title: Hull House

text: A historic picture, "Meet the Hull House Kids," was taken on a summer day in 1924 by Wallace K. Kirkland Sr., Hull House Director. He later became a top photographer with "Life". The twenty Hull House Kids were erroneously described as young boys, of Irish ancestry, posing in the Dante School yard on Forquer Street (now Arthington Street). It circulated the world as a "poster child" of sorts for the Hull House social experiment. On April 5, 1987, over a half century later, the "Chicago Sun-Times" refuted the contention that the Hull House Boys were of Irish ancestry. In doing so, the "Sun-Times" article listed the names of each of the young boys. All twenty boys were first-generation Italian-Americans, all with vowels at the end of their names. "They grew up to be lawyers and mechanics, sewer workers and dump truck drivers, a candy shop owner, a boxer and a mob boss."


title: Hull House

text: Because of the immigrants' loneliness for their homeland, Addams started hosting ethnic evenings at Hull House. This would include ethnic food, dancing, music, and maybe a short lecture on a topic of interest. Some of the themed evenings were Italian, Greek, German, Polish, etc. Ellen Gates Starr described one Italian evening as having the room packed full with people. One of the ladies who attended "recited a patriotic poem with great spirit" and everyone was moved by it.


title: Hull House

text: Throughout the first two decades, along with thousands of immigrants from the surrounding area, Hull House attracted many female residents who later became prominent and influential reformers at various levels. At the beginning, Addams and Starr volunteered as on-call doctors when the real doctors either didn't show up or weren't available. They acted as midwives, saved babies from neglect, prepared the dead for burial, nursed the sick, and sheltered domestic violence victims. For example, one Italian bride had lost her wedding ring and in turn was beaten by her husband for a week. She sought shelter at the settlement and it was granted to her. Also, a baby born with a cleft palate was unwanted by his mother so he was kept at the Hull House for six weeks after an operation. In another case, a woman was about to give birth to an illegitimate baby, so none of the Irish matrons would touch it. Addams and Starr stepped in and delivered this helpless little one. Finally, a female Italian immigrant was so thrilled about fresh roses at one of the Hull House receptions that she insisted they had come from Italy. She had never seen anything as beautiful in America despite the fact that she lived within ten blocks of a florist shop. Her limited view of America came from the untidy street she lived on and the long struggle to adapt to American ways. The settlement was also gradually drawn into advocating for legislative reforms at the municipal, state and federal levels, addressing issues such as child labor, women's suffrage, healthcare reform and immigration policy. Some claim that the work of the Hull House marked the beginning of what we know today as "Social Welfare".


title: Hull House

text: At the neighborhood level, Hull House established the city's first public playground, bathhouse, and public gymnasium (in 1893), pursued educational and political reform, and investigated housing, working, and sanitation issues. The playground opened on May Day in 1893, located on Polk Street. Families dressed in party attire and came to join the celebration that day. Addams had studied child behavior and painfully concluded that "children robbed of childhood were likely to become dull, sullen men and women working mindless jobs, or criminals for whom the adventure of crime became the only way to break out of the bleakness of their lives" Addams' thinking regarding the importance of childhood play opportunities contributed to a national conversation about the need for playgrounds and a movement that started the Playground Association of America Also, one volunteer, Jenny Dow, started a kindergarten class for children left at the settlement while their mothers worked in the sweatshops. Within three weeks, Dow had 24 registered kindergartners and 70 on a waiting list. At the municipal level, their pursuit of legal reforms led to the first juvenile court in the United States, and their work influenced urban planning and the transition to a branch library system. At the state level Hull House influenced legislation on child labor laws, occupational safety and health provisions, compulsory education, immigrant rights, and pension laws. These experiences translated to success at the federal level, working with the settlement house network to champion national child labor laws, women's suffrage, a children's bureau, unemployment compensation, workers' compensation, and other elements of the Progressive agenda during the first two decades of the twentieth century.


title: Hull House

text: Later, the settlement branched out and offered services to ameliorate some of the effects of poverty. A public dispensary provided nutritious food for the sick as well as a daycare center and public baths. Among the courses Hull House offered was a bookbinding course, which was timely — given the employment opportunities in the growing printing trade. Hull House was well known for its success in aiding American assimilation, especially with immigrant youth. Hull House became the center of the movement to promote hand workmanship as a moral regenerative force. Under the direction of Laura Dainty Pelham their theater group performed the Chicago premiers of several plays by John Galsworthy, Henrik Ibsen, and George Bernard Shaw, and was given credit for founding the American Little Theatre Movement. The success of Hull House led Paul Kellogg to refer to the group as the "Great Ladies of Halsted Street".


title: Hull House

text: The objective of Hull House, as stated in its charter, was: "To provide a center for a higher civic and social life; to institute and maintain educational and philanthropic enterprises, and to investigate and improve the conditions in the industrial districts of Chicago."


title: Hull House

text: Hull House was located in Chicago, Illinois, and took its name from the Italianate mansion built by real estate magnate Charles Jerald Hull (1820–1889) at 800 South Halsted Street in 1856. The building was located in what had once been a fashionable part of town, but by 1889, when Addams was searching for a location for her experiment, it had descended into squalor. This was partly due to the rapid and overwhelming influx of immigrants into the Near West Side neighborhood. Charles Hull granted his former home to his niece Helen Culver, who in turn granted it to Addams on a 25-year rent-free lease. By 1907, Addams had acquired 13 buildings surrounding Hull's mansion. Between 1889 and 1935, Addams and Ellen Gates Starr continuously redeveloped the building. In 1912, the Bowen Country Club summer camp was added to complete the Hull House complex. The facility remained at the original location until it was purchased in 1963 by what was then called the University of Illinois-Circle Campus. The development of University of Illinois-Circle Campus required the demolition of most of the Hull House buildings and the 1967 restoration to the original building by Frazier, Raftery, Orr and Fairbank removed Addams's third floor addition. In addition to the mansion, of the dozen additional buildings only the craftsman style dining hall (built in 1905 and designed by Pond & Pond) survives and it was moved from its original site to be next to the mansion.


title: Hull House

text: Addams noted that upon moving in, the building had a "half-skeptical reputation for a haunted attic." Over the years, numerous stories of ghosts and hauntings have surrounded Hull House, making it a stop on many of the "ghosts in Chicago" tours. Charles Hull's wife had died in the house in 1860 and is sometimes thought to haunt it. Other candidates for resident ghosts include the many people who died there of natural causes in the 1870s when it was used as a home for the aged by the Little Sisters of the Poor.


title: Hull House

text: In 1913, another Hull House ghost story began circulating. According to this legend, after a man claimed that he would rather have the Devil in his house than a picture of The Virgin Mary, his child was born with pointed ears, horns, scale-covered skin, and a tail. The mother was said to have taken the baby to Hull House, where Addams was said to have attempted to have it baptized and wound up locking it in the attic. While initially annoyed about the story, which had no basis in fact, Addams became fascinated by the effect the episode had on old women in the neighborhood and used the episode as a basis for her book "The Long Road of Woman's Memory".


title: Hull House

text: While a great many erroneous stories have circulated about the building, Addams is known to have spoken to several friends about one of the front bedrooms on the second floor being haunted – she and a friend once thought they saw a "woman in white" ghost there, and the same ghost was later seen by a group of girls when the room was used as a dressing room for the adjacent theater. Though Addams called it "haunted," she seems to have been more amused than frightened by it.


title: Hull House

text: Addams felt that the community benefits from theater plays and thus established an amateur theater in the Hull House in 1899. "The neighborhood Greeks performed the classic plays of antiquity in their own language and the children of European immigrants produced Shakespeare" as well as others. Early one December, the Greeks performed "Odysseus in Chicago". The auditorium was filled with a multi-ethnic crowd and packed too close for comfort. The audience was very eager and gave the performers "rapt attention." They watched neighbors and co-workers execute this primitive play, but it was very powerful, plausible, and personal. The actors seemed to pay "tribute to a noble ancestry" and plea for the respect of the audience. Indeed, they did gain this respect because it was said that not even trained college students could give the same play with as much zeal and patriotism. Chicago's noted improvisational theatre scene has roots in Hull House, as Viola Spolin, noted improvisational techniques instructor, taught classes at Hull House. In 1963, when road tours of Broadway productions became common, the Hull House Theater in the Jane Addams Center at 3212 North Broadway fostered the development of Chicago Theater companies for the rest of the century. Founder Robert Sickinger created an environment to nourish young talent with professionalism.


title: Hull House

text: Addams was head resident until her death in 1935. Hull House continued to serve the community surrounding the Halsted location until it was displaced by the urban branch campus of the University of Illinois in the 1960s. Until 2012, the social service center role was performed throughout the city at various locations under an umbrella organization, the Jane Addams Hull House Association. The original Hull House building itself is a museum, part of the College of Architecture and the Arts at the University of Illinois at Chicago, and is open to the public.


title: Hull House

text: The Jane Addams Hull House Association was one of Chicago's largest nonprofit social welfare organizations. Its mission was to improve social conditions for underserved people and communities by providing creative, innovative programs and by advocating for related public policy reforms. The Association had more than 50 programs at over 40 sites throughout Chicago and served approximately 60,000 individuals, families, and community members every year.


title: Hull House

text: The Jane Addams Hull-House Museum is part of the College of Architecture and the Arts at the University of Illinois at Chicago and serves as a memorial to Addams and other resident social reformers, whose work influenced the lives of their immigrant neighbors, as well as national and international public policy. The museum and its programs connect the work of Hull House residents to important contemporary social issues. The Museum's collection includes over 1,100 artifacts related to Hull House history and over 100 oral interviews conducted with people who have shared their stories about Hull House and the surrounding neighborhood.


