title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: The greatest anticlerical bloodletting was at the beginning of the civil war when large areas of the country fell under the control of local loyalists and militias. A large part of the terror consisted of a perceived revenge against bosses and clergy, as they lost their powerful position in the social revolution, and the move towards extremism that took place in the first months of the civil war. According to historian Antony Beevor, "In republican territory the worst of the violence was mainly a sudden and quickly spent reaction of suppressed fear, exacerbated by desires of revenge for the past" in contrast with


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: "the relentless purging of 'reds and atheists' in nationalist territory". After the coup, the remaining days in July saw 861 priests and religious murdered, 95 of them on 25 July, feast day of St James, patron saint of Spain. August saw a further 2,077 clerical victims. After just two months of civil war, 3,400 priests, monks and nuns had been murdered. The same day of the fatal injury of Buenaventura Durruti 52 prisoners were executed by anarchists militiamen as reprisals.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: According to recent research, some of the Republican death squads were heavily staffed by members of the Soviet Union's secret police, the NKVD. According to author Donald Rayfield, "Stalin, Yezhov, and Beria distrusted Soviet participants in the Spanish war. Military advisors like Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko, journalists like Koltsov were open to infection by the heresies, especially Trotsky's, prevalent among the Republic's supporters. NKVD agents sent to Spain were therefore keener on abducting and murdering anti-Stalinists among Republican leaders and International Brigade commanders than on fighting Francisco Franco. The defeat of the Republic, in Stalin's eyes, was caused not by the NKVD's diversionary efforts, but by the treachery of the heretics". The most famous member of the Loyalist assassination squads was Erich Mielke, future head of East Germany's Stasi.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: According to Payne, "During the first months of the fighting most of the deaths did not come from combat on the battlefield but from political executions in the rear—the 'Red' and 'White' terrors. The terror consisted of semi-organized actions perpetrated by almost all of the leftist groups, Basque nationalists, largely Catholic but still mostly aligned with the Republicans, being an exception". Payne also contends that unlike the repression by the right, which "was concentrated against the most dangerous opposition elements", the Republican attacks were more irrational, "murdering innocent people and letting some of the more dangerous go free. Moreover, one of the main targets of the Red terror was the clergy, most of whom were not engaged in overt opposition". Describing specifically the Red Terror, Payne states that it "began with the murder of some of the rebels as they attempted to surrender after their revolt had failed in several of the key cities. From there it broadened out to wholesale arrests, and sometimes wholesale executions, of landowners and industrialists, people associated with right-wing groups or the Catholic Church".


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: The Red Terror was "not an irrepressible outpouring of hatred by the man in the street for his 'oppressors,' but a semi-organized activity carried out by sections of nearly all the leftist groups".


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: By contrast, historians such as Helen Graham, Paul Preston, Antony Beevor, Gabriel Jackson, Hugh Thomas, and Ian Gibson have stated that the mass executions behind the Nationalist lines were organised and approved by the Nationalist authorities, and the executions behind the Republican lines were the result of the breakdown of the Republican state and the anarchy. That is concurred by Francisco Partaloa, prosecutor of the Madrid High Court of Justice "(Tribunal Supremo de Madrid)" and Queipo de Llano's friend, who observed repression in both zones.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: These anti-fascists acted on the assumption that terror was integral to the anti-fascist war effort. The fear of a dehumanised and homicidal ‘fifth column’ was rooted in the exclusionist political culture of the left. After the proclamation of the Second Republic on 14 April 1931, Socialists and centre-left bourgeois Republicans conflated the new democracy with the heterogeneous political coalition that brought it into being after the departure of King Alonso XIII: the Republic’s future rested on the right being permanently excluded from power. The victory of the centre-right in the November 1933 elections, the failed Socialist-led insurrection of October 1934 and its subsequent repression promoted a common antifascist discourse based on the dichotomy of the virtuous productive ‘people’ (‘pueblo’) (i.e. the left) and a parasitical inhuman ‘fascist’ enemy (i.e. the right). While the Popular Front’s narrow electoral victory in February 1936 was interpreted as the definitive triumph of the antifascist ‘pueblo’, the struggle against the Republic’s right-wing enemies had to continue.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: However, Ruiz also notes that the idea of a homicidal, dehumanised enemy within was further reinforced by news of Nationalist atrocities; it convinced Republicans of the need for total victory. When Mola's army appeared in the mountains north of Madrid, this heightened the sense of urgency within the city of the necessity of dealing with alleged fifth columns, which had been blamed for prior Republican defeats. Infrequent Nationalist bombing raids also created further fear, as Republicans became convinced fascists within the society were directing rebel aircraft to their targets. In reality, during the terror of 1936 there was no fifth column in place as Nationalist sympathisers within the city were convinced Mola's northern armies and Franco's southern ones, led by professional officers, would easily crush the militia defending the city, negating any need for risky subversive activity. It was only after the failure of Franco's onslaught in the winter of 1936–37, when it became clear the war would last longer and the front lines had stabilised, that a fifth column did emerge, though it was never as powerful or extensive as the Republicans feared; it largely focused on mutual assistance, espionage and undermining Republican morale, eschewing terrorist activities such as bombings and assassinations. While fifth columnists did contribute to the Nationalist war effort, the fall of Madrid was not caused by internal subversion but defeat in battle. The largest and most efficient of these groups was about 6000 strong and was a Falangist women's welfare network known as "Hermanidad Auxilio Azul María Paz".


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: As early as 11 May 1931, when mob violence against the Republic's perceived enemies had led to the burning of churches, convents, and religious schools, the Church had sometimes been seen as the ally of the authoritarian right. The academic Mary Vincent has written: "There was no doubt that the Church would line up with the rebels against the Republic. The Jesuit priests of the city of Salamanca were among the first volunteers to present themselves to the military authorities... The tragedy of the Second Republic was that it abetted its own destruction; the tragedy of the Church was that it became so closely allied with its self-styled defenders". During the war, the Nationalists claimed that 20,000 priests had been killed; the figure is now put at 4,184 priests, 2,365 members of other religious institutes and 283 nuns, the vast majority during the summer of 1936.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: Payne has called the terror the "most extensive and violent persecution of Catholicism in Western History, in some way even more intense than that of the French Revolution", leaving Catholics with little alternative, and driving them to the Nationalists even more than it would have been expected.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: Figures for the Red Terror range from 38,000 to 72,344. Historian Beevor "reckons Franco's ensuing 'white terror' claimed 200,000 lives. The 'red terror' had already killed 38,000." According to Julio de la Cueva, the toll of the Red Terror was 72,344 lives. Hugh Thomas and Paul Preston said that the death toll was 55,000, and Spanish historian Julian Casanova said that the death toll was fewer than 60,000.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: Previously, Payne had suggested, "The toll taken by the respective terrors may never be known exactly. The left slaughtered more in the first months, but the Nationalist repression probably reached its height only after the war had ended, when punishment was exacted and vengeance wreaked on the vanquished left. The White Terror may have slain 50,000, perhaps fewer, during the war. The Franco government now gives the names of 61,000 victims of the Red Terror, but this is not subject to objective verification. The number of victims of the Nationalist repression, during and after the war, was undoubtedly greater than that". In "Checas de Madrid" (), journalist and historian César Vidal comes to a nationwide total of 110,965 victims of Republican repression; 11,705 people being killed in Madrid alone. Historian Santos Juliá, in the work "Víctimas de la guerra civil" provides approximate figures: about 50,000 victims of the Republican repression; about 100,000 victims of the Francoist repression during the war with some 40,000 after the war.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: Estimates of the number of religious men killed vary greatly. One estimate is that of the 30,000 priests and monks in Spain in 1936, 13% of the secular priests and 23% of the monks were killed, amounting to 6800 religious personnel altogether. Some 283 religious women were killed, some of them badly tortured. 13 bishops were killed from the dioceses of Siguenza Lleida, Cuenca, Barbastro, Segorbe, Jaén, Ciudad Real, Almeria, Guadix, Barcelona, Teruel and the auxiliary of Tarragona. Aware of the dangers, they all decided to remain in their cities: "I cannot go, only here is my responsibility, whatever may happen," said . In addition 4,172 diocesan priests, 2,364 monks and friars, among them 259 Claretians, 226 Franciscans, 204 Piarists, 176 Brothers of Mary, 165 Christian Brothers (also called the De La Salle Brothers), 155 Augustinians, 132 Dominicans, and 114 Jesuits were killed. In some dioceses, the number of secular priests killed was overwhelming:


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: In 2001, the Catholic Church beatified hundreds of martyrs of the Spanish Civil War and beatified 498 more on October 28, 2007.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: In October 2008, Spanish newspaper "La Razon" published an article on the number of murders of Catholic clergy members and religious people.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: Attitudes to the "red terror" varied on the Republican side. President Manuel Azaña made the well-publicized comment that all of the convents in Madrid were not worth one Republican life. Yet equally commonly cited, for example, is the speech by Socialist leader Indalecio Prieto on the Madrid radio on 9 August 1936 pleading Republican militiamen not to "imitate" the murderous actions of the military rebels and the public condemnation of arbitrary "justice" by Julián Zugazagoitia, the editor of "El Socialista", the Socialist Party newspaper, on 23 August.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: Julius Ruiz goes on to note, however, that "not cited... are "El Socialista"'s regular reports extolling the work of the Atadell brigade", a group of Republican agents who engaged in detentions and frequently murders of (in the end) up to 800 alleged Nationalists. "On 27 September 1936", Ruiz continues, "an editorial on the brigade stressed that its 'work, more than useful, is necessary. Indispensable.' Similarly, the Prieto-controlled Madrid daily "Informaciones" carried numerous articles on the activities of the Atadell brigade during the summer of 1936".


