original flags are kept in their respective offices. Duplicates are hoisted on the official residences when the people entitled to them are inside; also on their respective cars.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: The design of the standard of the minister of defense and regulations concerning its use is also provided for by Decree No. 1194 of 17 June 2014.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: Several governmental organizations have flags established by parliamentary or governmental decisions:


title: Flag of Moldova

text: The flag of the National Army of the Republic of Moldova represents a unique military vexillologic insignia. It is the symbol of the military glory, of the tradition and continuity, honor and loyalty of the soldiers and officers to the country.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: The cloth of the flag has the same chromatics as the state flag of the Republic of Moldova. Its partition reminds of the old Moldavian military flags, from 1834 to 1863. The red central cross reminds of Saint George, the patron and protector of the medieval Moldavian army. The motto ""Pentru Onoare! Pentru Patrie! Pentru Tricolor!"" represents the belief of the Moldovan soldiers.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: The military colours of the Moldavian Army units consists of the state flag, measuring 825×1650 mm, with golden fringes and tassels, having the unit's battle cry inscribed on obverse, above the coat of arms, and the unit's name on reverse, below the coat of arms. The flag is fixed on a wooden rod, measuring 2500 mm, with a standard pole on top. Previous regulation, which hasn't been explicitly repealed in 2010, described the inscriptions on the flag as follows: on obverse, above the coat of arms, """" ("For our Motherland"), and below """" ("Republic of Moldova"); on reverse, above the coat of arms, the unit's name.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: The military colours, as well as their regulations, are issued by decree of the President of Moldova.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: The military colours of the units of the Ministry of Internal Affairs are reproducing the state flag, with golden fringes and tassels, having the motto """" ("For Motherland") inscribed on obverse, above the coat of arms, and the text """" ("The Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Moldova") on reverse, below the top margin. Also, on reverse, above the coat of arms, is inscribed the name of the unit, all letters being embroidered with golden thread.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: Since April 2010, the Flag Day of Moldova is celebrated on 27 April each year. On this day in 1990, the tricolor was officially adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the Moldavian SSR as the state flag of the country.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: Romania and Moldova are historically and culturally almost identical, and due to this, the flags Moldova has or has had are highly similar.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: The current flag of Moldova was created in 1990 and is based on the national colors of Romanians, the blue-yellow-red tricolor. The reverse side differed from the Romanian flag in proportion, and by having a lighter blue.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: The flag of Moldova was one of the national flags with differing obverse and reverse sides — the others being the flags of Paraguay. Although the reverse of the flag was officially stated as not containing any coat of arms, Moldovan flags with a coat of arms printed on the reverse were also used.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: On 26 November 2010, a new law regarding the State Flag of Moldova became effective. One of the most important provisions has the reverse defined as a mirrored image of the obverse.


title: Flag of Moldova

text: The flags of the Moldavian Democratic Republic (MDR) and some of the proposed flags for the Republic of Moldova display the head of an aurochs, which is derived from the flag and coat of arms of Moldavia.


title: Julianne Morris

text: Morris was born in South Carolina. Her family relocated to Windermere, Florida when she was young and she was raised there. She is the youngest of two children. Morris attended American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York, and graduated from North Carolina School of the Arts.


title: Julianne Morris

text: In 1994, Morris landed a role as Tracy Pinkem in television film "Witch Hunt". She played Amy Wilson on the soap opera "The Young and the Restless" from November 18, 1994 to May 22, 1996 and made a guest appearance on November 25, 2014. Morris portrayed Greta Von Amburg on "Days of Our Lives" from May 15, 1998 to April 19, 2002. She was first introduced on "Days of Our Lives" as "Swamp Girl". Between her time on "Y&R" and "Days of Our Lives," Morris spent time in South Africa, playing Rumina on the fantasy television series "The Adventures of Sinbad". She portrayed Amber Sullivan in television film "Another Pretty Face" (2002). She has also appeared on "Two and a Half Men".


title: Julianne Morris

text: Morris married actor Kristoffer Polaha on June 7, 2003 at the Windermere Chapel. The couple has three sons born in 2004, 2006, and 2011.