title: Hull House

text: Because of its heavy reliance on public support—as much as 85 percent of its revenue came from such sources—Hull House Association had essentially become an arm of government, unlike anything Ms. Addams might recognize today. When Clarence Wood, then the head of Chicago's Human Relations Commission, took over in 2000, he promised to move toward more private fundraising. But that effort appears to have failed to bring in more than a few million dollars in any given year, accounting for less than 10 percent of the agency's funding in most of the last decade, according to financial statements filed with the IRS and the Illinois attorney general's office.


title: Hull House

text: On January 19, 2012, it was announced that Jane Addams Hull House Association would close in the spring of 2012 and file for bankruptcy due to financial difficulties, after almost 122 years. On Friday, January 27, 2012, Hull House closed unexpectedly and all employees received their final paychecks. Employees learned at time of closing that they would not receive severance pay or earned vacation pay or healthcare coverage. Union officials said that the agency closed while owing employees more than $27,000 in unpaid expense reimbursement claims. The University of Illinois at Chicago's Jane Addams Hull-House Museum (unaffiliated with the agency), however, remains open.


title: Pankaj Udhas

text: Pankaj Udhas (born 17 May 1951) is an Indian ghazal and playback singer. He started his career with a release of a ghazal album titled "Aahat" in 1980 and subsequently recorded many hits like "Mukarar" in 1981, "Tarrannum" in 1982, "Mehfil" in 1983, "Pankaj Udhas Live at Royal Albert Hall" in 1984, "Nayaab" in 1985 and "Aafreen" in 1986. After his success as a ghazal singer, he was invited to appear and sing for a film by Mahesh Bhatt, "Naam". Udhas rose to further fame for singing in the 1986 film "Naam", in which his song "Chitthi Aayee Hai" (the letter has arrived) became an instant hit. He did playback singing for many Hindi films after that. Albums and live concerts around the globe brought him fame as a singer. In 2006, Pankaj Udhas was awarded Padma Shri, India's fourth highest civilian award.


title: Pankaj Udhas

text: Pankaj Udhas was born in Jetpur in Gujarat. He is the youngest of the three brothers. His parents are Keshubhai Udhas and Jituben Udhas. His eldest brother Manhar Udhas achieved some success as a Hindi playback singer in Bollywood films. His second elder brother Nirmal Udhas is also a well-known Ghazal Singer and was the first of the three brothers to start singing in the family. He had studied in Sir BPTI Bhavanagar. His family moved to Mumbai and Pankaj attended St. Xavier's College in Mumbai.


title: Pankaj Udhas

text: Udhas' family hails from a town named Charkhadi near Rajkot and were "zamindars" (). His grandfather was the first graduate from the village and went on to become the Diwan (revenue minister) of the Bhavnagar State. His father, Keshubhai Udhas, was a government servant and had met the renowned veena player, Abdul Karim Khan, who taught him to play the dilruba. When Udhas was a child, his father would play the "dilruba", a stringed instrument. Seeing his and his brothers' interest in music, his father enrolled them at the Sangeet Academy in Rajkot. Udhas initially enrolled himself to learn the "tabla" but later began learning Hindustani vocal classical music from Ghulam Qadir Khan Sahab. Udhas then moved to Mumbai to train under the tutelage of Navrang Nagpurkar, a singer from the Gwalior Gharana.


title: Pankaj Udhas

text: A song titled Chandi Jaisa Rang hai tera, sone jaise bal (i.e. Your colour is like silver, your hair is like gold) was sung by Pankaj Udhas. Pankaj Udhas' older brother, Manhar Udhas was a stage performer that aided Pankaj in his introduction to musical performance. His first stage performance was during the Sino-Indian War, when he sang "Aye Mere Watan Ke Logo" and was given Rs. 51 by an audience member as a reward.


title: Pankaj Udhas

text: Four years later he joined the Sangeet Natya Academy in Rajkot and learned the nuances of playing the tabla. After that, he pursued a Bachelor of Science degree at Wilson College and St Xavier's college, Mumbai and started training in Indian classical vocal music under the tutelage of Master Navrang. Udhas's first song was in the film "Kamna" a solo composed by Usha Khanna and written by Naqsh Lyallpuri, the film was a flop but his rendition was very much appreciated. Subsequently, Udhas developed an interest in ghazals and learned Urdu to try to pursue a career as a ghazal singer. He spent ten months in Canada and the US doing ghazal concerts and returned to India with renewed vigour and confidence. His first ghazal album, "Aahat", was released in 1980. From this, he began to have success and, as of 2011 he has released more than fifty albums and hundreds of compilation albums. In 1986, Udhas received another opportunity to perform in film, in the film "Naam", which brought him fame. In 1990, he sang the melodious duet "Mahiya Teri Kasam" with Lata Mangeshkar, for the movie "Ghayal". This song achieved immense popularity. In 1994, Udhas sang the notable song, "Na Kajre Ki Dhar", from the film "Mohra" along with Sadhana Sargam which also became very popular. He continued working as a playback singer, making some on-screen appearances in films such as "Saajan", "Yeh Dillagi", "Naam" and "Phir Teri Kahaani Yaad Aayee". His album "Shagufta" launched by Music India in December 1987 was the first to be released on compact disc in India. Later, Udhas started a talent hunt television program called "Aadab Aarz Hai" on Sony Entertainment Television.


title: Particle filter

text: Particle filters, or sequential Monte Carlo methods, are a set of Monte Carlo algorithms used to solve filtering problems arising in signal processing and Bayesian statistical inference. The filtering problem consists of estimating the internal states in dynamical systems when partial observations are made and random perturbations are present in the sensors as well as in the dynamical system. The objective is to compute the posterior distributions of the states of a Markov process, given the noisy and partial observations. The term "particle filters" was first coined in 1996 by Del Moral about mean-field interacting particle methods used in fluid mechanics since the beginning of the 1960s. The term "Sequential Monte Carlo" was coined by Liu and Chen in 1998.


title: Particle filter

text: Particle filtering uses a set of particles (also called samples) to represent the posterior distribution of a stochastic process given the noisy and/or partial observations. The state-space model can be nonlinear and the initial state and noise distributions can take any form required. Particle filter techniques provide a well-established methodology for generating samples from the required distribution without requiring assumptions about the state-space model or the state distributions. However, these methods do not perform well when applied to very high-dimensional systems.


title: Particle filter

text: Particle filters update their prediction in an approximate (statistical) manner. The samples from the distribution are represented by a set of particles; each particle has a likelihood weight assigned to it that represents the probability of that particle being sampled from the probability density function. Weight disparity leading to weight collapse is a common issue encountered in these filtering algorithms, however, it can be mitigated by including a resampling step before the weights become uneven. Several adaptive resampling criteria can be used including the variance of the weights and the relative entropy concerning the uniform distribution. In the resampling step, the particles with negligible weights are replaced by the new particles in the proximity of the particles with higher weights.


title: Particle filter

text: From the statistical and probabilistic point of view, particle filters may be interpreted as mean-field particle interpretations of Feynman-Kac probability measures. These particle integration techniques were developed in molecular chemistry and computational physics by Theodore E. Harris and Herman Kahn in 1951, Marshall N. Rosenbluth and Arianna W. Rosenbluth in 1955, and more recently by Jack H. Hetherington in 1984. In computational physics, these Feynman-Kac type path particle integration methods are also used in Quantum Monte Carlo, and more specifically Diffusion Monte Carlo methods. Feynman-Kac interacting particle methods are also strongly related to mutation-selection genetic algorithms currently used in evolutionary computing to solve complex optimization problems.


title: Particle filter

text: The particle filter methodology is used to solve Hidden Markov Model (HMM) and nonlinear filtering problems. With the notable exception of linear-Gaussian signal-observation models (Kalman filter) or wider classes of models (Benes filter), Mireille Chaleyat-Maurel and Dominique Michel proved in 1984 that the sequence of posterior distributions of the random states of a signal, given the observations (a.k.a. optimal filter), has no finite recursion. Various other numerical methods based on fixed grid approximations, Markov Chain Monte Carlo techniques, conventional linearization, extended Kalman filters, or determining the best linear system (in the expected cost-error sense) are unable to cope with large-scale systems, unstable processes, or when the nonlinearities are not sufficiently smooth.


title: Particle filter

text: Particle filters and Feynman-Kac particle methodologies find application in signal and image processing, Bayesian inference, machine learning, risk analysis and rare event sampling, engineering and robotics, artificial intelligence, bioinformatics, phylogenetics, computational science, economics and mathematical finance, molecular chemistry, computational physics, pharmacokinetics, and other fields.


title: Particle filter

text: From a statistical and probabilistic viewpoint, particle filters belong to the class of branching/genetic type algorithms, and mean-field type interacting particle methodologies. The interpretation of these particle methods depends on the scientific discipline. In Evolutionary Computing, mean-field genetic type particle methodologies are often used as a heuristic and natural search algorithms (a.k.a. Metaheuristic). In computational physics and molecular chemistry, they are used to solve Feynman-Kac path integration problems or to compute Boltzmann-Gibbs measures, top eigenvalues and ground states of Schrödinger operators. In Biology and Genetics, they represent the evolution of a population of individuals or genes in some environment.


title: Particle filter

text: The origins of mean-field type evolutionary computational techniques can be traced back to 1950 and 1954 with Alan Turing's work on genetic type mutation-selection learning machines and the articles by Nils Aall Barricelli at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. The first trace of particle filters in statistical methodology dates back to the mid-1950s; the 'Poor Man's Monte Carlo', that was proposed by Hammersley et al., in 1954, contained hints of the genetic type particle filtering methods used today. In 1963, Nils Aall Barricelli simulated a genetic type algorithm to mimic the ability of individuals to play a simple game. In evolutionary computing literature, genetic type mutation-selection algorithms became popular through the seminal work of John Holland in the early 1970s, and particularly his book published in 1975.


