title: Public housing in Singapore

text: While the SIT allocated public housing using a points system from 1947, allocation in the HDB's initial years used a ballot system, under which applicants could state their preferred flat type and general location, and reject up to two ballots. People who were displaced by resettlement schemes were given priority. Subsequently, applicants were able to select from flat types and areas in which flats were available. In the early 2000s, in light of increasing numbers of unsold flats, the HDB suspended its earlier flat allocation system, switching to the Build-To-Order programme, in which flats are only built when demand is present.


title: Public housing in Singapore

text: From the late 1990s, in light of the increasing number of elderly homeowners, schemes to enable them to monetise their flats, starting with reverse mortgages, were put into place. These schemes were poorly received and were withdrawn. In 2009, the HDB introduced the Lease Buyback Scheme, under which the HDB buys a proportion of the housing unit's lease at current resale prices. Additional schemes, such as the Silver Housing Bonus, under which the homeowner moves to a smaller flat, and the two-room Flexi scheme consisting of smaller flats with shorter leases, were introduced.


title: Public housing in Singapore

text: Lessee-occupied public housing can be sold in a resale market, subject to restrictions. The government does not regulate prices within the resale market.


title: Public housing in Singapore

text: Initially, owners were only able to sell their housing units back to the HDB but after 1971, the sale of flats on the private market was allowed. After that, sellers on the private market could only sell flats to buyers who satisfied the requirements for purchasing new flats. Sellers were required to have lived in their flats for a minimum time, and were prevented from applying for new flats for a certain time, which was knlease as the debarment period. In 1978, the restriction on new flat purchase was replaced by a resale levy.


title: Public housing in Singapore

text: Resale restrictions were loosened in the late 1980s; income limits were removed, and permanent residents and property owners were allowed to purchase resale flats in 1989. In 1991, the resale market was opened to unmarried people older than 35. CPF housing grants for the resale market were introduced in 1994. These measures led to a rapid rise in resale prices by the mid-1990s; in response, the HDB introduced additional taxes and restrictions


title: Public housing in Singapore

text: Increasing housing prices and government statements regarding public housing as assets that can be enhanced resulted in public housing being perceived as an investment. In the late 2000s, with the trend of increasing housing prices, the government introduced measures such as additional taxes and restrictions to reduce investment demand for housing. The government also tried not to dissuade the use of public housing as an investment. Rising resale prices for public housing in prime areas led to the government placing additional purchase and resale restrictions on newly built public housing in prime areas from 2021.


title: Public housing in Singapore

text: On 4 October 2022, The Minister of National Development, Desmond Lee, elaborated further on the government’s policies to intervene to keep public housing relatively affordable and available. In hopes of cooling the housing market, the government plans to implement a fifteen-month waiting period before homeowners can buy an HDB resale flat, continued supply of significant grants for first-time buyers, and tightened maximum loan price limits. Likewise, to keep providing a counter to the resale market, the HDB ramped up its Build-to-Order supply, which is on track to place 23,000 apartments on the market between 2022 and 2023. Should these measures be implemented, they could serve as a protective measure for those unable to afford the current climate of the housing resale market, which averages $716,000 per apartment as of 2022.


title: Public housing in Singapore

text: The HDB also provides public housing for rental, which consists of smaller units, such as one- and two-room flats, and is mainly provided for lower-income households and households waiting for their purchased flats. Rental public housing has lower income requirements than lessee-occupied public housing.


title: Public housing in Singapore

text: In Singapore, public housing estates are maintained by Town Councils, which are divided along political constituency lines and headed by a Member of Parliament, and have full-time estate-management staff. Funding for town councils' maintenance work comes from government grants, and maintenance fees paid by estate residents and businesses.


title: Public housing in Singapore

text: Improvement works in older estates are carried out under the HDB's Estate Renewal Strategy. These improvement works consist of the upgrading of amenities and infrastructure to meet modern standards, and the addition of features and facilities similar to those found in newer housing estates.


title: Public housing in Singapore

text: Through HDB, the Singaporean government used housing to promote certain legislative agendas. Until 1991, single individuals could not buy apartments as it was not in line with the country’s pro-family stance. Despite singles having access to apartments now, families with three or more children still receive a tax fund and priority in allocating public housing, making it a more streamlined process to obtain home leasehold ownership. These influential policies also apply to the ethnic makeup of the new towns. The 1989 Ethnic Integration Policy seeks to promote ethnic integration and harmony among the Chinese, Malay, and Indian populations in public housing. As a result of the policy, the HDB will not approve the sale of a new or resale to a particular ethnic group if it exceeds the ethnic quota of the block. Moreover, during election cycles, the People’s Action Party (PAP) emphasizes the program's success and promises upgrades to improve living conditions to incentivise voters.


title: Public housing in Singapore

text: Reducing income inequality and decreasing poverty were benefits of public housing in the country. It allowed the state to bolster its GDP through the construction sector, which brings in continuous revenue enabling the nation to focus on other industries, such as technology and finance, that allow it to remain competitive in the global economy.


title: Melaleuca

text: Melaleuca () is a genus of nearly 300 species of plants in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae, commonly known as paperbarks, honey-myrtles or tea-trees (although the last name is also applied to species of "Leptospermum"). They range in size from small shrubs that rarely grow to more than high, to trees up to . Their flowers generally occur in groups, forming a "head" or "spike" resembling a brush used for cleaning bottles, containing up to 80 individual flowers.


title: Melaleuca

text: Melaleucas are an important food source for nectarivorous insects, birds, and mammals. Many are popular garden plants, either for their attractive flowers or as dense screens and a few have economic value for producing fencing and oils such as "tea tree" oil. Most melaleucas are endemic to Australia, with a few also occurring in Malesia. Seven are endemic to New Caledonia, and one is found only on (Australia's) Lord Howe Island. Melaleucas are found in a wide variety of habitats. Many are adapted for life in swamps and boggy places, while others thrive in the poorest of sandy soils or on the edge of saltpans. Some have a wide distribution and are common, whilst others are rare and endangered. Land clearing, exotic myrtle rust, and especially draining and clearing of swamps threaten many species.


title: Melaleuca

text: Melaleucas range in size from small shrubs such as "M. aspalathoides" and "M. concinna" which rarely grow to more than high, to trees like "M. cajuputi" and "M. quinquenervia", which can reach . (One specimen of "M. cajuputi" reached a height of .)


title: Melaleuca

text: Many, like "M. lineariifolia", are known as paperbarks and have bark that can be peeled in thin sheets, whilst about 20% of the genus, including "M. bracteata", have hard, rough bark and another 20% have fibrous bark. Every species in the genus is an evergreen, and the leaves vary in size from minute and scale-like ("M. micromera") to long ("M. leucadendra"). Most have distinct oil glands dotted in the leaves, making the leaves aromatic, especially when crushed.


title: Melaleuca

text: Melaleuca flowers are usually arranged in spikes or heads. Within the head or spike, the flowers are often in groups of two or three, each flower or group having a papery bract at its base. Five sepals occur, although these are sometimes fused into a ring of tissue and five petals which are usually small, not showy, and fall off as the flower opens or soon after. The stamens vary greatly in colour, from white to cream or yellow, red, or mauve with their yellow tips (the anthers) contrasting with their "stalks" (filaments).


title: Melaleuca

text: The fruit are woody, cup-shaped, barrel-shaped, or almost spherical capsules, often arranged in clusters along the stems. The seeds are sometimes retained in the fruit for many years, only opening when the plant, or part of it, dies or is heated in a bushfire. In tropical areas, seeds are released annually in the wet season.


title: Melaleuca

text: The first known description of a "Melaleuca" species was written by Rumphius in 1741, in "Herbarium amboinense" before the present system of naming plants was written. The plant he called "Arbor alba" is now known as "Melaleuca leucadendra". The name "Melaleuca" was first used by Linnaeus in 1767. Many species previously known as "Metrosideros" were then placed in "Melaleuca". In Australia, "Melaleuca" is the third most diverse plant genus with up to 300 species.


title: Melaleuca

text: The genus "Callistemon" was raised by Robert Brown, who noted its similarity to "Melaleuca", distinguishing it only on the basis of whether the stamens are free of each other, or joined in bundles. Botanists in the past, including Ferdinand von Mueller and Lyndley Craven have proposed uniting the two genera but the matter is not decided. Evidence from DNA studies suggests that either "Callistemon" and some other genera be incorporated into "Melaleuca" or that at least 10 new genera be created from the present genus.


title: Melaleuca

text: In 2014, Lyndley Craven and others proposed, on the basis of DNA evidence and a lack of morphological support, that species in the genera "Beaufortia", "Calothamnus", "Conothamnus", "Eremaea", "Lamarchea", "Petraeomyrtus", "Phymatocarpus" and "Regelia" be transferred to "Melaleuca". The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families maintained by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew lists "Calothamnus" and the other genera as synonyms of the accepted genus "Melaleuca". The move has not been adopted by all Australian herbaria with some taxonomists, including Alex George opposing the move.


title: Melaleuca

text: The name "Melaleuca" is derived from the Ancient Greek μέλας ("mélas") meaning "dark" or "black" and λευκός ("leukós") meaning "white", apparently because one of the first specimens described had fire-blackened white bark. The common name "tea-tree" has been applied to species in the genera "Leptospermum", "Melaleuca", "Kunzea", and "Baeckea" because the sailors on the "Endeavour" used the leaves of a shrub from one of these groups as a replacement for tea "Camellia sinensis" during Captain James Cook's 1770 voyage to Australia.