title: Julianne Morris

text: She is a practising Christian. She advocates sexual abstinence before marriage, saying "I believe marriage is ordained by God. The Bible teaches quite explicitly that the romantic attachment between a husband and a wife is a parallel to our relationship to God. There could be no stronger indication of its importance."


title: Arundel

text: Arundel ( ) is a market town and civil parish in the Arun District of the South Downs, West Sussex, England.


title: Arundel

text: The much-conserved town has a medieval castle and Roman Catholic cathedral. Arundel has a museum and comes second behind much larger Chichester in its number of listed buildings in West Sussex. The River Arun runs through the eastern side of the town.


title: Arundel

text: Arundel was one of the boroughs reformed by the Municipal Reform Act 1835. From 1836 to 1889 the town had its own Borough police force with a strength of three. In 1974 it became part of the Arun district, and is now a civil parish with a town council.


title: Arundel

text: The name comes from the Old English "Harhunedell", meaning "valley of horehound", and was first recorded in the Domesday Book. Folk etymology, however, connects the name with the Old French word "arondelle", meaning "swallow", and swallows appear on the town's arms.


title: Arundel

text: An electoral ward of the same name exists. This ward stretches north to Houghton with a total population at the 2011 census of 4,298. Arundel Town Council is based at Arundel Town Hall.


title: Arundel

text: Arundel civil parish occupies an area somewhat larger than its built-up clusters, with the old town towards the north and the new to the south, separated by a main road.


title: Arundel

text: Arundel town is a major bridging point over the River Arun as it was the lowest road bridge until the opening of the Littlehampton swing bridge in 1908. Arundel Castle was built by the Normans to protect that vulnerable fairly wooded plain to the north of the valley through the South Downs. The town later grew up on the slope below the castle to the south. The river was previously called the Tarrant and was renamed after the town by antiquarians in a back-formation.


title: Arundel

text: Arundel includes meadows to the south but is clustered north of the A27 road, which narrowly avoids the town centre by a short and congested single carriageway bypass. Plans for a more extensive, HQDC bypass were debated intensely between 1980 and 2010 and a junction was built for it at Crossbush. In Spring 2018, Highways England published their preferred route for the new bypass. During 2018-19 there is a further period of consultation when views on a more detailed design for the four-mile dual carriageway will be sought.


title: Arundel

text: Arundel railway station is on the Arun Valley Line. The Monarch's Way long-distance footpath passes through the town and crosses the river here, while just under five miles north and north-west of the town the route of the South Downs Way runs.


title: Arundel

text: Arundel is home to Arundel Castle, seat of the Duke of Norfolk; and to Arundel Cathedral, seat of the (Catholic) Bishop of Arundel and Brighton.


title: Arundel

text: People born in Arundel are known locally as Mullets, due to the presence of mullet in the River Arun.


title: Arundel

text: Arundel is home to one of the oldest Scout Groups in the world. 1st Arundel (Earl of Arundel's Own) Scout Group was formed in 1908 only a few weeks after Scouting began. Based in an HQ in Green Lane Close, it has active sections of Beaver Scouts, Cub Scouts and Scouts.


title: Arundel

text: The town also has its own cricket ground at the castle, often cited as being one of the country's most picturesque. It hosts Sussex County Cricket Club for a number of games each season.


title: Chilling effect

text: In a legal context, a chilling effect is the inhibition or discouragement of the legitimate exercise of natural and legal rights by the threat of legal sanction. A chilling effect may be caused by legal actions such as the passing of a law, the decision of a court, or the threat of a lawsuit; any legal action that would cause people to hesitate to exercise a legitimate right (freedom of speech or otherwise) for fear of legal repercussions. When that fear is brought about by the threat of a libel lawsuit, it is called libel chill. A lawsuit initiated specifically for the purpose of creating a chilling effect may be called a Strategic Lawsuit Against Public Participation (SLAPP).