title: Particle filter

text: In Biology and Genetics, the Australian geneticist Alex Fraser also published in 1957 a series of papers on the genetic type simulation of artificial selection of organisms. The computer simulation of the evolution by biologists became more common in the early 1960s, and the methods were described in books by Fraser and Burnell (1970) and Crosby (1973). Fraser's simulations included all of the essential elements of modern mutation-selection genetic particle algorithms.


title: Particle filter

text: From the mathematical viewpoint, the conditional distribution of the random states of a signal given some partial and noisy observations is described by a Feynman-Kac probability on the random trajectories of the signal weighted by a sequence of likelihood potential functions. Quantum Monte Carlo, and more specifically Diffusion Monte Carlo methods can also be interpreted as a mean-field genetic type particle approximation of Feynman-Kac path integrals. The origins of Quantum Monte Carlo methods are often attributed to Enrico Fermi and Robert Richtmyer who developed in 1948 a mean-field particle interpretation of neutron-chain reactions, but the first heuristic-like and genetic type particle algorithm (a.k.a. Resampled or Reconfiguration Monte Carlo methods) for estimating ground state energies of quantum systems (in reduced matrix models) is due to Jack H. Hetherington in 1984. One can also quote the earlier seminal works of Theodore E. Harris and Herman Kahn in particle physics, published in 1951, using mean-field but heuristic-like genetic methods for estimating particle transmission energies. In molecular chemistry, the use of genetic heuristic-like particle methodologies (a.k.a. pruning and enrichment strategies) can be traced back to 1955 with the seminal work of Marshall. N. Rosenbluth and Arianna. W. Rosenbluth.


title: Particle filter

text: The use of genetic particle algorithms in advanced signal processing and Bayesian inference is more recent. In January 1993, Genshiro Kitagawa developed a "Monte Carlo filter", a slightly modified version of this article appeared in 1996. In April 1993, Gordon et al., published in their seminal work an application of genetic type algorithm in Bayesian statistical inference. The authors named their algorithm 'the bootstrap filter', and demonstrated that compared to other filtering methods, their bootstrap algorithm does not require any assumption about that state space or the noise of the system. Independently, the ones by Pierre Del Moral and Himilcon Carvalho, Pierre Del Moral, André Monin, and Gérard Salut on particle filters published in the mid-1990s. Particle filters were also developed in signal processing in early 1989-1992 by P. Del Moral, J.C. Noyer, G. Rigal, and G. Salut in the LAAS-CNRS in a series of restricted and classified research reports with STCAN (Service Technique des Constructions et Armes Navales), the IT company DIGILOG, and the LAAS-CNRS (the Laboratory for Analysis and Architecture of Systems) on RADAR/SONAR and GPS signal processing problems.


title: Particle filter

text: From 1950 to 1996, all the publications on particle filters, and genetic algorithms, including the pruning and resample Monte Carlo methods introduced in computational physics and molecular chemistry, present natural and heuristic-like algorithms applied to different situations without a single proof of their consistency, nor a discussion on the bias of the estimates and genealogical and ancestral tree-based algorithms.


title: Particle filter

text: The mathematical foundations and the first rigorous analysis of these particle algorithms are due to Pierre Del Moral in 1996. The article also contains proof of the unbiased properties of a particle approximation of likelihood functions and unnormalized conditional probability measures. The unbiased particle estimator of the likelihood functions presented in this article is used today in Bayesian statistical inference.


title: Particle filter

text: Branching type particle methodologies with varying population sizes were also developed toward the end of the 1990s by Dan Crisan, Jessica Gaines and Terry Lyons, and by Dan Crisan, Pierre Del Moral and Terry Lyons. Further developments in this field were made in 2000 by P. Del Moral, A. Guionnet and L. Miclo. The first central limit theorems are due to Pierre Del Moral and Alice Guionnet in 1999 and Pierre Del Moral and Laurent Miclo in 2000. The first uniform convergence results with respect to the time parameter for particle filters were developed in the end of the 1990s by Pierre Del Moral and Alice Guionnet. The first rigorous analysis of genealogical tree based particle filter smoothers is due to P. Del Moral and L. Miclo in 2001


title: Particle filter

text: The theory on Feynman-Kac particle methodologies and related particle filter algorithms was developed in 2000 and 2004 in the books. These abstract probabilistic models encapsulate genetic type algorithms, particle and bootstrap filters, interacting Kalman filters (a.k.a. Rao–Blackwellized particle filter), importance sampling and resampling style particle filter techniques, including genealogical tree-based and particle backward methodologies for solving filtering and smoothing problems. Other classes of particle filtering methodologies include genealogical tree-based models, backward Markov particle models, adaptive mean-field particle models, island-type particle models, and particle Markov chain Monte Carlo methodologies.


title: Particle filter

text: The objective of a particle filter is to estimate the posterior density of the state variables given the observation variables. The particle filter is designed for a hidden Markov Model, where the system consists of both hidden and observable variables. The observable variables (observation process) are related to the hidden variables (state-process) by some functional form that is known. Similarly the dynamical system describing the evolution of the state variables is also known probabilistically.


title: Particle filter

text: A generic particle filter estimates the posterior distribution of the hidden states using the observation measurement process. With respect to a state-space such as the one below:


title: Particle filter

text: the filtering problem is to estimate sequentially the values of the hidden states formula_2, given the values of the observation process formula_3 at any time step "k".


title: Particle filter

text: All Bayesian estimates of formula_2 follow from the posterior density formula_5. The particle filter methodology provides an approximation of these conditional probabilities using the empirical measure associated with a genetic type particle algorithm. In contrast, the Markov Chain Monte Carlo or importance sampling approach would model the full posterior formula_6.


title: Particle filter

text: where both formula_26 and formula_27 are mutually independent sequences with known probability density functions and "g" and "h" are known functions. These two equations can be viewed as state space equations and look similar to the state space equations for the Kalman filter. If the functions "g" and "h" in the above example are linear, and if both formula_26 and formula_27 are Gaussian, the Kalman filter finds the exact Bayesian filtering distribution. If not, Kalman filter based methods are a first-order approximation (EKF) or a second-order approximation (UKF in general, but if probability distribution is Gaussian a third-order approximation is possible).


title: Particle filter

text: The assumption that the initial distribution and the transitions of the Markov chain are absolutely continuous with respect to the Lebesgue measure can be relaxed. To design a particle filter we simply need to assume that we can sample the transitions formula_30 of the Markov chain formula_31 and to compute the likelihood function formula_32 (see for instance the genetic selection mutation description of the particle filter given below). The absolutely continuous assumption on the Markov transitions of formula_2 are only used to derive in an informal (and rather abusive) way different formulae between posterior distributions using the Bayes' rule for conditional densities.


title: Particle filter

text: In certain problems, the conditional distribution of observations, given the random states of the signal, may fail to have a density; the latter may be impossible or too complex to compute. In this situation, an additional level of approximation is necessitated. One strategy is to replace the signal formula_2 by the Markov chain formula_35 and to introduce a virtual observation of the form


title: Particle filter

text: for some sequence of independent random variables formula_37 with known probability density functions. The central idea is to observe that


title: Particle filter

text: The particle filter associated with the Markov process formula_35 given the partial observations formula_40 is defined in terms of particles evolving in formula_41 with a likelihood function given with some obvious abusive notation by formula_42. These probabilistic techniques are closely related to Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC). In the context of particle filters, these ABC particle filtering techniques were introduced in 1998 by P. Del Moral, J. Jacod and P. Protter. They were further developed by P. Del Moral, A. Doucet and A. Jasra.


title: Particle filter

text: Particle filters are also an approximation, but with enough particles they can be much more accurate. The nonlinear filtering equation is given by the recursion


title: Particle filter

text: &\stackrel{\text{prediction}}{\longrightarrow}p(x_{k+1}|y_0,\cdots,y_k)=\int p(x_{k+1}|x_k) p(x_k|y_0,\cdots,y_k) dx_k


title: Particle filter

text: with the convention formula_45 for "k" = 0. The nonlinear filtering problem consists in computing these conditional distributions sequentially.


title: Particle filter

text: We fix a time horizon n and a sequence of observations formula_46, and for each "k" = 0, ..., "n" we set:


title: Particle filter

text: In this notation, for any bounded function "F" on the set of trajectories of formula_2 from the origin "k" = 0 up to time "k" = "n", we have the Feynman-Kac formula


title: Particle filter

text: Feynman-Kac path integration models arise in a variety of scientific disciplines, including in computational physics, biology, information theory and computer sciences. Their interpretations are dependent on the application domain. For instance, if we choose the indicator function formula_50 of some subset of the state space, they represent the conditional distribution of a Markov chain given it stays in a given tube; that is, we have:


title: Particle filter

text: Initially, such an algorithm starts with "N" independent random variables formula_53 with common probability density formula_14. The genetic algorithm selection-mutation transitions


title: Particle filter

text: In the above displayed formulae formula_61 stands for the likelihood function formula_32 evaluated at formula_63, and formula_64 stands for the conditional density formula_65 evaluated at formula_66.


title: Particle filter

text: In Genetic algorithms and Evolutionary computing community, the mutation-selection Markov chain described above is often called the genetic algorithm with proportional selection. Several branching variants, including with random population sizes have also been proposed in the articles.