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: The hierarchy of the Catholic Church in Spain believed that the Red Terror was the result of a plan, "a program of systematic persecution of the Church was planned to the last detail". Before he was himself abducted and shot without trial by Indalecio Prieto's bodyguards just 5 days prior to the coup, Monarchist politician and leader of the opposition José Calvo Sotelo told the Spanish Parliament in April 1936 that in the six weeks since the government, from mid-February 15 to April 2, 1936, had been in power, some 199 attacks were carried out, 36 of them in churches. He listed 136 fires and fire bombings, which included 106 burned churches and 56 churches otherwise destroyed. He claimed they there were 74 persons dead and 345 persons injured.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: The attitudes of the Catholic side towards the government and the ensuing Civil War was expressed in a joint episcopal letter from July 1, 1937, addressed by the Spanish bishops to all other Catholic bishops. Spain was said to be divided into two hostile camps, one side expresses anti-religious and anti-Spanish, the other side upholding the respect for the religious and national order. The Church was pastorally oriented and not willing to sell its freedom to politics but had to side with those who started out defending its freedom and right to exist.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: The attitudes of people in the Nationalist zones were characterized by hope and religious revival. Victories were celebrated with religious services, anticlerical laws were abolished, and Catholic schools became legal again. Catholic military chaplains were reintroduced and attitudes to the Church immediately changed from hostility to respect and even admiration.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: With the total victory of the Nationalists over the Republicans in 1939, the Red Terror ended in the country, but individual terror attacks continued sporadically by remnant Communists and Socialists hiding in French border regions, with little result. Throughout the country, the Catholic Church held "Te Deums" to thank God for the outcome. Numerous left-wing personalities were tried for the Red Terror, not all of whom were guilty. Franco's victory was followed by thousands of summary executions (the remains of 35,000 people are estimated by the Association for the Recovery of Historical Memory (ARMH) to lie in mass graves) and imprisonments, and many were put to forced labour, building railways, drying out swamps, digging canals ("La Corchuela", the Canal of the Bajo Guadalquivir), construction of the Valle de los Caídos monument, etc. The 1940 shooting of the president of the Catalan government, Lluís Companys, was one of the most notable cases of this early repression.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: The new Pope Pius XII sent a radio message of congratulation to the Spanish government, clerics and people on April 16, 1939. He referred to the denunciation of his predecessor, Pope Pius XI, who had described past horrors and the need to defend and restore the rights of God and religion. The pope stated that the victims of terror died for Jesus Christ. He wished peace and prosperity upon the Spanish people and appealed to them to justly punish Republicans who were guilty of war crimes, but to also exercise leniency and generosity against the many others who were on the other side. He also asked for their full participation in society and entrusted them to the compassion of the Catholic Church in Spain.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: In a break from his past service in the Spanish Republican Army and it's Servicio de Información Militar (S.I.M.) secret police force, Scottish Communist Hamish Fraser converted to Catholicism following the Second World War and expressed support for the reintegration of Spain under Franco into the international community. In later years, Fraser compared both the Red Terror and the Stalinist witch hunts among the Spanish people and within the Spanish Republican Armed Forces, in which he had been a perpetrator, with what happened throughout Eastern Europe after it was assigned to Joseph Stalin at the Yalta Conference.


title: Red Terror (Spain)

text: In 2007, the Vatican beatified 498 priests killed by the Spanish Republican Army during the civil war. Relatives of Catholics who were killed by the Nationalists have requested similar recognition, criticizing the unequal treatment.


title: Ramya Behara

text: Ramya Behara is an Indian playback singer who works predominantly in Telugu films. She has sung over 170 songs in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Hindi films. "Dhivara" song from the Telugu film "" (2015) was her breakthrough.


title: Ramya Behara

text: Behara was born in Narasaraopet, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India and was raised in Hyderabad. She stated that her passion for singing began when she was in seventh grade. She went to Little Music Academy and was trained under Ramachary.


title: Ramya Behara

text: Behara's first song was recorded for a Telugu film "Vengamamba". She was introduced to films by M. M. Keeravani.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: Simple DirectMedia Layer (SDL) is a cross-platform software development library designed to provide a hardware abstraction layer for computer multimedia hardware components. Software developers can use it to write high-performance computer games and other multimedia applications that can run on many operating systems such as Android, iOS, Linux, macOS, and Windows.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: SDL manages video, audio, input devices, CD-ROM, threads, shared object loading, networking and timers. For 3D graphics, it can handle an OpenGL, Vulkan, Metal, or Direct3D11 (older Direct3D version 9 is also supported) context. A common misconception is that SDL is a game engine. However, the library is suited to building games directly, or is usable indirectly by engines built on top of it.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: The library is internally written in C and possibly, depending on the target platform, C++ or Objective-C, and provides the application programming interface in C, with bindings to other languages available. It is free and open-source software subject to the requirements of the zlib License since version 2.0, and with prior versions subject to the GNU Lesser General Public License. Under the zlib License, SDL 2.0 is freely available for static linking in closed-source projects, unlike SDL 1.2. SDL 2.0, released in 2013, was a major departure from previous versions, offering more opportunity for 3D hardware acceleration, but breaking backwards-compatibility.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: SDL is extensively used in the industry in both large and small projects. Over 700 games, 180 applications, and 120 demos have been posted on the library website.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: Sam Lantinga created the library, first releasing it in early 1998, while working for Loki Software. He got the idea while porting a Windows application to Macintosh. He then used SDL to port "Doom" to BeOS (see Doom source ports). Several other free libraries were developed to work alongside SDL, such as SMPEG and OpenAL. He also founded Galaxy Gameworks in 2008 to help commercially support SDL, although the company plans are currently on hold due to time constraints.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: Soon after putting Galaxy Gameworks on hold, Lantinga announced that SDL 1.3 (which would then later become SDL 2.0) would be licensed under the zlib License. Lantinga announced SDL 2.0 on 14 July 2012, at the same time announcing that he was joining Valve, the first version of which was announced the same day he joined the company. Lantinga announced the stable release of SDL 2.0.0 on 13 August 2013.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: SDL 2.0 is a major update to the SDL 1.2 codebase with a different, not backwards-compatible API. It replaces several parts of the 1.2 API with more general support for multiple input and output options. Some feature additions include multiple window support, hardware-accelerated 2D graphics, and better Unicode support.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: Support for Mir and Wayland was added in SDL 2.0.2 and enabled by default in SDL 2.0.4. Version 2.0.4 also provided better support for Android.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: SDL is a wrapper around the operating-system-specific functions that the game needs to access. The only purpose of SDL is to provide a common framework for accessing these functions for multiple operating systems (cross-platform). SDL provides support for 2D pixel operations, sound, file access, event handling, timing and threading. It is often used to complement OpenGL by setting up the graphical output and providing mouse and keyboard input, since OpenGL comprises only rendering.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: A game using the Simple DirectMedia Layer will "not" automatically run on every operating system; further adaptations must be applied. These are reduced to the minimum, since SDL also contains a few abstraction APIs for frequent functions offered by an operating system.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: The syntax of SDL is function-based: all operations done in SDL are done by passing parameters to subroutines (functions). Special structures are also used to store the specific information SDL needs to handle. SDL functions are categorized under several different subsystems.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: Besides this basic, low-level support, there also are a few separate official libraries that provide some more functions. These comprise the "standard library", and are provided on the official website and included in the official documentation:


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: Other, non-standard libraries also exist. For example: SDL_Collide on SourceForge created by Amir Taaki.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: Because of the way SDL is designed, much of its source code is split into separate modules for each operating system, to make calls to the underlying system. When SDL is compiled, the appropriate modules are selected for the target system. The following back-ends are available:


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: The Rockbox MP3 player firmware also distributes a version of SDL 1.2, which is used to run games such as Quake.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: Over the years SDL was used for many commercial and non-commercial video game projects. For instance, MobyGames listed 120 games using SDL in 2013, and the SDL website itself listed around 700 games in 2012. Important commercial examples are "Angry Birds", "Unreal Tournament", and games developed using Valve's Source Engine, which uses SDL extensively for cross-platform compatibility; ones from the open-source domain are "OpenTTD", "The Battle for Wesnoth" or "Freeciv".


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: The cross-platform game releases of the popular Humble Indie Bundles for Linux, Mac and Android are often SDL-based.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: SDL is also often used for later ports on new platforms with legacy code. For instance, the PC game Homeworld was ported to the Pandora handheld and Jagged Alliance 2 for Android via SDL.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: Also, several non video game programs use SDL; examples are the emulators, such as DOSBox, FUSE ZX Spectrum emulator and VisualBoyAdvance.


title: Simple DirectMedia Layer

text: SDL is used in university courses teaching multimedia and computer science, for instance, in a workshop about game programming using libSDL at the University of Cadiz in 2010, or a Game Design discipline at UTFPR (Ponta Grossa campus) in 2015.


title: Ilmenite

text: Ilmenite is a titanium-iron oxide mineral with the idealized formula . It is a weakly magnetic black or steel-gray solid. Ilmenite is the most important ore of titanium and the main source of titanium dioxide, which is used in paints, printing inks, fabrics, plastics, paper, sunscreen, food and cosmetics.


title: Ilmenite

text: Ilmenite is a heavy (specific gravity 4.7), moderately hard (Mohs hardness 5.6 to 6), opaque black mineral with a submetallic luster. It is almost always massive, with thick tabular crystals being quite rare. It shows no discernible cleavage, breaking instead with a conchoidal to uneven fracture.


title: Ilmenite

text: Ilmenite crystallizes in the trigonal system with space group "R". The ilmenite crystal structure consists of an ordered derivative of the corundum structure; in corundum all cations are identical but in ilmenite Fe and Ti ions occupy alternating layers perpendicular to the trigonal c axis.


title: Ilmenite

text: Pure ilmenite is paramagnetic (showing only very weak attraction to a magnet), but ilmenite forms solid solutions with hematite that are weakly ferromagnetic and so are noticeably attracted to a magnet. Natural deposits of ilmenite usually contain intergrown or exsolved magnetite that also contribute to its ferromagnetism.


title: Ilmenite

text: Ilmenite is distinguished from hematite by its less intensely black color and duller appearance and its black streak, and from magnetite by its weaker magnetism.