title: Chilling effect

text: "Chilling" in this context normally implies an undesirable slowing. Outside the legal context in common usage; any coercion or threat of coercion (or other unpleasantries) can have a chilling effect on a group of people regarding a specific behavior, and often can be statistically measured or be plainly observed. For example, the news headline "Flood insurance [price] spikes have chilling effect on some home sales," and the abstract title of a two-part survey of 160 college students involved in dating relationships: "The chilling effect of aggressive potential on the expression of complaints in intimate relationships."


title: Chilling effect

text: In United States and Canadian law, the term "chilling effects" refers to the stifling effect that vague or excessively broad laws may have on legitimate speech activity.


title: Chilling effect

text: However, the term is also now commonly used outside American legal jargon, such as the chilling effects of high prices or of corrupt police, or of "anticipated aggressive repercussions" (in say, personal relationships).


title: Chilling effect

text: A chilling effect is an effect that reduces, suppresses, discourages, delays, or otherwise retards reporting concerns of any kind.


title: Chilling effect

text: An example of the "chilling effect" in Canadian case law can be found in "Iorfida v. MacIntyre" where the constitutionality of a criminal law prohibiting the publication of literature depicting illicit drug use was challenged. The court found that the law had a "chilling effect" on legitimate forms of expression and could stifle political debate on issues such as the legalization of marijuana. The court noted that it did not adopt the same "chilling effect" analysis used in American law but considered the chilling effect of the law as a part of its own analysis.


title: Chilling effect

text: Regarding Ömer Faruk Gergerlioğlu's case in Turkey, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) said that Turkey's mis-use of counter-terrorism measures can have a chilling effect on the enjoyment of fundamental freedoms and human rights.


title: Chilling effect

text: The term "chilling effect" has been in use in the United States since as early as 1950. The United States Supreme Court first refers to the "chilling effect" in the context of the United States Constitution in "Wieman v. Updegraff" in 1952.


title: Chilling effect

text: It, however, became further used as a legal term when William J. Brennan, a justice of the United States Supreme Court, used it in a judicial decision ("Lamont v. Postmaster General") which overturned a law requiring a postal patron receiving "communist political propaganda" to specifically authorize the delivery.


title: Chilling effect

text: The "Lamont" case, however, did not center around a law that explicitly stifles free speech. The "chilling effect" referred to at the time was a "deterrent effect" on freedom of expression—even when there is no law explicitly prohibiting it. However, in general, the term "chilling effect" is also used in reference to laws or actions that may not explicitly prohibit legitimate speech, but rather impose undue burden on speech.


title: Chilling effect

text: Edward Snowden disclosed in 2013 that the US government's Upstream program was collecting data on people reading Wikipedia articles. This revelation had significant impact on the self-censorship of the readers, as shown by the fact that there were substantially fewer views for articles related to terrorism and security. The court case "Wikimedia Foundation v. NSA" has since followed.


title: Dee Ford

text: Dee Ford (born March 19, 1991) is an American football defensive end who is a free agent. He was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in the first round of the 2014 NFL Draft. He played college football at Auburn.


title: Dee Ford

text: Ford attended St. Clair County High School in Odenville, Alabama. While there, he played high school football. As a senior, Ford recorded 90 tackles, including 38 tackles for loss and 18 sacks, intercepted a pass, and broke up three while being named to the Class 4A All-State team by the Alabama Sports Writers Association. As a junior, he posted 87 total tackles with 16 tackles for a loss and 12 sacks.


title: Dee Ford

text: Considered a three-star recruit by "Rivals.com", he was ranked as the 62nd best outside linebacker prospect in the nation.


title: Dee Ford

text: Ford attended Auburn University from 2009 to 2013. During his career, he had 19.5 sacks. As a senior in 2013, he was an All-SEC selection.


title: Dee Ford

text: On January 25, 2014, Ford attended the Reese's Senior Bowl and had an impressive performance after recording two combined tackles, two tackles for a loss, a pass deflection, and sacked Virginia Tech's Logan Thomas twice to help the South defeat the North 20-10. His Senior Bowl performance helped him raise his draft stock. NFL draft experts and analysts projected Ford to be a first or second round. He received an invitation to the NFL combine, but did not perform any physical drills after doctors recommended him sit out after issues stemming from a back injury he suffered in 2011. On March 4, 2014, Ford participated at Auburn's pro day and was able to complete all of the combine and positional drills for team representatives and scouts. All 32 NFL teams had representatives present at Auburn's pro day to scout Ford, Greg Robinson, and ten other prospects. He was ranked the second best defensive end prospect in the draft by NFLDraftScout.com and "Sports Illustrated" and was ranked the third best defensive end by NFL analyst Mike Mayock.