title: Melaleuca

text: Most melaleucas occur naturally only on the Australian mainland. Eight occur in Tasmania, but only two are endemic to that island. One ("M. howeana") is endemic to Lord Howe Island and seven are endemic to Grande Terre, the main island of New Caledonia. A few tropical species also occur in Papua New Guinea, and the distribution of one subspecies, "Melaleuca cajuputi" subsp. "cumingiana" extends as far north as Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. The southwest of Western Australia has the greatest density of species, and in the tropical north of the continent, species such as "M. argentea" and "M. leucadendra" are the dominant species over large areas.


title: Melaleuca

text: Melaleucas grow in a range of soil types and many tolerate occasional or even permanent waterlogging. Some species, especially the South Australian swamp paperbark, "M. halmaturorum", thrive in saline soils where few other species survive. Many are fire tolerant, regenerating from epicormic buds or by coppicing, but no melaleucas occur in rainforest and few species occur in the arid zone.


title: Melaleuca

text: Melaleucas are mostly pollinated by insects, including the introduced honey bee ("Apis mellifera"), flies, beetles, wasps and thrips. Birds such as lorikeets and honeyeaters as well as bats often visit the flowers and are probably also pollinators.


title: Melaleuca

text: Some species of "Melaleuca", especially "M. alternifolia", are cultivated for the production of tea tree oil, and in plantations are susceptible to a number of insect pests. The most significant of these is the Chrysomelid, "Paropsisterna tigrina", but other beetles, cutworm caterpillars ("Agrotis species"), psyllids, mole crickets ("Gryllotalpa"), and others cause significant damage. More than 100 species of insects are known to feed on melaleucas. Native stands have fewer predators, but tea tree sawfly ("Pterygophorus" species) and longicorn beetles are often found. Melaleucas are also susceptible to myrtle rust ("Puccinia psidii") which can result in damage to soft plant material and the death of highly susceptible hosts. Myrtle rust is common in eastern Australia, including Tasmania and has been detected in the Tiwi Islands.


title: Melaleuca

text: "Melaleuca quinquenervia" (broad-leaved paperbark) is the most damaging of 60 exotic species introduced to the Florida Everglades to help drain low-lying swampy areas. Introduced in the early 20th century, it has become a serious invasive species, with damaging effects including the displacement of native species, reduction in wildlife habitat, alteration of hydrology, modification of soil, and changes in fire regimes.


title: Melaleuca

text: Aboriginal Australians used several species of "Melaleuca" to make rafts, as roofing for shelter, bandages, and food preparation. "Bee bread" and honey were collected from the hives of native stingless bees in melaleuca forests in the Northern Territory. The Bundjalung people traditionally lived in the area of north-eastern New South Wales where "Melaleuca alternifolia" is endemic, and they treated skin infections by crushing the leaves of that species over skin infections then covering the area with a warm mudpack.


title: Melaleuca

text: "Melaleuca alternifolia" is notable for its essential oil which is both antifungal and antibiotic, while safely usable for topical applications. This is produced on a commercial scale and marketed as tea tree oil.


title: Melaleuca

text: "Melaleuca cajuputi" is used to produce a similar oil, known as cajuput oil, which is used in Southeast Asia to treat a variety of infections and to add fragrance to food and soaps.


title: Melaleuca

text: Melaleucas are popular garden plants, both in Australia and other tropical areas worldwide. The first to be cultivated were grown in England from seed in 1771. Some melaleucas are commonly cultivated, grown as trees for parks and large gardens (such as "Melaleuca leucadendra") or as ornamentals (sometimes as "Callistemon") such as "M. citrina" ("Callistemon citrinus"), "M. hypericifolia" and "M. wilsonii".


title: Melaleuca

text: Tea trees (spelled "Ti-Trees") are specifically mentioned in the lyrics of a short aria 'Joy' published around 1916 by J.D.Fletcher & Co of London, by Australian composer Arthur Chanter (1866-1950)


title: Ian Livingstone

text: Sir Ian Livingstone (born 29 December 1949) is an English fantasy author and entrepreneur. Along with Steve Jackson, he is the co-founder of a series of role-playing gamebooks, "Fighting Fantasy", and the author of many books within that series. He is also one of the co-founders of prominent games company Games Workshop.


title: Ian Livingstone

text: Livingstone attended Altrincham Grammar School for Boys, where, according to him, he only earned one A-level, in Geography. He has kept his close links with the school and has visited it on numerous occasions, including to donate money for a refurbishment of the ICT suite, and to present awards to GCSE recipients in 1998.


title: Ian Livingstone

text: Livingstone co-founded Games Workshop in early 1975 with flatmates John Peake and Steve Jackson. They started publishing a monthly newsletter, "Owl and Weasel", and sent copies of the first issue to subscribers of the recently defunct fanzine "Albion"; Brian Blume received one of these copies, and sent them a copy of the new game "Dungeons & Dragons" in return. Livingstone and Jackson felt that this game was more imaginative than anything being produced in the UK at the time, and so worked out an arrangement with Blume for an exclusive deal to sell "D&D" in Europe. They began distributing "Dungeons & Dragons" and other TSR products later in 1975. In late 1975, Livingstone and Jackson organised their first convention, the first Games Day. Because they were selling products out of their flat, people would come looking for a store that did not exist; because of this they were evicted in the summer of 1976.


title: Ian Livingstone

text: Under the direction of Livingstone and Jackson, Games Workshop expanded from a bedroom mail order company to a successful gaming manufacturer and retail chain, with the first Games Workshop store opening in Hammersmith in 1977. In June of that year, partially to advertise the opening, Livingstone and Jackson launched the gaming magazine "White Dwarf", with Livingstone as the editor. Livingstone picked the title, which had meaning for both fantasy and science fiction readers: a "white dwarf" could be a stellar phenomenon or a fantasy character. Livingstone stepped down as editor of the magazine after "White Dwarf" #74 (February 1986).


title: Ian Livingstone

text: In 1980, Livingstone and Jackson began to develop the concept of the "Fighting Fantasy" gamebook series, the first volume of which ("The Warlock of Firetop Mountain") was published in 1982 by Puffin Books. Livingstone and Jackson sold Games Workshop in 1991 for million.


title: Ian Livingstone

text: The pair, together with Bryan Ansell, founded Citadel Miniatures in Newark to make miniatures for games.


title: Ian Livingstone

text: Livingstone has also invented several board games, including "Boom Town", "Judge Dredd", "Automania", "Legend of Zagor", and "Dragonmasters".


title: Ian Livingstone

text: In 1982, Jackson and Livingstone co-wrote "The Warlock of Firetop Mountain", the first book in the "Fighting Fantasy" series, but following an instruction from publishers Penguin to write more books "as quickly as possible" the pair wrote subsequent books separately. The series had sold over 18 million copies as of 2017, with Livingstone's "Deathtrap Dungeon" selling over 350,000 copies in its first year alone. Livingstone wrote another twelve "Fighting Fantasy" gamebooks, including "The Forest of Doom", "City of Thieves" and "Caverns of the Snow Witch" before marking the 30th anniversary of "The Warlock of Firetop Mountain" with a new gamebook, "Blood of the Zombies", in 2012, and with "The Port of Peril" in 2017 for the 35th anniversary.


title: Ian Livingstone

text: In the mid-1980s Livingstone did design work for video game publisher Domark; he returned to the company in 1993 as a major investor and board member. Livingstone later recounted, "After the success of Games Workshop, I retired, got bored, and invested in Domark to fund their cartridge development. I got in at just the wrong time - it was all going flat." In 1995, Domark was acquired by the video technology company Eidos Interactive, which had been floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1990, and formed the major part of the newly created Eidos Interactive. In 2005 Eidos was taken over by SCi and Livingstone was the only former board member to be retained, taking on the role of product acquisition director. Livingstone secured many of the company's major franchises, including "Tomb Raider" and "Hitman". He contributed to the Tomb Raider project "" (an enhanced version of the original "Tomb Raider" game), which was released in 2007. In 2009, Japanese video-game company Square Enix completed a buyout of Eidos Interactive and Livingstone was promoted to Life President of Eidos, a position he resigned from in 2013.


title: Ian Livingstone

text: In 2014 Livingstone appeared in the documentary feature film "From Bedrooms to Billions" (2014) a film that tells the story of the British Video Games Industry from 1979 to present.


title: Ian Livingstone

text: In 2021 Freeway Fighters received an adaptation on Viber and messenger, created by a Talk-a-Bot chatbot company over Viber and messenger.


title: Ian Livingstone

text: In 2010 Livingstone was asked to act as the Skills Champion by government minister Ed Vaizey, tasked with producing a report reviewing the UK video games industry. The 'NextGen' report, co-authored with Alex Hope of visual effects firm Double Negative, was released in 2011; Livingstone described it as a "complete bottom up review of the whole education system relating to games."


title: Joker (2012 film)

text: Joker is a 2012 Indian Hindi-language science fiction comedy film directed by Shirish Kunder and also his second directorial venture after "Jaan-E-Mann". The film stars Akshay Kumar and Sonakshi Sinha in lead roles. This was the second film in which Sinha paired opposite Kumar after "Rowdy Rathore" (2012). The film released worldwide on 31 August 2012, and received mixed to negative response upon release. The film was declared a "Disaster" at box office. The trailer of the film revealed on 11 July 2012, and also in cinemas along with "Cocktail".


title: Joker (2012 film)

text: Agastya "Sattu" is a scientist, working on the development of a communication system, to communicate with aliens. But Agastya loses the faith of his seniors and is allotted a deadline of one month to conclude his project with some substantial results.


title: Joker (2012 film)

text: In the meantime, Agastya is informed by his girlfriend Diva about his father's illness. On hearing this they both reach his native village Paglapur, whose colourful inhabitants include his brother who speaks in gibberish, a kid who thinks he is a lamp post and everyone else who think that World War II is still going on and fear the Germans.


title: Joker (2012 film)

text: Soon after reaching there, Agastya finds that he was called on a false pretext of illness by his father. They called Agastya, so he could make the village a better place and connect it with the outer world.