title: Ilmenite

text: In 1791 William Gregor discovered a deposit of black sand in a stream that runs through the valley just south of the village of Manaccan (Cornwall), and identified for the first time titanium as one of the constituents of the main mineral in the sand. Gregor named this mineral manaccanite. The same mineral was found in the Ilmensky Mountains, near Miass, Russia, and named "ilmenite".


title: Ilmenite

text: Pure ilmenite has the composition . However, ilmenite most often contains appreciable quantities of magnesium and manganese and up to 6 wt% of hematite, , substituting for in the crystal structure. Thus the full chemical formula can be expressed as . Ilmenite forms a solid solution with geikielite () and pyrophanite () which are magnesian and manganiferous end-members of the solid solution series.


title: Ilmenite

text: Although ilmenite is typically close to the ideal composition, with minor mole percentages of Mn and Mg, the ilmenites of kimberlites usually contain substantial amounts of geikielite molecules, and in some highly differentiated felsic rocks ilmenites may contain significant amounts of pyrophanite molecules.


title: Ilmenite

text: At temperatures above , there is a complete solid solution between ilmenite and hematite. There is a miscibility gap at lower temperatures, resulting in a coexistence of these two minerals in rocks but no solid solution. This coexistence may result in exsolution lamellae in cooled ilmenites with more iron in the system than can be homogeneously accommodated in the crystal lattice. Ilmenite containing 6 to 13 percent is sometimes described as "ferrian ilmenite".


title: Ilmenite

text: Ilmenite alters or weathers to form the pseudo-mineral leucoxene, a fine-grained yellowish to grayish or brownish material enriched to 70% or more of . Leucoxene is an important source of titanium in heavy mineral sands ore deposits.


title: Ilmenite

text: Ilmenite is a common accessory mineral found in metamorphic and igneous rocks. It is found in large concentrations in layered intrusions where it forms as part of a cumulate layer within the intrusion. Ilmenite generally occurs in these cumulates together with orthopyroxene or in combination with plagioclase and apatite ("nelsonite").


title: Ilmenite

text: Magnesian ilmenite is formed in kimberlites as part of the MARID association of minerals (mica-amphibole-rutile-ilmenite-diopside) assemblage of glimmerite xenoliths. Manganiferous ilmenite is found in granitic rocks and also in carbonatite intrusions where it may also contain anomalously high amounts of niobium.


title: Ilmenite

text: Many mafic igneous rocks contain grains of intergrown magnetite and ilmenite, formed by the oxidation of ulvospinel.


title: Ilmenite

text: Most ilmenite is mined for titanium dioxide production. In 2011, about 47% of the titanium dioxide produced worldwide was produced from this material. Ilmenite and titanium dioxide are used in the production of titanium metal.


title: Ilmenite

text: Titanium dioxide is most used as a white pigment and the major consuming industries for TiO pigments are paints and surface coatings, plastics, and paper and paperboard. Per capita consumption of TiO in China is about 1.1 kilograms per year, compared with 2.7 kilograms for Western Europe and the United States.


title: Ilmenite

text: Ilmenite can be converted into pigment grade titanium dioxide via either the sulfate process or the chloride process. Ilmenite can also be improved and purified to titanium dioxide in the form of rutile using the Becher process.


title: Ilmenite

text: Ilmenite ores can also be converted to liquid iron and a titanium-rich slag using a smelting process.


title: Ilmenite

text: Most ilmenite is recovered from heavy mineral sands ore deposits, where the mineral is concentrated as a placer deposit and weathering reduces its iron content, increasing the percentage of titanium. However, ilmenite can also be recovered from "hard rock" titanium ore sources, such as ultramafic to mafic layered intrusions or anorthosite massifs. The ilmenite in layered intrusions is sometimes abundant, but it contains considerable intergrowths of magnetite that reduce its ore grade. Ilmenite from anorthosite massifs often contain large amounts of calcium or magnesium that render it unsuitable for the chloride process.


title: Ilmenite

text: The proven reserves of ilmenite and rutile ore are estimated at between 423 and 600 million tonnes titanium dioxide. The largest ilmenite deposits are in South Africa, India, the United States, Canada, Norway, Australia, Ukraine, Russia and Kazakhstan. Additional deposits are found in Bangladesh, Chile, Mexico and New Zealand.


title: Ilmenite

text: Australia was the world's largest ilmenite ore producer in 2011, with about 1.3 million tonnes of production, followed by South Africa, Canada, Mozambique, India, China, Vietnam, Ukraine, Norway, Madagascar and United States.


title: Ilmenite

text: The top four ilmenite and rutile feedstock producers in 2010 were Rio Tinto Group, Iluka Resources, Exxaro and Kenmare Resources, which collectively accounted for more than 60% of world's supplies.