title: Particle filter

text: Particle methods, like all sampling-based approaches (e.g., Markov Chain Monte Carlo), generate a set of samples that approximate the filtering density


title: Particle filter

text: For example, we may have "N" samples from the approximate posterior distribution of formula_2, where the samples are labeled with superscripts as:


title: Particle filter

text: where formula_58 stands for the Dirac measure at a given state a. The function "f", in the usual way for Monte Carlo, can give all the moments etc. of the distribution up to some approximation error. When the approximation equation () is satisfied for any bounded function "f" we write


title: Particle filter

text: Particle filters can be interpreted as a genetic type particle algorithm evolving with mutation and selection transitions. We can keep track of the ancestral lines


title: Particle filter

text: of the particles formula_76. The random states formula_77, with the lower indices l=0...,k, stands for the ancestor of the individual formula_78 at level l=0...,k. In this situation, we have the approximation formula


title: Particle filter

text: Here "F" stands for any founded function on the path space of the signal. In a more synthetic form () is equivalent to


title: Particle filter

text: Particle filters can be interpreted in many different ways. From the probabilistic point of view they coincide with a mean-field particle interpretation of the nonlinear filtering equation. The updating-prediction transitions of the optimal filter evolution can also be interpreted as the classical genetic type selection-mutation transitions of individuals. The sequential importance resampling technique provides another interpretation of the filtering transitions coupling importance sampling with the bootstrap resampling step. Last, but not least, particle filters can be seen as an acceptance-rejection methodology equipped with a recycling mechanism.


title: Particle filter

text: The nonlinear filtering evolution can be interpreted as a dynamical system in the set of probability measures of the following form formula_81 where formula_82 stands for some mapping from the set of probability distribution into itself. For instance, the evolution of the one-step optimal predictor formula_83


title: Particle filter

text: satisfies a nonlinear evolution starting with the probability distribution formula_84. One of the simplest ways to approximate these probability measures is to start with "N" independent random variables formula_53 with common probability distribution formula_84 . Suppose we have defined a sequence of "N" random variables formula_87 such that


title: Particle filter

text: At the next step we sample "N" (conditionally) independent random variables formula_89 with common law .


title: Particle filter

text: We illustrate this mean-field particle principle in the context of the evolution of the one step optimal predictors


title: Particle filter

text: for any bounded function formula_94. We further assume that we have constructed a sequence of particles formula_95 at some rank "k" such that


title: Particle filter

text: In this situation, replacing formula_99 by the empirical measure formula_100 in the evolution equation of the one-step optimal filter stated in () we find that


title: Particle filter

text: where formula_61 stands for the density formula_104 evaluated at formula_63, and formula_106 stands for the density formula_65 evaluated at formula_63 for formula_109


title: Particle filter

text: Then, we sample "N" independent random variable formula_110 with common probability density formula_111 so that


title: Particle filter

text: The terminology "mean-field approximation" comes from the fact that we replace at each time step the probability measure formula_115 by the empirical approximation formula_116. The mean-field particle approximation of the filtering problem is far from being unique. Several strategies are developed in the books.


title: Particle filter

text: The analysis of the convergence of particle filters was started in 1996 and in 2000 in the book and the series of articles. More recent developments can be found in the books, When the filtering equation is stable (in the sense that it corrects any erroneous initial condition), the bias and the variance of the particle particle estimates


title: Particle filter

text: for any function "f" bounded by 1, and for some finite constants formula_120 In addition, for any formula_121:


title: Particle filter

text: for some finite constants formula_123 related to the asymptotic bias and variance of the particle estimate, and some finite constant "c". The same results are satisfied if we replace the one step optimal predictor by the optimal filter approximation.


title: Particle filter

text: of the individuals formula_125 and formula_126 at every time step "k", we also have the particle approximations


title: Particle filter

text: for any bounded function "F" on the random trajectories of the signal. As shown in the evolution of the genealogical tree coincides with a mean-field particle interpretation of the evolution equations associated with the posterior densities of the signal trajectories. For more details on these path space models, we refer to the books.


title: Particle filter

text: and the conventions formula_131 and formula_132 for "k" = 0. Replacing formula_133 by the empirical approximation


title: Particle filter

text: in the above displayed formula, we design the following unbiased particle approximation of the likelihood function


title: Particle filter

text: where formula_61 stands for the density formula_104 evaluated at formula_63. The design of this particle estimate and the unbiasedness property has been proved in 1996 in the article. Refined variance estimates can be found in and.


title: Particle filter

text: is the probability of the random paths of a Markov chain formula_149running backward in time from time k=n to time k=0, and evolving at each time step k in the state space associated with the population of particles formula_150


title: Particle filter

text: In the above displayed formula, formula_157 stands for the conditional distribution formula_158 evaluated at formula_159. In the same vein, formula_160 and formula_161 stand for the conditional densities formula_162 and formula_12 evaluated at formula_159 and formula_165 These models allows to reduce integration with respect to the densities formula_166 in terms of matrix operations with respect to the Markov transitions of the chain described above. For instance, for any function formula_167 we have the particle estimates


title: Particle filter

text: We shall assume that filtering equation is stable, in the sense that it corrects any erroneous initial condition.


title: Particle filter

text: In this situation, the particle approximations of the likelihood functions are unbiased and the relative variance is controlled by


title: Particle filter

text: for some finite constants formula_123 related to the asymptotic bias and variance of the particle estimate, and for some finite constant "c".


title: Particle filter

text: The bias and the variance of the particle particle estimates based on the ancestral lines of the genealogical trees


title: Particle filter

text: for any function "F" bounded by 1, and for some finite constants formula_178 In addition, for any formula_121:


title: Particle filter

text: for some finite constants formula_123 related to the asymptotic bias and variance of the particle estimate, and for some finite constant "c". The same type of bias and variance estimates hold for the backward particle smoothers. For additive functionals of the form


title: Particle filter

text: for some finite constants formula_187 More refined estimates including exponentially small probability of errors are developed in.


title: Particle filter

text: "Sequential importance Resampling (SIR)", Monte Carlo filtering (Kitagawa 1993) and the bootstrap filtering algorithm (Gordon et al. 1993), are also commonly applied filtering algorithms, which approximate the filtering probability density formula_188 by a weighted set of "N" samples


title: Particle filter

text: The "importance weights" formula_190 are approximations to the relative posterior probabilities (or densities) of the samples such that


title: Particle filter

text: Sequential importance sampling (SIS) is a sequential (i.e., recursive) version of importance sampling. As in importance sampling, the expectation of a function "f" can be approximated as a weighted average


title: Particle filter

text: For a finite set of samples, the algorithm performance is dependent on the choice of the "proposal distribution"


title: Particle filter

text: This particular choice of proposal transition has been proposed by P. Del Moral in 1996 and 1998. When it is difficult to sample transitions according to the distribution formula_195 one natural strategy is to use the following particle approximation


title: Particle filter

text: associated with "N" (or any other large number of samples) independent random samples formula_198with the conditional distribution of the random state formula_2 given formula_200. The consistency of the resulting particle filter of this approximation and other extensions are developed in. In the above display formula_58 stands for the Dirac measure at a given state a.


title: Particle filter

text: However, the transition prior probability distribution is often used as importance function, since it is easier to draw particles (or samples) and perform subsequent importance weight calculations:


title: Particle filter

text: "Sequential Importance Resampling" (SIR) filters with transition prior probability distribution as importance function are commonly known as bootstrap filter and condensation algorithm.


title: Particle filter

text: "Resampling" is used to avoid the problem of degeneracy of the algorithm, that is, avoiding the situation that all but one of the importance weights are close to zero. The performance of the algorithm can be also affected by proper choice of resampling method. The "stratified sampling" proposed by Kitagawa (1993) is optimal in terms of variance.


title: Particle filter

text: The term "Sampling Importance Resampling" is also sometimes used when referring to SIR filters, but the term "Importance Resampling" is more accurate because the word "resampling" implies that the initial sampling has already been done.


title: Particle filter

text: The "direct version" algorithm is rather simple (compared to other particle filtering algorithms) and it uses composition and rejection. To generate a single sample "x" at "k" from formula_215:


title: Particle filter

text: The goal is to generate P "particles" at "k" using only the particles from formula_239. This requires that a Markov equation can be written (and computed) to generate a formula_240 based only upon formula_241. This algorithm uses composition of the P particles from formula_239 to generate a particle at "k" and repeats (steps 2–6) until P particles are generated at "k".


title: Particle filter

text: This can be more easily visualized if "x" is viewed as a two-dimensional array. One dimension is "k" and the other dimensions is the particle number. For example, formula_243 would be the i particle at formula_244 and can also be written formula_245 (as done above in the algorithm). Step 3 generates a "potential" formula_240 based on a randomly chosen particle (formula_247) at time formula_239 and rejects or accepts it in step 6. In other words, the formula_240 values are generated using the previously generated formula_241.


title: Particle filter

text: Particle filters and Feynman-Kac particle methodologies find application in several contexts, as an effective mean for tackling noisy observations or strong nonlinearities, such as:


title: Superdollar

text: A superdollar (also known as a superbill or supernote) is a very high quality counterfeit United States one hundred-dollar bill, alleged by the U.S. government to have been made by unknown organizations or governments. In 2011, government sources stated that these counterfeit bills were in "worldwide circulation" from the late 1980s until at least July 2000 in an extradition court case.


title: Superdollar

text: While there are many features on supernotes that can be detected with today's technology, new, more sophisticated supernotes are always being produced. No current technology can guarantee catching 100% of the supernotes in circulation.


title: Superdollar

text: Various groups have been suspected of creating such notes, and international opinion on the origin of the notes varies. The U.S. government believes that North Korean officials have passed off supernotes in various countries and accuses North Korea of producing them. Over $35 million worth of counterfeit $100 bills were produced by British criminals, who were arrested in 2002.


title: Superdollar

text: A new $100 bill design intended to thwart counterfeiting, incorporating a "3D security ribbon", color-shifting numerals and drawings, and microprinting, entered circulation in 2013.