title: Joker (2012 film)

text: On getting apprised about truth, Agastya decides to move back to the US, but after hearing the plight of the inhabitants of Paglapur, due to the brushing aside of the village by the government because of its being absent from the demarcated map of India, he makes his mind to come out with some solution for the problem.


title: Joker (2012 film)

text: As the story proceeds, Agastya comes up with a quaint idea pertaining to the crop circle and the arrival of aliens in his village, to garner recognition for his otherwise isolated village undergoing a plight of neglect ever since the independence.


title: Joker (2012 film)

text: With frames moving ahead, Agastya along with other villagers creates a crop circle in Paglapur and spreads rumors about the arrival of aliens in the village. And from there, amid tremendous media hype, takes over some hilarious sequences knitted around UFO and fictitious man-made aliens.


title: Joker (2012 film)

text: In the end, the whole joke about the fake aliens is found out and at the end of the movie real aliens come and give the village the gift of oil.


title: Joker (2012 film)

text: Shirish Kunder had the project in development for several years before finding financial backing and hit films, and had to negotiate for use of the specific title which Kunder stated is important to the script itself. The film is being produced by Farah Khan, Shirish Kunder, and Akshay Kumar under the banner of Three's Company and Hari Om Entertainment. The film was shot in 3D using 3D cameras, however in June 2012, it was announced that the film was no longer in 3D any more, since Ra.One and Don 2 have taken the goals, if "Joker" flopped it would be a loss on the whole crew, therefore the film will only be released in 2D format. According to director, Shirish Kunder, "It is an underdog story about how individuals make it big in life and in the process, get help from aliens from a fictional planet". Shreyas Talpade will play Akshay's brother in the film. Female lead opposite to Shreyas will be played by Minisha Lamba, who will enact the role of an innocent TV reporter. Sonakshi will also perform an item number in the film. American actor Alexx ONell was also signed to play a role in the film.


title: Joker (2012 film)

text: The first schedule of shooting was initially slated to take place in Ludhiana, however the location was changed to Chandigarh. The shooting began on 14 February 2011 in Chandigarh. The crew finished the 19-day schedule on 12 March 2011, finishing 40% of the production work. The second schedule started on 17 May 2011 in Mumbai and concluded in June 2011. The film is now slated to release on 31 August 2012. The theatrical trailer was released on UTV Motion Pictures' YouTube channel on 11 July 2012 only online. Whilst it released worldwide on television on 13 July 2012, and also in cinemas along with "Cocktail".


title: Joker (2012 film)

text: Shrish Kunder wanted to cast Asin Thottumkal as the female lead but, she was not able to adjust the dates for the film so, producers cast Sonakshi Sinha opposite Akshay Kumar. Shreyas Talpade and Minissha Lamba were later cast in pivotal roles.


title: Joker (2012 film)

text: "Joker" received negative reviews from critics. . Independent Bollywood gave 2.5 out of 5 stars and said "A Funny and weird entertainer with message". Soumyadipta Banerjee of In.com gave 0.5 out of 5 stars and said "Not only that the aliens are weird, the whole movie seems be in some weird planet after a point of time". Saibal Chatterjee of "NDTVMovies.com" gave the film 1 out of 5 stars and wrote, ""Joker" is a crude joke of a film that will leave you in tears unless you have a stomach strong enough to digest such unmitigated junk." Film critic Taran Adarsh also gave it 1 out of 5 stars and labelled it as a complete "disaster" and a "joke of a film".


title: Joker (2012 film)

text: All songs featured in the film except one, are composed by G. V. Prakash Kumar, nephew of noted composer, A. R. Rahman. The song "Jugnu Banke Tu" sung by Udit Narayan was highly appreciated among all songs. Udit also received Kalakar Award for best male playback singer for this song The song titled "I Want Fakth You" from "Joker" was leaked online on 1 July 2012, which has been composed by Gaurav Dagaonkar. The song has been acclaimed by the audience, however the song is actually named "Kaafirana" and will be released under that title worldwide and also on the soundtrack.


title: Joker (2012 film)

text: "Music Aloud" said: "He may or may not have composed the tunes for the controversy-ridden soundtrack of Jaanemann, but when GV Prakash Kumar actually got to do a credited debut in Bollywood, it turned out to be a rather uninventive one" and rated it 5/10. "Score Magazine", gave it 2 out of 5 stars stating, "You know something is wrong with an album when the instrumental tracks immensely outshine the vocal tracks. I must mention that each of the songs has a strong underlying melody but gross injustice is done to them by Shirish Kunder's lyrics."


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: Nephritic syndrome is a syndrome comprising signs of nephritis, which is kidney disease involving inflammation. It often occurs in the glomerulus, where it is called glomerulonephritis. Glomerulonephritis is characterized by inflammation and thinning of the glomerular basement membrane and the occurrence of small pores in the podocytes of the glomerulus. These pores become large enough to permit both proteins and red blood cells to pass into the urine (yielding proteinuria and hematuria, respectively). By contrast, nephrotic syndrome is characterized by proteinuria and a constellation of other symptoms that specifically do not include hematuria. Nephritic syndrome, like nephrotic syndrome, may involve low level of albumin in the blood due to the protein albumin moving from the blood to the urine.


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: Historically, nephritic syndrome has been characterized by blood in the urine (hematuria), high blood pressure (hypertension), decreased urine output <400 ml/day (oliguria), red blood cell casts, pyuria, and mild to moderate proteinuria. If the condition is allowed to progress without treatment, it can eventually lead to azotemia and uremic symptoms. This constellation of symptoms contrasts with the classical presentation of nephrotic syndrome (excessive proteinuria >3.5 g/day, low plasma albumin levels (hypoalbuminemia) <3 g/L, generalized edema, and hyperlipidemia).


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: Nephritic syndrome is caused by extensive inflammatory damage to the glomerulus capillaries, which is associated with a variety of medical conditions that we will discuss. Furthermore, the cause of this inflammation can be infectious, autoimmune, or thrombotic. The causative conditions can be divided conveniently between age groups as follows, though it is important to note that many of the conditions listed in children/adolescents can also occur in adults with lower frequency, and vice versa:


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: The pathophysiology of nephritic syndrome is dependent on the underlying disease process, which can vary depending on what condition the nephritic syndrome is secondary to. More specifically, different diseases (many of which are mentioned above in the Causes section) affect different segments of the glomerulus and cause disease-specific segments of the glomerulus to become inflamed. Most often, it is dependent on what part of the glomerulus is damaged by antibody-antigen complex (immune complex) deposition. In all cases, however, the inflammatory processes in the glomerulus cause the capillaries to swell and the pores between podocytes become large enough that inappropriate contents in the blood plasma (i.e. red blood cells, protein, etc.) will begin to spill into the urine. This causes a decrease in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and, if left untreated over time, will eventually produce uremic symptoms and retention of sodium and water in the body, leading to both edema and hypertension.


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: The diagnostic approach to nephritic syndrome includes evaluating the patient for any suspected underlying pathology that could cause a nephritic syndrome.


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: If the person in the office is being examined by a physician, some physical exam findings consistent with nephritic syndrome include the following:


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: If the physician is suspicious of a possible nephritic syndrome, then he/she may order some common lab tests including:


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: If nephritic syndrome is identified and diagnosed, then it is important for the physician to determine the underlying cause. To do this, he/she may order any of a large variety of relevant lab tests, some of which are included here:


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: A kidney biopsy will provide a fully definitive diagnosis of nephritic syndrome and may also reveal the underlying cause of the nephritic syndrome depending on the underlying pathological process. On biopsy, a patient with nephritic syndrome would show inflammation of numerous glomeruli.


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: When a patient is confirmed to have nephritic syndrome, the main goal of treatment (regardless of the underlying cause) is to control elevated blood pressures and reduce active inflammation in the kidney itself. Most often, the patient will need to be admitted to the hospital for close monitoring to ensure the efficacy of treatment and make adjustments as needed. Some treatment modalities commonly used to meet these goals include:


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: Once the acute phase of the nephritic syndrome is controlled, it is crucial to determine the underlying pathology that caused the onset of the acute nephritic syndrome and to treat that condition. If the underlying cause is not determined and treated appropriately, it increases the risk of a recurrence of nephritic syndrome or chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the future.


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: Because nephritic syndrome is a syndrome and not a disease, the prognosis depends on the underlying cause. Generally, the prognosis of nephritic syndrome in children is better than it is in adults.


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: According to the CDC, nephritis/nephrosis/nephritic syndrome was the 9th leading cause of death in the United States in 2017. It was listed as the cause of death for 50,633 out of the total 2,813,503 deaths reported in 2017.


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: The southeast region of the United States reported a significantly higher death rate due to kidney disease than any other region in 2017. Mississippi reported the highest death rate due to kidney disease (21.7), followed by Louisiana (20.6) and Arkansas (19.7). Although Vermont reported the lowest death rate due to kidney disease (3.3), the western United States reported the lowest regional average death rate due to kidney disease in 2017.


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: Out of the 1,374,392 female deaths reported in the US in 2017, kidney disease was listed as the cause of death for 24,889 women and was reported as the 9th overall cause of death for women in 2017.


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: Out of the 1,439,111 male deaths reported in the US in 2017, kidney disease was not listed in the top 10 causes of death.


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: Out of the 2,378,385 deaths reported in individuals who identified as White, kidney disease was ranked 10th overall (39,105 deaths) in causes of death in the US in 2017.


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: Out of the 340,644 deaths reported in individuals who identified as Black or African American, kidney disease was ranked 8th overall (9,609 deaths) in causes of death in the US in 2017.