title: Ilmenite

text: Ilmenite has been found in Moon rocks, and is typically highly enriched in magnesium similar to the kimberlitic association. In 2005 NASA used the Hubble Space Telescope to locate potentially ilmenite-rich locations. This mineral could be essential to an eventual Moon base, as ilmenite would provide a source of iron and titanium for the building of structures and essential oxygen extraction.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: The Fresno State Bulldogs football team represents California State University, Fresno in NCAA Division I FBS college football as a member of the Mountain West Conference. The green "V" on the Bulldogs' helmets, uniforms, and playing field symbolizes California’s Central Valley, specifically the San Joaquin Valley, the agricultural valley from which they draw their support.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: Football was first played on the Fresno campus in 1921, and for its first year it played as an independent. The Bulldogs joined the California Coast Conference, which included several regional opponents the next year, and moved to the Northern California Athletic Conference of which it was among the charter schools in 1925. These early years laid the foundations of rivalries to come, with games against San Jose State and Pacific in the first year, and adding UC Davis, Nevada, and San Diego State in the following years of NCAC play. The NCAA began classifying schools into University Division and College Division groups in 1937, and the Bulldogs, along with the other major college schools in the conference, broke off into the California Collegiate Athletic Association in 1939, a conference it remained in until joining the Pacific Coast Athletic Association, later known as the Big West Conference, in 1969. Notable coaches during this period include Cecil Coleman, who during his five years at Fresno State had a .760 winning percentage. Coleman took the 1961 team to an undefeated season, capped by a 36–6 Mercy Bowl victory over Bowling Green State. Fresno State football experienced a stretch of seasons hovering around the .500 mark during the later 1960s and 70s. Yet despite also having a number of winning seasons, including two where the Bulldogs went undefeated, they only participated in two University Division bowl games before the 1980s.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: In 1976, Jim Sweeney took over a Bulldog squad that had had 8 winning seasons since its last bowl bid, and promptly took the 1977 squad to a 9–2 record in his second year as head coach. The Sweeney era bristled with confidence as the Bulldogs became, along with rival San Jose State, the class of the Big West, earning postseason bowl berths four times in the 1980s. Sweeney's 1985 squad is particularly memorable for Bulldog fans, as the team finished as the only unbeaten Division I-A team in the country, ranked 16th in the coaches poll. The 1985 squad did not, however, finish untied, after a 24–24 tie at home against the Rainbow clad Warriors of Hawaii. The lone blemish to a perfect season, coupled with the difficulty either team has had in winning in the other's home stadium, has led the Warriors and Bulldogs to contend for one of the WAC's fiercest rivalries.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: The face of Fresno State football changed with the construction of Bulldog Stadium for the 1980 season. Before then, the Bulldogs played their home games in Fresno City College's Ratcliffe Stadium, which seated approximately 13,000 fans. The construction of a modern new on-campus stadium which held over 30,000 in attendance was an outstanding improvement for the Bulldogs, who saw drastic increases in attendance and alumni support. The new stadium brought with it a renewed success for the football team, as they enjoyed four Big West championships in the new stadium which took them to five California Bowl appearances against opponents from the Mid-American Conference. During the Sweeney era, the Bulldogs posted nine consecutive winning seasons, a run which included five double-digit win seasons. 1994, however, marked the beginning of three consecutive losing seasons which ended the Sweeney era and brought in Pat Hill, who had worked both in the NFL and colleges for the past several decades—including a stint as an assistant under Sweeney from 1984 to 1989.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: Under Hill, Fresno State continued the advances it had made during the Sweeney era. Soon after returning to Fresno, Hill declared that his Bulldogs would play "anybody, anywhere, anytime." He recalled that this was the same blueprint Bobby Bowden followed in turning Florida State into a powerhouse. To that end, Hill's Bulldogs frequently played particularly difficult non-conference schedules against elite, highly ranked teams. The Bulldogs have also been the only BCS non-AQ conference school to record three consecutive bowl victories over schools from BCS conferences.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: In 2001, the Bulldogs, under Hill and quarterback David Carr, began their season with several upsets of ranked teams. The Bulldogs opened the season in Boulder against the Colorado Buffaloes, leaving with a 24–22 win over the eventual Big 12 champions. The next game of the 2001 season was at home against the Oregon State Beavers, the team that "Sports Illustrated" had been picked as its preseason No. 1. In an electric game at Bulldog Stadium, the Bulldogs outplayed the Beavers in a 44–24 rout. Fresno State then headed to Madison to take on the Wisconsin Badgers, winners of the Sun Bowl over UCLA the previous year. The Bulldogs also topped the Badgers by a score of 32–20. These victories, followed by wins over Tulsa, Louisiana Tech, and Colorado State led the Bulldogs to a ranking of No. 8 in the polls, the highest for a mid-major team since(BYU was ranked No. 5 in 1996), and earned the Bulldogs a degree of prestige not usually afforded a mid-major program. This changed abruptly, however, when the Boise State Broncos and Hawaii Rainbows upset the Bulldogs in Fresno and Honolulu respectively to smash the Bulldogs’ hopes of playing in a BCS bowl. The defeats led the team instead the Silicon Valley Classic against Michigan State, a game which was taken by the Spartans by a score of 44–35. Nonetheless, the impressive performances of the regular season earned Fresno State its first number one overall NFL draft choice in David Carr, picked first by the expansion Houston Texans.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: The 2002 squad, which had difficulty opening the season with a 1–3 record, finished strong to finish the regular season 8–5 and earning another bid to the Silicon Valley Classic against Georgia Tech. This resulted in a win for the Bulldogs, who beat the Yellow Jackets 30–21.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: The 2003 squad earned a spot in the Silicon Valley Classic for the third year in a row, this time facing UCLA in San Jose. The Bulldogs defeated the Bruins 17–9.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: The 2004 season began for the Bulldogs much as the 2001 season had, with surprising upsets over BCS opponents in their home stadiums. The Bulldogs opened the season at Husky Stadium against Washington, a team with high expectations in its second year with head coach Keith Gilbertson. The Bulldogs came away with the win by a score of 35–16. The second game was against the Big 12 champions, the Kansas State Wildcats, who had beaten the No. 1 ranked Oklahoma Sooners to finish the previous year. The Bulldogs walked out of Manhattan with an unexpected 45–21 win, again earning the squad national attention and a ranking in the polls. Again, similarly to the 2001 season, the Bulldogs unexpectedly lost to Louisiana Tech, followed by two more losses, including to newly cemented rival Boise State. However, the Bulldogs found their redemptive qualities pervading in five straight wins by 40 or more points, including a 70–14 home rout over rival Hawaii, to earn a bid to the MPC Computers Bowl. In the MPC Bowl, the Bulldogs won their third straight bowl victory against a BCS conference team, beating the Virginia Cavaliers 37–34 in overtime.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: The 2005 season began with heady expectations which the Bulldogs largely lived up to for much of the season. The 2005 squad, after an early 3-point loss to Oregon in Eugene, rallied to win seven straight, including the first win at Hawaii since 1994, and a redemptive home victory over Boise State, traveled to the Los Angeles Coliseum to face the No. 1 ranked USC Trojans, bringing with them an 8–1 record, a ranking of No. 16, and senior leadership and depth at key positions. The match up against USC turned out to be one for the ages as Fresno State quarterback Paul Pinegar continually drew against USC quarterback Matt Leinart, and Fresno State running backs Wendel Mathis and Bryson Sumlin exchanged touchdown runs with eventual Heisman Trophy winner Reggie Bush. Despite taking a halftime lead and trading scores with the Trojans all night, at the end of regulation, USC's athleticism with Reggie Bush, the Bulldogs lost by a score of 42–50. The loss to the Trojans changed the character of the team, who proceeded to lose their next four games, including the Liberty Bowl against Tulsa.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: The 2006 squad, weakened by key senior losses at quarterback, running back and on the defense, struggled with the schedule, opening the year 1–7 before winning three straight, only to close the season with the first loss to San Jose State since before the fall of the Soviet Union.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: After a disappointing season in 2006, the 2007 Fresno State Bulldogs bounced back, finishing 9–4. They started strong against a weak Sacramento State team before losing a close game at Texas A&M in triple overtime. After another loss to Oregon, they won 8 of their final 10 games, including a victory over Georgia Tech in the Humanitarian Bowl.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: On September 1, 2008, the Bulldogs opened their season with a 24–7 victory over Rutgers in a non-conference game. The Bulldogs would end the season with a 7–6 record, including a loss in the New Mexico Bowl against Colorado State.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: The 2009 season begin with high hopes as Fresno State dominated its first opponent, UC Davis. However, the Bulldogs would go on to lose three straight games against Wisconsin, Boise State, and Cincinnati. The Bulldogs would rebound to win their next five games, before falling to rival Nevada. The Bulldogs would also go on to beat Illinois, in one of the more memorable college football games of the year. The Bulldogs scored a touchdown with only seconds left. Down by one point, the Bulldogs decided to go for two rather than kick a field goal to tie it up. With time expiring, Fresno State QB Ryan Colburn was forced to throw the ball into the end zone. The ball was deflected by an Illinois player, and caught by Fresno State offensive lineman Devan Cunningham who barreled his way into the end zone for a two-point conversion. The Bulldogs won 53–52. This miraculous play has been dubbed by many as the "remarkable deflection". The Bulldogs would end the season at 8–5 including a loss to Wyoming in the New Mexico Bowl. However, Ryan Mathews had one of his best seasons to date, rushing for 1,800 yards, and scoring 19 touchdowns. Ryan Mathews declared his eligibility for the NFL draft, and was selected 12th over-all by the San Diego Chargers.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: Much like the 2009 season, the 2010 season saw its share of highs and lows. The Bulldogs would start the season off with a victory over Cincinnati. However, they'd go on to lose against the upper half of the WAC conference and finish the regular season at 8–3. The Bulldogs accepted an invite to face Northern Illinois in the Humanitarian Bowl. It marked the third straight year that Fresno State would face a fellow non-AQ program in a bowl game. The Bulldogs would lose the game to Northern Illinois adding to its disappointing bowl record against other non-AQ programs.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: On December 5, 2011, after finishing the year 4–9, Fresno State announced that Pat Hill had been fired as the head coach of the football program. On December 14, 2011, Tim DeRuyter, defensive coordinator and interim head coach of Texas A&M was introduced as the new head coach. He led the Bulldogs to back-to-back conference championships in his first two years with Derek Carr playing as quarterback. DeRuyter was then given a five-year contract extension and Carr was drafted by the Oakland Raiders at 36th overall in 2014. With Carr gone, the Bulldogs would rotate through several quarterbacks and would finish with losing records the next two seasons. After opening the 2016 season with a 1–7 record, DeRuyter was fired.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: The Bulldogs announced it had hired former Cal head coach, former quarterback under Coach Jim Sweeney, former Bulldogs offensive coordinator, and Fresno State alumnus Jeff Tedford to be its next head coach beginning with the 2017 season. In his first season as Fresno State's head coach, Coach Tedford led the Bulldogs to a 10–4 season, including wins over rivals San Diego State and the No. 25 Boise State Broncos. They clinched the MW West Division, but would lose to Boise State 14–17 in the MW Championship game. Fresno State got an invite to participate in the 2017 Hawaii Bowl, to face the University of Houston Cougars. The Bulldogs would win their bowl game with a score of 33–27, ending a six year bowl drought. Fresno State would the end the season at 10–4, making it one of the best turnarounds in college football. In 2018, Fresno State made back-to-back conference championship appearances, facing Boise State in a rematch of the previous championship game; this time defeating Boise State 19-16 in overtime. They faced the Arizona State Sun Devils in the 2018 Las Vegas Bowl, winning 20-31. Their victory over Arizona State gave Fresno State the first 12-win season in school history. The team suffered a setback in 2019, finishing 4–8 overall and 2–6 in conference play. On December 6, 2019, Tedford announced his resignation from Fresno State after 3 seasons for health reasons.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: On December 17, 2019, former Fresno State offensive coordinator Kalen DeBoer, who had spent the 2019 season at Indiana, was hired as Tedford's replacement.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: On September 18, 2021, the Bulldogs beat #13 UCLA Bruins 40-37. It is the second highest ranked opponent ever defeated by Fresno State.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: The Boise State-Fresno State rivalry originated in 1977. The Milk Can is awarded to each season's winner of the Battle of the Milk Can, a college football game between the Fresno State Bulldogs and the Boise State Broncos. The team who wins the Milk Can gets to keep it for a year. The trophy was created in 2005, but was not ready in time for the annual match in Fresno, which was won by the Bulldogs. It made its first appearance in 2006, when the victorious Broncos carried it off the field. The idea for a trophy as the prize for the newly arranged interstate rivalry was hatched by two separate dairy groups that decided to get involved with their local football programs. California (No. 1) and Idaho (No. 4) are two of the nation's leading dairy producers. The South Valley Dairy Group began raising money for Bulldog football in 2001; the Bronco Dairy Boosters began contributing to Boise State in 2005. Two dairymen and friends in these organizations, Dan Van Grouw of Meridian, Idaho (in the Boise metropolitan area) and Roger Fluegel of Visalia, California (in Fresno State's home of the San Joaquin Valley), put forward the idea of a traveling trophy and began the administrative process. There was positive feedback from the teams, coaches, and fans, but an "administrative changeover" kept the trophy off the field for the 2005 game, though the Bulldogs' 27–7 victory is the first listed on the can.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: The rivalry with Hawaii has increased greatly in recent years, with both teams being the oldest members of the WAC contending regularly for the conference championship. Coaches from both schools have accused each side of various episodes of poor sportsmanship over the years, and both schools have some of the nation's rowdiest home fans. The rivalry has featured some lopsided results, including a 70–14 Fresno victory over Hawaii in 2004 and a 68–37 Warriors victory in 2006 over Fresno. In 2007, allegations that Fresno State fans were physically and verbally abused by hometown Hawaii fans circulated the internet and television media added to this rivalry.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: The Fresno State-San Diego State rivalry, also known as the Battle for the Oil Can, is one of the Bulldogs' biggest rivalry games. This in-state rivalry dates back to 1923, with the Aztecs winning the initial meeting at home 12-2. Since then, the sides have met 51 more times, including every year from 1945–79, when the two competed in the same conference or were independents. After not facing one another between 1979–1991, the schools resumed the annual series from 1992–98, when both were members of the Western Athletic Conference. The two teams have met twice since then, in 2002 and 2011. With Fresno State joining the Mountain West Conference in 2012 and the addition of the divisional format, the Aztecs and the Bulldogs will compete on an annual basis once again. The two teams play for the Old Oil Can as a trophy. The name comes from a 1930s-era oil can hailing from Fresno that was found at a construction site at San Diego State. "The oil can likely came from a time when Aztec and Bulldog fans traveled to football games between the two schools via the old, twisting, precipitous Grapevine section of Highway 99 over Tejon Pass", said Jacquelyn K. Glasener, executive director of the Fresno State Alumni Association. "Cars in those days carried extra oil and water to be sure they could make it through difficult trips", added Jim Herrick, executive director of the San Diego State Alumni Association. Fresno State trails in the series 23–28–4.


