title: Troy Davis

text: Moore ruled that executing an innocent person would violate the Eighth Amendment. "However, Mr. Davis is not innocent." In his decision, Moore wrote: "while Mr. Davis's new evidence casts some additional, minimal doubt on his conviction, it is largely smoke and mirrors." Moore gave Benjamin Gordon's testimony no credit because the testimony came late and the judge believed Gordon would say anything to help Mr. Davis, despite no evidence that Mr. Gordon knew Mr. Davis. Of the seven papers described as recantations by the defense, Moore found that only one was wholly credible and two were partly credible. He did not consider Coles' alleged confessions because of the failure of Davis's lawyers to subpoena Coles, and suggested that Davis should appeal directly to the Supreme Court. In November 2010, the federal appeals panel dismissed an appeal on the case, without ruling on its merits. They stated that Davis should appeal the case directly to the U.S. Supreme Court "because he had exhausted his other avenues of relief." Rosemary Barkett, one of the panel judges, later released a statement saying that although she agreed with the decision, she still believed that Davis should be given a new trial.


title: Troy Davis

text: In January 2011, Davis's legal team filed a new petition with the United States Supreme Court, alleging that District Judge Moore had "evinced a clear hostility" against Davis during the August 2010 hearing, and again asking for a new trial. The petition was rejected without comment by the Supreme Court in March 2011, allowing a new execution date.


title: Troy Davis

text: In May 2011, Amnesty International and People of Faith Against the Death Penalty asked religious leaders to sign a petition to the Georgia Board of Pardons and Paroles calling for the commutation of Davis's death sentence. By September 17, 2011, over 660,000 people had signed the petition for clemency including Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Pope Benedict XVI, Archbishop Wilton Gregory, William Sessions (former head of the Federal Bureau of Investigation), former President Jimmy Carter and representatives for the European Parliament.


title: Troy Davis

text: In contrast, law enforcement officials such as Spencer Lawton, the former Chatham County prosecutor who put Davis on trial, remained convinced of the evidence for Davis's guilt and that Davis's supporters "would know differently if they looked at the record." He stated: "We have consistently won the case as it has been presented in court. We have consistently lost the case as it has been presented in the public realm, on TV and elsewhere." Members of MacPhail's family were also convinced of Davis's guilt, and thought his execution would bring a measure of peace. His mother reported "That hole in my heart will be there until the day I die, but it [the execution] may give me some peace and quiet." Mark MacPhail Jr. stated "It's not animosity or anger or rage that has kept us going; that's not what my father would want. It's justice. The law is what he was all about. That's what we have to uphold."


title: Troy Davis

text: On September 7, 2011, Georgia set Davis's execution date for two weeks later, September 21. The Georgia Board of Pardons and Paroles set a hearing for Davis's second bid for clemency for September 19. This Board had not granted him clemency in September 2008, but the five-member Board now included three new members who had not previously heard the case. On September 20, the Board denied him clemency.


title: Troy Davis

text: On the morning of September 21, the Butts County Superior Court denied Davis's request to halt his execution. The Georgia Supreme Court also denied his appeal. Davis was due to be executed at 7 p.m. EDT. The same night, Jay Carney, the White House Press Secretary, announced that President Obama would not intervene in the case (while the president could not have pardoned Davis, he did have the authority to order a federal investigation that might have led to a delay in the execution). Davis filed a request with the U.S. Supreme Court to stay his execution. Almost an hour after Davis's scheduled execution time, the Supreme Court announced they would review his petition, thereby postponing the execution. The Supreme Court, however, denied Davis's petition, after deliberating for several hours.


title: Troy Davis

text: The execution by lethal injection began at 10:53 p.m. EDT. In his final words, Davis maintained his innocence, saying:Well, first of all I'd like to address the MacPhail family. I'd like to let you all know, despite the situation—I know all of you are still convinced that I'm the person that killed your father, your son and your brother, but I am innocent. The incident that happened that night was not my fault. I did not have a gun that night. I did not shoot your family member. But I am so sorry for your loss. I really am—sincerely. All I can ask is that each of you look deeper into this case, so that you really will finally see the truth. I ask my family and friends that you all continue to pray, that you all continue to forgive. Continue to fight this fight. For those about to take my life, may God have mercy on all of your souls. God bless you all. He was declared dead at 11:08 pm EDT.


title: Troy Davis

text: Twitter recorded 7,671 tweets per second in the moments before word of Davis's execution, making his death the second-most-active Twitter event in 2011.


title: Railroad classes

text: In the United States, railroad carriers are designated as Class I, II, or III, according to annual revenue criteria originally set by the Surface Transportation Board in 1992. With annual adjustments for inflation, the 2019 thresholds were US$504,803,294 for Class I carriers and US$40,384,263 for Class II carriers. (Smaller carriers were Class III by default.)


title: Railroad classes

text: There are seven Class I freight railroad companies in the United States including two Canadian carriers with subsidiary trackage in the United States: BNSF Railway, Canadian National Railway (via its subsidiary Grand Trunk Corporation), Canadian Pacific Railway (via its subsidiary Soo Line Corporation), CSX Transportation, Kansas City Southern Railway, Norfolk Southern Railway, and Union Pacific Railroad. (Mexico's Ferromex and Kansas City Southern de México would qualify as Class I, but do not operate within the United States.)


title: Railroad classes

text: In addition, the national passenger railroad in the United States, Amtrak, would qualify as Class I if it were a freight carrier, as would Canada's Via Rail passenger service if it operated within the United States.


title: Railroad classes

text: Initially (in 1911) the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) classified railroads by their annual gross revenue. Class I railroads had an annual operating revenue of at least $1 million, while Class III railroad incomes were under $100,000 per annum. All such corporations were subject to reporting requirements on a quarterly or annual schedule. If a railroad slipped below its class qualification threshold for a period, it was not necessarily demoted immediately. In 1925, the ICC reported 174 Class I railroads, 282 Class II railroads, and 348 Class III railroads.


title: Railroad classes

text: The $1 million criterion established in 1911 for a Class I railroad was used until January 1, 1956, when the figure was increased to $3 million. In 1956, the ICC counted 113 Class I line-haul operating railroads (excluding "3 class I companies in systems") and 309 Class II railroads (excluding "3 class II companies in systems"). The Class III category was dropped in 1956 but reinstated in 1978. By 1963, the number of Class I railroads had dropped to 102; cutoffs were increased to $5 million by 1965, to $10 million in 1976 and to $50 million in 1978, at which point only 41 railroads qualified as Class I.


title: Railroad classes

text: In a special move in 1979, all switching and terminal railroads were re-designated Class III — even those with Class I or Class II revenues.


title: Railroad classes

text: In early 1991, two Class II railroads, Montana Rail Link and Wisconsin Central, asked the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to increase the minimum annual operating revenue criteria (then established at US$93.5 million) to avoid being redesignated as Class I, which would have resulted in increased administrative and legal costs. The Class II maximum criterion was increased in 1992 to $250 million annually, which resulted in the Florida East Coast Railway having its status changed to Class II.


title: Railroad classes

text: Since dissolution of the ICC in 1996, the Surface Transportation Board (STB) has become responsible for defining criteria for each railroad class. The STB continues to use designations of Class II and Class III since there are different labor regulations for the two classes. The bounds are typically redefined every several years to adjust for inflation and other factors.


title: Railroad classes

text: Class II and Class III designations are now rarely used outside the rail transport industry. The Association of American Railroads typically divides non–Class I companies into three categories:


title: Railroad classes

text: In the United States, the Surface Transportation Board categorizes rail carriers into Class I, Class II, and Class III based on carrier's annual revenues. The thresholds, last adjusted for inflation in 2019 are:


title: Railroad classes

text: In Canada, a Class I rail carrier is defined () as a company that has earned gross revenues exceeding $250 million (CAD) for each of the previous two years.


title: Railroad classes

text: Class I railroads are the largest rail carriers in the United States. In 1900, there were 132 Class I railroads, but as the result of mergers and bankruptcies, the industry has consolidated and , just seven Class I freight railroads remain.


title: Railroad classes

text: BNSF Railway and Union Pacific Railroad have a duopoly over all transcontinental freight rail lines in the Western United States, while CSX Transportation and Norfolk Southern Railway operate most of the trackage in the Eastern United States, with the Mississippi River being the rough dividing line. Canadian National Railway (via its subsidiary Grand Trunk Corporation) and Kansas City Southern Railway operate north-south lines near the Mississippi River. Canadian Pacific Railway (via its subsidiary Soo Line Corporation) has a comparatively small footprint in the Upper Midwest and Northeastern United States.


title: Railroad classes

text: In addition, the national passenger railroads in the US and Canada —Amtrak and Via Rail— would both qualify as Class I if they were freight carriers. Similarly, Mexico's Ferromex would qualify as a Class I railroad if it had trackage in the United States.


title: Railroad classes

text: A Class II railroad in the United States hauls freight and is mid-sized in terms of operating revenue. Switching and terminal railroads are excluded from Class II status.


title: Railroad classes

text: Railroads considered by the Association of American Railroads as "Regional Railroads" are typically Class II. An example of a Class II would be the Florida East Coast Railway.


title: Railroad classes

text: Class III railroads are typically local short-line railroads serving a small number of towns and industries or hauling cars for one or more railroads; often they once had been branch lines of larger railroads or even abandoned portions of main lines. Some Class III railroads are owned by railroad holding companies such as Genesee & Wyoming or Watco.


title: Brazil men's national volleyball team

text: The Brazil men's national volleyball team is governed by the Confederação Brasileira de Voleibol "(Brazilian Volleyball Confederation)" and takes part in international volleyball competitions. Brazil has three gold medals at the Olympic Games, won three times the World Championship and nine times the World League. Brazil is the #2 team on the FIVB World Rankings. The team is often referred to as volleyball's "Dream Team" due to its success under coach Bernardo Rezende.


title: Brazil men's national volleyball team

text: After the sixth place in the Sydney Olympic Games, the Brazilian men’s national team underwent some important changes ahead of the 2001 season. Mr. Bernardo Rezende, nicknamed Bernardinho, who had spent six years coaching the women's national team, was chosen to be the head coach of the Brazilian men's national team. In the first season with Bernardinho, the team conquered three gold medals (World League, America's Cup and South American Championship) and one silver medal (World Grand Champions Cup). In 2002, Brazil finished second in the World League after losing the title at home in the match against Russia. But in that same season, they conquered the World Championship for the first time ever.