title: Superdollar

text: Supernotes are said to be made with the highest quality of ink printed on a cotton/linen blend, and are designed to recreate the various security features of United States currency, such as the red and blue security fibers, the security thread, and the watermark. Moreover, they are printed using an intaglio printing process or with engraved plates, the same process used by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) of the U. S. government for legitimate notes. In most counterfeiting, offset printing or color inkjet and laser printing are most common means of making counterfeit money.


title: Superdollar

text: Experts who have studied supernotes extensively and examined them alongside genuine bills point out that there are many different varieties of supernotes. In 2006 the "family" of fraudulent bills was thought to have 19 members. However, producers of the supernotes have improved the product since 2006, and more varieties exist. Early versions of the fake notes, for example, lacked the bands of magnetic ink printed in distinctive patterns on different denominations of U.S. money; later counterfeits rectified this error. Several of the inconspicuous "mistakes" on the first supernotes were corrected, some several times.


title: Superdollar

text: On the genuine $100 bill, for example, the left base vertical line of the lamp post near the figure on the reverse of the $100 note is weak. The first supernotes printed this line too distinctly, rendering the counterfeit more authoritatively printed than the original. Later supernotes over-corrected this strong line by removing it altogether. Similarly, the hands of the clock on Independence Hall on the genuine bill extend slightly beyond the inner circle; on the supernotes they stop short of it.


title: Superdollar

text: On the front of the supernote, in the "N" in "UNITED STATES", a slash can be seen to the right of the diagonal and the right ascender of the letter; there is none on the genuine note. Other differences in vignetting and in the defining lines of the top ornament in Independence Hall have been observed. Journalist Klaus Bender and others have speculated that the counterfeiters introduced these differences to be able to distinguish their product from the original, but there is no obvious way to confirm this.


title: Superdollar

text: In two sting operations running from 2002 to 2005, dubbed "Operation Smoking Dragon" and "Operation Royal Charm", United States agents arrested at least 87 people on charges that included smuggling superdollars. About $4.5 million in counterfeit currency was seized, much in $100 bills. No definitive origin for the counterfeit $100 bills was determined.


title: Superdollar

text: In 2005, British criminals, Anatasios Arnaouti and four others, were convicted of conspiracy to make counterfeit currency in the United Kingdom. They were arrested in 2002 after an operation that involved the U.S. Secret Service. The counterfeit currency recovered included $3.5 million worth of $100 bills, which Bank of England experts said were of excellent quality. The police stated that "The potential to undermine the economy of the UK and US was very significant."


title: Superdollar

text: The printer admitted to making 350,000 $100 bills, $35 million, over 18 months. The gang were using equipment capable of printing £1 million per day, and boasted they were producing $500,000 in fake dollars a day. The counterfeiting operation had been running for over two years.


title: Superdollar

text: It has been confirmed that North Korea has passed off superdollars (Korean: "kattalio") in various countries. The counterfeit bills also circulate both within North Korea and around its border with China. There is, however, some doubt about the reliability of North Korean defectors' claims, on which the United States partially bases its accusations, along with South Korean intelligence sources.


title: Superdollar

text: The testimony of the North Korean defectors is considered by some to be suspect, and one witness has since gone into hiding after charges were filed accusing them of fabricating the story for money. These witnesses claimed that the factory where the notes are printed is located in the city of Pyongsong and is part of Room 39.


title: Superdollar

text: One defector had taken the notes to experts in the South Korean intelligence agency, who did not believe that they were fakes. The "San Francisco Chronicle" interviewed a North Korean chemist who described the operation; insisting on anonymity, he spoke about the technical details of the process as well as the distribution method, which he said was through North Korean diplomats and international crime syndicates.


title: Superdollar

text: Since 2004, the United States has frequently called for pressure against North Korea in an attempt to end the alleged distribution of supernotes. It has investigated the Bank of China, Banco Delta Asia, and Seng Heng Bank. The U.S. eventually prohibited Americans from banking with Banco Delta Asia. However, an audit of the bank disputed U.S. allegations and indicated that the only time Banco Delta Asia had knowingly handled counterfeit money was in 1994 when it discovered and turned over $10,000 in counterfeit $100 bills to local authorities. The United States has threatened North Korea with sanctions over its alleged involvement with the supernotes, though it said those sanctions would be a separate issue from the nuclear sanctions.


title: Superdollar

text: South Korea has attempted to play a middle role, encouraging all parties to reach an acceptable conclusion without animosity. In a meeting on January 22, 2006, the U.S. laid out its evidence and tried to persuade the Seoul government to take a harder line on the issue and impose similar financial sanctions, but was rebuffed. South Korea prefers to place blame on North Korean organizations rather than the government, believing that this change in rhetoric can mollify North Korea and be conducive to a resumption of the six-party talks.


title: Superdollar

text: Several North Korean diplomats have been arrested on suspicion of passing the counterfeit bills, but have used diplomatic immunity to evade charges.


title: Superdollar

text: On February 2, 2006, banks in Japan voluntarily enforced sanctions on Banco Delta Asia identical to those imposed by the United States. Later in August 2006, the "Sankei Shimbun" reported that North Korea had opened 23 bank accounts in 10 countries, with the likely intent of laundering more superbills.


title: Superdollar

text: The U.S. Secret Service estimates that North Korea has produced $45 million in superdollars since 1989. They allege that the bills are produced at the Pyongsong Trademark Printing Factory, which is under the supervision of General O Kuk-ryol.


title: Superdollar

text: In 2008, a McClatchy Newspapers article reported that the United States no longer explicitly accused the North Korean government of producing supernotes, and that the Swiss Bundeskriminalpolizei, which regularly searches for counterfeit currency, doubted that North Korea produced supernotes. However, in 2009, a report by the Congressional Research Service renewed the accusation.


title: Superdollar

text: Before the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Iran used intaglio machines to print its currency, as did the United States and other governments. There has been some speculation that Iran has used these to print superdollars.


title: Superdollar

text: The CIA has been accused of printing and using counterfeit notes to fund off-the-books foreign operations. Klaus Bender, an author of works on counterfeiting, states that the notes are of such high quality that they could only be produced by a government agency such as the CIA.


title: Superdollar

text: Other theories of the bills' origin have become increasingly popular; Iran remains a suspect to many, while others blame independent criminal gangs operating out of Russia or China. In 2000, the Institute for Advanced Strategic and Political Studies, an Israel-based think tank, laid the blame on Syria: "The Bekaa Valley has become one of the main distribution sources, if not production points, of the 'supernote' – counterfeit U.S. currency so well done that it is impossible to detect."


title: Somali cat

text: The Somali cat is genetically similar to the Abyssinian. Due to inheriting 2 copies of the recessive gene for long hair, they have a characteristic luscious coat, unlike their cousin, the Abyssinian cat.


title: Somali cat

text: In the 1940s, a British breeder named Janet Robertson exported some Abyssinian kittens to Australia, New Zealand and North America. Descendants of these cats occasionally produced kittens with long or fuzzy coats. In 1963, Mary Mailing, a breeder from Canada, entered one into a local pet show. Ken McGill, the show's judge, asked for one for breeding purposes.


title: Somali cat

text: The first known long-haired Abyssinian, named 'Raby Chuffa of Selene', appeared in America in 1953. Breeders assume that the long-haired gene was passed down through his ancestry. Most breeders were appalled by the sudden difference in appearance in their litters and refused to mention them. However, some breeders were intrigued and continued to breed the long-haired Abyssinian. At first, other Abyssinian breeders looked down upon the new development of the Somali and refused to associate them with the Abyssinian. They worked hard to keep the long-haired gene out of their own cats.


title: Somali cat

text: An American Abyssinian breeder Evelyn Mague also received longhairs from her cats, which she named "Somalis". Mague put out a call for other cats to breed with her own long-haired Abyssinians and found the many other breeders internationally that had been breeding long-haired Abyssinians for several years already. Don Richings, another Canadian breeder, used kittens from McGill, and began to work with Mague. The first Somali recognized as such by a fancier organization was Mayling Tutsuta, one of McGill's cats. In 1979, the breed was recognized by the CFA in North America. The new breed was accepted in Europe in 1982. By 1991, the breed was broadly (though not universally) accepted internationally.


title: Somali cat

text: The name "Somali" is in reference to the African nation, Somalia. Somalia borders Abyssinia, which is modern day Ethiopia. The name of the breed is a unique interpretation of the Ethiopian-Somali conflict; Mague charitably assumed that since the land borders were a human creation, so are the genetic borders between the Abyssinian cat and the long-haired Abyssinian.


title: Somali cat

text: Mague also founded the Somali Cat Club of America, which included members from Canada as well. The SCCA worked to grant the breed championship status by the CFA, which occurred in 1979. In 1975, the CFA founded the International Somali Cat Club.


title: Somali cat

text: Somalis are recognized for their energetic and social nature. Their appearance with sleek bodies, long tails, and large pointed ears have earned them the nickname of "Fox Cat." Their ticked coats contain between four and twenty colors on each hair are very fine in texture making their coats softer to the touch than those of other cat breeds. The cat itself is medium-large in size.


title: Somali cat

text: The usual or ruddy Somali is golden brown ticked with black. There are 28 colors of Somali in total although certain organizations accept only some of these colors. All organizations that register Somalis permit usual (also known as ruddy), sorrel (a.k.a. red), blue, and fawn. Most clubs also recognize usual/ruddy silver, sorrel/red silver, blue silver, and fawn silver. Other colors that may be accepted by some registries include chocolate, lilac, red, cream, usual-tortie, sorrel-tortie, blue-tortie, fawn-tortie, chocolate-tortie, lilac-tortie, and silver variants of these (e.g. blue-tortie silver).