title: Dee Ford

text: Ford competed with Dezman Moses, Frank Zombo, and Josh Mauga throughout training camp for a job as the backup linebacker. Head coach Andy Reid named him the backup right outside linebacker to Tamba Hali to begin the regular season.


title: Dee Ford

text: Ford made his NFL debut during the 10–26 season-opening loss to the Tennessee Titans. Two weeks later, he recorded his first NFL tackle and deflected a pass during a 34–15 victory over the Miami Dolphins. During Week 8, Ford made a season-high three combined tackles and was credited a half a sack making it the first of his career during a 34–7 victory over the St. Louis Rams. Ford joined a highly-touted linebacking corps as a rookie, that consisted of Justin Houston, Derrick Johnson, and Tamba Hali. With Houston and Hali already staples in the defense, Ford received no starts in 16 game appearances and was limited to only seven combined tackles and 1.5 sacks.


title: Dee Ford

text: Ford returned to his role as the backup outside linebacker in 2015, behind key veteran Hali and Houston. Ford missed Weeks 11-12 after suffering a back injury. During Week 13, Ford earned his first NFL start against the Oakland Raiders after Justin Houston suffered a knee injury that caused him to miss the rest of the season. Ford finished the 34–20 victory over the Raiders with a solo tackle. In the next game against the San Diego Chargers, he made a season-high seven solo tackles, defended a pass, and sacked quarterback Philip Rivers thrice in a 10–3 victory. Ford made his first career solo sack and marked a career-high with his three-sack performance.


title: Dee Ford

text: Ford finished his second professional season with 23 combined tackles (21 solo), two pass deflections, and four sacks in 14 games and five starts.


title: Dee Ford

text: Ford began the 2016 season as the starting right outside linebacker, in place of Justin Houston, who was recovering from surgery in February to repair a torn ACL.


title: Dee Ford

text: Ford started in the season-opener against the San Diego Chargers and recorded four solo tackles and a sack on Philip Rivers during the 33-27 overtime victory. During Week 6, Ford made five combined tackles and sacked Oakland Raiders quarterback Derek Carr twice in a 26-10 road victory. He did not record a sack in the next game against the New Orleans Saints and only recorded one tackle total on a down effort/ However, the Chiefs still won 27-21. The following week against the Indianapolis Colts, Ford collected five combined tackles and was credited with a career-high 3.5 sacks on quarterback Andrew Luck during a 30-14 victory. During Week 9, he had his second consecutive game with multiple sacks after he sacked quarterback Blake Bortles twice during a 19-14 victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars. In the next game, Ford collected three combined tackles, deflected a pass, and recorded a sack on Cam Newton, as the Chiefs defeated the Carolina Panthers by a score 20-17. This was his third consecutive game with a sack. Through Ford's first nine games of his 2016 season, he was tied with Lorenzo Alexander as the NFL's sack leader. Although Houston returned to his starting left outside linebacker role in Week 11, Ford was able to start at right outside linebacker from Weeks 14-16 ahead of Tamba Hali.


title: Dee Ford

text: Ford finished his third season with 38 combined tackles (25 solo), a career-high ten sacks, and two pass deflections in 15 games and 14 starts.


title: Dee Ford

text: On May 1, 2017, the Chiefs exercised the fifth-year option on Ford's rookie contract that pays him $8.71 million in 2018.


title: Dee Ford

text: Ford was set to begin his fourth season as the backup left outside linebacker to Tamba Hali, until Hali was placed on the Physically Unable to Perform list with an unspecified injury and was set to miss the first six games.


