title: Jungle Carbine

text: The No. 5 was about shorter and nearly a kilogram () lighter than the No. 4 from which it was derived. A number of "lightening cuts" were made to the receiver body and the barrel, the bolt knob drilled out, woodwork cut down to reduce weight and had other new features like a flash suppressor and a rubber buttpad to help absorb the increased recoil and to prevent slippage on the shooter's clothing while aiming. Unlike modern recoil pads the No. 5 buttpad significantly reduced the contact area with the user's shoulder, increasing the amount of felt recoil of the firearm.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: In official recoil tests, the No. 4 rifle yielded average free recoil energy and the No. 5 carbine . Of the No. 5 carbine extra recoil energy was caused by adding the conical flash suppressor (muzzle shroud).


title: Jungle Carbine

text: The No. 5 iron sight line was also derived from the No. 4 marks and featured a rear receiver aperture battle sight calibrated for with an additional ladder aperture sight that could be flipped up and was calibrated for in increments.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: It was used in the Far East and other Jungle-type environments (hence the "Jungle Carbine" nickname) and was popular with troops because of its light weight (compared to the SMLE and Lee–Enfield No. 4 Mk I rifles then in service) and general ease of use, although there were some concerns from troops about the increased recoil due to the lighter weight.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: Due to the large conical flash suppressor, the No 5 Mk I could only mount the No. 5 blade bayonet, which was also designed to serve as a combat knife if needed.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: A No. 5 Mk 2 version (or, more accurately, versions, as several were put forward) of the rifle was proposed including changes such as strengthening the action to enable grenade-firing, and mounting the trigger from the receiver instead of on the trigger guard, but none of them was ever put into production and there was subsequently no No. 5 Mk 2 rifle in service. Similarly, a number of "takedown" models of No. 5 Mk I rifle intended for Airborne use were also trialled, but were not put into production.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: The rifle was first issued to British airborne forces in Norway towards the end of the Second World War; these were troops that were likely to be sent to the Far East for an invasion of Japan.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: The term was colloquial and never applied by the British Armed Forces, but the Rifle No. 5 Mk I was informally referred to as a "Jungle Carbine" by British and Commonwealth troops during the Malayan Emergency.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: One of the complaints leveled against the No. 5 Mk I rifle by soldiers was that it had a "wandering zero" – i.e., the rifle could not be "sighted in" and then relied upon to shoot to the same point of impact later on. This condition is accurately referred to as an inability to zero, which would require this ability.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: Tests conducted during the mid to late 1940s appeared to confirm that the rifle did have some accuracy issues, likely relating to the lightening cuts made in the receiver, combined with the presence of a flash suppressor on the end of the barrel, and the British Government officially declared that the Jungle Carbine's faults were "inherent in the design" and discontinued production at the end of 1947.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: However, modern collectors and shooters have pointed out that no Jungle Carbine collector/shooter on any of the prominent internet military firearm collecting forums has reported a confirmed "wandering zero" on their No. 5 Mk I rifle, leading to speculation that the No. 5 Mk I may have been phased out largely because the British military did not want a bolt-action rifle when most of the other major militaries were switching over to semi-automatic rifles such as the M1 Garand, SKS, FN Model 1949 and MAS-49.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: Nonetheless, it has also been pointed out by historians and collectors that the No. 5 Mk I must have had some fault not found with the No. 4 Lee–Enfield (from which the Jungle Carbine was derived), as the British military continued with manufacture and issue of the Lee–Enfield No. 4 Mk 2 rifle until 1957, before finally converting to the L1A1 SLR.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: No reports of wandering zero are explained by the inability to truly "zero" the "tangent sights" used on SMLE rifles and there also exist no reports or demonstrations of "Jungle Carbines" maintaining or returning to "zero". The massive amount of barrel length removed from SMLE rifles as different "marks" were developed could easily explain why the "Jungle Carbine" has nothing like the reputation for accuracy and precision other "marks" are praised for despite having the shortest, most-rigid and presumably the newest barrels available. Unless, of course, successive "marks" of SMLE rifles are/were "overhauled" rather than new production rifles with cleaning rod-worn muzzle rifling and crowns removed by "cutting down" old barrels.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: That each "new" mark is/was at the least the same length as earlier rifles and often shorter by multiple inches at the expense of velocity, energy and - according to some who believe longer barrels are better - accuracy; and reductions in velocity would affect the calibration of "tangent sights" suggests that "Jungle Carbines" were and are a bridge too far in "economically" overhauling old, hardly-fired but heavily-handled and excessively-cleaned rifles.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: The most common cause of worn-out muzzles, crowns and rifling is daily cleaning of unused rifles with steel cleaning rods from the muzzle end.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: Though they did not invent the name, the designation "Jungle Carbine" was used by the Golden State Arms Corporation in the 1950s and 1960s to market sporterised military surplus Lee–Enfield rifles under the "Santa Fe" brand. Golden State Arms Co. imported huge numbers of SMLE Mk III* and Lee–Enfield No. 4 rifles and converted them to civilian versions of the No. 5 Mk I and general sporting rifles for the hunting and recreational shooting markets in the US, marketing them as "Santa Fe Jungle Carbine" rifles and "Santa Fe Mountaineer" rifles, among other names.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: This has led to a lot of confusion regarding the identification of actual No. 5 Mk I "Jungle Carbine" rifles, as opposed to the post-war civilian sporting rifles marketed under the same name. The easiest way to identify a "Jungle Carbine" rifle is to look for the markings on the left hand side of the receiver; a genuine No. 5 will have "Rifle No 5 Mk I" electrostencilled there, while a post-war conversion will generally have either no markings or markings from manufacturers who did not make the No. 5 Mk I (for example, Savage or Long Branch). Santa Fe "Jungle Carbine" rifles are so marked on the barrel.