title: Brazil men's national volleyball team

text: The beginning of the 2003 season was very special for the World Champions. In an exciting final match against Serbia and Montenegro, Brazil won the World League gold medal for the third time, beating its opponent 3–2 in Madrid. After that, the team was defeated by Venezuela in the semifinal of the Pan American Games in Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic) and ended up with the bronze in the competition. However, the Brazilian squad beat Venezuela by 3–0 in the South American Championship final only one month later. That year ended with Brazil conquering the last title it had not won yet: the World Cup, in Japan.


title: Brazil men's national volleyball team

text: In 2004, Bernardinho led the Brazilian team to a fourth title of the World League. In August, the Brazilian men's team won the second Olympic gold medal of its history, which happened in Athens in 2004 (the first one was conquered in Barcelona in 1992). In the final, Brazil beat Italy 3–1.


title: Brazil men's national volleyball team

text: In the 2005 season, the Olympic Champion won four medals. In the final match against Serbia and Montenegro, Brazil won another gold medal in the World League, beating its opponent 3–1. After that, the team became second in the America's Cup, defeated by the United States in the final. Then in the South American Championship, Brazil conquered its 25th title, winning all matches and losing just one set. To end this great season, Bernardo Rezende’s team secured the gold medal in the World Grand Champions Cup in Japan. During the year 2006, the Brazilian team won a sixth title in the World League and a second title in the World Championship.


title: Brazil men's national volleyball team

text: Incidentally, the Maracana Stadium holds the all-time volleyball attendance record when 95,000 turned out to watch Brazil beat the USSR in an open-air friendly game in 1983.


title: Brazil men's national volleyball team

text: Ginásio do Maracanãzinho and Ginásio Municipal Tancredo Neves Brazil national team training and hosting venues.


title: Brazil men's national volleyball team

text: Primary sponsors include: main sponsors like Banco do Brasil, Nivea, other sponsors: Globoesporte, Gatorade, Gol Transportes Aereos, Delta Air Lines, Mikasa, Ernst & Young and Asics.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: In Theosophy, or is an advanced spiritual entity and high-ranking member of a reputed hidden spiritual hierarchy, the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom. According to Theosophical doctrine, one of the hierarchy's functions is to oversee the evolution of humankind; in concert with this function Maitreya is said to hold the "Office of the World Teacher". Theosophical texts posit that the purpose of this Office is to facilitate the transfer of knowledge about the true constitution and workings of Existence to humankind. Humanity is thereby assisted on its presumed cyclical, but ever progressive, evolutionary path. Reputedly, one way the knowledge transfer is accomplished is by Maitreya occasionally manifesting or incarnating in the physical realm; the manifested entity then assumes the role of .


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: In prominent Theosophists believed a reappearance of Maitreya was imminent. A suitable candidate for the entity's physical "vehicle" was identified as the then–adolescent Jiddu Krishnamurti, and the World Teacher Project was built around him for this purpose. The Project received worldwide publicity and interest, but also caused serious dissension and splits in the Theosophical Society. It was eventually dismantled in 1929 by Krishnamurti, who disavowed any further relationship with it and Theosophy in general.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: The Theosophical concept of Maitreya has many similarities to the earlier Maitreya doctrine in Buddhism. However, they differ in important aspects. The Theosophical Maitreya has been assimilated or appropriated by a variety of quasi-Theosophical and non-Theosophical New Age and Esoteric groups and movements; they have advanced their own views on the entity's reappearance.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: The first mention of Maitreya in a Theosophical context occurs in the 1883 work "Esoteric Buddhism" by Alfred Percy Sinnett (18401921), an early Theosophical writer. The concepts described by Sinnett were amended, elaborated and greatly expanded in "The Secret Doctrine" (published 1888), a major work by Helena Blavatsky (18311891), a founder of the Theosophical Society and of contemporary Theosophy. In it, the messianic Maitreya is linked to both Buddhist and Hindu religious traditions. In the same work Blavatsky stated that there have been, and will be, multiple messianic (or messianic-like) instances in human history. These successive appearances of "emissarie of Truth are according to Blavatsky part of the unceasing oversight of Earth and its inhabitants by a hidden spiritual hierarchy, the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: Following Blavatsky's writings on the subject other Theosophists progressively elaborated on the reputed spiritual hierarchy. Its members are presented as guardians and guides of Earth's total evolutionary process, known in Theosophical cosmology as the doctrine of Planetary Rounds. In Theosophy, evolution includes an occult or spiritual component that is considered more important than the related physical evolution. The hierarchy is said to consist of spiritual entities at various evolutionary stages; lower ranks are populated by individuals who can function more or less normally on the physical plane, while the highest known positions are occupied by beings of the purest spiritual essence and consciousness.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: According to the later Theosophical texts, Maitreya's position in the current stage of planetary evolution is that of the Boddhisatva, originally a Buddhist concept. Since this position is thought to be at an exalted state, Maitreya may have no direct or sustained contact with the physical realm. At this evolutionary level he is reputedly below only two others in the current hierarchy: at its apex, the Sanat Kumara (referred to as "The Lord of the World"), followed by the Buddha. Maitreya is additionally described as having among other duties overall responsibility for humanity's development including its education, civilization and religion.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: Blavatsky had stated that certain members of the hierarchy, often called "the Masters" or "the Mahātmās" in Theosophical literature, were the ultimate guides of the Theosophical Society. The Society itself was said to be the result of one of the hierarchy's regular "impulses" to help Humankind's evolution. Blavatsky further commented in her 1889 work "The Key to Theosophy" about the next impulse, the "effort of the th century" which would involve another "torch bearer of Truth". In this effort the Theosophical Society was poised to possibly play a major role. More information regarding the future impulse was the purview of the Theosophical Society's Esoteric Section, which was founded by Blavatsky and was originally led by her. Its members had access to occult instruction and more detailed knowledge of the inner order and mission of the Society and of its reputed hidden guides.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: Blavatsky also elaborated on a "Christ Principle", which in her view corresponds to the spiritual essence of every human being. After her death in 1891 influential Theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater (18541934), whose knowledge on occult matters was highly respected by the Society's leadership, formulated a Christology that identified Christ with the Theosophical representation of the Buddhist deity Maitreya. He wrote that an aspect of Maitreya was the prototype for the Christ Principle described by Blavatsky. Leadbeater believed that Maitreya-as-Christ had previously manifested on Earth, often through specially prepared people who acted as the entity's "vehicles". The manifested Maitreya then assumed the role of World Teacher, dispensing knowledge regarding underlying truths of Existence. This knowledge, which according to Theosophists eventually crystallized in religious, scientific and cultural practices, had been reputedly disseminated to groups as small as a few carefully selected Initiates and as large as Humanity as a whole.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: In Theosophical texts, Maitreya is said to have had numerous manifestations or incarnations: in the theorized ancient continent of Atlantis; as a Hierophant in Ancient Egypt; as the Hindu deity Krishna; as a high priest in Ancient India; and as Christ during the three years of the Ministry of Jesus.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: Annie Besant (18471933), another well-known and influential Theosophist (and future President of the Society) had also developed an interest in this area of Theosophy. In the decades of the 1890s and 1900s, along with Leadbeater (eventually a close associate) and others, she became progressively convinced that the next impulse from the hierarchy would happen sooner than Blavatsky's timetable; these Theosophists came to believe it would involve the imminent reappearance of Maitreya as World Teacher, a monumental event in the Theosophical scheme of things. Besant had started commenting on the possible imminent arrival of the next emissary in 1896, several years before her assumption of the Society's presidency in 1907. By 1909 the "coming Teacher" was a main topic of her lectures and writings.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: After Besant became President of the Society the belief in Maitreya's imminent manifestation took on considerable weight. The subject was widely discussed and became a commonly held expectation among Theosophists. However, not all Theosophical Society members accepted Leadbeater's and Besant's ideas on the matter; the dissidents charged them with straying from Theosophical orthodoxy and, along with other concepts developed by the two, the writings on Maitreya were derisively labeled Neo-Theosophy by their opponents. The Adyar (Chennai)-based international leadership of the Society eventually overcame the protests and by the late-1920s the organization had stabilized, but in the meantime additional World Teacher-related trouble was brewing.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: In 1909 Leadbeater encountered fourteen-year-old Jiddu Krishnamurti (18951986) near the Theosophical Society headquarters at Adyar, and came to believe the boy was a suitable candidate for the "vehicle" of the expected World Teacher. Soon after, he placed Krishnamurti under his and the Society's care. In Besant, by then President of the Society and head of its Esoteric Section, admitted Krishnamurti into both; in she became his legal guardian. Krishnamurti was subsequently groomed extensively for his expected role as the probable World Teacher, and a new organization, the Order of the Star in the East (OSE), was formed in 1911 to support him in this mission. The project received widespread publicity, and enjoyed worldwide following (mainly among Theosophists). It also faced opposition within and without the Theosophical Society, and led to years of upheaval, serious splits within the Society, and doctrinal schisms in Theosophy. The German Section, led by Rudolf Steiner, seceded from the Society and was eventually reorganized as the Anthroposophical Society. Additional negative repercussions occurred in 1929, when Krishnamurti repudiated the role the Theosophists expected him to fulfill, dissolved the Order of the Star and completely disassociated himself from the World Teacher Project; soon after he severed ties with the Society and Theosophy in general. These events reputedly prompted Leadbeater to declare, "the Coming has gone wrong", and damaged Theosophical organizations and the overall standing of Theosophy.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: Following the Krishnamurti debacle, major Theosophical organizations and writers became increasingly muted, at least publicly, on the subject of the reappearance of Maitreya and the possible next impulse of the reputed spiritual hierarchy. However the concepts of World Teacher, of a hidden spiritual hierarchy, and of masters of occult wisdom continued to have supporters. Some were Theosophical Society members, but increasingly such beliefs were found among near-Theosophical and non-Theosophical New Age adherents.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: A major proponent was Alice Bailey (18801949), who left the Theosophical Society in the 1920s to establish the quasi-Theosophical Arcane School. She expanded Leadbeater's work and his Christology, and referred to Maitreya as the "Cosmic Christ", stating his Second Coming would occur sometime after the year 2025.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: The Theosophical Maitreya holds a prominent position in the Ascended Master Teachings. These encompass original Theosophical literature as well as later additions and interpretations by various non-Theosophical commentators and groupssuch as the I AM Activity and Elizabeth Clare Prophet (19392009). However, the validity of such later commentary has been disputed by Theosophical writers.