title: Dee Ford

text: Ford started in the season-opener against the New England Patriots and made four solo tackles in the 42-27 road victory. The following week, he earned two solo tackles and sacked quarterback Carson Wentz in a 27-20 victory over the Philadelphia Eagles. Ford was unable to play in Weeks 4-5 after sustaining a back injury. On October 15, 2017, he collected four combined tackles and a sack on Ben Roethlisberger, as the Chiefs were defeated by the Pittsburgh Steelers by a score 13-19. Ford was placed on injured reserve on December 7, 2017.


title: Dee Ford

text: During Week 8, Ford sacked Case Keenum thrice in a 30-23 win over the Denver Broncos, earning him AFC Defensive Player of the Week. Overall for the month of October, Ford recorded 13 tackles, four sacks, and three forced fumbles, earning himself AFC Defensive Player of the Month.


title: Dee Ford

text: In the final minutes of the 4th quarter of the against the New England Patriots, Ford was called for an offsides penalty that reversed a Charvarius Ward interception that would have likely sealed the game for the Chiefs.


title: Dee Ford

text: On March 12, 2019 the Chiefs agreed to a trade that would send Ford to the San Francisco 49ers in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2020 NFL Draft. Ford would sign a five year contract worth $87.5 million after the trade was officially completed on March 13, 2019.


title: Dee Ford

text: Ford made his 49ers debut in the season-opener against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, sacking Jameis Winston once in the 31–17 road victory. During Week 6 against the Los Angeles Rams, Ford sacked Jared Goff 1.5 times in the 20–7 road victory.


title: Dee Ford

text: Ford finished his first season with the 49ers tallying 14 tackles and 6.5 sacks in 11 games and two starts. In the playoffs, he helped the 49ers defeat the Minnesota Vikings and Green Bay Packers to advance to Super Bowl LIV where they would lose to Ford’s former team, the Kansas City Chiefs. Ford recorded two tackles in the Super Bowl.


title: Dee Ford

text: On October 3, 2020, Ford was placed on injured reserve with a neck and back injury. He only played in one game on the season.


title: Dee Ford

text: Ford is one of three children, born to his parents James and Debbie Ford. His parents married as teenagers, and have been together for three decades. He has a brother and a sister. Debbie worked two jobs, both as a licensed practical nurse, in order to pay the bills when the children were younger.


title: Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk

text: The Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk was a private-venture, prototype attack helicopter built in 1970 with Sikorsky Aircraft research and development (R&D) funds. A tandem, two-seat aircraft designed around the dynamic drive and rotor systems of the Sikorsky S-61, it was designed to serve as an attack helicopter or to transport up to eight troops into combat.


title: Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk

text: The United States Army issued a request for proposals (RFP) for its Advanced Aerial Fire Support System (AAFSS) program on 1 August 1964. Lockheed offered its CL-840 design, a rigid-rotor compound helicopter. Sikorsky submitted the S-66, which featured a "Rotorprop" serving as a tail rotor but as speeds increased would rotate 90° to act as pusher prop. The S-66 had short, fixed wings and was powered by a Lycoming T55 turboshaft engine. The design was to have a speed of with the ability for for brief periods.


title: Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk

text: The US Army awarded Lockheed and Sikorsky contracts for further study on 19 February 1965. On 3 November 1965, the Army announced Lockheed as the winner of the AAFSS program selection. The Army perceived Lockheed's design as less expensive, able to be available earlier, and that it would have less technical risk than Sikorsky's Rotorprop.


title: Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk

text: Lockheed's design soon ran into development problems and cost and timelines began to grow. Sensing an opportunity, Sikorsky offered an armed SH-3 Sea King (Sikorsky S-61) version. After further AAFSS problems, the company developed an intermediate, high-speed attack aircraft named the "Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk" in 1970. Design work on the S-67 began in November 1969 with manufacturing following in February 1970. The Blackhawk first flew on 20 August 1970.