title: Somali cat

text: The Somali cat is usually healthy, with few breed-related health issues, though some problems may occur. These include gingivitis, tooth decay, and renal amyloidosis, which are also seen in many other breeds of cats. Renal amyloidosis (often called RA) is a condition in which there is a deposition of the protein amyloid in various tissues which hinders that part of the body's normal functioning. Other problems that are prevalent in most cat breeds, the Somali included, are feline infectious anemia (FIA) and autoimmune-mediated hemolytic anemia (AIHA). Some AIHA-related diseases are inherited erythrocyte disorders, such as pyruvate kinase deficiency and osmotic fragility.


title: Somali cat

text: Recently found in cats has been myelodysplasia. It is normally known to affect humans but was recently found in a litter of Somali kittens. Like AIHA, myelodysplasia causes anemia and is speculated to be the cause of anemia in Somalis in the past.


title: Somali cat

text: Somalis may also have hereditary retinal degeneration due to a mutation in the rdAc allele. This mutation is also seen in Abyssinians, Siamese cats, and other related breeds.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: Alice Tully Hall is a concert hall at the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts in the Upper West Side neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. The hall is named for Alice Tully, a New York performer and philanthropist whose donations assisted in the construction of the hall. Tully Hall is located within the Juilliard Building, a Brutalist structure, which was designed by renowned architect Pietro Belluschi, and completed and opened in 1969. Since its opening, it has hosted numerous performances and events, including the New York Film Festival. Tully Hall seats 1,086 patrons. It is the home of the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: As part of the Lincoln Center 65th Street Development Project, the Juilliard School and Tully Hall underwent a major renovation and expansion by architects Diller Scofidio + Renfro and FXFOWLE, which were completed in 2009. The building utilizes new interior materials, state-of-the-art technologies, and updated equipment for concerts, film, theater, and dance. The expansion of the Juilliard building features a three-story all-glass lobby and sunken plaza beneath a new, cantilevered extension, “projecting a newly visible public identity to Broadway.”


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: The Juilliard School building sits along the west side of Broadway, between 65th and 66th Streets (across the street from Avery Fisher Hall and the Lincoln Center parking garage). Prior to its expansion, it maintained a rectangular footprint of approximately 200 x . Also, prior to the re-development project, the building's primary means of connection to the main Lincoln Center complex was a large pedestrian footbridge (named the Paul Milstein Plaza) that crossed over—and covered a large portion of—West 65th Street. Despite the original building's shape, its site was rhomboidal in shape, due to the diagonal progression of Broadway through the rigid orthogonal grid of Manhattan. Rejecting Broadway's diagonal, the architects oriented Juilliard to the grid, using the remaining triangular section as a small plaza.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: Though not located on the complex's superblock between West 62nd and 65th Streets, the architects identified the original Juilliard building with Lincoln Center through the footbridge connection and use of cladding. Gordon Bunshaft originally envisioned the bridge to better integrate Juilliard with the main Lincoln Center campus and hide street traffic. Little to no consideration was given regarding the effects of such a wide bridge on the street below.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: As Juilliard's main public theater, Alice Tully Hall was not given a prominent entrance, despite the fact that it was housed in the only Lincoln Center building on a site directly facing Broadway. The entrance was instead tucked under the second-story outdoor terrace/footbridge and the monumental exterior staircase that led up to it from the plaza. This, the rejection of the diagonal, and the setting back of the building from Broadway follow a similar logic of detachment from the city street that the main Lincoln Center campus embodied. This original entrance to Tully Hall became fully visible only once the terrace, staircase, and footbridge were removed in 2006.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: Before the construction of Alice Tully Hall, most of the chamber music performances in New York City were held at The Town Hall on West 43rd Street, which had been built in 1921. The founders of Lincoln Center wished to have a chamber music hall in the complex, as there was still a need for a dedicated space. Before construction on Lincoln Center began, the architects considered placing a chamber music hall in the basement of Philharmonic Hall (since renamed David Geffen Hall, formerly Avery Fisher Hall). However, as the Juilliard School needed a concert hall that was equal in size to a chamber music hall, Lincoln Center decided to build one in the Juilliard building. Construction on the Juilliard building began in 1965 on a site one block north of the original Lincoln Center complex and part of the parcel designated for improvement through urban renewal. The cost of the chamber music hall was approximately $4.2 million, all of which was covered by donations from Alice Tully, a New York chamber music patron and former singer.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: Alice Tully Hall was designed as part of the Juilliard School building by Pietro Belluschi, who became involved with the Lincoln Center project in October 1956, when he participated in a two-week conference devoted to discussing the planning of the center. The president of the Juilliard School consulted with Belluschi on which architect to choose for the project, and though Belluschi had submitted a list of architects to be considered, he was ultimately chosen as the building's architect. He associated with Eduardo Catalano and Helge Westermann. Westermann had established an office in New York, which Belluschi and Catalano used as a local liaison for the project. Over twelve years, the architectural team had developed approximately 70 sets of preliminary drawings.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: The project had been put on hold, pending decisions on the final site and budget, but went forward in 1963. Tired of battling budget restrictions and changing program requirements, Belluschi and Catalano had difficulty generating new plans when the project restarted. Several of their previously proposed plans were turned over to Robert Burns, Frederick Taylor, and Frederick Preis, three employees at Catalano's office. Burns’ plan was based heavily off Catalano's MIT Student Center (completed in 1965). Catalano was regularly available for guidance and criticism on the project, whereas Belluschi would only stop in occasionally to review the work of Catalano's office. Belluschi played a more public role, communicating with Juilliard and with donors. He also was highly involved in designing spaces like the performance hall lobbies and foyers.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: Acoustician Heinrich Keilholz designed the hall's acoustics. Alice Tully played an influential role in the design of the hall. "She was very, very particular and meticulous about her choices of colors and what she wanted in the hall that would bear her name," said Patrick McGinnis, former director of operations and manager of Alice Tully Hall, in a 1992 interview. Tully also insisted on there creating ample space between the rows of seats, allowing concertgoers of all heights to be comfortable.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: Tully Hall opened on September 11, 1969. Its opening night showcased the first concert of the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center. "The New York Times" praised the “restrained, elegant interior” of basswood, deep lavender carpeting, and raspberry seats,” and Mildred Schmertz of "Architectural Record" stated that Alice Tully Hall and the other auditoriums in the Juilliard School building “prove that it is possible to create elegant halls in contemporary terms without resorting to skimpy evocations of the gilt, plaster, and crystal décor of the great halls of the past.” Since its opening, Tully Hall has served as a venue for numerous events, including "Mostly Mozart, Great Performers", the New York Film Festivals, and Jazz at Lincoln Center. In 1975, a cathedral-sized, 4,192-pipe organ was installed.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: Diller Scofidio + Renfro were chosen in 2003 as the design architects to redevelop Lincoln Center's 65th Street corridor, beating out Norman Foster, Richard Meier, and Santiago Calatrava in a 2002 design competition. The plan called for the adjacent block of 65th Street to be renovated with a more pedestrian-friendly environment. In April 2004, Lincoln Center unveiled the designs by Diller Scofidio + Renfro and FXFOWLE for the first phase of its redevelopment project, which included the expansion of the Juilliard building and the redesign of Alice Tully Hall. The plan received final approval and construction began in March 2006. The plan was praised by many architecture critics, but it also received criticism from preservationists, such as advocacy group Docomomo International, which wished to see the original Belluschi building remain intact. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission declined in 2005 to designate Alice Tully Hall as a city landmark. The majority of the controversy has been focused on changes being made to other parts of Lincoln Center, in phase two of the redevelopment project.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: By June 2006, Lincoln Center, Inc. had raised $339 million, 75% of the $459 million it was responsible for raising for the project. The total goal for the project was $650 million, and the remainder of the money was provided by the federal government and the governments of New York City and State. Lincoln Center also received 20 gifts of $5 million or more, nine of which were at $10 million and above. The donors included individuals, corporations, and foundations, as well as banks Morgan Stanley, Credit Suisse, and Bank of New York Mellon. Work on Alice Tully Hall commenced in April 2007.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: Tully Hall reopened in February 2009 with a two-week celebration. The Juilliard expansion and renovation was projected to cost around $100 million, but it was reported to have cost as much as $360 million; no official numbers have been released. The entire West 65th Street project was projected to cost $325 million. Charles Renfro, a partner at Diller Scofidio + Renfro, stated that the sum was probably twice as high as it would have cost to tear down Belluschi's building and build anew.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: In keeping with the Brutalist style, Juilliard features rigorous geometries and highly cantilevered forms. Initial studies by Pietro Belluschi and Eduardo Catalano related more toward the white classical temple image adopted for the other Lincoln Center buildings. As the studies progressed and the site moved to the lot between West 65th and 66th Streets, there was an administrative shift at the Juilliard School. The new president expanded the curriculum and altered the program of the school. In response to these changes in both site and program, the design, ultimately constructed, was the Robert Burns scheme fashioned off the MIT Student Center.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: The scheme is based on the placement of main performance spaces on either side of a central vertical circulation core. At a cost of nearly $30 million in 1969, the building contained: 10 floors (4 above ground, 4 below), 3 Juilliard theaters, the public Alice Tully Hall, 15 large dance, opera, and drama studios, 3 organ studios, 84 practice rooms, 27 classrooms and ensemble studios, 30 private instruction studios, numerous orchestra and choral rehearsal rooms, scenery and costume studios and workshops, a library, lounge, snack bar, and administration offices.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: The theaters and working floors are tied together by a West 65th Street vestibule-lobby that rises several stories, allowing one to orient oneself upon entering the building. The arrangement and packing of a campus’ worth of spaces into a single building greatly impressed architectural critics, but was not as well received by the students of Juilliard, who were confused by the building's circulation.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: The Juilliard building, set on a regular structural grid, was designed in steel and concrete with a travertine veneer (for which the material was donated by the Italian government). However, the public entrance to Alice Tully Hall under the second-story terrace and exterior staircase is difficult to find. The removal of the West 65th Street footbridge, in 2006, unveiled this entrance, but it did not attain full prominence until the renovation and expansion of Tully Hall and Juilliard.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: Most of the building's interior was extremely simple, with walls often left as bare concrete aggregate with wall-to-wall carpeting on the floors in several areas. The theaters, on the other hand, were far more finely detailed. Tully Hall was (in accordance with the desires of Alice Tully herself) designed with wood batten with dampening behind, and lavender carpet “casting 1930s-ish mauve lights in the foyer.” Though the theater's lobby was large, it was depressed several feet below grade. The theater was designed mainly for recitals and chamber music performances, but because the first three rows of seats could be replaced by an expanded stage, it could also accommodate small orchestras. Tully Hall is located within of the subway tunnel under Broadway, and this required the insertion of a one-inch-thick, cork-lined asbestos pad between the theater's foundation and bedrock, as well as the isolation of the theater's walls from structural columns. Tully Hall's acoustics were praised as being among the best of any performance hall in Lincoln Center, thanks to the work of acoustician Heinrich Keilholz (who consulted on the acoustics of the entire building as well).