title: Fresno State Bulldogs football

text: The Fresno State–San Jose State football rivalry started in 1921 and is the Bulldog's oldest rival. San Jose State led the series from 1949–2001, but Fresno State tied it at 32 games each with a victory in 2002, and recaptured the lead in 2003. The Bulldogs have maintained the series lead since 2003, but have lost the past two games to the Spartans, including a 52–62 loss at Spartan Stadium on 11/29/2013. The Bulldogs and Spartans played the first football game of the series in 1921. The football rivalry took a one-year break in 2012 after conference realignment temporarily separated the two schools, with Fresno State moving to the Mountain West Conference while San Jose State remained in the Western Athletic Conference. It resumed as a conference rivalry in 2013 when San Jose State joined the MW.


title: Alien Hominid

text: Alien Hominid is an independently developed run and gun video game developed by The Behemoth. The game was developed from an Adobe Flash game originally released on Newgrounds in August 2002. O3 Entertainment released the game for PlayStation 2 and GameCube in North America in 2004, whilst ZOO Digital Publishing released the game in Europe for PlayStation 2, Xbox, mobile phones and Gizmondo in 2005. A port for the Game Boy Advance, co-developed by Tuna Technologies, was also released in Europe in 2006. A high-definition version titled "Alien Hominid HD" was released for Xbox 360 via the Xbox Live Arcade service on February 28, 2007. A re-imagination, "Alien Hominid Invasion", is in development for Windows, Nintendo Switch, and Xbox One.


title: Alien Hominid

text: "Alien Hominid" is a side-scrolling shooter in a similar vein to games such as "Metal Slug", where one hit instantly kills and has a two-player simultaneous play. Players take over as the titular hominid, who has to fend off waves of secret agents. His main arsenal is a blaster, while players can also melee close-up enemies and use a limited number of grenades to attack. Advanced moves include rolling under shots, jumping on and biting off enemies' heads, temporarily scaring other enemies, and digging underground to drag enemies down with them.


title: Alien Hominid

text: Players can collect a numerous variety of power-ups which simultaneously give players extra grenades, a shield, and unique ammo. Players can also drive vehicles, ride on top of a Yeti, and pilot a UFO. Completing certain tasks will unlock hats the players can dress their Hominid in. The main game features sixteen stages.


title: Alien Hominid

text: Outside of the main game, there are three multiplayer modes (Challenge, Neutron Ball, and Pinata Boss), a PDA game (featuring around 200 levels and a level editor), an extra mode called "All You Can Eat", and a retro minigame, "Super Soviet Missile Mastar".


title: Alien Hominid

text: "Alien Hominid" began as a Flash game developed by programmer Tom Fulp and animator Dan Paladin, which was released on Newgrounds in August 2002. It is often referred to as the Alien Hominid "prototype" by The Behemoth. The game consisted of one level containing two bosses, who would later reappear in the retail version. It became very popular among the online gaming site and has been played over 20 million times. Later in the year, then-co-worker John Baez approached Paladin as a fan of Alien Hominid. He suggested that Paladin and Fulp make a console version of the game, even offering to produce the game. Both Paladin and Fulp agreed with his idea, forming The Behemoth.


title: Alien Hominid

text: In the course of two years, "Alien Hominid" became a much larger project than its online prototype. While 3D graphics were considered initially, The Behemoth decided nothing compared to the traditional 2D stylings of the prototype. The project was entirely re-coded for consoles, and many new gameplay features were created. Matt Harwood created the music for the game.


title: Alien Hominid

text: Hominid appears during one of the levels in The Behemoth's 2nd game, "Castle Crashers", using a lance weapon based on his ray gun. He is playable to anyone who has also downloaded "Alien Hominid HD" on the Xbox 360 version, while he is unlocked by completing said level on the PlayStation Network and Steam versions of the game. The green eyeball from an early boss fight also appears as an Animal Orb, firing lasers at enemies. Hominid appears as a playable character in Team Meat's "Super Meat Boy", another game that originated as a flash game on Newgrounds. The "Super Soviet Missile Mastar" minigame from "Alien Hominid" was released as a free app for iOS on February 7, 2011. An improved version of the "PDA Games" minigame was released for iOS on December 9, 2011. Developer Tom Fulp has cited the "PDA Games" as being the inspiration for The Behemoth's third game, "BattleBlock Theater", which features unlockable "Hominid" character heads for those who own "Alien Hominid HD".


title: Alien Hominid

text: On January 30, 2020, Behemoth announced their fifth game, "Alien Hominid Invasion", which they describe as "an all-new re-imagination" of the original game featuring new gameplay and mechanics. The game is in development for Xbox One, Nintendo Switch, and PC.


title: Alien Hominid

text: The game received "generally favorable reviews" on all platforms except the Game Boy Advance version, which received universal acclaim, according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. It was nominated for "GameSpot"s annual "Funniest Game" award, which went to "".


title: Alien Hominid

text: Before its release, "Alien Hominid" received notice in gaming magazines such as "Play", "GMR", "Edge", "Dragon", and mainstream magazines such as "Wired". In reviews for the game, it was critically acclaimed for its old-school style gameplay, tough level of difficulty, and quirky humor. The game also won many small awards, most notably at the Independent Games Festival (for Innovation In Visual Arts, Technical Excellence and the Audience Award).


title: Judaism and abortion

text: In Judaism, views on abortion draw primarily upon the legal and ethical teachings of the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud, the case-by-case decisions of responsa, and other rabbinic literature. While all major Jewish religious movements allow or encourage abortion in order to save the life or health of a pregnant woman, authorities differ on when and whether it is permitted in other cases.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: The ancient Jewish historian Philo taught that the term "harm" refers exclusively to the child, and whether a fine is imposed or capital punishment depends on whether the fetus has sufficiently formed. According to Rashi and other Talmudic commentators, the term "harm" refers only to the mother, and traditionally, unless the mother was harmed too, only a fine was imposed for causing a miscarriage.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: In mainstream rabbinic Judaism, this verse is one of several key texts that substantiate the later rabbinic prohibition on most cases of abortion. However, others have argued that abortion is not considered murder and that "Jewish law does not consider a fetus to be alive." To support such a view, it is suggested that this verse shows "that the fetus is not a person. The primary concern is the well-being of the person who was injured." According to many rishonim, this verse proves that the fetus does not have the status of a human life.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: Rabbinic law or halakhah permits abortion in certain circumstances. Some authorities permitted abortion in cases of 'great need.' Most denominations interpret the pain and suffering (mental and medical/physical) of a pregnancy as sufficient:


title: Judaism and abortion

text: "From Other authoritative Jewish texts further emphasize that the fetus does not have the status of personhood, describing it as “mere fluid” for the first 40 days after conception and part of the pregnant person’s body thereafter. This led some rabbinic authorities to rule that, as Rabbi Jacob Emden did in the 18th century, “there is reason to be lenient [in permitting abortion]… only so as to save her from woe,” or as Rabbi Eliezer Waldenberg did in 1978, abortion is a valid choice when not terminating might cause “suffering and emotional pain.”"


title: Judaism and abortion

text: Most Rabbinic interpretations even insist on abortion in order to the save the pregnant woman's life. The fetus is viewed as valuable, but as less than fully human. "The existing life takes precedence over the potential life." Judaism puts saving a life above almost any other consideration, and it is clear which is regarded as the living person in case of pregnancy.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: In halakha, just as the principle of pikuach nefesh allows violating nearly all laws in order to save a human life, many laws may be violated in order to save the life of a fetus. Shabbat must be violated to save the life of a fetus. A pregnant woman who develops a ravenous hunger must be fed even on Yom Kippur to prevent loss of life; later authorities debate whether the situation describes involves danger to the fetus, mother, or both.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: Rabbinic Judaism does not regard the fetus as a full human being. While deliberately killing a day-old baby is murder, according to the Mishnah, a fetus is not covered by this rule. In the reading of Biblical homicide laws, rabbinic sages argue that homicide concerns an animate human being ("nefesh adam" from Lev. 24:17) alone, not an embryo... because the embryo is not a person ("lav nefesh hu"). An embryo is not deemed a fully viable person ("bar kayyama"), but rather a being of "doubtful viability". Hence, for instance, Jewish mourning rites do not apply to an unborn child. The status of the embryo is also indicated by its treatment as "an appendage of its mother" for such matters as ownership, maternal conversion and purity law. In even more evocative language, the Talmud states in a passage on priestly rules that the fetus "is considered to be mere water" until its 40th day. Elsewhere, the Talmud speaks of a "moment of determination" and a "moment of creation" in regard to different stages of the fetus. Rashi explains that the moment of creation is when bones and arteries begin to form and in other places he says that the "moment of creation" is at the 40th day.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: Modern scholars draw a sharp contrast between the theologies behind Jewish and Catholic opposition to abortion. After favorably reviewing Christian opposition to abortion, Immanuel Jakobovits writes: "In Jewish law, the right to destroy a human fruit before birth is entirely unrelated to theological considerations. Neither the question of the entry of the soul before birth nor the claim to salvation after death have any practical bearing on the subject." Although halakhic regulations works strenuously to protect the unborn child, he says that "none of these regulations necessarily prove that the foetus enjoys human inviolability." In contrast to the neo-Platonic and Christian approach, moreover, Talmudic thought does not "make any legal distinction between formed and unformed foetuses," after the 40th day. Feldman, likewise, is emphatically comparative, saying: "... while Christianity's position on abortion has raised the moral level of western civilization in this regard and has succeeded in sensitizing humanity to a greater reverence for life, it is obviously comprised, at the same time, of theological postulates which the Jewish community can not share." Feldman also points out that Talmudic debate over whether the soul achieves immortality upon conception, or at a far later stage, has little bearing on halakhic protections for the fetus because, absent a doctrine of original sin, "abortion would not interfere with the immortal rights or destiny of the foetus."