title: Maitreya (Theosophy)

text: Benjamin Creme (19222016), a follower of Alice Bailey and founder of Share International, an organization whose doctrines have similarities with those of mainstream Theosophy, is a later promoter of Maitreya. In 1975 Creme stated that he had started to telepathically channel Maitreya. The latter reputedly communicated to Creme that he had decided to return to Earth earlier than 2025. Other reputed communications from Maitreya followed, and Creme eventually announced that Maitreya materialized a physical body for himself in in the Himalayas and then moved to London. Creme made a number of extraordinary statements and predictions based on reputed telepathic messages from Maitreya that failed to come true; as a result he had been considered a figure of amusement in the press.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Mohammad Hatta (; 12 August 1902 – 14 March 1980) was an Indonesian statesman and nationalist who served as the country's first vice president. Known as "The Proclamator", he and a number of Indonesians, including the first president of Indonesia, Soekarno, fought for the independence of Indonesia from the Dutch. Hatta was born in Fort de Kock, Dutch East Indies (now Bukittinggi, Indonesia). After his early education, he studied in Dutch schools in the Dutch East Indies and studied in the Netherlands from 1921 until 1932.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Hatta was born in Fort De Kock (now known as Bukittinggi) on 12 August 1902 into a prominent and strongly Islamic family. His grandfather, Sheikh Abdurrahman, was a respected Naqshbandi-Khalidi murshid in Batuhampar, near Payakumbuh. His father, Haji Mohammad Djamil, died when he was eight months old and he was left with his six sisters and his mother. As in the matrilineal society of Minangkabau tradition, he was then raised in his mother's family. His mother's family was wealthy, and Hatta was able to study Dutch as well as finishing Qur'an after school.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: He went to the Dutch language elementary school (ELS or "Europeesche Lagere School") in Padang from 1913 to 1916 after he had finished "Sekolah Melayu" ('Malay School') in Bukittinggi. When he was thirteen, he passed an exam that entitled him to enroll in the Dutch secondary school (HBS or "Hogere burgerschool") in Batavia (now Jakarta). However his mother asked him to stay in Padang because he was still too young to go to the capital alone. Hatta then entered junior secondary school or MULO ("Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs").


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: During his spare time, he worked part-time in a post office. Normally, MULO students were not allowed to work, but he was able to work there because of the HBS exam qualification. Hatta was interested in football; he joined his school's football team and was made its chairman. He broadened his sphere of contacts by using his position.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Hatta used to visit the office of the "Sarikat Usaha" (United Endeavor), led by Taher Marah Soetan. In the office, he read Dutch newspapers, particularly about political debates in the "Volksraad" (parliament) of the Dutch East Indies. It was at the age of sixteen that Hatta began to be interested in politics and national movements. He was chosen the treasurer of the branch of the "Jong Sumatranen Bond" (or youth association of Sumatra), which was first established in Padang in 1918.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: In 1919, Hatta finally went to the HBS in Batavia. He completed his study with distinction in 1921, and was allowed to continue to study at Erasmus University Rotterdam (then known as the Netherlands School of Commerce) in Rotterdam. He took economics as his major and earned a "doctorandus" degree in 1932. The degree entitled him to follow a doctorate program. He then continued to pursue the doctorate degree, and completed all requirements to be awarded it, but he never finished his thesis. Politics had taken over Hatta's life.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: In the Netherlands, Hatta joined the "Indische Vereeniging" (or the Indies' Association). In 1922, the organization changed its name to "Indonesische Vereeniging" and later to its Indonesian translation: the "Perhimpoenan Indonesia". Hatta was the treasurer (1922–1925), and then the chairman (1926–1930). On his inauguration, Hatta delivered a speech with the title of "The Economic World Structure and the Conflict of Power", in which he supported the idea of Indonesian non-cooperation with the Dutch colonial government in order to gain its independence. The "Perhimpoenan Indonesia" then changed from being a student organization into a political organization and had an unequivocal demand for Indonesia's independence. It expressed its voice through the magazine called "Indonesia Merdeka" (or Free Indonesia) of which Hatta was the editor.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: To gain more support from other nations, Hatta attended congresses all over Europe, always as the chairman of the Indonesian delegation. In 1926, Hatta and "Perhimpoenan Indonesia" joined the (sixth) International Democratic Congress for Peace in Marc Sangnier's domaine de Bierville (Boissy-la-Rivière), France. In February 1927, Hatta went to Brussels to attend a congress held by the League Against Imperialism and Colonial Oppression. He met many other prominent nationalists there, including Jawaharlal Nehru from India, Mohammad Hafiz Ramadan Bey from Egypt and Lamine Senghor from Senegal. Later in the year, Hatta attended another congress held by the International Women's League for Peace and Freedom in Switzerland. On that occasion, Hatta delivered a speech with the title of "Indonesia and her Independence Problem".


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: By the middle of 1927, "Perhimpoenan Indonesia"s activities had alarmed the Dutch authorities. In June 1927, Dutch authorities raided the residence of the organization's leaders, searching through their rooms and putting Hatta and other four other Indonesian activists behind bars. After spending nearly six months in prison, they were taken to trial in the Hague. They were permitted to explain themselves during the hearing, and Hatta took to the opportunity to explain Indonesia's nationalist cause. He made a speech to the court explaining that Indonesia's interests were in conflict with those of the Dutch, and that was why they could not cooperate.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Hatta advocated cooperation between Indonesia and the Netherlands, but only if Indonesia was independent and treated as an equal partner, not unequally because of its status as a colony. The speech became famous and it is known as the "Indonesia Vrij" (Indonesia Merdeka) or Free Indonesia speech. In 1929, Hatta and other "Perhimpoenan Indonesia" activists were released. In July 1932, Hatta made his way home to Indonesia.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Hatta returned home in 1932 to an Indonesia whose nationalist momentum had been slowed down by the arrest and imprisonment of Sukarno. By the time Hatta had returned, most of the members of Sukarno's PNI had joined the Indonesia Party (Partindo) and more radical PNI members, together with the Dutch-educated Sutan Sjahrir had banded together to form the New PNI. Although the initials were the same, the PNI in this case stood for the Indonesian National Education, indicating that it would focus on cadre training. In August 1932, after returning from the Netherlands, Hatta became the chairman of the New PNI.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: In December 1932, Sukarno was finally released from prison and the attention now turned to which party Sukarno would choose. Sukarno, who had wanted one united front to gain Indonesia's independence was uncertain, thinking that in choosing one over the other, he would encourage division. In this, he was criticized by Hatta, who was more pragmatic about differences, in this case the conflict between Partindo's radical and mass party approach versus the New PNI's moderate and cadre party approach. Sukarno insisted on negotiations to unify Partindo and New PNI but after failing, chose to join Partindo.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Between 1932 and 1933, Hatta wrote articles on politics and economics for the New PNI's newspaper "Daulat Rakyat" (The People's Authority). These articles were aimed at training new cadres for Indonesia's leadership.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Hatta seemed to be extremely critical of Sukarno at this point in time. In August 1933, with Sukarno once again arrested and facing trial, he wrote an article called "Sukarno Is Arrested". This was followed by articles entitled "The Tragedy of Sukarno" (November 1933) and "The Stance of a Leader" (December 1933).


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: The Dutch Colonial Government gave Sukarno a harsh punishment, exiling him to Ende on the island of Flores in December 1933. With Sukarno in exile, the Dutch Colonial Government now turned their eyes to the New PNI and its leadership. In February 1934, they made their move and arrested its leaders from its Jakarta branch (which included Hatta) and its Bandung branch. For a year they were jailed at prisons in Cipinang and Glodok, with Hatta spending his time in Glodok. During his time in prison, Hatta wrote a book entitled "The Economical Crisis and Capitalism".


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: In January 1935, it was decided that Hatta and his fellow New PNI leaders (including Syahrir) would be exiled to Boven Digoel in Papua. When Hatta arrived there, he was told by the local authorities that he had two options. The first option was to work for the Dutch Colonial Government as a civil servant for 40 cents a day with the hope of returning from exile, and the second option was being an exile, receiving food but having no hope of returning from exile. Hatta commented if he had decided to take a job as a civil servant in Jakarta, he would have earned a lot of money and knowing that, there was no need to go to Boven Digoel to be paid cheaply. In saying this, Hatta chose the second option.During his exile, Hatta continued to write articles, this time for the Newspaper "Pemandangan" (The View). He earned enough money from that to make ends meet at Boven Digoel and to support his colleagues who had financial troubles. Hatta also used his books (which filled 16 chests when they were packed to leave Jakarta) to give his colleagues lessons on economics, history, and philosophy. Later on these lessons would be made into books entitled "An Introduction on the Way to Knowledge" and "The Nature of Greek Thought" (four volumes).