title: Jungle Carbine

text: Companies such as the Gibbs Rifle Company and Navy Arms in the U.S. have produced and sold completely re-built Enfields of all descriptions, most notably their recent "#7 Jungle Carbine" (made from Ishapore 2A1 rifles) and the "Bulldog" or "Tanker" carbine rifles, which are also fashioned original SMLE and No. 4 rifles.


title: Rose Nylund

text: Rose Nylund is a character from the sitcom television series "The Golden Girls" and its spin-off, "The Golden Palace". She was portrayed by Betty White for 8 years, totalling 204 episodes.


title: Rose Nylund

text: Rose was supposed to be played by Rue McClanahan, while Blanche Devereaux, one of Rose's roommates, was to be played by White. However, Jay Sandrich, the director of the show, suggested that Betty and Rue switch parts. He felt that Betty would be a better fit for Rose because she had already played Sue Ann Nivens in the television show "The Mary Tyler Moore Show", which is similar to the character of Blanche Devereaux. In a January 2017 interview with Katie Couric, White stated she jumped at the opportunity to take the role of Rose, noting she loved the character and describing Rose as "so innocent, not the brightest nickel in the drawer, but funny."


title: Rose Nylund

text: Rose Lindström is a Norwegian American born in St. Olaf, Minnesota, to a monk named Brother Martin and a 19-year-old girl named Ingrid Kerklavoner, who died giving birth. Brother Martin claimed not to have known about Rose's existence until after she had been placed for adoption. She spent the first eight years of her life at the St. Olaf Orphanage before being adopted by Gunter and Alma Lindström (although she erroneously says "Gunter and Alma Nylund" when retelling the story). Rose explains that she was adopted after she was left on a doorstep in a basket with some hickory-smoked cheese and some crackers "that didn't go with anything". She used to daydream about her birth father, feeling that Bob Hope was, in fact, her birth father, and she wrote the comedian many letters whenever she fell on tough times.


title: Rose Nylund

text: It is stated that she was valedictorian in her high school graduation, fourth out of nineteen, and was chosen valedictorian because she drew the longest straw. It is revealed that Rose attended St. Paul Business School, Rockport Community College, and St. Gustaf University, but also that she had never graduated from high school due to a case of mono. Nevertheless, she was voted "most likely to get stuck in a tuba" by one of her graduating classes. Her parents did not allow her to date until she was a high school senior, and between then and her wedding day, she had fifty-six boyfriends. Rose fell in love with Charlie Nylund, a salesman, and they later married. Rose met Charlie when she was seven and he was eight, and he sold her an insurance policy for her red wagon. She and Charlie had a long and happy marriage, and a very active sex life, to the extent that she was unaware of the existence of a popular television show called "I Love Lucy". Over the course of the series, Rose names five children: Brigit, Gunilla, Kirsten, Adam, and Charlie Jr. Rose also has two granddaughters by Kirsten - Charley (named for Kirsten's father) and another unnamed, mentioned in the episode where Rose had her heart attack. Of her children, only Brigit and Kirsten appeared on the show, although Kirsten was played by two different actresses.