title: Judaism and abortion

text: The fetus however, though considered "alive" to the extent that its life is protected, is not considered fully alive to the extent that if it endangered the mother's life it takes precedence. Thus if a pregnancy risks the life of the mother, the Rabbis rule that the mother's life takes precedence and that the child may be aborted so as to save the mother's life: "If a woman is in hard travail, one cuts up the offspring in her womb and brings it forth member by member, because her life comes before the life of her foetus. But if the greater part has proceeded forth, one may not set aside one person for the sake of saving another." According to the text this can be done until the point of "yatza rubo" (יָצָא רֻבּוֹ), that "the majority [of the fetus] has exited". This is taken to refer to the emergence of the baby during childbirth.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: According to Rashi, the reason behind this law is that a fetus is not a viable soul ("lav nefesh hu") until it is born, and killing it to save the woman is permitted. Maimonides, though, justified the law not because the fetus is less than a "nefesh" (human being), as the Talmud held, but rather through the principle of the rodef or pursuer, "pursuing her to kill her." Schiff argues that the Maimonidean view is "unprecedented" and "without doubt, this hitherto unexpressed insight had dramatic potential ramifications for the parameters of permissible abortion." Meir Abulafia and Menachem Meiri reaffirm Rashi's view.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: says, "Whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed... The Talmud understands this verse as alluding to a fetus ("Whoever sheds the blood of "man within man", his blood shall be shed") and thus prohibiting abortion to non-Jews.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: According to Maimonides, a non-Jew who kills "even one unborn in the womb of its mother" is guilty of murder according to the Noahide Laws, and is liable for the death penalty. The penalty of having his blood spilt, is interpreted by Maimonides as referring to a punishment by the hands of heaven, and not by the courts or man to man.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: According to many authorities, this prohibition of murder does not apply throughout the pregnancy, but only (depending on the source) after the 8th, 13th, or 22nd to 23rd week of pregnancy.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: Tosafot (11th-13th centuries) discusses the connection between the obligations of Jews and non-Jews. Follows the Talmudic principle that there is nothing that is prohibited to the Noahide that is permissible to Jews, Tosafot concluded abortion must in general be prohibited to Jews also, though the (theoretical) punishment for violations would apply only to gentiles. Conversely, Tosafot suggests that perhaps, since Jews are permitted therapeutic abortions for the sake of maternal life, Noahide law likewise allows non-Jews to undergo therapeutic abortion. Given this near parity, rabbinic law prohibits Jews from assisting gentiles with forbidden abortions, for which the gentiles would be culpable of bloodshed. Viewing Noahide law as a universalizing ethics, Sinclair states: "it is evident that the halakhah in the area of foeticide is shaped by a combination of legal doctrine and moral principle."


title: Judaism and abortion

text: The Tosafot text that applies Noahide law to forbid abortion does not go unchallenged. Another commentary in Tosafot (Niddah 44b) appears to question whether foeticide is permitted; however, this is not the plain interpretation of that Tosafot.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: In the standard code of Jewish law, the Shulchan Aruch, therapeutic abortion is permitted; Maimonides's language, speaking of the fetus as pursuer, is included verbatim. A key commentator, R. Joshua Falk, explains that abortion does not trade off one life for another life because the embryo is "not a person" prior to birth. An ordinary abortion is a violation of civil or monetary law, not criminal law, as emphasized by R. Ezekiel Landau among others.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: Later authorities have differed as to how far one might go in defining the peril to the woman in order to justify abortion, and at what stage of gestation a fetus is considered as having a soul, at which point one life cannot take precedence over another.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: In a key responsum, R. Yair Bacharach is asked whether to approve an abortion for a woman with an illegitimate embryo. R. Bachrach distinguishes early stage from later stage abortions. His reasoning is based on a Talmudic commentary to the effect that Sabbath laws may be violated for a fetus, but only for a later-stage embryo. Several authorities say that Jewish law is less strict for terminating embryos before 40 days. He also concludes that the embryo may be treated as a pursuer "rodef", as Maimonides as opined, though simultaneously he upholds Rashi's view of the reduced status of the fetus. Bachrach then offers a novel rationale for denying the requested abortion. He argues the abortion, like certain forms of contraception, frustrates the mitzvah of reproduction and destroys the "seed" needed to be "fruitful and multiply."


title: Judaism and abortion

text: Various Jewish scholars have expressed additional lenient stances on abortions under specific circumstances. These include contemporary scholar Eliezer Waldenberg, who argued in favor of abortions in cases of serious birth defects or extreme mental or psychological danger to the woman.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: In general, Orthodox Judaism opposes most abortion, but permits it when the pregnancy endangers the woman's life. Some authorities permit abortion in more circumstances. For example, Rabbi Waldenberg wrote that there is room for leniency if there is a danger to maternal health or severe pain, and permitted abortion of an abnormal fetus before quickening and within three months of conception.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: The Rabbinical Assembly Committee on Jewish Law and Standards has ruled that an abortion is justifiable if a continuation of pregnancy might cause the woman severe physical or psychological harm, or if the fetus is judged by competent medical opinion as severely defective; a fetus is a life in the process of development, and the decision to abort should never be taken lightly. The Conservative position thus follows those of the Acharonim who permit an abortion in case of acute potential emotional and psychological harm.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: Before reaching her final decision, conservative Judaism holds that a woman should consult with the biological father, other members of her family, her physician, her Rabbi, and any other person who can help her in assessing the legal and moral issues involved.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: Reform Judaism permits abortion when the woman's life is at stake as well as when a pregnancy is "a result of rape or incest, when genetic testing has determined that a child would be born with a disease that would cause death or severe disability and the parents believe that the impending birth will be an impossible situation for them" and for several other reasons. More generally, the "Reform perspective on abortion can be described as follows: Abortion is an extremely difficult choice faced by a woman. In all circumstances, it should be her decision whether or not to terminate a pregnancy, backed up by those whom she trusts (physician, therapist, partner, etc.). This decision should not be taken lightly (abortion should never be used for birth control purposes) and can have life-long ramifications. However, any decision should be left up to the woman within whose body the fetus is growing."


title: Judaism and abortion

text: The Reform Movement has actively opposed legislation to restrict the right of women to choose to abort a fetus, especially in situations in which the health of the woman is endangered by continued pregnancy. This pro-abortion rights position has been linked by some Reform authorities to the value that Reform Judaism places upon autonomy—the right of individuals to act as moral agents on their own behalf. In writing against a legal ban on so-called "partial birth abortion," Rabbi David Ellenson, president of the Reform Movement's Hebrew Union College, has written, "This law as it has been enacted unquestionably diminishes the inviolable status and worth that ought to be granted women as moral agents created in the image of God."


title: Judaism and abortion

text: With the emergence of modern Jewish identity in the late 18th century, Jewish views on abortion have bifurcated along movement lines, especially between Orthodox Judaism and its more liberal counterparts. By the 20th century, liberal-minded Jews were among those most active in the abortion-rights movements. These reproductive rights activists included Betty Friedan, Bernard Nathanson, and Gloria Steinem (however, later in life Nathanson became an anti-abortion activist and converted to Catholicism). In the U.S., a few politically-conservative Republican Jews also have been pro-abortion rights. A few Jewish groups concentrate on abortion issues, both anti-abortion and pro-abortion rights.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: In the United States, Conservative Judaism, Reconstructionist Judaism and Reform Judaism are usually aligned with the interfaith Religious Coalition for Reproductive Choice. Orthodox organizations such as the Orthodox Union and Agudas Yisrael have occasionally partnered with pro-abortion rights organizations in order to ensure that abortions will be available to women whose lives are endangered by the fetus.


title: Judaism and abortion

text: In Israel, abortion is allowed with the approval of a termination committee if the woman is unmarried, because of age (if the woman is under the age of 17 - the legal marriage age in Israel - or over the age 40), the pregnancy was conceived under illegal circumstances (rape, statutory rape, etc.) or an incestuous relationship, birth defects, risk of health to the mother, and life of the mother. Abortion in Israel had been illegal prior to 1977. It became legal subject to termination committee approval under the penal code of 1978. According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics report from 2004, in 2003 most abortion requests were granted, with 19,500 legal abortions performed and 200 requests for abortion denied. Reasons for termination went as follows: the woman was unmarried (42%), because of illegal circumstances (11%), health risks to the woman (about 20%), age of the woman (11%) and fetal birth defects (about 17%).


title: Judaism and abortion

text: There is an abortion debate in Israel. Orthodox Jewish organizations, including political parties, strongly oppose abortion because the Chief Rabbinate of Israel follows an interpretation of Jewish law that views abortion as a (lesser) degree of murder. Political parties that champion this view include Shas, a Sephardic Haredi party; United Torah Judaism, an Ashkenazi Haredi party; and HaBayit HaYehudi (Jewish Home), a Religious Zionist party. A study published in 2001 found that opposition to abortion among Israelis was correlated to strong religious beliefs - particularly Orthodox Jewish beliefs - below-average income, larger family size, and identification with right-wing politics. The left-wing party Meretz argues in favor of legalized abortion for reasons of personal liberty. In 2006, MK Zehava Gal-On of Meretz proposed a bill that would eliminate the termination committees, effectively decriminalizing unrestricted abortion. Gal-On argued that women with financial means can have abortions in private clinics, bypassing the committee and therefore gaining rights based on their wealth. The bill was rejected by a wide margin.


title: 1981 NFL Draft

text: The 1981 NFL draft was the procedure by which National Football League teams selected amateur college football players. It is officially known as the NFL Annual Player Selection Meeting. The draft was held April 28–29, 1981, at the New York Sheraton Hotel in New York City. The league also held a supplemental draft after the regular draft and before the regular season.


title: 1981 NFL Draft

text: For the first time, the top two picks of the draft, running back George Rogers selected by the New Orleans Saints and linebacker Lawrence Taylor picked by the New York Giants, were named Offensive and Defensive Rookies of the Year, respectively.


title: Mark Ivanir

text: Mark Alexandrovich Ivanir (; ; ) is a Ukrainian-born Israeli actor known for his character roles on American film and television. He is fluent in six languages, a skill often shown off in his performances.