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: In January 1936, Hatta and Syahrir were transferred to Bandaneira in Maluku. There they joined more nationalists such as Iwa Kusumasumantri and Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo. Hatta and Syahrir were given more freedom and were able to interact with the locals. Hatta and Syahrir also gave lessons to the local children, teaching them about politics and history. Hatta adopted a local boy, Des Alwi, as his son while living in Bandaneira. Alwi would become a prominent Indonesian historian and diplomat. In February 1942, Hatta and Syahrir were transferred to Sukabumi in West Java.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: By 1942, World War II was well under way and the Empire of Japan was fulfilling its imperial ambitions in East Asia and South East Asia. In March 1942, they began landing in Indonesia. Like their counterpart in Europe, the Dutch Colonial Government crumbled in the face of the invaders and by 9 March 1942, surrendered. On 22 March 1942, Hatta and Syahrir were again transferred to Jakarta.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: In Jakarta, Hatta met with Major General , the Interim Head of Government. Harada asked Hatta to become an advisor for the occupational Government. Hatta accepted the job and then asked Harada if Japan was here to colonize Indonesia. Harada assured Hatta that Japan would not do. In Hatta's eyes, an acknowledgement of an Indonesian Independence by Japan was extremely important. If Japan, with its ultra-nationalistic ideology was able to recognize Indonesia's independence, it would put more pressure on the Allies (especially the United States and the United Kingdom) as representatives of democracy to do the same thing. In July 1942, Hatta was reunited with Sukarno who after Flores had been transferred to Sumatra before the Japanese arrived, and had also been asked for his services. Although they had left off on a bad note, Sukarno wanted to speak with Hatta before speaking with anyone else. In a secret meeting at Hatta's Jakarta home Sukarno, Hatta and Sjahrir agreed that Sjahrir would go underground to organise the revolutionary resistance while the other two would commence their cooperation with the Japanese occupier.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Hatta and Sukarno now had the common goal of working with the Japanese and then trying to achieve independence from them. Together with Ki Hadjar Dewantoro and Muhammadiyah chairman, Kiai Haji Mas Mansur, Hatta and Sukarno formed a quattuorvirate of leaders tasked by the Japanese occupational Government as their intermediary with the Indonesian people. Hatta together with the other members of the quattuorvirate worked with much fervor under the Japanese Government. They echoed Japanese propaganda and presented the Japanese Empire as the protector, leader, and the light of Asia. At the same time however, Hatta continued to promote Indonesia's desire for independence. In a speech in December 1942, Hatta said that Indonesia had been freed from the Dutch Colonial Government, but if they were freed only to be colonized by another power, he would rather see Indonesia drown to the bottom of the ocean.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: On 9 March 1943, the Japanese Occupational Government approved the formation of the Centre of People's Power (Putera) with Hatta and the other quattuorvirate as the co-chairmen of the association. Sukarno thought that this would be a way from which they could gain support for independence, instead the Japanese used this to their own cause and to start their "romusha" (forced labour) regime in Indonesia. On 4 October 1943, Hatta, along with Sukarno and other nationalist figures was appointed to the Javanese Central Advisory Council, which was by set up the occupation government. In November 1943, Hatta and Sukarno's efforts in cooperating with the Japanese Occupational Government was recognized by Emperor Hirohito who decorated them with awards in Tokyo.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: As the tide of the war began to turn against the Japanese, the Japanese Occupational Government in Indonesia became desperate to maintain control. Putera was disbanded and replaced with Djawa Hokokai in March 1944. Although still chaired by Sukarno, the Indonesians had less freedom of movement than they had had in Putera. When defeat began looming on the horizon, Prime Minister Kuniaki Koiso announced in September 1944 that Japan would grant Indonesia its independence in the near future. From then on, momentum began to gather for the independence of Indonesia, fuelled by the nationalist sentiments of Indonesians and supported by sympathizers from Japan such as Rear Admiral Tadashi Maeda. In Maeda's case, he even set up a discussion forum called the Free Indonesia Centre and invited Hatta and Sukarno along to deliver lectures on nationalism. This was followed in April 1945, by the formation of the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPK), which would meet over the next three months and would decide on things such as the constitution and which territories would be part of Indonesia.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: By August 1945, as Japan was on the eve of defeat, the administration finally approved Indonesian Independence and formed the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI) to supervise it. On 8 August 1945, Hatta and Sukarno were summoned to Saigon, to meet with Marshal Terauchi, the Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese forces in South East Asia. Terauchi told Hatta and Sukarno that the PPKI would be formed on 18 August and that Indonesia would be independent with Japanese supervision.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Hatta and Sukarno returned to Indonesia on 14 August. In Hatta's case, Syahrir was waiting for him with news of the atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Syahrir told Hatta that they would have to encourage Sukarno to proclaim Indonesia's independence immediately, because in a couple of days the Japanese might not be there to provide supervision. Syahrir told Hatta not to worry about the Japanese authorities because the people would be on their side. Syahrir and Hatta then went to see Sukarno, with Syahrir repeating his argument in front of Sukarno. Hatta then spoke out, saying that he was worried the Allies would see them as Japanese collaborators. Sukarno shared this sentiment and Syahrir left the meeting out of frustration.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: The next day, on 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered to the Allies. In Indonesia, the news was only a rumor and had not been confirmed. Hatta and Sukarno went to the office of the Japanese Occupational Government in Jakarta, only to find it empty. Hatta and Sukarno then went to Maeda who confirmed that Japan had surrendered to the Allies. Hatta and Sukarno seemed shocked that Japan had surrendered. During the afternoon, Hatta and Sukarno were confronted by Indonesian youths who wanted independence to be proclaimed as soon as possible. A heated exchange followed, with Sukarno telling the youths to have more patience. Hatta, who was aware of this and Sukarno's superiority in the exchange, sarcastically commented on the youths' inability to proclaim independence without Sukarno.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: On the morning of 16 August 1945, Indonesian youths kidnapped both Hatta and Sukarno and took them to the town of Rengasdengklok where they continued trying to force Hatta and Sukarno to declare independence, but without success. In Jakarta, there was panic as the PPKI was due to start meeting that day and had planned to elect Sukarno as chairman and Hatta as vice-chairman. When knowledge of Hatta and Sukarno's whereabouts became available and the Japanese surrender was confirmed, Achmad Subardjo, a PPKI representative, went to Rengasdengklok to break the news to Hatta and Sukarno. That night, Hatta and Sukarno returned to Jakarta where, at Maeda's house, they worked on the Proclamation of Independence. Finally, on 17 August 1945, at Sukarno's residence, Indonesia's Independence was finally proclaimed in a short statement on paper signed by both Sukarno and Hatta.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: On 18 August 1945, Hatta was selected as Indonesia's first vice president by the PPKI to accompany Sukarno, who had been elected as the nation's first president. Hatta would make three important decisions in the republic's early days. On 16 October, an edict issued by Hatta gave the Central National Committee of Indonesia (KNIP) legislative powers in addition to its advisory role to the president. In the same month, Hatta also authorized the formation of political parties in Indonesia. The next month, in November, Hatta also made the decision which took away the president's role as Head of Government and transferred it to a prime minister. Hatta was able to make these crucial decisions because Sukarno was unable to attend the meetings in question, leaving Hatta in charge. For his part, Sukarno did not seem to have a problem with Hatta's decisions, at least not during the War of Independence.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: When the Dutch began sending their troops back to Indonesia, Hatta, together with Syahrir and Sukarno, all agreed that a diplomatic solution should be worked out. This caused tensions with more radical elements within the government such as youth leaders Chairul Saleh and Adam Malik. In January 1946, Hatta and Sukarno moved to Yogyakarta, leaving Syahrir (who was by then prime minister) to head negotiations in Jakarta.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: By the end of 1946, the diplomatic solution which Hatta and Sukarno had been looking for seemed to have been found. The Linggadjati Agreement, signed in November 1946, called for Dutch recognition of the Republic of Indonesia. However, territorial recognition would only be over Java, Sumatra, and Madura. In addition, this republic would be part of a United States of Indonesia with the Queen of the Netherlands acting as the Head of State. However, before the agreement was finally ratified by the Dutch House of Representatives, some compromises were made without the consent of the republic. In turn, Indonesia refused to implement its part of the deal, resulting in the first "Police Action" in July 1947.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: During this time, Hatta was sent out of the country to look for support for Indonesia. One country that he went to was India, the homeland of his old friend, Nehru. Disguised as an airplane co-pilot, Hatta sneaked out of the country to ask for assistance. There he asked Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi for help. Nehru assured him that India would support Indonesia and would make the support known at international forums such as the United Nations (UN).


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: In December 1947, negotiations were held aboard and an agreement was signed in January 1948. This agreement was more favorable towards the Dutch and called for the republic to recognize the territories which the Dutch had taken during the first "Police Action". The agreement caused outrage and caused Amir Sjarifuddin to resign from his position as prime minister.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: To replace Syarifuddin, Sukarno appointed Hatta as prime minister and declared that the cabinet would be an emergency one and would be answerable to the President instead of the KNIP. Hatta also took on the position of minister of defense. As prime minister, Hatta had to make an unpopular decision. In August 1948, with the republic struggling to pay its troops, Hatta was forced to demobilize some soldiers.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: In December 1948, the Dutch launched their second "Police Action" and focused their attack on Yogyakarta. Hatta and Sukarno, instead of running away to fight guerrilla warfare chose to remain in the city and were arrested. Sukarno transferred authority to the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PDRI), before going into exile with all the other Republican leaders. Hatta was sent to Bangka.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Resistance continued under General Sudirman and TNI troops who fought a guerrilla war against the Dutch. In March, Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX organized 1 March General Offensive, in which the city of Yogyakarta was held by Indonesian forces for six hours. This played an important role in causing international pressure to be put on the Netherlands. In May 1949, the Roem–Van Roijen Agreement was signed and the Netherlands promised to return the leaders of the Republican Government. In July 1949, Hatta and Sukarno made their return to Yogyakarta.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: In August 1949, Hatta headed a delegation to the Hague for a Round Table conference. In November 1949, the formation of the United States of Indonesia was finally agreed. It was to be a federation consisting of the Republic and 15 States which the Dutch had created during the National Revolution. The Queen of the Netherlands would continue to become the symbolic head of state while Sukarno and Hatta would continue as president and vice president. On 27 December 1949, the Dutch authorities finally recognized Indonesian sovereignty. Hatta continued on as the Prime Minister of the United States of Indonesia and presided over the transition of the federal state to the unitary state, which was made official on 17 August 1950.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Indonesia soon adopted a constitution which advocated parliamentary democracy and reduced the president to the role of a ceremonial head of state. That left Hatta with little to do as vice president, especially since his term as prime minister was not renewed.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: For his remaining time as vice president, Hatta was regularly invited to deliver lectures in universities. He also engaged in intellectual pursuits, writing essays and books about topics such as the economy and cooperatives. The idea of cooperatives being an integral part of economy would become a pet project for Hatta and he would become an enthusiastic promoter of the idea. In July 1951, on the occasion of Cooperatives Day, Hatta went on the radio to deliver a speech on cooperatives. In 1953, Hatta's contribution towards promoting cooperatives was recognized and he was given the title "Father of Indonesian Cooperatives" at the Indonesian Cooperative Congress.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Aside from cooperatives, Hatta's other main contribution to Indonesia governance was the setting of the nation's foreign policy doctrine. In 1948, Hatta delivered a speech called "Rowing Between Two Rocks". In it, he referred to the Cold War and the conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union. Hatta said that Indonesian foreign policy has to look after its own interest first, not that of the US and the USSR. In saying this, Hatta wanted Indonesia to be independent in deciding its stance during the Cold War. Hatta also added that Indonesia should be an active participant in world politics so that once again it would be Indonesia's interests that came first. This doctrine, which would become known as the "Independent and Active" doctrine, continues to be the basis of Indonesian foreign policy.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: In 1955, Hatta announced that when the new People's Representative Council (DPR) as well as the Constitutional Assembly, a body commissioned to create a new constitution, were formed as a result of the year's legislative and assembly elections, he would retire from the vice presidency. He announced this intention in a letter to Sukarno.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: On the surface, it seemed as if Hatta was retiring for practical reasons. Because the presidency was a ceremonial role, this made the office of vice president pointless, and Hatta thought that the country was wasting a lot of money paying his wages. There were also personal reasons, however. As a man who believed in democracy, Hatta was beginning to feel disillusioned with Sukarno's increasing autocracy and authoritarianism. Hatta had continued to advise Sukarno against taking this road but he was ignored. Hatta finally gave up and thought that he could no longer work with Sukarno. On 1 December 1956, Hatta officially resigned from the vice presidency