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: Out of the 74,094 deaths reported in individuals who identified as Asian or Pacific Islander, kidney disease was ranked 9th overall (1,563 deaths) in causes of death in the US in 2017.


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: Out of the 197,249 deaths reported in individuals who identified as Hispanic or Latino, kidney disease was ranked 10th overall (3,928 deaths) in causes of death in the US 2017.


title: Nephritic syndrome

text: In a review of Romanian cases, a 10-year review yielded that upon biopsy, nephritic syndrome was the second most common clinical syndrome at 21.9% (nephrotic syndrome was 52.3%)


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: William Miller (February 15, 1782 – December 20, 1849) was an American Baptist minister who is credited with beginning the mid-19th-century North American religious movement known as Millerism. After his proclamation of the Second Coming did not occur as expected in the 1840s, new heirs of his message emerged, including the Advent Christians (1860), the Seventh-day Adventists (1863) and other Adventist movements.


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: William Miller was born on February 15, 1782, in Pittsfield, Massachusetts. His parents were Captain William Miller, a veteran of the American Revolution, and Paulina, the daughter of Elnathan Phelps. When he was four years old, his family moved to rural Low Hampton, New York. Miller was educated at home by his mother until the age of nine, when he attended the newly established East Poultney District School. Miller is not known to have undertaken any type of formal study after the age of eighteen, though he continued to read widely and voraciously. As a youth, he had access to the private libraries of Judge James Witherell and Congressman Matthew Lyon in nearby Fair Haven, Vermont, as well as that of Alexander Cruikshanks of Whitehall, New York.


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: In 1803, Miller married Lucy Smith and moved to her nearby hometown of Poultney, where he took up farming. While in Poultney, Miller was elected to a number of civil offices, starting with the office of Constable. In 1809 he was elected to the office of Deputy Sheriff and at an unknown date was elected Justice of the Peace. Miller served in the Vermont militia and was commissioned a lieutenant on July 21, 1810. He was reasonably well off, owning a house, land, and at least two horses.


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: Shortly after his move to Poultney, Miller rejected his Baptist heritage and became a Deist. In his biography Miller records his conversion: "I became acquainted with the principal men in that village [Poultney, Vermont], who were professedly Deists; but they were good citizens, and of a moral and serious deportment. They put into my hands the works of Voltaire, [David] Hume, Thomas Paine, Ethan Allen, and other deistical writers."


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: At the outbreak of the War of 1812, Miller raised a company of local men and traveled to Burlington, Vermont. He transferred to the 30th Infantry Regiment in the regular army of the United States with the rank of lieutenant. Miller spent most of the war working as a recruiter and on February 1, 1814, he was promoted to captain. He saw his first action at the Battle of Plattsburgh, where vastly outnumbered American forces overcame the British. "The fort I was in was exposed to every shot. Bombs, rockets, and shrapnel shells fell as thick as hailstones", he said. One of these many shots had exploded two feet from him, wounding three of his men and killing another, but Miller survived without a scratch. Miller came to view the outcome of this battle as miraculous, and therefore at odds with his deistic view of a distant God far removed from human affairs. He later wrote, "It seemed to me that the Supreme Being must have watched over the interests of this country in an especial manner, and delivered us from the hands of our enemies... So surprising a result, against such odds, did seem to me like the work of a mightier power than man."


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: After the war, and following his discharge from the army on June 18, 1815, Miller returned to Poultney. Shortly after his return he moved with his family back to Low Hampton, where he purchased a farm (now a historic site operated by Adventist Heritage Ministry). Throughout this time period Miller was deeply concerned with the question of death and an afterlife. This reflection upon his own mortality followed his experiences as a soldier in the war, but also the recent deaths of his father and sister. Miller apparently felt that there were only two options possible following death: annihilation, and accountability; neither of which he was comfortable with.


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: Soon after his return to Low Hampton, Miller took tentative steps towards regaining his Baptist faith. At first he attempted to combine both, publicly espousing Deism while simultaneously attending his local Baptist church. His attendance turned to participation when he was asked to read the day's sermon during one of the local minister's frequent absences. His participation changed to commitment one Sunday when he was reading a sermon on the duties of parents and became choked with emotion. Miller records the experience:


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: Suddenly the character of a Savior was vividly impressed upon my mind. It seemed that there might be a Being so good and compassionate as to Himself atone for our transgressions, and thereby save us from suffering the penalty of sin. I immediately felt how lovely such a Being must be; and imagined that I could cast myself into the arms of, and trust in the mercy of, such a One.


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: Following his conversion, Miller's Deist friends soon challenged him to justify his newfound faith. He did so by examining the Bible closely, declaring to one friend "If he would give me time, I would harmonize all these apparent contradictions to my own satisfaction, or I will be a Deist still." Miller commenced with Genesis 1:1, studying each verse and not moving on until he felt the meaning was clear. In this way he became convinced firstly, that postmillennialism was unbiblical; and secondly, that the time of Christ's Second Coming was revealed in Bible prophecy.


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: Basing his calculations principally on Daniel 8:14: "Unto two thousand and three hundred days; then shall the sanctuary be cleansed", Miller assumed that the "cleansing of the sanctuary" represented the Earth's purification by fire at Christ's Second Coming. Then, using the interpretive principle of the "day-year principle", Miller (and others) interpreted a "day in prophecy" to read not as a 24-hour period, but rather as a calendar year. Further, Miller became convinced that the 2,300 day period started in 457 BC with the decree to rebuild Jerusalem by Artaxerxes I of Persia. Simple calculation then revealed that this period would end in 1843. Miller records, "I was thus brought... to the solemn conclusion, that in about twenty-five years from that time 1818 all the affairs of our present state would be wound up."


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: Although Miller was convinced of his calculations by 1818, he continued to study privately until 1823 to ensure the correctness of his interpretation. In September 1822, Miller formally stated his conclusions in a twenty-point document, including article 15: "I believe that the second coming of Jesus Christ is near, even at the door, even within twenty-one years, – on or before 1843." Miller did not, however, begin his public lecturing until the first Sunday in August 1831 in the town of Dresden.


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: In 1832 Miller submitted a series of sixteen articles to the "Vermont Telegraph", a Baptist newspaper. The "Telegraph" published the first of these on May 15, and Miller writes of the public's response: "I began to be flooded with letters of inquiry respecting my views; and visitors flocked to converse with me on the subject." In 1834, unable to personally comply with many of the urgent requests for information and the invitations to travel and preach that he received, Miller published a synopsis of his teachings in a 64-page tract with the lengthy title: "Evidence from Scripture and History of the Second Coming of Christ, about the Year 1844: Exhibited in a Course of Lectures."


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: Miller was an active Freemason until 1831. Miller resigned his Masonic membership in 1831, stating that he did so to "avoid fellowship with any practice that may be incompatible with the word of God among masons". By 1833 he wrote in a letter to his friends to treat Freemasonry "as they would any other evil".


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: From 1840 onwards, Millerism was transformed from an "obscure, regional movement into a national campaign." The key figure in this transformation was Joshua Vaughan Himes, the pastor of Chardon Street Chapel in Boston, Massachusetts, and an able and experienced publisher. Though Himes did not fully accept Miller's ideas until 1842, he established the fortnightly paper "Signs of the Times" on February 28, 1840, to publicize them.


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: Despite the urging of his supporters, Miller never personally set an exact date for the expected Second Advent. However, in response to their urgings, he did narrow the time-period to sometime in the Jewish year beginning in the Gregorian year 1843, stating: "My principles in brief, are, that Jesus Christ will come again to this earth, cleanse, purify, and take possession of the same, with all the saints, sometime between March 21, 1843, and March 21, 1844." March 21, 1844, passed without incident, and further discussion and study resulted in the brief adoption of a new date (April 18, 1844) based on the Karaite Jewish calendar (as opposed to the Rabbinic calendar). Like the previous date, April 18 passed without Christ's return. Miller responded publicly, writing, "I confess my error, and acknowledge my disappointment; yet I still believe that the day of the Lord is near, even at the door."


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: In August 1844 at a camp-meeting in Exeter, New Hampshire, Samuel S. Snow presented a message that became known as the "seventh-month" message or the "true midnight cry." In a discussion based on scriptural typology, Snow presented his conclusion (still based on the 2300 day prophecy in Daniel 8:14), that Christ would return on, "the tenth day of the seventh month of the present year, 1844." Again, based largely on the calendar of the Karaite Jews, this date was determined to be October 22, 1844.


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: After the failure of Miller's expectations for October 22, 1844, the date became known as the Millerites' Great Disappointment. Hiram Edson recorded that "Our fondest hopes and expectations were blasted, and such a spirit of weeping came over us as I never experienced before... We wept, and wept, till the day dawn."


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: Following the Great Disappointment most Millerites simply gave up their beliefs. Some did not and viewpoints and explanations proliferated. Miller initially seems to have thought that Christ's Second Coming was still going to take place—that "the year of expectation was according to prophecy; but...that there might be an error in Bible chronology, which was of human origin, that could throw the date off somewhat and account for the discrepancy." Miller never gave up his belief in the Second Coming of Christ.


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: Estimates of Miller's followers—the Millerites—vary between 50,000, and 500,000. Miller's legacy includes the Advent Christian Church with 61,000 members, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church with over 19 million members. Both these denominations have a direct connection with the Millerites and the Great Disappointment of 1844. A number of other individuals with ties to the Millerites founded various short-lived groups. These include Clorinda S. Minor, who led a group of seven to Palestine to prepare for Christ's second coming at a later date.


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: Miller died on December 20, 1849, still convinced that the Second Coming was imminent. He is buried near his home in Low Hampton, NY and his home is a registered National Historic Landmark and preserved as a museum: William Miller's Home.