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: After its renovation, Tully Hall's lobby doubled in size from , with a patron's salon added on the mezzanine level. A public café named "at65" is visible in the lobby along Broadway, backed by blood-red walls of tongue-and-groove muirapiranga wood, which now wrap the new performance hall (renamed the Starr Theater). The lobby's floors are made of Portuguese ataija azul limestone. The east and south elevations are sheathed with a mullionless one-way-cable wall system, allowing for maximum transparency.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: Narrow passageways lead to the side entrances of the concert hall. The passageway walls are lined with dark gray felt and the floors are covered with gray industrial carpeting. Elisabeth Diller calls this the “sensory deprivation space”, as it is meant to heighten the drama of coming into the auditorium. The theater's new skin consists almost entirely of translucent eco-friendly resin and African moabi wood panels that were developed with 3form (and are between 1 and 1.5 inches thick). The panels form gill-like acoustic baffles along the side walls or become pivoting pyramid shapes that bounce sound. Sections of the balcony and side walls give emit a soft pinkish light as LEDs hidden behind them glow through the opaque moabi veneer. Aesthetics, acoustics, and lighting were all incorporated into these panels to remove visual clutter and create a more inviting space. The stage can now be configured in three different ways, as the front rows are capable of sliding down and underneath it.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: As part of the Lincoln Center Redevelopment Project, the Juilliard School needed another of space and wanted Alice Tully Hall's interiors and public spaces to be more welcoming. The expansion by Diller Scofidio + Renfro and FXFOWLE extended the travertine cladding of the original building along the West 65th Street facade, and also created an adapted extension of the Brutalist geometries on the upper stories. The fourth-story row of recesses housing windows is extended, but with the glass displaced and extending beyond the recesses, differentiating the extension from the original building and subtly beginning to break the original Brutalist box. The Juilliard extension cantilevers over a sunken public plaza and a new 38-foot-6-inch-high glazed lobby. The underside of the extension tilts up at a 16-degree angle. A dance studio punches through the curtain wall, overlooking Broadway. The transparency of the entry makes it feel like an extension of the Broadway sidewalk. A grandstand of bleacher-style seating on the far corner of the plaza rises at a similar angle to the canopy.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: Structural glazed walls bring daylight into three stories of rehearsal space and classrooms in the extension, and the protruding dance studio is suspended beneath its soffit. East-west running trusses were installed between the third and sixth levels to carry the load for the four floors of the expansion, the longest of which has a back span with a cantilever. Some of the trusses’ diagonals needed to be offset to accommodate doors, passageways, and other obstructions. Steel diagonal brace frames extend from the ground to the roof to support the lateral load.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: Acoustician Mark Holden and his team measured every surface of the old performance hall to determine which were re-radiating the noise of the subway, and found that the stage and seating floors, and proscenium stage's vertical panels were the responsible members. The new floors sit on a floating concrete slab with a rubber pad, and the spin walls are mounted on giant rubber isolators, which work to mitigate the sounds of the subway.


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: Elizabeth Diller called Lincoln Center the “place that architects love to hate,” but said that DS+R wanted to give it a “second chance.” It had long been criticized by the architectural community, due to the general dissatisfaction with the complex's overall feeling of detachment from its urban environment (the consequence of an antiquated architectural and planning ideology), the unsavory forms of the main theatre buildings, and the inadequacies of the actual performance spaces. The Juilliard Building, by comparison, received far more favorable reviews, especially with regard to its performance spaces. Despite its improvements over the superblock buildings, it was not without its problems: no clear, distinct public entrance for Tully Hall, the massive exterior stair and footbridge, lack of engagement with Broadway (either its social vitality and unique diagonal shape).


title: Alice Tully Hall

text: The expansion of Juilliard and the comprehensive renovation of Alice Tully Hall resolve many of the original building's issues, meeting the program requirements of the Juilliard School while actively engaging the once-reclusive Juilliard building with Broadway and Lincoln Square, making it an integral part of the area's vibrant street life. Furthermore, the expansion and renovation successfully merge the Brutalist/Modernist language of the original building with the contemporary Post-Modernist language of the addition. It is this Post-Modern language that interacts most with the streetscape, reflecting contemporary ideas regarding the creation of public space and the relationship/transition between indoor and outdoor spaces. The new Tully Hall and Juilliard building has received rave reviews, with critics who liked the original building praising the architects for “pulling off the near-impossible feat of improving a good building without subverting its finer traits.”


title: Immigration to Japan

text: According to the Japanese Ministry of Justice, the number of foreign residents in Japan has steadily increased in the post Second World War period, and the number of foreign residents (excluding illegal immigrants and short-term foreign visitors and tourists staying more than 90 days in Japan) was more than 2.76 million at the end of 2021. With an estimated population of 125.57 million in 2020, the resident foreign population in Japan amounts to approximately 2.29% of the total population.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: Due to geographic remoteness and periods of self-imposed isolation, the immigration, cultural assimilation and integration of foreign nationals into mainstream Japanese society has been comparatively limited. Historian Yukiko Koshiro has identified three historically significant waves of immigration prior to 1945; the 8th-century settlement of Korean artists and intellectuals; the asylum offered to a small number of Chinese families in the 1600s; and the forced immigration of up to 670,000 Korean and Chinese laborers during the Second World War.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: After 1945, unlike the Gastarbeiter immigration encouraged in advanced industrial economies such as Germany, Japan was for the greater part able to rely on internal pools of rural labor to satisfy the manpower needs of industry. The demands of small business owners and demographic shifts in the late 1980s, however, gave rise for a limited period to a wave of tacitly accepted illegal immigration from countries as diverse as the Philippines and Iran.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: Production offshoring in the 1980s also enabled Japanese firms in some labor-intensive industries such as electronic goods manufacture and vehicle assembly to reduce their dependence on imported labor. In 1990, new government legislation provided South Americans of Japanese ancestry such as Japanese Brazilians and Japanese Peruvians with preferential working visa immigration status. By 1998, there were 222,217 Brazilian nationals registered as residents in Japan with additional smaller groups from Peru. In 2009, with economic conditions less favorable, this trend was reversed as the Japanese government introduced a new program that would incentivize Brazilian and Peruvian immigrants to return home with a stipend of $3000 for airfare and $2000 for each dependent.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: As of the second half of 2015, with an increasingly elderly Japanese population and lack of manpower in key sectors such as construction, IT services and health care, Japanese politicians are again debating the need to expand temporary foreign labor pools, through the use of short-term trainee programs.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: Resident foreign nationals in Japan that are counted in immigration statistics of permanent residents and mid-long-term residents (granted resident visas for 12 months or more) include individuals and their registered dependents with:


title: Immigration to Japan

text: From 2013 published government reports, the proportion of foreign residents granted permanent resident status in Japan exceeded 30%. Although, if foreign residents granted permanent resident status, spouses of Japanese nationals, fixed domicile residents (those of Japanese ancestry) and ethnic Koreans with residence in Japan are included, the number of resident foreigners granted permanent residence effectively exceeds 60%.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: Japan receives a low number of immigrants compared to other G7 countries. This is consistent with Gallup data, which shows that Japan is an exceptionally unpopular migrant destination to potential migrants, with the number of potential migrants wishing to migrate to Japan 12 times less than those who wished to migrate to the US and 3 times less than those who wished to migrate to Canada, which roughly corresponds to the actual relative differences in migrant inflows between the three countries. Some Japanese scholars have pointed out that Japanese immigration laws, at least toward high-skilled migrants, are relatively lenient compared to other developed countries, and that the main factor behind its low migrant inflows is because it is a highly unattractive migrant destination compared to other developed countries. This is also apparent when looking at Japan's work visa programme for "specified skilled worker", which had less than 3,000 applicants, despite an annual goal of attracting 40,000 overseas workers.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: The published statistics on foreign nationals resident in Japan includes zainichi Koreans with "tokubetsu eijusha" Special permanent resident status 296,416.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: Foreign nationals already long-term residents in Japan under another visa category such as a working visa or as the spouse of a Japanese national are eligible to apply for permanent residence status. The granting of permanent residence status is at the discretion of the Immigration Bureau and dependent on satisfaction of a number of detailed criteria such as length of stay, ability to make an independent living, record of tax payments and documented contributions to Japan in terms of public service or professional activities. According to the Migrant Integration Policy Index, permanent residency laws were less stringent than those in the United States and the United Kingdom.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: International marriage migration used to represent as much as 25% of permanent migration flows to Japan, but this trend has been in decline since a peak in 2006. In the 1980s increasing numbers of Japanese men were registering marriages in Japan to women from China, Korea and the Philippines.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: In 2006, according to data released by the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare, 44,701 marriages, or 6.11% of all marriages registered in Japan were to a foreign national. In 2013, this number had fallen to 21,488 marriages or 3.25% of all marriages registered in Japan. Of the 21,488 international marriages registered in Japan in 2013, 15,442 or 71.77% were marriages involving a foreign bride, compared to 6,046 or 28.23% where the groom was non-Japanese.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: Japan registered marriage statistics alone may not present a comprehensive picture of the numbers of international marriages in Japan as marriages registered overseas may also contribute to total immigrant spouse numbers. Once married, foreign spouses may also, if certain criteria are satisfied, change their visa status to Permanent Resident or other visa categories. 2012 Ministry of Justice data indicates that of all foreigners in Japan, 7.5% are resident in Japan under a visa designation as a spouse of a Japanese national.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: At in the end of December 2014 there were 2,121,831 foreigners residing in Japan. Of this number 677,019 (32%) were considered long-term, but non permanent residents; those granted visas for a duration of 12 months or more. The majority of long-term residents in Japan on limited duration work or study visas were from Asia, totalling 478,953. Chinese made up the largest portion of this group with 215,155, followed by Filipinos with 115,857, and Koreans with 65,711. Thai, Vietnamese, and Taiwanese long-term residents totaled 47,956, and those from other Asian countries totaled 34,274.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: In 2021, Technical Intern Training Program visas account for nearly 270,000 of the number. Vietnamese made up the largest group with 160,563, followed by Chinese with 37,4891, and Indonesians with 34,459.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: According to the Ministry of Justice, as of 2020, 20,273 study visas are resident in Japan. Chinese made up the largest portion of this group with 121,845, followed by Vietnamese with 62,233, and Nepalis with 25,007.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: Japan is a signatory to the UN 1951 Refugee Convention as well as the 1967 Protocol. The country therefore has made a commitment to offer protection to people who seek asylum and fall into the legal definition of a refugee, and moreover, not to return any displaced person to places where they would otherwise face persecution.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: Japan has historically been one of the world's most generous donors to refugee relief and resettlement programs overseas. In 2014 it was the world's 2nd largest financial contributor to UNHCR programs. Japanese diplomat Sadako Ogata served as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees from 1991–2000.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: As of December 2015 Japan had 13,831 asylum applications under review. In 2016, more than 10,000 applications for refugee status in Japan were received and in the same year 28 asylum applications were approved. In 2015, more than 7,500 people applied for refugee status and 27 asylum applications were approved. In 2014, more than 5000 applications were made and 11 applications were approved. Recent low approval rates for asylum applications follow historic trends; in a 22-year period from 1982 to 2004, a total of 330 applications for asylum were approved, an average of 15 per year.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: Whereas in Germany and Canada around 40% of asylum applications are approved, in Japan the number averages 0.2 percent. On occasion, where Japan has stopped short of granting official refugee status, a limited number of applicants have been granted permission to stay on humanitarian grounds. In 2016, 97 refugee applicants were granted permission to stay on this basis. Decisions on refugee status in Japan are often slow, and confirmation of deportation orders are not widely published. Resubmission of asylum claims by previously unsuccessful applicants often occurs.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: Between 2010 and January 2018, a rise in the number of asylum seekers in Japan was attributed in part to a legal loophole related to the government administered Technical Intern Training Program. In 2015, 192,655 vocational trainees mainly from developing economies were working in Japan in factories, construction sites, farms, food processing and in retail. Although total numbers are small, following a change in rules in 2010, asylum applications jumped four-fold, fueled by asylum seekers from Nepal, Turkey and Sri Lanka. Rising numbers of vocational trainees reportedly made formal asylum applications in order to change employers and escape reported employment abuses and low pay. The government-backed vocational program allows trainees to work on either one or three year contracts. Although the chances of refugee status been granted in Japan are exceptionally small, asylum applicants were permitted to get a job six months after applying for refugee status and, significantly, to make their own choice of employer.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: Permits enabling legal employment six months after application for refugee status were discontinued by the Justice Ministry in January 2018. Workplace inspections and illegal immigration deportation enforcement activities were subsequently stepped up aimed at curbing alleged abuse of the refugee application system.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: According to Ministry of Justice (MOJ) estimates, the number of foreign nationals staying illegally in Japan beyond their authorized period of stay dropped to approximately 60,000 as of January 1, 2015. Illegal immigrant numbers had peaked at approximately 300,000 in May 1993, but have been gradually reduced through a combination of stricter enforcement of border controls, workplace monitoring and an expansion of government run foreign worker programs for those seeking a legal route to short term employment opportunities in Japan.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: Border controls at ports of entry for foreign nationals include examination of personal identification documentation, finger printing and photo recording. Security at both air and maritime ports is closely controlled. As a result, according to MOJ data, the single largest source of illegal immigrants in Japan are those foreign nationals found to have stayed illegally beyond the 90 day time period of the temporary visitor visa.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: In 2015, 9,469 applications for Japanese citizenship were approved. The number of foreign residents in Japan applying to naturalize and obtain Japanese citizenship peaked in 2008 at more than 16,000, but declined to 12,442 in 2015. Processing of applications can take up to 18 months. Application criteria are set deliberately high and inspectors are granted a degree of discretion in interpretation of eligibility and good conduct criteria. Apart from the requirement to renounce foreign citizenship, naturalization criteria are similar to other developed countries such as the US, although there is no citizenship test. About 99 percent of naturalization applications in Japan are approved, compared to about 90 percent in the US.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: Most of the decline in applications is accounted for by a steep reduction in the number of Japan-born Koreans taking Japanese citizenship. Historically the bulk of those taking Japanese citizenship have not been new immigrants but rather Special Permanent Residents; Japan-born descendants of Koreans and Taiwanese who remained in Japan at the end of the Second World War.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: The concept of as represented in Japanese makes no distinction between racial, ethnic, and national identities. Where the census of the United Kingdom, for example, separates "ethnic or racial background" from nationality, the Japanese Census and Statistics Bureau do not distinguish between the two.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: The definition of ethnic and racial boundaries alongside national ones leads many people to represent Japan as , with an explicit purity of blood and culture. In 2005, future Prime Minister Tarō Asō described Japan as being a nation of "one race, one civilization, one language and one culture" and in 2012, this claim was repeated by former Governor of Tokyo Shintaro Ishihara.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: The concept of a unified "minzoku" retains a legal authority. A 1984 amendment to the Japanese Nationality Act made citizenship jus sanguinis, tied to blood rather than place of birth. Japanese citizenship is exclusive: those who naturalize must renounce their first nationality, and those who are born Japanese but with a second citizenship must choose between them by the time they are 20 years old.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: Overall, polls find that Japanese public opinion toward immigration is similar to other G7 countries.


title: Immigration to Japan

text: A 1999 review article of opinion polls show attitudes broadly neutral and less negative than other developed countries. In 1993 64% of respondents supported allowing firms facing labor shortages to hire unskilled foreign workers. A 2017 poll by Gallup shows a similar attitude 24 years later, with Japan middling among developed countries in terms of public positivity towards immigration, ranking close to France, Belgium and Italy. A Pew Research Center poll found Japanese respondents had more positive views of immigrants than respondents in most countries. Another Pew Research Center poll found Japanese respondents were the least likely to support a reduction in immigration, and among the most likely to support an increase in immigration, of the 27 countries surveyed. One recent 2015 poll by the Asahi Shimbun found that 34% of its readers opposed an expansion of immigration to maintain Japan's economic status in the face of a shrinking and rapidly aging workforce, while 51% of its readers supported increased immigration. However, a large poll of 10,000 native Japanese conducted later that year, between October and December 2015, found more opposition to increasing foreign immigration. Over half of Asahi Shimbun's readers who responded to a 2016 poll said that immigrants should respect Japanese culture and obey Japanese customs, while about one quarter said that Japanese people should embrace diversity. On the other hand, one of the common arguments for restricting immigration is based on safeguarding security, including public order, protecting welfare mechanisms, cultural stability, or social trust. In a Nikkei survey from 2019, 69% of respondents said an increase in foreigners was "good". Japanese who are college educated are almost 50% more likely to favor immigration for both economic and cultural reasons.


title: Trey Wilson

text: Donald Yearnsley "Trey" Wilson III (January 21, 1948 – January 16, 1989) was an American character actor known for playing rural, authoritarian-type characters, most notably in comedies such as "Raising Arizona" and "Bull Durham".


title: Trey Wilson

text: During his career, Wilson appeared in numerous stage productions and 30 films or television shows, including guest roles on "" and "The Equalizer". On stage, he co-starred in the ragtime-era musical "Tintypes" on Broadway, appeared in "The Front Page" at Lincoln Center and on Broadway, and appeared with Sandy Duncan in "Peter Pan". He also appeared in Pat Benatar's music video "Love Is a Battlefield", as the father who throws her out of the house.


title: Trey Wilson

text: His most memorable roles on film were in "Raising Arizona", as unpainted furniture store owner Nathan Arizona, and "Bull Durham", as Joe Riggins, manager of the Durham Bulls minor league baseball team. The end credits of "The Silence of the Lambs" and "Miss Firecracker" dedicate the films to him.


title: Trey Wilson

text: Born in Houston, Texas, to Donald Yearnsley Wilson and Irene Louise Wilson, he attended Bellaire High School in Bellaire and then majored in English and theater at the University of Houston. It was there that Wilson met Judy Blye, a well-known New York soap opera casting agent, and they were married on August 25, 1975. He was a cousin of former Texas Republican State Senator Kim Brimer.


title: Trey Wilson

text: Wilson died at age forty from a cerebral hemorrhage in New York City on January 16, 1989, and was buried at Forest Park Cemetery in Houston five days later, on what would have been his 41st birthday.