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Hatta's retirement caused shockwaves all around Indonesia, especially for those of non-Javanese ethnicity. In the eyes of non-Javanese people, Hatta was their main representative in a Javanese-dominated Government. The impact of Hatta's retirement was evident in the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PRRI) rebellion which wanted to break free from Indonesia, and the Universal Struggle (Permesta) movement, which asked for decentralization. In negotiations with the central government, both PRRI and Permesta listed the reunification of the Sukarno/Hatta leadership as one of the concessions that they wanted from the central government.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Now outside the government, Hatta began to openly criticize Sukarno. One of his criticisms was Sukarno's lack of commitment towards national development. Hatta said that the revolution ended with the Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty and that the government's focus should be on development. Sukarno rejected this idea outright and responded to it during his 1959 Independence Day speech by saying that the revolution was not over.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: In 1960, Hatta wrote a book called "Our Democracy". In it, he criticized Sukarno's Guided Democracy as another form of dictatorship. Sukarno immediately banned the book. The same year Sjahrir's political party, the Socialist Party of Indonesia was banned and two years later he was imprisoned on conspiracy charges. Hatta wrote a personal letter to Sukarno calling the arrest 'colonial' and 'non-rational', but to no avail. The old revolutionary trinity had definitively broken down.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: During the tumultuous time which saw the presidency changed hands from Sukarno to General Suharto, Hatta remained in the background. However, he would break his silence in June 1970, just a week before Sukarno died. In a letter to Suharto, Hatta said that he was disappointed that Sukarno was put under house arrest instead of being put on trial. Hatta's reason for this was not malicious: he just wanted matters relating to 30 September Movement coup attempt of 1965 to be cleared up and for Sukarno to be given a chance to defend his actions, as many believed that he was not guilty.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Hatta's involvement with Suharto's government came at the beginning of 1970 when protests were made about corruption within it. In January 1970, Suharto appointed Hatta, along with three others as members of a commission to investigate corruption within the government. The results of the commission's investigation was never revealed to public until they leaked in July 1970. It then became apparent that the suspicions of the protesters were correct: there was widespread corruption within the government. Controversially, however, in August 1970, Suharto disbanded the commission and allowed for only two cases of corruption to be looked at by the Government.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: In July 1978, together with Abdul Haris Nasution, Hatta set up the Institute for Constitutional Awareness Foundation (YLKB), set up to act as a forum for critics of Suharto's regime. Suharto's government moved quickly and did not allow YLKB to conduct its first meeting in January 1979. The YLKB did not give up. In August 1979, it managed to hold a meeting which DPR members attended. Perhaps significantly, members of the Indonesian Military also attended. During the meeting, Nasution criticized the New Order for not fully implementing the Pancasila state ideology and the 1945 Constitution.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Hatta died on 14 March 1980 at 18:56 at Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital, Jakarta, after eleven days of being treated there. The next day, he was buried at his residence on Jalan Diponegoro 57, Jakarta and buried at the Tanah Kusir Public Cemetery in South Jakarta. Jakarta was greeted with a state ceremony led directly by the then Vice President, Adam Malik. He was designated as a proclaiming hero in 1986 by the Suharto government.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: His daughter, Meutia Farida Hatta previously served as Minister for Female Empowerment in Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono's Cabinet. She currently serves as President of the Indonesian Justice and Unity Party.


title: Mohammad Hatta

text: Soekarno-Hatta International Airport is named in his honor. In 2014, a dormitory building for international students at the Erasmus University Rotterdam campus was named after Hatta.


title: Bodysuit

text: A bodysuit is a one-piece form-fitting or skin-tight garment that covers the torso and the crotch, and sometimes the legs, hands, and feet, and cannot be used as a swimsuit. The style of a basic bodysuit is similar to a one-piece swimsuit and a leotard, though the materials may vary. A bodysuit, unlike a swimsuit or leotard, has snaps, hooks or velcro at the crotch. Thong or T-front thong bodysuits usually have the crotch opening moved up to the front to underbelly area to increase the wearer's comfort. A bodysuit may have sleeves and varying shoulder strap and collar styles. Bodysuits can be made from a number of fabrics, including cotton, lace, nylon, etc. In general, textile bodysuits include expandable fiber such as spandex for a better fit to the shape of the body.


title: Bodysuit

text: A bodysuit is normally worn with trousers or a skirt. The top, torso part may act as a top for the smooth line it gives or because it cannot become untucked from trousers or skirt. They may also be worn generally by women as underwear, activewear, or foundation garments. Unlike a leotard, a bodysuit is not usually considered a form of athletic wear. Onesies (or snapsuits) are bodysuits for younger children, toddlers, and some adults that help keep diapers in place. The purpose of the opening at the crotch is to facilitate access to a baby's diaper or for a visit to the toilet.


title: Bodysuit

text: There are also bodyshirts, like the counterpart to the bodysuit, they are loose-fitting garments that cover the whole torso, with sleeves in short to long lengths and crotch snaps. The difference is that they look like a shirt on the top portion of the garment, and may have a different stretch fabric in the waist to the crotch area to make them fit better. Cheerleaders also wear long sleeved crew neck and turtleneck bodysuits as part of their uniform.


title: Bodysuit

text: The bodysuit was a progression from the leotard. It was presented in the United States after 1950 by fashion designer Claire McCardell. It was worn as a blouse or T-shirt. The first recognized bodysuit was worn by Bettie Page in the 1950s, and was a trademark attire of the Playboy Bunnies from the 1960s, as well as Wonder Woman in the animated series "Super Friends" and Lynda Carter's television series.


title: Bodysuit

text: Azzedine Alaia and Donna Karan helped make the bodysuit a fashion item for both men, women and even tweens, teens, and young adult/college age in the 1980s to mid 1990s seen a lot in short cap sleeved or turtleneck versions worn in popular fashion style as a top especially with high waisted jeans and also with regular and dress shorts and skirts. After a slowdown, it was resurrected as shaping underwear or lingerie, and in the 2010s it reappeared as a blouse bodysuit, cap sleeve style, and classic turtleneck bodysuit, as well as a part of evening wear. And has continued in style I to the 2020s.


title: Prudhvi Raj

text: Balireddy Prudhviraj (born August 6, 1964) is an Indian actor and politician who appears in Telugu films. Known for his comic roles, he has acted in over 100 films. He is noted for his dialogue of 30 Years Industry in the 2002 film "Khadgam", which also became his moniker.


title: Prudhvi Raj

text: In February 2019, he was appointed as state secretary to YSR Congress Party of Andhra Pradesh. He worked as chairman of SVBC TV channel run by Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams until January 2020.


title: Prudhvi Raj

text: Prudhviraj was born in Tadepalligudem, West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh. He was introduced by famous Dr. Prabakar Reddy and E. V. V. Satyanarayana in their first film "Aa Okkati Adakku" (1992). During this film he spent forty days with Rao Gopala Rao, where he learnt about the film industry. He played many roles in about 100 films. He was well recognized for his dialogue "30 Years Industry ikkada" in Krishna Vamsi's film "Khadgam" (2002) and this film changed his fate. In the year 2022, he joined Jana Sena Party


title: Prudhvi Raj

text: He has been nominated as chairman of Sri Venkateswara Bhakti Channel in 2019. In January 2020, his audiotape recording with a female employee of SVBC TV channel went viral on YouTube and SVBC employees protested urging him to resign from his post as the chairman of the channel. Following that incident Prudhviraj resigned as chairman of Sri Venkateswara Bhakti Channel.


title: Meniscus (liquid)

text: The meniscus (plural: "menisci", from the Greek for "crescent") is the curve in the upper surface of a liquid close to the surface of the container or another object, produced by surface tension.


title: Meniscus (liquid)

text: A concave meniscus occurs when the attraction between the particles of the liquid and the container (adhesion) is more than half the attraction of the particles of the liquid to each other (cohesion), causing the liquid to climb the walls of the container (see surface tension#Causes). This occurs between water and glass. Water-based fluids like sap, honey, and milk also have a concave meniscus in glass or other wettable containers.


title: Meniscus (liquid)

text: Conversely, a convex meniscus occurs when the adhesion energy is less than half the cohesion energy. Convex menisci occur, for example, between mercury and glass in barometers and thermometers.


title: Meniscus (liquid)

text: In general, the shape of the surface of a liquid can be complex. For a sufficiently small circular tube, the shape of the meniscus will approximate a section of a spherical surface, while for a large container, most of the upper surface of the liquid will be almost flat, only curving up (if concave) or down (if convex) near the edges.


title: Meniscus (liquid)

text: The formation of menisci is commonly used in surface science to measure contact angles and surface tension. In a contact angle measurement, the shape of the menisci is measured with a balance or optically with a digital camera. In a surface tension measurement, the measurement probe has a contact angle of zero and the surface tension can be obtained by measuring the mass of the menisci. This is typically done with a Wilhelmy plate.