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: The papers of William Miller are preserved in the archives at Aurora University. Other papers by Miller can be located at the archives at Andrews University and Loma Linda University. In addition some historical documents were found in Miller's home when his home was purchased by Adventist Heritage Ministry as a historic property in 1983, and are housed in the Ellen G. White Estate vault in Silver Spring, Maryland.


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: The standard biography of William Miller is "Memoirs of William Miller" by Sylvester Bliss (Boston: Joshua V. Himes, 1853). It was republished with a critical introduction by Andrews University Press in 2006. Other helpful treatments include F. D. Nichol, "The Midnight Cry" and Clyde Hewitt, "Midnight and Morning".


title: William Miller (preacher)

text: David L. Rowe published "God's Strange Work: William Miller and the End of the World" (Eerdmans: 2008), as part of the Library of Religious Biography series. One reviewer described it as a "keen historical and cultural analysis."


title: Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing

text: Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing is a children's novel written by American author Judy Blume and published in 1972. It is the first in the Fudge series and was followed by "Otherwise Known as Sheila the Great", "Superfudge", "Fudge-a-Mania", and "Double Fudge" (2002). Although "Otherwise Known as Sheila the Great" features many of the same characters as the series, it does not fit exactly in the continuity of it because, as a spin-off, it only focuses on Peter's classmate (who later becomes his cousin-in-law), Sheila Tubman.


title: Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing

text: Originally, the book featured illustrations by Roy Doty, but all post-2002 reprints of it have omitted the pictures.


title: Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing

text: The story focuses on a nine-year-old boy named Peter Warren Hatcher and his relationship with his two-and-a-half-year-old brother, Farley Drexel "Fudge" Hatcher. He hates the sound of his legal name and prefers Fudge for any and all occasions.


title: Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing

text: Peter is frustrated with the horrendous behavior demonstrated by Fudge, who frequently goes unpunished. Peter becomes annoyed with Fudge because he often disturbs his pet turtle, Dribble, which he won at his best friend Jimmy Fargo's birthday party. Furthermore, Fudge throws non-stop temper tantrums, goes through a finicky phase of abstaining from eating altogether, and emulates Peter's behavior, throwing tantrums if it is prohibited. Nevertheless, their parents, Warren and Anne, dote on Fudge, to Peter's anger and frustration.


title: Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing

text: For months, Fudge's antics continue; knocking his front teeth out after catapulting himself off the jungle gym at the playground at Central Park when he decides to fly, vandalizing Peter's school project, and taking off at a movie theater. One day, to Peter's absolute misery, he returns home to discover Dribble missing from his bowl, Fudge claiming to have swallowed him. These proclamations prove to be correct, and Fudge is rushed to the hospital, where Dribble is extracted, to Anne's relief. However, Dribble has died in Fudge's stomach, and no one, especially Fudge, seems to care. Peter is devastated over the loss of him; Warren and Anne sympathetically compensate by adopting a dog, which Peter appropriately names Turtle in memory of Dribble.


title: Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing

text: Peter Warren Hatcher – the protagonist of the story, and a smart, assertive, but seemingly naïve 9-year-old boy. Most of the book focuses upon his relationship with Fudge and his family, and the fact that Fudge is the perceived source of all of his troubles. His parents, Warren and Anne, usually seem to let Fudge get away with anything and everything, and though it does appear that Peter's needs and wants are often ignored and overshadowed in favor of Fudge's, this is not always the case.


title: Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing

text: Peter believes that Warren and Anne show Fudge preferential treatment, especially Anne; he also is frequently frustrated when Fudge gets into his things and tries to become involved in his activities. However, Peter does love him very much and shows concern for him when he is hospitalized (after swallowing Peter's pet turtle, Dribble) and the doctors speculate that they may need to operate on him. Peter is very upset when he learns that Dribble is dead and is furious when he sees Fudge get showered with attention and gifts when he comes home, but then Warren comes home with a dog for Peter for being "a good sport" and to compensate for the loss.


title: Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing

text: Farley Drexel "Fudge" Hatcher – Peter's younger brother, whom he often resents. At the beginning of the book, Fudge (a nickname for his much-despised legal name, Farley) is 2½ years old, and turns 3 in Chapter 5. He is a very loud, demanding, and mischievous toddler who is prone to violent temper tantrums. He has a very active imagination, and others – including Sheila Tubman and the wife of one of his father's clients – adore him. In the final chapter, he swallows Peter's pet turtle, Dribble, and is hospitalized, but the doctors are able to help him expel him without surgery. Peter often sees him as a pest, but Fudge looks up to Peter, and eventually Peter realizes the bond that they have.


title: Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing

text: Anne Hatcher – Peter and Fudge's mother and Warren's wife. A caring mother, she shows love and devotion to her family and is very protective of Fudge. Her sometimes-overprotective ways with him sometimes cause problems for Peter; for example, when Fudge jumps off the jungle gym at the playground at Central Park (believing he is a bird that will land safely), she scolds Peter severely, holding him solely responsible for Fudge's injuries and not even listening to his side of the story. She later admits to becoming overly emotional with the aftermath of Fudge's flying experience and taking it out on Peter. When Fudge ruined Peter's school project, Anne spanked him, which surprised even Peter, who was convinced that everyone thought that Fudge could do no wrong, but Anne remarks that Fudge should have known better.


title: Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing

text: Warren Hatcher – Peter and Fudge's father and Ann's husband. He works at an unnamed advertising agency, whose major clients in "Tales" are Juicy-O, a fruit drink that the Hatchers find rather unpleasant, and Toddle Bike, a manufacturer of plastic toy tricycles à la the Big Wheel and Green Machine; Fudge is hired for a commercial for the latter product. Although most of Warren's clients are happy with his work and company, he also had his share of failures, such as losing the Juicy-O account. A loving father who wants what is best for his family, he is firmer and more conservative in rearing Peter and Fudge than Ann, particularly with Fudge. For example, when Fudge refused to eat unless he was fed like a dog, Warren was the one to finally lay down the law, that if Fudge didn't eat his food like a human, he would wear it. Unfortunately, Warren lacks in cooking and cleaning skills, and once cooked a disastrous dinner, and Fudge enforced his own "eat it or wear it" rule against him.


title: Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing

text: Dribble – Peter's pet turtle, which he won at Jimmy Fargo's birthday party. Dribble seems to always be annoyed by Fudge, which led to Fudge swallowing him. Afterwards, Warren gives Peter a dog to try to make up for the loss of him; he names it Turtle in memory of Dribble.


title: Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing

text: Sheila Tubman – Peter and Jimmy's classmate, who lives with her family in the same apartment building as the Hatchers. Peter is annoyed at the very thought of her, considering her to be a bossy know-it-all who still has cooties. She takes charge of a school project that she, Peter, and Jimmy were assigned to work on together, and though the experience was stressful at times for all, their efforts are rewarded with an "A". She is sometimes allowed to help babysit Fudge, proclaiming that she learned about babysitting from her older sister, Libby, who takes a babysitting class.


title: Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing

text: James "Jimmy" Fargo – Peter's best friend, at whose birthday party Peter won his pet turtle, Dribble. Peter and Jimmy have a special rock collection in the park and share a dislike for Sheila, which they must put aside when they are assigned to work on a school project together.


title: De La Salle High School (Concord, California)

text: De La Salle High School is a private Roman Catholic school for boys run by the De La Salle Christian Brothers of the District of San Francisco in Concord, California, United States. It is located in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Oakland. The school was founded in 1965 by the De La Salle Brothers. De La Salle currently enrolls 1,039 students, and roughly 99% of each graduating class goes on to attend a university or college. It is home to the Spartans, the athletic varsity teams of the school and its school colors are green and silver. The school motto is "Les Hommes De Foi", French for "Men Of Faith", which is based on the order's Latin motto "Signum Fidei".


text: De La Salle High School is well-known in Northern California for its football team. The team, when coached by Bob Ladouceur, holds the national record 151-game winning streak spanning from 1992 to 2004. The streak ended when they were defeated on September 4, 2004, by Bellevue High School (Washington), outside Seattle. De La Salle finished the 2007 football season 13–0 and as state champions. In 2009, De La Salle defeated Crenshaw 28–14 to win the state title again. In 2010, De La Salle defeated Servite, ranked #7 in the nation, 48–8, to win the state title game for a second straight year. De La Salle finished the season 14–0 and ranked #1 in the nation by Maxpreps.


text: During the winning streak, De La Salle was named national champion in seven different years; once by ESPN (1994), five times by "USA Today" (1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, and 2003), and once by the National Sports News Service (1999). The Spartans have been named national champions by ESPNRISE.com (formerly Student Sports) six times, including four straight years (2000–03). They have also been honored as the top team in California 19 times (1992, 1994–2003, 2007, 2009–2012, 2014–2015) and competed in 25 California Interscholastic Federation (CIF) North Coast Section (NCS) championship games with 23 victories (12 of which were attained during the 151-game winning streak). For the 2008–2009 school year, De La Salle was ranked the 18th best high school football team in the country by "USA Today", the 37th by ESPNRISE, the 19th by MaxPreps, and the 14th by "Sports Illustrated".


text: In recent years, the team has won the California Open Division State Championships six times (2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2015). They have appeared in the Open Division state title game every year from the founding of the division in 2008 until 2019. Prior, they had competed in Division I, where they were the 2007 State Champions and the 2006 and 2008 runner-up. They have won the North Coast Section championships every year since 1992, with the league's restructuring. From 1991 to 2021, they had a streak of 318 games without a loss when playing Northern California schools (going 316–0–2). This ended on September 10, 2021, when they lost to St. Francis High School of Mountain View. The Lancers, coached by St. Francis alum Greg Calcagno, beat De La Salle in the closing seconds of the game by the score of 31-28.


text: In the minds of the Brothers, "For Lasallian establishments to be the living expression of the Good News, they must be places for dialogue in truth, freedom, and hope."