title: Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk

text: The S-67 featured a five-bladed main rotor and tail rotor. The main rotor was taken from the S-61, but was modified to have a hub fairing, swept main rotor blade tips and a special "alpha-1" linkage which was added to the main rotor controls to increase collective pitch sensitivity and so extend the collective pitch range. The 20° swept main rotor blade tips help to overcome a phenomenon called sub-multiple oscillating track (SMOT) that causes variations in tip track at high Mach numbers. These allowed the S-67 to achieve and maintain high cruise speeds. To reduce drag at high speed, the main wheels retracted fully into the stub wing sponsons. It had speed brakes on the wing trailing edges that could be used to decrease speed or increase maneuverability.


title: Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk

text: The S-67 was fitted with a moving map display, a hands-on-collective radio tune control, and night vision systems. Its armament included a Tactical Armament Turret (TAT-140) with a three barrel cannon, and could carry 16 TOW missiles, rockets, or AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. The Blackhawk was powered by two General Electric T58-GE-5 engines.


title: Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk

text: The S-67 Blackhawk, along with the Bell 309 KingCobra, was put through a series of flight test evaluations in 1972 by the U.S. Army. Neither aircraft was selected to replace the AH-56 Cheyenne. Instead, the Army chose to create the new Advanced Attack Helicopter program, which would lead to the AH-64 Apache several years later.


title: Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk

text: The S-67 performed a series of aerobatic maneuvers during its various marketing tours, including rolls, split-S, and loops. The S-67 was reputed to be very smooth and responsive, in spite of its size and speed.


title: Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk

text: Piloted by Sikorsky Test Pilots Kurt Cannon and Byron Graham, the S-67 established two E-1 class world speed records on 14 December 1970 by flying at over a course, and on course on 19 December 1970. These records stood for eight years.


title: Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk

text: As part of internal Sikorsky R&D efforts, in 1974, the S-67 had a ducted fan fitted instead of its original conventional tail rotor. The S-67 with fan was tested over 29 flight hours to compare to the conventional tail. In this configuration it reached a speed of in a test dive. The original tail rotor and vertical tail fin were re-installed in August 1974.


title: Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk

text: The lone S-67 prototype crashed while conducting a low-level aerobatic demonstration at the Farnborough Airshow on 1 September 1974. The crew misjudged their pitch in a low-level roll maneuver causing the nose to drop below the horizon: they attempted to recover from their inverted position by performing a Split S maneuver, but they were too close to the ground and the aircraft struck the ground in a level attitude and immediately burst into flame. Sikorsky test pilot Stu Craig died on impact, and test pilot Kurt Cannon died nine days later from his injuries. Development work on the S-67 ceased after this accident.


title: Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk

text: The United States Army later assigned the name "Black Hawk" to the Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter.


title: Tooth whitening

text: Tooth whitening or tooth bleaching is the process of lightening the color of human teeth. Whitening is often desirable when teeth become yellowed over time for a number of reasons, and can be achieved by changing the intrinsic or extrinsic color of the tooth enamel. The chemical degradation of the chromogens within or on the tooth is termed as bleaching.


title: Tooth whitening

text: Hydrogen peroxide () is the active ingredient most commonly used in whitening products and is delivered as either hydrogen peroxide or carbamide peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is analogous to carbamide peroxide as it is released when the stable complex is in contact with water. When it diffuses into the tooth, hydrogen peroxide acts as an oxidising agent that breaks down to produce unstable free radicals. In the spaces between the inorganic salts in tooth enamel, these unstable free radicals attach to organic pigment molecules resulting in small, less heavily pigmented components. Reflecting less light, these smaller molecules create a "whitening effect". There are different products available on the market to remove stains. For whitening treatment to be successful, dental professionals (dental hygienist or dentist) should correctly diagnose the type, intensity and location of the tooth discolouration. Time exposure and the concentration of the bleaching compound, determines the tooth whitening endpoint.


title: Tooth whitening

text: The perception of tooth colour is multi-factorial. Reflection and absorption of light by the tooth can be influenced by a number of factors including specular transmission of light through the tooth; specular reflection at the surface; diffuse light reflection at the surface; absorption and scattering of light within the dental tissues; enamel mineral content; enamel thickness; dentine colour, the human observer, the fatigue of the eye, the type of incident light, and the presence of extrinsic and intrinsic stains. Additionally, the perceived brightness of the tooth can change depending on the brightness and colour of the background.