title: Meniscus (liquid)

text: When reading a depth scale on the side of an instrument filled with liquid, such as a water level device, the meniscus must be taken into account in order to obtain an accurate measurement. Depth must be measured with the meniscus at eye level (to eliminate parallax error) and at the center of the meniscus, i.e. the top of a convex meniscus or the bottom of a concave meniscus.


title: Meniscus (liquid)

text: Manufacturers of glassware and other tools calibrate their measurement marks to account for the meniscus. This means that any instrument is calibrated for a specific liquid, usually water.


title: Meniscus (liquid)

text: Menisci are a manifestation of capillary action, by which either surface adhesion pulls a liquid up to form a concave meniscus, or internal cohesion pulls the liquid down to form a convex meniscus. This phenomenon is important in transpirational pull in plants. When a tube of a narrow bore, often called a capillary tube, is dipped into a liquid and the liquid wets the tube (with zero contact angle), the liquid surface inside the tube forms a concave meniscus, which is a virtually spherical surface having the same radius, "r", as the inside of the tube. The tube experiences a downward force of magnitude 2πrσ, where σ is the surface tension of the liquid.


title: Gacy (film)

text: Gacy (also known as The Crawl Space) is a 2003 American crime horror thriller film written and directed by Clive Saunders, and co-written by David Birke. A direct-to-video release, it is based on the crimes of John Wayne Gacy, an American serial killer who raped, tortured, and murdered at least thirty-three men and boys in Chicago, Illinois during the 1970s. It stars Mark Holton as Gacy.


title: Gacy (film)

text: In 1953, the teenage John Wayne Gacy argues with his father, who says he will "never be brave enough" and kicks him.


title: Gacy (film)

text: In 1976, the adult Gacy's lunch with his family is interrupted by a neighbor demanding something be done about the stench coming from his crawl space. Gacy responds angrily that he will. Lunch is interrupted again when Steve, an employee of Gacy's, complains he has not been paid for two weeks. Gacy says he will be paid and orders him off his property. Gacy consults a friend who advises lime for the smell.


title: Gacy (film)

text: While driving at night, Gacy abducts a man, brings him back to his garage and tells him about his problems, then releases him. At work Gacy angrily berates his workers for smoking on the job. He asks his latest employee how he's enjoying working for him, and if he likes wrestling. They wrestle in Gacy's back yard where Gacy pins him down and Steve, watching with another man, calls him a faggot. Gacy is furious.


title: Gacy (film)

text: The next day, Steve and two other men attack Gacy as he comes out of a shop. Steve takes the money from Gacy's wallet, gives some to the other men and tells Gacy that he quits. Late that night, Gacy's wife, Kara, is awake in bed when she hears a car pull up. Gacy gets out and brings out Steve, who's handcuffed, and shoves him into the garage. Investigating, Kara finds clothes strewn about in the garage. She runs to the crawl space entrance where Gacy bursts out, saying that he had been laying down lime.


title: Gacy (film)

text: Gacy hosts his 4th of July fancy dress party, during which he offers Tom Kovak a job, and a speech is made honoring Gacy as an asset to the community. He hires an exterminator to take care of the maggots and cockroaches gathering in the crawl space. Questioned by two police officers about Steve's disappearance, he says Steve told him he was going to Costa Rica or Puerto Rico. One day, Gacy hits one of his employees over the head with a hammer. After cleaning him up, he pays him for his silence and lets him go. Kara discovers a pair of handcuffs and some homosexual magazines in the garage. Gacy blames some employees, saying "you know how I feel about homos". A few days later, Kara takes the two girls and leaves Gacy alone with his mother. Tom is having problems at home, so Gacy suggests he rent Gacy's spare room.


title: Gacy (film)

text: Another late evening, Gacy picks up a male prostitute and stuffs a chloroformed rag into his face. The prostitute awakens suspended by chains in Gacy's garage. The next morning, Gacy leaves the prostitute in the park where he stumbles away. Gacy lays concrete in the crawl space to try and cover the stench. He meets with James Burrel and agrees to buy his car. Inviting Burle in for a drink, he instead drowns him in the bathtub. Gacy is running out of room in the crawl space. As Gacy and Tom are watching a video reel of how Gacy started his business, the video cuts to pornography. Tom freaks out and spends the night awake and terrified.


title: Gacy (film)

text: Tom decides to leave, but Gacy tricks him into being handcuffed and starts strangling him. Tom manages to escape and runs to the police. While Gacy is out of the house the police enter and find dozens of watches and drivers licenses.


title: Gacy (film)

text: Gacy is arrested as the police exhume the bodies from the crawl space. The film ends with Gacy's last words before he's put to death. They are, "Kiss my ass!"


title: Gacy (film)

text: On the film review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, "Gacy" received a 17% approval rating, based on six reviews, with an average rating of 3.8/10. Chuck Wilson of "LA Weekly" found "Gacy" to be an "unenlightening" and "unconvincing" film that suffered from "dime-store psychology" and a failure to "convey the subtleties of Gacy’s scheming intellect." Mike Long of DVD Talk gave the film a half star out of a possible five, opined that it "offers no suspense, no gore, and no thrills" and concluded, "If nothing else, a film about a serial killer should offer a glimpse inside the criminal mind. If it can't do that, it could at least be an entertaining exploitation film. "Gacy" is neither of those things and there is absolutely no reason to see this movie." Reel Film Review's David Nusair commended Mark Holton's performance as Gacy, but lambasted the film itself, which he derided as being an ineptly written and directed "bore" that "completely fails to make any kind of impact." Conversely, "Gacy" was praised for its "dark, disturbing insight into Gacy" by Steve Barton of Dread Central, who went on to write that the "horrifying and informative" film was "well-worth seeking out to learn more about America's most notorious serial killer." Buzz McClain of AllMovie also praised the "ruthlessly fascinating" film, which he gave a score of 3/5.


title: Chicken feet

text: Chicken feet are cooked and eaten in many countries. After an outer layer of hard skin is removed, most of the edible tissue on the feet consists of skin and tendons, with no muscle. This gives the feet a distinct texture different from the rest of the chicken meat. Being mostly skin, chicken feet are very gelatinous.


title: Chicken feet

text: Chicken feet are used in several regional Chinese cuisines; they can be served as a beer snack, cold dish, soup or main dish. They are interchangeably called "Fèng zhuǎ" (鳯爪, phoenix claws), "Jī zhuǎ" (鷄爪, chicken claws), and "Jī jiǎo" (雞脚, chicken feet).


title: Chicken feet

text: In Guangdong and Hong Kong, they are typically deep fried and steamed first to make them puffy before being stewed and simmered in a sauce flavoured with black fermented beans, bean paste, and sugar; or in abalone sauce.


title: Chicken feet

text: In mainland China, popular snack bars specializing in marinated food such as "yabozi" (duck's necks) also sell "lu ji zhua" (鹵雞爪, marinated chicken feet), which are simmered with soy sauce, Sichuanese peppercorn, clove, garlic, star anise, cinnamon and chili flakes. Today, packaged chicken feet are sold in most grocery stores and supermarkets in China as a snack, often seasoned with rice vinegar and chili. Another popular recipe is "bai yun feng zhao" (), which is marinated in a sauce of rice vinegar, rice wine flavored with sugar, salt, and minced ginger for an extended period of time and served as a cold dish. In southern China, they also cook chicken feet with raw peanuts to make a thin soup.


title: Chicken feet

text: The huge demand in China raises the price of chicken feet, which are often used as fodder in other countries. As of June 2011, 1 kg of raw chicken feet costs around 12 to 16 yuan in China, compared to 11–12 yuan for 1 kg of frozen chicken breast. In 2000, Hong Kong, once the largest "entrepôt" for shipping chicken feet from over 30 countries, traded a total of 420,000 tons of chicken feet at the value of US$230 million. Two years after joining the WTO in 2001, China approved the direct import of American chicken feet, and since then China has been the major destination of chicken feet from around the globe.


title: Chicken feet

text: Aside from chicken feet, duck feet are also popular. Duck feet with mustard, which is often served with vinegar, fresh green pepper and crushed garlic, is a popular salad/appetizer.


title: Chicken feet

text: In Russia, Ukraine, Romania, and Moldova, chicken feet are cleaned, seasoned, and boiled, often with vegetables, and then cooled, to make an aspic called kholodets in Russian and Ukrainian, and piftie or "răcitură" in Romanian. The legs are not always eaten, however the chicken is cooked with its legs, as they contain a high amount of gelatin.


title: Chicken feet

text: In Indonesian cuisine, chicken feet are known as "ceker", and it is a common popular delicacy in Indonesia, especially in Java. The most common way to serve chicken feet in Indonesia is in spicy traditional soup called "soto", nevertheless, the Chinese style dimsum chicken feet is also available in some Chinese restaurants in Indonesia. "Soto ceker" is chicken foot served in rather clear yellowish spicy "soto" broth soup, which uses spices including ground shallot, garlic, galangal, ginger, candlenut, bruised lemongrass, "daun salam" (Indonesian bayleaf) and turmeric that add the yellowish color, served with cabbage, celery, rice noodles, and garnished to taste with "sambal", lime and soy.


title: Chicken feet

text: "Soto ceker" is one of the popular street food in Jakarta, Bali, Surabaya, Bandung, and most of major cities in Indonesia. In street side "warung" or humble restaurants, "soto ceker" is usually offered as a variation of popular "soto ayam" (chicken soto), which employ the identical soup base with chicken soto. A popular "soto ceker" stall such as Soto Ceker Pak Ali in Gandaria street, South Jakarta, can use up to 40 kilograms of chicken feet every day, although the stall is only open from 4 p.m. to 11 p.m., and can reap Rp 5 million (US$360) in sales each day.


title: Chicken feet

text: Another popular way to prepare chicken feet is serving it in simple soup ("sop" or "sup") called "sop ceker", which mainly contains chicken broth, chicken feet, vegetables especially potato and carrot, shallot, garlic and black pepper. The deep fried peeled chicken feet, which has been separated from its bones, might be served as a crispy snack treat as "kripik ceker" (chicken feet crackers).