text: Freshmen are introduced to the concept and experience retreat as a year group, spending the day together. Sophomores focus on the social justice aspect of the Gospel by working in the Tenderloin area of San Francisco. Juniors participate in a two-day residential which concentrates on making good moral decisions. Seniors take part in a four-day residential retreat (Kairos) which seeks to have them deepen their faith by examining their relationship with themselves, with others and with God.


text: Throughout the academic year students and staff have the opportunity to gather for prayer before school commences, to participate in the celebration of the Eucharist and to pause for prayer and reflection before classes. Those students wishing to further their spiritual development may participate in the Lasallian Youth movement. The school also runs father/son and parent/son retreats each year.


text: De La Salle Concord sponsors Nativity school in Shinara, Eritrea. Members of the upper school may also participate in "Ven a Ver" (Come to See), which involves spending five days with the disadvantaged people of Salinas or Tijuana.


text: The De La Salle football team was the subject of two 2003 books. "One Great Game: Two Teams, Two Dreams, in the First Ever National Championship High School Football Game", by Don Wallace, follows the undefeated 2001 season and national championship showdown with Long Beach Polytechnic High School, and splits its focus between the schools. "When the Game Stands Tall" was written by "Contra Costa Times" sportswriter Neil Hayes, who followed the team for practices, games, and meetings during its undefeated 2002 season. The foreword was written by former Oakland Athletics and St. Louis Cardinals manager Tony LaRussa. Don Wallace also wrote about De La Salle and Ladouceur in an article called "The Soul of a Sports Machine", published in the October 2003 edition of "Fast Company" magazine.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion (commonly abbreviated as the Thirty-nine Articles or the XXXIX Articles) are the historically defining statements of doctrines and practices of the Church of England with respect to the controversies of the English Reformation. The Thirty-nine Articles form part of the "Book of Common Prayer" used by the Church of England, the U.S. Episcopal Church, and the Anglican Church in North America among other denominations in the worldwide Anglican Communion and Anglican Continuum.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: When Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church and was excommunicated, he began the reform of the Church of England, which would be headed by the monarch (himself), rather than the pope. At this point, he needed to determine what its doctrines and practices would be in relation to the Church of Rome and the new Protestant movements in continental Europe. A series of defining documents were written and replaced over a period of thirty years as the doctrinal and political situation changed from the excommunication of Henry VIII in 1533, to the excommunication of Elizabeth I in 1570. These positions began with the Ten Articles in 1536, and concluded with the finalisation of the Thirty-nine articles in 1571. The Thirty-nine articles ultimately served to define the doctrine of the Church of England as it related to Calvinist doctrine and Roman Catholic practice.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The articles went through at least five major revisions prior to their finalisation in 1571. The first attempt was the Ten Articles in 1536, which showed some slightly Protestant leanings – the result of an English desire for a political alliance with the German Lutheran princes. The next revision was the Six Articles in 1539 which swung away from all reformed positions, and then the "King's Book" in 1543, which re-established most of the earlier Roman Catholic doctrines. During the reign of Edward VI, Henry VIII's son, the Forty-two Articles were written under the direction of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer in 1552. It was in this document that Calvinist thought reached the zenith of its influence in the English Church. These articles were never put into action, owing to Edward VI's death and the reversion of the English Church to Roman Catholicism under Henry VIII's elder daughter, Mary I.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: Finally, upon the coronation of Elizabeth I and the re-establishment of the Church of England as separate from the Roman Catholic Church, the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion were initiated by the Convocation of 1563, under the direction of Matthew Parker, the Archbishop of Canterbury.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The Thirty-nine Articles were finalised in 1571, and incorporated into the "Book of Common Prayer". Although not the end of the struggle between Catholic and Protestant monarchs and citizens, the book helped to standardise the English language, and was to have a lasting effect on religion in the United Kingdom and elsewhere through its wide use.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The Church of England's break with Rome inaugurated a period of doctrinal confusion and controversy as both conservative and reforming clergy attempted to shape the church's direction, the former as "Catholicism without the Pope" and the latter as Protestant. In an attempt "to establish Christian quietness and unity", the Ten Articles were adopted by clerical Convocation in July 1536 as the English Church's first post-papal doctrinal statement. The Ten Articles were crafted as a rushed interim compromise between conservatives and reformers. Historians have variously described it as a victory for Lutheranism and a success for Catholic resistance. Its provisions have also been described as "confusing".


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The first five articles dealt with doctrines that were "commanded expressly by God, and are necessary to our salvation", while the last five articles dealt with "laudable ceremonies used in the Church". This division reflects how the Articles originated from two different discussions earlier in the year. The first five articles were based on the Wittenberg Articles negotiated between English ambassadors Edward Foxe, Nicholas Heath and Robert Barnes and German Lutheran theologians, including Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon. This doctrinal statement was itself based on the Augsburg Confession of 1530.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The five principal doctrines were the Bible and ecumenical creeds, baptism, penance, the Eucharist and justification. The core doctrine in the Ten Articles was justification by faith. Justification – which was defined as remission of sin and accepting into God's favour – was through "the only mercy and grace of the Father, promised freely unto us for his Son’s sake Jesus Christ, and the merits of his blood and passion". Good works would follow, not precede, justification. However, the Lutheran influence was diluted with qualifications. Justification was attained "by contrition and faith joined with charity". In other words, good works were "necessarily required to the attaining of everlasting life".


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: To the disappointment of conservatives, only three of the traditional seven sacraments were even mentioned (baptism, the Eucharist and penance). The Articles affirm the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, stating that "under the form and figure of bread and wine ... is verily, substantially and really contained the very self-same body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ". This definition was acceptable to those who held to transubstantiation or sacramental union, but it clearly condemned sacramentarianism. More controversially for the reformers, the Articles maintained penance as a sacrament and the priest's authority to grant divine absolution in confession.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: Articles six to ten focused on secondary issues. Significantly, purgatory, which had been a central concern of medieval religion, was placed in the non-essential articles. On the question of its existence, the Ten Articles were ambiguous. They stated, "the place where [departed souls] be, the name thereof, and kind of pains there" was "uncertain by scripture". Prayer for the dead and masses for the dead were permitted as possibly relieving the pain of departed souls in purgatory.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The Articles also defended the use of a number of Catholic rituals and practices opposed by Protestants, such as kissing the cross on Good Friday, while mildly criticising popular abuses and excesses. The use of religious images was permitted but people were to be taught not to kneel before them or make offerings to them. Prayer to Mary, mother of Jesus, and all the other saints was permitted as long as superstition was avoided.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The failure of the Ten Articles to settle doctrinal controversy led Thomas Cromwell, the King's vicegerent in spirituals, to convene a national synod of bishops and high-ranking clergy for further theological discussion in February 1537. This synod produced a book called "The Institution of the Christian Man" (popularly called "The Bishops' Book"), the word "institution" being synonymous with "instruction". "The Bishops' Book" preserved the semi-Lutheranism of the Ten Articles, and the articles on justification, purgatory, and the sacraments of baptism, the Eucharist and penance were incorporated unchanged into the new book.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: When the synod met, conservatives were still angry that four of the traditional seven sacraments (confirmation, marriage, holy orders and extreme unction) had been excluded from the Ten Articles. John Stokesley argued for all seven, while Thomas Cranmer only acknowledged baptism and the Eucharist. The others divided along party lines. The conservatives were at a disadvantage because they found it necessary to appeal to sacred tradition, which violated Cromwell's instructions that all arguments refer to scripture.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: In the end, the missing sacraments were restored but placed in a separate section to emphasize "a difference in dignity and necessity." Only baptism, the Eucharist and penance were "instituted of Christ, to be as certain instruments or remedies necessary for our salvation". Confirmation was declared to have been introduced by the early Church in imitation of what they had read about the practice of the Apostles.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The "Bishops' Book" also included expositions on the creed, the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer and Hail Mary. These were greatly influenced by William Marshall's primer (an English-language book of hours) of 1535, which itself was influenced by Luther's writings. Following Marshall, "The Bishops' Book" rejected the traditional Catholic numbering of the Ten Commandments, in which the prohibition on making and worshiping graven images was part of the first commandment, "Thou shalt have no other gods before me". In agreement with the Eastern Orthodox and Huldrych Zwingli's church at Zurich, the authors of the "Bishops' Book" adopted the Jewish tradition of separating these commandments. While allowing images of Christ and the saints, the exposition on the second commandment taught against representations of God the Father and criticised those who "be more ready with their substance to deck dead images gorgeously and gloriously, than with the same to help poor Christian people, the quick and lively images of God". Such teachings encouraged iconoclasm, which would become a feature of the English Reformation.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The list of the 46 divines as they appear in the "Bishop's Book" included all of the bishops, eight archdeacons and 17 other Doctors of Divinity, some of whom were later involved with translating the Bible and compiling the "Book of Common Prayer":