title: Tooth whitening

text: The combination of intrinsic colour and the presence of extrinsic stains on the tooth surface influence the colour and thus the overall appearance of teeth. The scattering of light and absorption within enamel and dentine determine the intrinsic colour of teeth and because the enamel is relatively translucent, the dentinal properties can play a major role in determining the overall tooth colour. On the other hand, extrinsic stain and colour is the result of coloured regions that have formed within the acquired pellicle on the enamel surface and can be influenced by lifestyle behaviours or habits. For example, dietary intake of tannin-rich foods, poor tooth brushing technique, tobacco products, and exposure to iron salts and chlorhexidine can darken the colour of a tooth.


title: Tooth whitening

text: With increasing age, teeth tend to be darker in shade. This can be attributed to secondary dentin formation and thinning of enamel due to tooth wear which contributes to a significant decrease in lightness and increase in yellowness. Tooth shade is not influenced by gender or race.


title: Tooth whitening

text: Tooth discolouration and staining is primarily due to two sources of stain: intrinsic and extrinsic (see Figure 2). In essence, tooth whitening primarily targets those intrinsic stains in which cannot be removed through mechanics such as a debridement (clean) or prophylaxis, in the dental office. Below explains in-depth the differences between the two sources of which contribute to such discolouration of the tooth's surface.


title: Tooth whitening

text: Extrinsic staining, is largely due to environmental factors including smoking, pigments in beverages and foods, antibiotics, and metals such as iron or copper. Coloured compounds from these sources are adsorbed into acquired dental pellicle or directly onto the surface of the tooth causing a stain to appear.


title: Tooth whitening

text: Intrinsic staining primarily occurs during the tooth development either before birth or at early childhood. Intrinsic stains are those that cannot be removed through mechanical measures such as debridement or a prophylactic stain removal. As the age of the person increases, the teeth can also appear yellower over time. Below are examples of intrinsic sources of stains:


title: Tooth whitening

text: Prior to proceeding to tooth whitening alternatives, it is advised that the patient comes into the dental office to have a comprehensive oral examination that consists of a full medical, dental, and social history. This will allow the clinician to see if there is any treatment that needs to be done such as restorations to remove cavities, and to assess whether or not the patient will be a good candidate to have the whitening done. The clinician would then debride (clean) the tooth surface with an ultrasonic scaler, hand instruments, and potentially a prophy paste to remove extrinsic stains as mentioned above. This will allow a clean surface for maximum benefits of whichever tooth whitening method the patient chooses. Below will discuss the various types of tooth whitening methods including both internal application of bleaching and external application through the use of bleaching agents.


title: Tooth whitening

text: Before the treatment, the clinician should examine the patient: taking a health and dental history (including allergies and sensitivities), observe hard and soft tissues, placement and conditions of restorations, and sometimes x-rays to determine the nature and depth of possible irregularities. If this is not completed prior to the whitening agents being applied to the tooth surface, excessive sensitivity and other complications may occur.


title: Tooth whitening

text: The whitening shade guides are used to measure tooth colour. These shades determine the effectiveness of the whitening procedure, which may vary from two to seven shades. These shades may be reached after a single in office appointment, or may take longer, depending on the individual. The effects of bleaching can last for several months, but may vary depending on the lifestyle of the patient. Consuming tooth staining foods or drinks that have a strong colour may compromise effectiveness of the treatment. These include food and drinks containing tannins such as; coffee, tea, red wines, and curry.


title: Tooth whitening

text: In-office bleaching procedures generally use a light-cured protective layer that is carefully painted on the gums and papilla (the tips of the gums between the teeth) to reduce the risk of chemical burns to the soft tissues. The bleaching agent is either carbamide peroxide, which breaks down in the mouth to form hydrogen peroxide, or hydrogen peroxide itself. The bleaching gel typically contains between 10% and 44% carbamide peroxide, which is roughly equivalent to a 3% to 16% hydrogen peroxide concentration. The legal percentage of hydrogen peroxide allowed to be given is 0.1–6%. Bleaching agents are only allowed to be given by dental practitioners, dental therapists, and dental hygienists.