title: Chicken feet

text: In Indonesia, the soft peeled boneless chicken feet are a popular choice for baby food — given to babies between 6–12 months old. It often served as "nasi tim": steamed rice with boneless chicken feet, mashed liver and vegetable broth. Chicken feet which consists of tendons, skin and cartilage, is rich in gelatinous collagen, and is traditionally believed to be beneficial for infants' skin, nails, joints and bone development.


title: Chicken feet

text: In Jamaican cuisine, chicken feet are mainly used to make chicken foot soup. The soup contains yams, potatoes, green banana, dumplings and special spices in addition to the chicken feet, and is slow cooked for a minimum of two hours. Chicken feet are also curried or stewed and served as a main part of a meal.


title: Chicken feet

text: In Korea, chicken feet are known as "dakbal" (), and grilled or stir-fried with hot chili sauce. There are many types of cooking methods, including bone-free, cooked with soup and so on. They are often eaten as "anju" (food served with alcohol).


title: Chicken feet

text: Chicken feet are also known as "ceker" in Malaysia and are traditionally popular mostly among Malays of Javanese, Chinese, and Siamese descent. Many traditional Malay restaurants in the state of Johor offer chicken feet that are cooked together with Malay-style curry and eaten with roti canai. In the state of Selangor, chicken feet are either boiled in soup until the bones are soft with vegetables and spices or deep fried in palm oil. Chicken feet are also eaten by Malaysian Chinese in traditional Chinese cooking style.


title: Chicken feet

text: Chicken feet (also known as “patitas”) are a popular ingredient across Mexico, particularly in stews and soups. They are often steamed to become part of a main dish with rice, vegetables and most likely another part of the chicken, such as the breast or thighs. The feet can be seasoned with mole sauce. On occasion, they are breaded and fried.


title: Chicken feet

text: Many people will also take the chicken feet in hand as a snack and chew the soft outer skin. The inner bone structure is left uneaten another such popular snack are chicken necks (also known as "pescuezos") that are usually sold by street vendors and accompanied with salsa Valentina (hot sauce).


title: Chicken feet

text: In the Philippines, chicken feet are marinated in a mixture of calamansi, spices and brown sugar before being grilled. A popular staple in Philippine street food, chicken feet are commonly known as "adidas" (named after the athletic shoe brand Adidas).Chicken feet is also an ingredient in Philippine adobo.


title: Chicken feet

text: In South Africa, chicken feet are mainly eaten in townships in all nine provinces, where they are known as "walkie talkies" (together with the head, intestine, hearts and giblets), "runaways","chicken dust" and "Amanqina" (in isiXhosa) The feet are submerged in hot water, so the outer layer of the skin can be removed by peeling it off, and then covered in seasonings and grilled. The name "chicken dust" derives from the dust chickens create when scratching the ground with their feet. They are often eaten as a snack.


title: Chicken feet

text: In Thai cuisine, the chicken feet are served in a variety of dishes, such as in a version of chicken green curry.


title: Chicken feet

text: In Trinidad, the chicken feet are cleaned, seasoned, boiled in seasoned water, and left to soak with cucumbers, onions, peppers and green seasoning until cool. It is eaten as a party dish called chicken foot souse.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Shuja-ud-Daula (b. – d. ) was the Subedar and Nawab of Oudh and the Vizier of Delhi from 5 October 1754 to 26 January 1775.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Shuja-ud-Daula was the son of the Mughal Grand Vizier Safdarjung chosen by Ahmad Shah Bahadur. Unlike his father Shuja-ud-Daula was known from an early age for his abilities to synthesize his subordinates, this skill would eventually cause him to emerge as the chosen Grand Vizier by Shah Alam II.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Shuja-ud-Daula was a giant man. Nearly seven feet tall, with oiled moustaches that projected from his face like a pair of outstretched eagle's wings, he was a man of immense physical strength. By 1763, he was past his prime, but still reputedly strong enough to cut off the head of a buffalo with a single swing of his sword, or lift up two of his officers, one in each hand.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Shuja-ud-Daula is also known to have assisted the Alivardi Khan on various occasions when the territories of the Nawab of Bengal, were being ravaged by Raghoji I Bhonsle and his Marathas. Thus Shuja-ud-Daula is known to have been a very respected figure among the servicemen of Alivardi Khan.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: After the death of his father the Mughal Grand Vizier Safdarjung in the year 1753, Shuja-ud-Daula was recognized as the next Nawab by the Mughal Emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Shuja-ud-Daula despised Imad-ul-Mulk, an ally of the Marathas of the Maratha Empire whose regime emerged after the Battle of Sikandarabad with the support of the Sadashivrao Bhau. Imad-ul-Mulk blinded Ahmad Shah Bahadur and placed Alamgir II on the Mughal imperial throne. Alamgir II and his son Prince Ali Gauhar, were often persecuted by Imad-ul-Mulk because they refused to abandon their peaceful terms with Ahmad Shah Durrani, they also demanded the resignation of Imad-ul-Mulk mainly due to his relations with the Marathas.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Prince Ali Gauhar fled from Delhi when he realized a conspiracy that would eventually lead to the murder of the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II. Shuja-ud-Daula welcomed and protected Prince Ali Gauhar, who then declared himself Shah Alam II and officially recognized Shuja-ud-Daula as the Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire. Together they challenged the usurper Shah Jahan III, who was placed on the Mughal imperial throne by Sadashivrao Bhau and his forces, which plundered much of the Mughal Empire.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Shah Alam II was then advised to lead an expedition that would attempt to retake the eastern regions of the Mughal Empire from Mir Jafar who was supported by the British East India Company. While Shuja-ud-Daula, Najib-ul-Daula and Mirza Jawan Bakht allied themselves with Ahmad Shah Durrani and assisted his forces during the Second Battle of Sikandarabad in the year 1760 and later led a Mughal Army of 43,000 during the Third Battle of Panipat.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: After escaping from Delhi due to the murder of his father the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II, the young Prince Ali Gauhar was well received by Shuja-ud-Daula. The Nawab of Awadh and the newly appointed Mughal Grand Vizier Shuja-ud-Daula assured Prince Ali Gauhar that he and Najib-ud-Daula would initiate a struggle that would overthrow the Maratha if Prince Ali Gauhar would lead what remained of the Mughal Army against the expanding British East India Company in Bengal.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Shuja's decision about whom to join as an ally in the Third Battle of Panipat was one of the decisive factors that determined the outcome of the war as lack of food due to the Afghans cutting the supply lines of Marathas was one of the reasons that Marathas could not sustain the day-long battle. Their forces were weak due to starvation and also fighting facing the sun.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Shuja was earlier not very sure about whose side should he take before the Third Battle of Panipat. Marathas were still further south then and it would have taken them considerable time to reach Shuja's province. In spite of His mother was of the opinion that he should join the Marathas as they had helped his father previously on numerous occasions he joined Abdali.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: As the chosen Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire, Shuja-ud-Daula commanded a sizeable army of Mughal troopers, who cut off the supplies of the Marathas and even defeated them in pitched confrontations during the Third Battle of Panipat and dispatched the Maratha leader Sadashivrao Bhau.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Shuja is also known for his role in the Battle of Buxar, a battle that was no less definite in Indian history. He along with the forces of Mughal emperor Shah Alam II & Mir Qasim ruler of Bengal were defeated by the British forces in one of the key battles in the history of British East India company.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: He again fought British with the help of Marathas at Kara Jahanabad and was defeated. On 16 August 1765 AD he signed the Treaty of Allahabad, which said that Kora and Allahabad district will go to Company and the Company will get 5 million rupees from Awadh. British will be allowed free trade in Awadh and will help each other in case of war with other powers, which was a very shrewd politics of the Company.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: To pay for the protection of British forces and assistance in war, Awadh gave up first the fort of Chunar, then districts of Benaras, Ghazipur and finally Allahabad.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Shuja-ud-Daula died on 26 January 1775 in Faizabad, the then capital of Awadh, and was buried in the same city. His burial place is a tomb and known as Gulab Bari (Rose Garden).


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Shuja-ud-Daula's Turkic and Iranian Persian Twelver Shia Muslim royal family ruling the Oudh (Awadh) state in India obtained their eunuchs (khwajasarais) through subduing Hindu kings rebellions. Jawahir Ali was a eunuch of Oudh state who was born a Hindu. The Rajas of Khairabad rebelled since they refused to pay taxes to the Twelver Shia district administrator Nawab Muhammad Ali Khan so Nawab Muhammad Ali defeated the Hindus in battle The castrated Hindu boys were converted to Twelver Shia Islam and given Muslim names after being enslaved and then educated. The Twelver Shia Turkic Nawab of Oudh Shuja-ud-Daula (a descendant of the Turkic Twelver Shia Qara Qoyunlu dynasty through his father Safdar Jang) made Nawab Muhammad Ali Khan give his eunuchs including Jawahir Ali to him. Jawahir Ali (Joahir Ali) served as nazir eunuch to Bahu Begum (Bahu Begam, Bahoo Begum or Buhoo Begum) (Begum Amanat-uz Zahra Bano), the Iranian Persian wife of the Turkic Twelver Shia ruler of Oudh, Shuja-ud-Daula. Bahu Begum owned multiple eunuchs, all of them of Indian Hindu background. One of them was born a eunuch with defective genital and sold to the Nawab by his family, Darab Ali Khan and he was a general agent of Bahu Begam after Jawahir Ali. Jawahir Ali was the first general agent of Bahu Begam.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Bahu Begam's estates were managed by Javahir 'Ali Khan. The Twelver Shia cleric Mawlavi Muhammad Munir who came to Faizabad and was there during a riot in 1779 between Sufi pirs and physicians against Twelver Shia clerics. Muhammad Munir was paid a stipend and backed up by Javahir Ali. Javahir Ali sent soldiers to support the Twelver scholars against the physicians. The Twelver Shia Usuli ulama were also supported by Javahir Ali when they implemented Friday prayers 7 years after the riots. Javahir paid 20 people to make people attend the 5 mandatory prayers and Friday prayer during the winter and rainy season. Bahu Begum was of Persian Iranian descent. The British East India Company under Warren Hastings tortured the eunuchs Bahar Ali and Jawahir Ali after they arrested Bahu Begum in 1781 in order to force them to give their treasure over.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Jawahir Ali Khan ordered 2 fellow eunuchs belonging to Bahu Begum, Sa'adat and Basharat to assist the Qadi (Qazi) at Ali Beg Khan mosque. Due to cold weather, the eunuch minister Darab Ali Khan tried to stop Bahu Begam from reciting Fatiha at Imam Husain's tazia during Muharram but she went regardless and got a fever and cold.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Bahu Begum only allowed Jawahir to enter when she was on her Sedan Chair speaking before British East India Company representative Mr. Lumsden in Lucknow. Darab Ali Khan came from the Salone district, Rusulabad. Jawahir was interred in an imambarah made out of wood after he died in 1799 in Faizabad. Bahu Begum had another favourite eunuch, Tehsin Ali Khan who died on 27 August 1818. He constructed a mosque and owned a Serai. Bahu Begum's name was Amanat-uz Zahra and her eunuch Jawahar Ali Khan built an Imambara in Faizabad. Bahu Begam was the younger sister of Mirza Muhammad