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: In August 1537, it was presented to the King who ordered that parts should be read from the pulpit every Sunday and feast day. Nevertheless, the King was not entirely satisfied and took it upon himself to make a revised "Bishops' Book", which, among other proposed changes, weakened the original's emphasis on justification by faith. This revised version was never published. Because the "Bishops' Book" was never authorised by the Crown or Convocation, the Ten Articles remained the official doctrinal standard of the Church of England.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: Fearful of diplomatic isolation and a Catholic alliance, Henry VIII continued his outreach to the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: In May 1538, three Lutheran theologians from Germany – Franz Burchard, vice-chancellor of Saxony; Georg von Boineburg, doctor of law; and Friedrich Myconius, superintendent of the church in Gotha – arrived in London and held conferences with English bishops and clergy at the archbishop's Lambeth Palace through September.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The Germans presented, as a basis of agreement, a number of articles based on the Lutheran Confession of Augsburg. Bishops Tunstall, Stokesley and others were not won over by these Protestant arguments and did everything they could to avoid agreement. They were willing to separate from Rome, but their plan was to unite with the Greek Church and not with the Protestants on the continent. The bishops also refused to eliminate what the Germans considered abuses (e.g. private masses for the dead, compulsory clerical celibacy, and withholding communion wine from the laity) allowed by the English Church. Stokesley considered these customs to be essential because the Greek Church practised them. As the King was unwilling to break with these practices, the Germans had all left England by 1 October.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: Meanwhile, England was in religious turmoil. Impatient Protestants took it upon themselves to further reform – some priests said mass in English rather than Latin and married without authorisation (Archbishop Cranmer was himself secretly married). Protestants themselves were divided between establishment reformers who held Lutheran beliefs upholding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist and radicals who held Anabaptist and Sacramentarian views denying real presence. In May 1539, a new Parliament met, and Lord Chancellor Audley told the House of Lords that the King desired religious uniformity. A committee of four conservative and four reformist bishops was appointed to examine and determine doctrine. On 16 May, the Duke of Norfolk noted that the committee had not agreed on anything and proposed that the Lords examine six controversial doctrinal questions that became the basis of the Six Articles:


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: Over the next month, these questions were argued in Parliament and Convocation with the active participation of the King. The final product was an affirmation of traditional teachings on all but the sixth question. Communion in one kind, compulsory clerical celibacy, vows of chastity and votive masses were a legitimate form. Protestants achieved a minor victory on auricular confession, which was declared "expedient and necessary to be retained" but not required by divine law. In addition, although the real presence was affirmed in traditional terminology, the word "transubstantiation" itself did not appear in the final version.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The Act of Six Articles became law in June 1539, which, unlike the Ten Articles, gave the Six Articles statutory authority. Harsh penalties were attached to violations of the Articles. Denial of transubstantiation was punished by burning without an opportunity to recant. Denial of any of the other articles was punished by hanging or life imprisonment. Married priests had until 12 July to put away their wives, which was likely a concession granted to give Archbishop Cranmer time to move his wife and children outside of England. After the act's passage, bishops Latimer and Shaxton, outspoken opponents of the measure, were forced to resign their dioceses. The Act of Six Articles was repealed in 1547 during the reign of Henry's son, Edward VI.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: When Parliament re-convened in April 1540, a committee was formed to revise the "Bishops' Book", which Henry VIII had never liked. The committee's membership included both traditionalists and reformers, but the former held the majority. Convocation began discussing the revised text in April 1543. The "King's Book", or "The Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for Any Christian Man" to use its formal title, was more traditional than the 1537 version and incorporated many of the King's own revisions. It was approved by a special meeting of the nobility on 6 May and differed from the "Bishop's Book" in having been issued under the King's authority. It was also statutorily enforced by the Act for the Advancement of True Religion. Because of its royal authorisation, the "King's Book" officially replaced the Ten Articles as the official doctrinal statement of the Church of England.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: Significantly, the doctrine of justification by faith was totally rejected. Cranmer tried to save the doctrine by arguing that while true faith was accompanied by good works (in other words, faith was not "alone") it was only faith that justified. However, Henry would not be persuaded, and the text was amended to read that faith justified "neither only nor alone". It also stated that each person had free will to be "a worker ... in the attaining of his own justification". The "King's Book" also endorsed traditional views of the mass, transubstantiation, confession, and Church ceremonies. The traditional seven sacraments were all included without any distinction in importance made between them. It was taught that the second commandment did not forbid images but only "godly honour" being given to them. Looking at images of Christ and the saints "provoked, kindled and stirred to yield thanks to Our Lord".


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The one area in which the "King's Book" moved away from traditional teaching was on prayer for the dead and purgatory. It taught that no one could know whether prayers or masses for the dead benefited an individual soul, and it was better to offer prayers for "the universal congregation of Christian people, quick and dead". People were encouraged to "abstain from the name of purgatory, and no more dispute or reason thereof". Presumably, the hostility towards purgatory derived from its connection to papal authority. The King's own behavior sent mixed signals. In 1540, he allowed offerings for the souls of deceased Knights of the Garter to be spent on works of charity instead of masses. At the same time, however, he required the new cathedral foundations to pray for the soul of Queen Jane. Perhaps because of the uncertainty surrounding this doctrine, bequests in wills for chantries, obits and masses fell by half what they had been in the 1520s.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: Henry VIII was succeeded by his son, Edward VI, in 1547. During Edward's reign, the Church of England adopted a stronger Protestant identity. The "Book of Common Prayer" of 1549 authorised a reformed liturgy, and the 1552 "Book of Common Prayer" was even more explicitly Protestant. To make the English Church fully Protestant, Cranmer also envisioned a reform of canon law and the creation of a concise doctrinal statement, which would become the Forty-two Articles. Work on a doctrinal statement was delayed by Cranmer's efforts to forge a doctrinal consensus among the various Protestant churches to counter the work of the Catholic Council of Trent. When this proved impossible, Cranmer turned his attention to defining what the Church of England believed.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The Forty-two Articles were drafted by Cranmer and a small group of fellow Protestants. The title page claimed that the articles were approved by Convocation when in reality they were never discussed or adopted by the clerical body. They were also never approved by Parliament. The articles were issued by Royal Mandate on 19 June 1553. All clergy, schoolmasters and members of the universities were required to subscribe to them. The theology of the articles has been described as a "restrained" Calvinism.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: Edward died in 1553. With the coronation of Mary I and the reunion of the Church of England with the Catholic Church, the articles were never enforced. However, after Mary's death, they became the basis of the Thirty-nine Articles. In 1563, Convocation met under Archbishop Parker to revise the articles. Convocation passed only 39 of the 42, and Elizabeth reduced the number to 38 by throwing out Article 29 to avoid offending her subjects with Catholic leanings. In 1571, despite the opposition of Bishop Edmund Gheast, Article 29 was re-inserted, declaring that the wicked do not eat the Body of Christ. This was done following the queen's excommunication by the Pope Pius V in 1570. That act destroyed any hope of reconciliation with Rome and it was no longer necessary to fear that Article 29 would offend Catholic sensibilities. The Articles, increased to Thirty-nine, were ratified by the Queen, and the bishops and clergy were required to assent.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The Thirty-nine Articles was intended to establish, in basic terms, the faith and practice of the Church of England. While not designed to be a creed or complete statement of the Christian faith, the articles explain the doctrinal position of the Church of England in relation to the Roman Catholicism, Calvinism, and the Anabaptists in the context of the 16th century. The Thirty-nine Articles can be divided into eight sections based on their content:


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The first five articles articulate the doctrine of God, the Holy Trinity and the incarnation of Jesus Christ. This is a departure from other doctrinal statements of the 16th and 17th centuries such as the Helvetic Confessions and the Westminster Confession, which begin with the doctrine of revelation and Holy Scripture as the source of knowledge about God.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: These articles state that Holy Scripture contains everything necessary for salvation, so that no one can be required to believe any doctrine that cannot be proved on the basis of biblical teaching. The articles acknowledge the authority of the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed and the Athanasian Creed because they express Scriptural teaching. It states that the Apocrypha is not part of Scripture. While not a basis of doctrine, the Apocrypha continues to be read by the church for moral instruction and examples for holy living.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: These articles discuss the doctrines of original sin and justification by faith (salvation is a gift received through faith in Christ). They reject the medieval Catholic teachings on works of supererogation and that performing good works can make a person worthy to receive justification (congruous merit). They also reject the radical Protestant teaching that a person could be free from sin in this life. The articles address the doctrine of predestination—that "Predestination to life is the everlasting purpose of God". Double predestination, the belief that God has also predestined some people to reprobation, is not endorsed by the articles.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: These articles explain the nature and authority of the visible church. They state that the church, under Scripture, has authority over matters of faith and order. General councils of the church can only be called with the permission of the civil authority. It is possible for church councils to reach the wrong decisions, so they should only be followed if their actions align with Scripture.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: These articles condemn the Roman Catholic teachings on purgatory, indulgences, the use of religious images and the invocation of saints. In addition, the Roman Catholic practice of using Latin as a liturgical language is disapproved of in favour of the vernacular. The articles state that no person should preach publicly or administer the sacraments unless they are called and authorised by legitimate church authority. This was meant to counter the radical Protestant belief that a Christian could preach and act as a minister on his own initiative in defiance of church authorities.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: These articles explain the Church of England's sacramental theology. According to the articles, sacraments are signs of divine grace which God works invisibly but effectively in people's lives. Through sacraments, God creates and strengthens the faith of believers. The radical Protestant belief that sacraments are only outward signs of a person's faith is denied by the articles. While the Roman Catholic Church claimed seven sacraments, the articles recognise only two: baptism and the Lord's Supper. The five rites called sacraments by Catholics are identified in the articles as either corrupted imitations of the Apostles (confirmation, penance and extreme unction) or as "states of life allowed in the Scriptures" (holy orders and marriage).