title: Mark Ivanir

text: Ivanir was born in Chernovtsi (now Chernivtsi), Ukrainian SSR. His family emigrated to Israel in 1972, and settled in the Pardes Katz neighbourhood of Bnei Brak. His father, Alexander, was an English teacher, and his mother, Malka, a German teacher. His maternal grandfather, Meshulem Surkis, was a Yiddish writer, journalist, actor, and theatre critic, who was a well known activist in the Yiddish cultural world. He was raised in a multilingual household; speaking Hebrew, Ukrainian, and Russian, and later learning English.


title: Mark Ivanir

text: His national service in the Israeli Defense Forces saw him involved in Operation Joshua, one of two operations by the IDF to bring Ethiopian Jews from Sudanese refugee camps to Israel. After completing his service, he turned down a job offer from Mossad. He briefly studied medicine, before deciding to a life in the performing arts. He completed two years in a circus school, traveled throughout Europe performing on the streets as a clown, and ended up working in the Parisian Cirque Pawelles. After leaving the circus, Mark entered into formal theatrical training under famed Israeli director Nissan Nativ, performing at the Cameri Theater and Israeli Opera.


title: Mark Ivanir

text: During this time, Ivanir had his first film role in the 1988 action film "Iron Eagle II", directed by Sidney J. Furie. The film was a Canadian-Israeli-American co-production filmed in Israel with an international cast. Ivanir played a Soviet army serviceman, Mikhail Balyonev.


title: Mark Ivanir

text: Following his studies with Nativ, Ivanir joined the Gesher Theater, a Tel Aviv-based company composed of emigrants from the former USSR. Within two years, Gesher became Israel's top theatrical outfit and was hailed by the London Times as "one of the six best theatre companies in the world." Using his knowledge of multiple languages, Ivanir translated and adapted eight foreign-language plays into Hebrew for the company. He later moved to London to study under Philippe Gaulier at the Complicité.


title: Mark Ivanir

text: Ivanir's first major film role was in Steven Spielberg's 1993 Oscar-winning epic "Schindler's List", where he played Marcel Goldberg. He worked with Spielberg twice thereafter, first for a cameo appearance in "The Terminal", then again for "". Ivanir held a pivotal role in Robert De Niro's 2006 film, "The Good Shepherd", for which he won the Silver Bear Award at the Berlin Film Festival, later landing a role in Barry Levinson's "What Just Happened", this time acting alongside De Niro.


title: Mark Ivanir

text: His biggest part to date was on the critically acclaimed "A Late Quartet", released from RKO pictures in the United States, in fall 2012. The film was voted as one of the "New York Daily News" 10 top films of the year. Ivanir played Daniel Lerner, the first violin of the string quartet, whose other members are played by Philip Seymour Hoffman, Catherine Keener and Christopher Walken.


title: Mark Ivanir

text: Ivanir has had over 60 guest star and guest lead roles on television shows such as "24", "Monk", "", "Law & Order", "Fringe", "", "Nikita" and "Royal Pains".


title: Mark Ivanir

text: In 2016 Ivanir had a recurring role on "Homeland" as Russian intelligence agent Ivan Krupin. The season was nominated for the SAG Awards and for the Emmy's.


title: Mark Ivanir

text: In 2017, he played a Holocaust survivor in the critically acclaimed German-language film "Bye Bye Germany" and recurred on Amazon's "Transparent". As of August 2019, Amazon Prime is airing worldwide the Israeli hit show "The Beauty and the Baker", with Ivanir playing the part of Zvika Granot.


title: Mark Ivanir

text: In 2018, he co-starred in the film "Entebbe", directed by José Padilha, the creator of "Narcos", and Bill Hader's HBO comedy "Barry", in which he recurs as three Chechen brothers. He appeared in "The Red Sea Diving Resort", as the head of the Mossad, alongside Sir Ben Kingsley, Chris Evans and Greg Kinnear.


title: Mark Ivanir

text: Ivanir is married to Maya Raz, an IDF broadcaster. His sister-in-law is actress Romi Aboulafia, and his father-in-law is journalist Menashe Raz. He has two daughters, and resides with his family in Los Angeles.


title: Mark Ivanir

text: Ivanir is fluent in Hebrew, Russian, English, Ukrainian, French and Yiddish, and adept in German and Arabic. His multi-lingualism is often a feature of his roles.


title: Human genetic variation

text: Human genetic variation is the genetic differences in and among populations. There may be multiple variants of any given gene in the human population (alleles), a situation called polymorphism.


title: Human genetic variation

text: No two humans are genetically identical. Even monozygotic twins (who develop from one zygote) have infrequent genetic differences due to mutations occurring during development and gene copy-number variation. Differences between individuals, even closely related individuals, are the key to techniques such as genetic fingerprinting.


title: Human genetic variation

text: As of 2015, the typical difference between an individual's genome and the reference genome was estimated at 20 million base pairs (or 0.6% of the total of 3.2 billion base pairs).


title: Human genetic variation

text: Comparatively speaking, humans are a genetically homogenous species. Although a small number of genetic variants are found more frequently in certain geographic regions or in people with ancestry from those regions, this variation accounts for a small percentage of the human genome (~15%). For comparison, rhesus macaques exhibit 2.5-fold greater DNA sequence diversity compared to humans.


title: Human genetic variation

text: The lack of discontinuities in genetic distances between human populations, absence of discrete branches in the human species, and striking homogeneity of human beings globally, imply that there is no scientific basis for inferring races or subspecies in humans, and for most traits, there is much more variation "within" populations than between them. Despite this, modern genetic studies have found substantial average genetic differences across human populations in traits such as skin colour, bodily dimensions, lactose and starch digestion, high altitude adaptions, and predisposition to developing particular diseases. The greatest diversity is found among populations in Africa, and gradually declines with increasing distance from the African continent, consistent with the Out of Africa theory of human origins.


title: Human genetic variation

text: The study of human genetic variation has evolutionary significance and medical applications. It can help scientists reconstruct and understand patterns of past human migration. In medicine, study of human genetic variation may be important because some disease-causing alleles occur more often in certain population groups. For instance, the mutation for sickle-cell anemia is more often found in people with ancestry from certain sub-Saharan African, south European, Arabian, and Indian populations, due to the evolutionary pressure from mosquitos carrying malaria in these regions.


title: Human genetic variation

text: Causes of differences between individuals include independent assortment, the exchange of genes (crossing over and recombination) during reproduction (through meiosis) and various mutational events.


title: Human genetic variation

text: There are at least three reasons why genetic variation exists between populations. Natural selection may confer an adaptive advantage to individuals in a specific environment if an allele provides a competitive advantage. Alleles under selection are likely to occur only in those geographic regions where they confer an advantage. A second important process is genetic drift, which is the effect of random changes in the gene pool, under conditions where most mutations are neutral (that is, they do not appear to have any positive or negative selective effect on the organism). Finally, small migrant populations have statistical differences – called the founder effect – from the overall populations where they originated; when these migrants settle new areas, their descendant population typically differs from their population of origin: different genes predominate and it is less genetically diverse.


title: Human genetic variation

text: In humans, the main cause is genetic drift. Serial founder effects and past small population size (increasing the likelihood of genetic drift) may have had an important influence in neutral differences between populations. The second main cause of genetic variation is due to the high degree of neutrality of most mutations. A small, but significant number of genes appear to have undergone recent natural selection, and these selective pressures are sometimes specific to one region.


title: Human genetic variation

text: Genetic variation among humans occurs on many scales, from gross alterations in the human karyotype to single nucleotide changes. Chromosome abnormalities are detected in 1 of 160 live human births. Apart from sex chromosome disorders, most cases of aneuploidy result in death of the developing fetus (miscarriage); the most common extra autosomal chromosomes among live births are 21, 18 and 13.


title: Human genetic variation

text: Nucleotide diversity is the average proportion of nucleotides that differ between two individuals. As of 2004, the human nucleotide diversity was estimated to be 0.1% to 0.4% of base pairs. In 2015, the 1000 Genomes Project, which sequenced one thousand individuals from 26 human populations, found that "a typical [individual] genome differs from the reference human genome at 4.1 million to 5.0 million sites … affecting 20 million bases of sequence"; the latter figure corresponds to 0.6% of total number of base pairs. Nearly all (>99.9%) of these sites are small differences, either single nucleotide polymorphisms or brief insertions or deletions (indels) in the genetic sequence, but structural variations account for a greater number of base-pairs than the SNPs and indels.


title: Human genetic variation

text: , the Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Database (dbSNP), which lists SNP and other variants, listed 324 million variants found in sequenced human genomes.


title: Human genetic variation

text: A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a difference in a single nucleotide between members of one species that occurs in at least 1% of the population. The 2,504 individuals characterized by the 1000 Genomes Project had 84.7 million SNPs among them. SNPs are the most common type of sequence variation, estimated in 1998 to account for 90% of all sequence variants. Other sequence variations are single base exchanges, deletions and insertions. SNPs occur on average about every 100 to 300 bases and so are the major source of heterogeneity.


title: Human genetic variation

text: A functional, or non-synonymous, SNP is one that affects some factor such as gene splicing or messenger RNA, and so causes a phenotypic difference between members of the species. About 3% to 5% of human SNPs are functional (see International HapMap Project). Neutral, or synonymous SNPs are still useful as genetic markers in genome-wide association studies, because of their sheer number and the stable inheritance over generations.


title: Human genetic variation

text: A coding SNP is one that occurs inside a gene. There are 105 Human Reference SNPs that result in premature stop codons in 103 genes. This corresponds to 0.5% of coding SNPs. They occur due to segmental duplication in the genome. These SNPs result in loss of protein, yet all these SNP alleles are common and are not purified in negative selection.


title: Human genetic variation

text: Structural variation is the variation in structure of an organism's chromosome. Structural variations, such as copy-number variation and deletions, inversions, insertions and duplications, account for much more human genetic variation than single nucleotide diversity. This was concluded in 2007 from analysis of the diploid full sequences of the genomes of two humans: Craig Venter and James D. Watson. This added to the two haploid sequences which were amalgamations of sequences from many individuals, published by the Human Genome Project and Celera Genomics respectively.