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: "As there is a full account given of Jawahir 'Ali Ķbán in connection with Faizábád, there is no need to speak of him here. Having filled the office of the Nazárat on earth for thirty-four years after the death of Nusrat 'Ali ķhán, he was summoned in 1214 A.H. [1799 A.D.), to superintend the huris of Firdaus, and hastened. to Paradise. Then the lucrative appointments which he had vacated were conferred on Muhammad Dáráb. Ali Ķbán. Although Jawahir . 'Ali Khán had thrice the dignity and opulence of his father,* for his authority extended from the mountain of Butwal on the north to the banks of the Ganges on the south, and he had more than 10,000 horse and foot, and had personal property greater than all the other eunuchs of Faizábád had been able to collect in their whole lives, yet he was never known to utter an arrogant or haughty word, and never assumed any manner or a form of speech which savoured of pride or arrogance. As he had evinced from his early boyhood a taste for literature, he was constantly engaged in reading, and when any literary discussion took place, he used to leave the most urgent business to go and share its advantages. In his early years he was fond of Arabic, and becoming proficient in etymology, syntax, and logic, he entered on the study of Şadra; but owing to his tours and journeys, which he had to make to Lucknow each year and sometimes to the mountain of Butwal, he was unable to make further progress."


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: "He was an able expositor of the ambiguities of Persian poetry. Enigmas and riddles were solved in gatherings around him. Above all, he was especially fond of historical works. He read from beginning to end the Sháhnáma, Hamla-i-Haidarí, the Masnavís of Jalálu'ddín Rúmi, Ma'ariju'nnabuwat, Rauzatu'ssafa, Habibu'ssiyar, Shahjabánnáma, Akbarnáma, Taimúrnáma, Táriķh Farishta, and every other book on which he could lay his hands. The duty of reading these aloud to him was imposed on me. He used to listen to them from sunset until midnight. I heard many narratives and tales while thus privileged with the enjoyment of his society. He always sought the company of scholars, poets, and men of science. He is dead and gone."


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: "* The relation of an old eunuch to a younger one as guru and chelá (priest and novice) is often referred to in this work. When a eunuch adopted another they were spoken of as father and son. This is the relation here alluded to, Jawábir 'Ali being looked on as the adopted son of Nusrat 'Ali, whom he succeeded." Muhammad Faiz Bakhsh, "Memoirs of Delhi and Faizábád: Being a Translation of the Táríḳh Farahbaḳhsh of Muhammad Faiz Baḳhsh from the Original Persian, Volume 1", pages iv-v.


title: Shuja-ud-Daula

text: Yusuf Ali Khan and Ambar Ali Khan were 2 other eunuch boys who were raised with Jawahir Ali Khan. Ambar Ali Khan was taken prisoner in the same battle as Jawahir Ali Khan when the Twelver Shia Commissioner Muhammad Ali Khan defeated the Hindu Rajputs of Khairabad (Sitapur) and castrated the Hindu boys. Jawahir Ali Khan used white clothing for Mewatis, black clothing for irregulars and livery in mango green for household troops (Sahib Khanis) when he ordered his servants and soldiers to parade in Lucknow while he was administrator. Jawahir Ali patronized intellectuals and culture as well as engaging in horsemanship and archery practice every day. He did not wear ornate, expensive or elaborate clothing and did not do extravagant grooming, since as a high ranking eunuch (khwajasarai) his mistress did not need to flaunt her wealth through him. Jawahir Ali Khan cone had 1,000 servants shout "Din, Din" while raising banners and wearing white robes after taking off their black robes. One of his officials was Akhund Ahmad. Jawahir Ali had a dispute with his mistress Bahu Begum when he was blocking a road once and she sent a eunuch to tell him to stop it.


title: History of coal mining

text: The history of coal mining goes back thousands of years, with early mines documented in ancient China, the Roman Empire and other early historical economies. It became important in the Industrial Revolution of the 19th and 20th centuries, when it was primarily used to power steam engines, heat buildings and generate electricity. Coal mining continues as an important economic activity today, but has begun to decline due to the strong contribution coal plays in global warming and environmental issues, which result in decreasing demand and in some geographies, peak coal.


title: History of coal mining

text: Compared to wood fuels, coal yields a higher amount of energy per unit mass, specific energy or massic energy, and can often be obtained in areas where wood is not readily available. Though it was used historically as a domestic fuel, coal is now used mostly in industry, especially in smelting and alloy production, as well as electricity generation. Large-scale coal mining developed during the Industrial Revolution, and coal provided the main source of primary energy for industry and transportation in industrial areas from the 18th century to the 1950s. Coal remains an important energy source. Coal is also mined today on a large scale by open pit methods wherever the coal strata strike the surface or are relatively shallow. Britain developed the main techniques of underground coal mining from the late 18th century onward, with further progress being driven by 19th-century and early 20th-century progress. However, oil and gas were increasingly used as alternatives from the 1860s onward.


title: History of coal mining

text: By the late 20th century, coal was, for the most part, replaced in domestic as well as industrial and transportation usage by oil, natural gas or electricity produced from oil, gas, nuclear power or renewable energy sources. By 2010, coal produced over a fourth of the world's energy.


title: History of coal mining

text: Since 1890, coal mining has also been a political and social issue. Coal miners' labour and trade unions became powerful in many countries in the 20th century, and often, the miners were leaders of the Left or Socialist movements (as in Britain, Germany, Poland, Japan, Chile, Canada and the U.S.) Since 1970, environmental issues have been increasingly important, including the health of miners, destruction of the landscape from strip mines and mountaintop removal, air pollution, and coal combustion's contribution to global warming.


title: History of coal mining

text: Early coal extraction was small-scale, the coal lying either on the surface, or very close to it. Typical methods for extraction included drift mining and bell pits. As well as drift mines, small scale shaft mining was used. This took the form of a bell pit, the extraction working outward from a central shaft, or a technique called room and pillar in which 'rooms' of coal were extracted with pillars left to support the roofs. Both of these techniques however left considerable amount of usable coal behind.


title: History of coal mining

text: Archeological evidence in China indicates surface mining of coal and household usage after approximately 3490 BC.


title: History of coal mining

text: The earliest reference to the use of coal in metalworking is found in the geological treatise "On stones" (Lap. 16) by the Greek scientist Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BC):


title: History of coal mining

text: The earliest known use of coal in the Americas was by the Aztecs who used coal for fuel and jet (a type of lignite) for ornaments.


title: History of coal mining

text: In Roman Britain, the Romans were exploiting all major coalfields (save those of North and South Staffordshire) by the late 2nd century AD. While much of its use remained local, a lively trade developed along the North Sea coast supplying coal to Yorkshire and London. This also extended to the continental Rhineland, where bituminous coal was already used for the smelting of iron ore. It was used in hypocausts to heat public baths, the baths in military forts, and the villas of wealthy individuals. Excavation has revealed coal stores at many forts along Hadrian's Wall as well as the remains of a smelting industry at forts such as Longovicium nearby.


title: History of coal mining

text: After the Romans left Britain, in AD 410, there are few records of coal being used in the country until the end of the 12th century. One that does occur is in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the year 852 when a rent including 12 loads of coal is mentioned. In 1183 a smith was given land for his work, and was required to "raise his own coal" Shortly after the granting of the Magna Carta, in 1215, coal began to be traded in areas of Scotland and the north-east England, where the carboniferous strata were exposed on the seashore, and thus became known as "sea coal". This commodity, however, was not suitable for use in the type of domestic hearths then in use and was mainly used by artisans for lime burning, metal working and smelting. As early as 1228, sea coal from the north-east was being taken to London. During the 13th century, the trading of coal increased across Britain and by the end of the century most of the coalfields in England, Scotland and Wales were being worked on a small scale. As the use of coal amongst the artisans became more widespread, it became clear that coal smoke was detrimental to health and the increasing pollution in London led to much unrest and agitation. As a result of this, a Royal proclamation was issued in 1306 prohibiting artificers of London from using sea coal in their furnaces and commanding them to return to the traditional fuels of wood and charcoal. During the first half of the 14th century coal began to be used for domestic heating in coal producing areas of Britain, as improvements were made in the design of domestic hearths. Edward III was the first king to take an interest in the coal trade of the north east, issuing a number of writs to regulate the trade and allowing the export of coal to Calais. The demand for coal steadily increased in Britain during the 15th century, but it was still mainly being used in the mining districts, in coastal towns or being exported to continental Europe. However, by the middle of the 16th century supplies of wood were beginning to fail in Britain and the use of coal as a domestic fuel rapidly expanded.


title: History of coal mining

text: In 1575, Sir George Bruce of Carnock of Culross, Scotland, opened the first coal mine to extract coal from a "moat pit" under the sea on the Firth of Forth. He constructed an artificial loading island into which he sank a 40 ft shaft that connected to another two shafts for drainage and improved ventilation. The technology was far in advance of any coal mining method in the late medieval period and was considered one of the industrial wonders of the age.


title: History of coal mining

text: During the 17th century a number of advances in mining techniques were made, such the use of test boring to find suitable deposits and chain pumps, driven by water wheels, to drain the collieries.


title: History of coal mining

text: People who sold wood, or those who preferred the smell of wood smoke to coal smoke, opposed the transition in England from wood to coal. One name these opponents gave to the new fuel was "the devil's excrement." If the coal had a high sulfur content, such a description was quite apt.