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: Regeneration (or the gift of new life), membership in the church, forgiveness of sins and adoption as children of God are all received through baptism. The articles state that infant baptism is "most agreeable with the institution of Christ" and should continue to be practised in the church. In the Lord's Supper, participants become partakers of the body and blood of Christ and receive the spiritual benefits of Christ's death on the cross. According to the articles, this partaking should not be understood in terms of the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, which is condemned as "repugnant to the plain words of Scripture". Instead, the articles declare that there is no change in the substance of the bread and wine. Rather, participants are fed the body of Christ by the Holy Spirit and through faith. The articles declare that "The offering of Christ once made is the perfect redemption, propitiation, and satisfaction for all the sins of the whole world". This was meant as a repudiation of the idea that the Mass was a sacrifice in which Christ was offered for the forgiveness of sins for the living and the dead in purgatory.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The articles defend the practice of clerical marriage and the church's power of excommunication. It states that traditions and ceremonies in the church may vary by time and place; national churches can alter or abolish traditions created by human authority. The "First and Second Book of Homilies" are said to contain correct doctrine and should be read in church. The articles also defend the ordination rites contained in the 1549 and 1552 Ordinals.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The articles affirm the role of the monarch as the Supreme Governor of the Church of England. It rejects all claims to the Pope's jurisdiction in England. It defends the state's right to use capital punishment and declares that Christians may serve in the military. It rejects the Anabaptist teaching that the property of Christians should be held in common, but it does explain that Christians should give alms to the poor and needy. It also defends the morality of oath-taking for civic purposes.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: During the reign of Elizabeth I, a "Calvinist consensus" developed within the church regarding the doctrines of salvation. Article 17 only endorsed election to salvation and was silent on whether God predestined people for reprobation; however, most of the bishops and leading churchmen believed in double predestination. When an Arminian minority emerged to challenge this consensus, Archbishop Whitgift issued the Lambeth Articles in 1595. These did not replace the Thirty-nine Articles but were meant to officially align Article 17 to Calvinist theology. The Queen was unwilling to alter her religious settlement and refused to assent to these new articles.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: They are printed in the 1662 "Book of Common Prayer" and other Anglican prayer books. The Test Act of 1672 made adherence to the Articles a requirement for holding civil office in England until its repeal in 1828. Students at Oxford University were still expected to sign up to them until the passing of the Oxford University Act 1854.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: In the Church of England, only clergy (and until the 19th century members of Oxford and Cambridge Universities) are required to subscribe to the Articles. Starting in 1865, clergy affirmed that the doctrine contained in the Articles and the "Book of Common Prayer" was agreeable to Scripture and that they would not preach in contradiction to it. Since 1975, clergy are required to acknowledge the Articles as one of the historic formularies of the Church of England that bear witness to the faith revealed in Scripture and contained in the creeds. The Church of Ireland has a similar declaration for its clergy, while some other churches of the Anglican Communion make no such requirement.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: The influence of the Articles on Anglican thought, doctrine and practice has been profound. Although Article VIII itself states that the three Catholic creeds are a sufficient statement of faith, the Articles have often been perceived as the nearest thing to a supplementary confession of faith possessed by the Anglican tradition. In Anglican discourse, the Articles are regularly cited and interpreted to clarify doctrine and practice. Sometimes they are used to prescribe support of Anglican comprehensiveness. An important concrete manifestation of this is the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral, which incorporates Articles VI, VIII, XXV, and XXXVI in its broad articulation of fundamental Anglican identity. In other circumstances they delineate the parameters of acceptable belief and practice in proscriptive fashion. The Articles continue to be invoked today in the Anglican Church. For example, in the ongoing debate over homosexual activity and the concomitant controversies over episcopal authority, Articles VI, XX, XXIII, XXVI, and XXXIV are regularly cited by those of various opinions.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: Each of the 44 member churches in the Anglican Communion is, however, free to adopt and authorise its own official documents, and the Articles are not officially normative in all Anglican Churches (neither is the Athanasian Creed). The only doctrinal documents agreed upon in the Anglican Communion are the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed of AD 325, and the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral. Beside these documents, authorised liturgical formularies, such as Prayer Book and Ordinal, are normative. The several provincial editions of Prayer Books (and authorised alternative liturgies) are, however, not identical, although they share a greater or smaller amount of family resemblance. No specific edition of the Prayer Book is therefore binding for the entire Communion.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: A revised version was adopted in 1801 by the US Episcopal Church which deleted the Athanasian Creed. Earlier, John Wesley, founder of the Methodists, adapted the Thirty-nine Articles for use by American Methodists in the 18th century. The resulting Articles of Religion remain an official doctrinal statement of the United Methodist Church.


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: According to theologian Henry Chadwick, the articles are a revealing window into the ethos and character of Anglicanism, in particular in the way the document works to navigate a "via media" (Latin: middle path or middle way) between the beliefs and practices of the Catholic Church on the one hand, and those of the Lutheran and Reformed churches on the other hand, thus giving the Church of England a unique middle-of-the-road position. The "via media" was expressed so adroitly in the Articles that some Anglican scholars have labelled their content as an early example of the idea that the doctrine of Anglicanism is one of "Reformed Catholicism".


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: In 1628 Charles I prefixed a royal declaration to the articles, which demands a literal interpretation of them, threatening discipline for academics or churchmen teaching any personal interpretations or encouraging debate about them. It states: "no man hereafter shall either print or preach, to draw the Article aside any way, but shall submit to it in the plain and Full meaning thereof: and shall not put his own sense or comment to be the meaning of the Article, but shall take it in the literal and grammatical sense."


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: However, what the Articles truly mean has been a matter of debate in the Church since before they were issued. The evangelical wing of the Church has claimed to take the Articles at face value, and to regard them as of utmost importance. In 2003, evangelical Anglican clergyman Chris Pierce wrote:


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: This view has never been held by the whole church. In 1643, Archbishop of Armagh John Bramhall laid out a broader view of the Articles:


title: Thirty-nine Articles

text: This divergence of opinion became overt during the Oxford Movement of the 19th century. The stipulations of Articles XXV and XXVIII were regularly invoked by evangelicals to oppose the reintroduction of certain beliefs, customs, and acts of piety with respect to the sacraments. In response, John Henry Newman's Tract 90 attempted to show that the 39 Articles could be read according to an Anglo-Catholic interpretation.


title: Host (network)

text: A network host is a computer or other device connected to a computer network. A host may work as a server offering information resources, services, and applications to users or other hosts on the network. Hosts are assigned at least one network address.


title: Host (network)

text: A computer participating in networks that use the Internet protocol suite may also be called an IP host. Specifically, computers participating in the Internet are called Internet hosts. Internet hosts and other IP hosts have one or more IP addresses assigned to their network interfaces. The addresses are configured either manually by an administrator, automatically at startup by means of the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), or by stateless address autoconfiguration methods.


title: Host (network)

text: Network hosts that participate in applications that use the client–server model of computing, are classified as server or client systems. Network hosts may also function as nodes in peer-to-peer applications, in which all nodes share and consume resources in an equipotent manner.


title: Host (network)

text: In operating systems, the term "terminal host" denotes a time-sharing computer or multi-user software providing services to computer terminals, or a computer that provides services to smaller or less capable devices, such as a mainframe computer serving teletype terminals or video terminals. Other examples of this architecture include a telnet host connected to a telnet server and an xhost connected to an X Window client.


title: Host (network)

text: The term "Internet host" or just "host" is used in a number of Request for Comments (RFC) documents that define the Internet and its predecessor, the ARPANET. RFC 871 defines a host as a general-purpose computer system connected to a communications network for "... the purpose of achieving resource sharing amongst the participating operating systems..."


title: Host (network)

text: While the ARPANET was being developed, computers connected to the network were typically mainframe computer systems that could be accessed from dumb terminals connected via serial ports. Since these terminals did not host software or perform computations themselves, they were not considered "hosts" as they were not connected to any IP network, and were not assigned IP addresses. User computers connected to the ARPANET at a packet-switching node were considered hosts.


title: Host (network)

text: A network node is any device participating in a network. A host is a node that participates in user applications, either as a server, client, or both. A server is a type of host that offers resources to the other hosts. Typically a server accepts connections from clients who request a service function.


title: Host (network)

text: Every network host is a node, but not every network node is a host. Network infrastructure hardware, such as modems, Ethernet hubs, and network switches are not directly or actively participating in application-level functions, and do not necessarily have a network address, and are not considered to be network hosts.


title: History of the kilt

text: The history of the modern kilt stretches back to at least the end of the 16th century. The kilt first appeared as the belted plaid or great kilt, a full-length garment whose upper half could be worn as a cloak draped over the shoulder, or brought up over the head as a hood. The small kilt or walking kilt (similar to the 'modern' military kilt) did not develop until the late17th or early 18th century, and is essentially the bottom half of the great kilt.


title: History of the kilt

text: The word "kilt" comes from the Scots word "kilt" meaning to tuck up the clothes around the body, although the 11th edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica" (vol. 15, p. 798) says the word is Scandinavian in origin. The Scots word derives from the Old Norse "kjalta" (meaning "lap", "fold of a gathered skirt").


title: History of the kilt

text: The belted plaid () or great plaid (), also known as the great kilt, is likely to have evolved over the course of the 16th century from the earlier "brat" or woollen cloak (also known as a plaid) which was worn over a tunic. This earlier cloak may have been plain in colour or in various check or tartan designs, depending on the wealth of the wearer; this earlier fashion of clothing had not changed significantly from that worn by Celtic warriors in Roman times.


title: History of the kilt

text: Over the course of the 16th century, with the increasing availability of wool, the cloak had grown to such a size that it began to be gathered up and belted. The belted plaid was originally a length of thick woollen cloth made up from two loom-widths sewn together to give a total width of , and up to in length. This garment was gathered up into pleats and secured by a wide belt.


title: History of the kilt

text: Plaids with belt loops were in use by the 18th century. A surviving men's belted plaid from 1822 has a belt loops sewn inside it at each pattern repeat, such that it can be unpleated entirely into a blanket, or rapidly pleated with a hidden drawstring belt (with a second belt worn outside, to flatten the pleats, as in the portrait of Lord Mungo Murray above).


title: History of the kilt

text: The upper half could be worn as a cloak draped over the left shoulder, hung down over the belt and gathered up at the front, or brought up over the shoulders or head for protection against weather. It was worn over a (a full-sleeved tunic stopping below the waist) and could also serve as a camping blanket.