title: Human genetic variation

text: According to the 1000 Genomes Project, a typical human has 2,100 to 2,500 structural variations, which include approximately 1,000 large deletions, 160 copy-number variants, 915 Alu insertions, 128 L1 insertions, 51 SVA insertions, 4 NUMTs, and 10 inversions.


title: Human genetic variation

text: A copy-number variation (CNV) is a difference in the genome due to deleting or duplicating large regions of DNA on some chromosome. It is estimated that 0.4% of the genomes of unrelated humans differ with respect to copy number. When copy number variation is included, human-to-human genetic variation is estimated to be at least 0.5% (99.5% similarity). Copy number variations are inherited but can also arise during development.


title: Human genetic variation

text: A visual map with the regions with high genomic variation of the modern-human reference assembly relatively to a


title: Human genetic variation

text: Epigenetic variation is variation in the chemical tags that attach to DNA and affect how genes get read. The tags, "called epigenetic markings, act as switches that control how genes can be read." At some alleles, the epigenetic state of the DNA, and associated phenotype, can be inherited across generations of individuals.


title: Human genetic variation

text: Genetic variability is a measure of the tendency of individual genotypes in a population to vary (become different) from one another. Variability is different from genetic diversity, which is the amount of variation seen in a particular population. The variability of a trait is how much that trait tends to vary in response to environmental and genetic influences.


title: Human genetic variation

text: In biology, a cline is a continuum of species, populations, varieties, or forms of organisms that exhibit gradual phenotypic and/or genetic differences over a geographical area, typically as a result of environmental heterogeneity. In the scientific study of human genetic variation, a gene cline can be rigorously defined and subjected to quantitative metrics.


title: Human genetic variation

text: In the study of molecular evolution, a haplogroup is a group of similar haplotypes that share a common ancestor with a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) mutation. The study of haplogroups provides information about ancestral origins dating back thousands of years.


title: Human genetic variation

text: The most commonly studied human haplogroups are Y-chromosome (Y-DNA) haplogroups and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups, both of which can be used to define genetic populations. Y-DNA is passed solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while mtDNA is passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to both daughter or son. The Y-DNA and mtDNA may change by chance mutation at each generation.


title: Human genetic variation

text: A variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) is the variation of length of a tandem repeat. A tandem repeat is the adjacent repetition of a short nucleotide sequence. Tandem repeats exist on many chromosomes, and their length varies between individuals. Each variant acts as an inherited allele, so they are used for personal or parental identification. Their analysis is useful in genetics and biology research, forensics, and DNA fingerprinting.


title: Human genetic variation

text: Short tandem repeats (about 5 base pairs) are called microsatellites, while longer ones are called minisatellites.


title: Human genetic variation

text: The recent African origin of modern humans paradigm assumes the dispersal of non-African populations of anatomically modern humans after 70,000 years ago. Dispersal within Africa occurred significantly earlier, at least 130,000 years ago. The "out of Africa" theory originates in the 19th century, as a tentative suggestion in Charles Darwin's "Descent of Man", but remained speculative until the 1980s when it was supported by the study of present-day mitochondrial DNA, combined with evidence from physical anthropology of archaic specimens.


title: Human genetic variation

text: According to a 2000 study of Y-chromosome sequence variation, human Y-chromosomes trace ancestry to Africa, and the descendants of the derived lineage left Africa and eventually were replaced by archaic human Y-chromosomes in Eurasia. The study also shows that a minority of contemporary populations in East Africa and the Khoisan are the descendants of the most ancestral patrilineages of anatomically modern humans that left Africa 35,000 to 89,000 years ago. Other evidence supporting the theory is that variations in skull measurements decrease with distance from Africa at the same rate as the decrease in genetic diversity. Human genetic diversity decreases in native populations with migratory distance from Africa, and this is thought to be due to bottlenecks during human migration, which are events that temporarily reduce population size.


title: Human genetic variation

text: A 2009 genetic clustering study, which genotyped 1327 polymorphic markers in various African populations, identified six ancestral clusters. The clustering corresponded closely with ethnicity, culture and language. A 2018 whole genome sequencing study of the world's populations observed similar clusters among the populations in Africa. At K=9, distinct ancestral components defined the Afroasiatic-speaking populations inhabiting North Africa and Northeast Africa; the Nilo-Saharan-speaking populations in Northeast Africa and East Africa; the Ari populations in Northeast Africa; the Niger-Congo-speaking populations in West-Central Africa, West Africa, East Africa and Southern Africa; the Pygmy populations in Central Africa; and the Khoisan populations in Southern Africa.


title: Human genetic variation

text: Because of the common ancestry of all humans, only a small number of variants have large differences in frequency between populations. However, some rare variants in the world's human population are much more frequent in at least one population (more than 5%).


title: Human genetic variation

text: It is commonly assumed that early humans left Africa, and thus must have passed through a population bottleneck before their African-Eurasian divergence around 100,000 years ago (ca. 3,000 generations). The rapid expansion of a previously small population has two important effects on the distribution of genetic variation. First, the so-called founder effect occurs when founder populations bring only a subset of the genetic variation from their ancestral population. Second, as founders become more geographically separated, the probability that two individuals from different founder populations will mate becomes smaller. The effect of this assortative mating is to reduce gene flow between geographical groups and to increase the genetic distance between groups.


title: Human genetic variation

text: The expansion of humans from Africa affected the distribution of genetic variation in two other ways. First, smaller (founder) populations experience greater genetic drift because of increased fluctuations in neutral polymorphisms. Second, new polymorphisms that arose in one group were less likely to be transmitted to other groups as gene flow was restricted.


title: Human genetic variation

text: Populations in Africa tend to have lower amounts of linkage disequilibrium than do populations outside Africa, partly because of the larger size of human populations in Africa over the course of human history and partly because the number of modern humans who left Africa to colonize the rest of the world appears to have been relatively low. In contrast, populations that have undergone dramatic size reductions or rapid expansions in the past and populations formed by the mixture of previously separate ancestral groups can have unusually high levels of linkage disequilibrium


title: Human genetic variation

text: The distribution of genetic variants within and among human populations are impossible to describe succinctly because of the difficulty of defining a "population," the clinal nature of variation, and heterogeneity across the genome (Long and Kittles 2003). In general, however, an average of 85% of genetic variation exists within local populations, ~7% is between local populations within the same continent, and ~8% of variation occurs between large groups living on different continents. The recent African origin theory for humans would predict that in Africa there exists a great deal more diversity than elsewhere and that diversity should decrease the further from Africa a population is sampled.


title: Human genetic variation

text: Sub-Saharan Africa has the most human genetic diversity and the same has been shown to hold true for phenotypic variation in skull form. Phenotype is connected to genotype through gene expression. Genetic diversity decreases smoothly with migratory distance from that region, which many scientists believe to be the origin of modern humans, and that decrease is mirrored by a decrease in phenotypic variation. Skull measurements are an example of a physical attribute whose within-population variation decreases with distance from Africa.


title: Human genetic variation

text: The distribution of many physical traits resembles the distribution of genetic variation within and between human populations (American Association of Physical Anthropologists 1996; Keita and Kittles 1997). For example, ~90% of the variation in human head shapes occurs within continental groups, and ~10% separates groups, with a greater variability of head shape among individuals with recent African ancestors (Relethford 2002).


title: Human genetic variation

text: A prominent exception to the common distribution of physical characteristics within and among groups is skin color. Approximately 10% of the variance in skin color occurs within groups, and ~90% occurs between groups (Relethford 2002). This distribution of skin color and its geographic patterning – with people whose ancestors lived predominantly near the equator having darker skin than those with ancestors who lived predominantly in higher latitudes – indicate that this attribute has been under strong selective pressure. Darker skin appears to be strongly selected for in equatorial regions to prevent sunburn, skin cancer, the photolysis of folate, and damage to sweat glands.


title: Human genetic variation

text: Understanding how genetic diversity in the human population impacts various levels of gene expression is an active area of research. While earlier studies focused on the relationship between DNA variation and RNA expression, more recent efforts are characterizing the genetic control of various aspects of gene expression including chromatin states, translation, and protein levels. A study published in 2007 found that 25% of genes showed different levels of gene expression between populations of European and Asian descent. The primary cause of this difference in gene expression was thought to be SNPs in gene regulatory regions of DNA. Another study published in 2007 found that approximately 83% of genes were expressed at different levels among individuals and about 17% between populations of European and African descent.


title: Human genetic variation

text: The population geneticist Sewall Wright developed the fixation index (often abbreviated to "F") as a way of measuring genetic differences between populations. This statistic is often used in taxonomy to compare differences between any two given populations by measuring the genetic differences among and between populations for individual genes, or for many genes simultaneously. It is often stated that the fixation index for humans is about 0.15. This translates to an estimated 85% of the variation measured in the overall human population is found within individuals of the same population, and about 15% of the variation occurs between populations. These estimates imply that any two individuals from different populations are almost as likely to be more similar to each other than either is to a member of their own group.


title: Human genetic variation

text: "The shared evolutionary history of living humans has resulted in a high relatedness among all living people, as indicated for example by the very low fixation index (F) among living human populations." Richard Lewontin, who affirmed these ratios, thus concluded neither "race" nor "subspecies" were appropriate or useful ways to describe human populations.


title: Human genetic variation

text: Wright himself believed that values >0.25 represent very great genetic variation and that an "F" of 0.15–0.25 represented great variation. However, about 5% of human variation occurs between populations within continents, therefore "F" values between continental groups of humans (or races) of as low as 0.1 (or possibly lower) have been found in some studies, suggesting more moderate levels of genetic variation. Graves (1996) has countered that "F" should not be used as a marker of subspecies status, as the statistic is used to measure the degree of differentiation between populations, although see also Wright (1978).