title: Rose Nylund

text: Charlie died of a heart attack while he and Rose were making love, and this gave Rose a fear of sexual intimacy for several years thereafter. Years later, a boyfriend named Al Beatty (Richard Roat) dies in a similar fashion. In one episode Rose confides to Blanche and Dorothy that she and Charlie made love twice every day, once in the morning before breakfast and then once after dinner, getting Blanche to remark "No wonder you still mourn that man".


title: Rose Nylund

text: Charlie and Rose's marriage length is unclear. Although it was mentioned in the 1985 pilot episode that Charlie had been dead for 15 years, in the first-season episode "Job Hunting", Rose says that she had been a housewife for 32 years when Charlie died in 1980. In the same episode, Rose is 55 years old in 1985, which would put her birth year in 1930. This would make her 63 when "The Golden Palace" goes off the air in 1993.


title: Rose Nylund

text: Charlie is the only spouse of the four women on "The Golden Girls" that the audience never sees. In an episode of "The Golden Palace", a man said to bear an incredibly strong resemblance to Charlie makes an appearance; the look-alike is played by Eddie Albert.


title: Rose Nylund

text: Rose is laid off from her job at the grief counselling centre in season 1, and briefly works as a waitress at the Fountain Roc Coffee Shop before being rehired at the counselling centre shortly after. Later on in the series, Rose suffers financial difficulties when her late husband's employer files for bankruptcy and her pension is cut off. She suffers from age discrimination in her attempts to get a new job, but her luck changes when she gets a position as assistant to TV consumer reporter Enrique Más. Rose finally finds a significant romance with college professor Miles Webber, though their relationship is put through a serious strain when it is revealed that Miles is actually a former mobster accountant named Nicholas Carbone, and a participant in the witness protection program. His former employer, "The Cheese Man," begins dating Rose in order to get information on Miles's whereabouts. Eventually The Cheese Man is apprehended, Rose and Miles resume their lives together, and all goes well for approximately the next year. In season 7, Rose and Miles consider marriage, but ultimately decided against rushing into anything. Their relationship later ends permanently during an episode of "The Golden Palace" when Rose discovers that Miles loves and subsequently marries another woman.


title: Rose Nylund

text: Rose frequently tells other women various stories, which they find to be annoying, of her hometown, St. Olaf. Rose usually begins each story with, "Back in St. Olaf..." According to her, St. Olaf is a Norwegian farming settlement in northern Minnesota, known on local license plates as "Big Statue Country". During the show's seven-year run, St. Olaf is seen only twice in flashbacks, and once when the ladies visit during an episode in which Rose was nominated for St. Olaf's Woman of the Year award.


title: Rose Nylund

text: One of St. Olaf's chief attractions is a giant black hole, which the townspeople enjoy standing around and looking at - which prompts Dorothy to refer to St. Olaf sarcastically as the real "entertainment capital of the world." St. Olafians also celebrate various oddly-themed festivals. St. Olaf appears to be a bilingual town with a significant amount of unique vocabulary (that may be specific to the area and not appearing in standard Norwegian). One of the unique attractions of St. Olaf is Mt. Losenbauden, similar to Mount Rushmore, except that it features the faces of losing presidential candidates; Adlai Stevenson is featured twice because he lost twice.


title: Rose Nylund

text: It is suggested by Rose's stories that St. Olaf is populated almost entirely by idiots. In the season three episode "Mother's Day", Rose encounters a travelling woman named Anna, who says about St. Olaf, "I don't mean to say that everyone there is an idiot, but it just seemed that, per capita, they have more than their share." When Rose says that her children realized it would be cheaper for her to visit the family than it would for the family to visit her, Anna happily replies, "They figured that out, and they live in St. Olaf? You must be very proud!" Additional indications include the revelation that St. Olaf has an emergency fund for the sole purpose of erecting statues, that the local beauty pageant was pigs-only until humans were first allowed to compete in the 1940s, and as of the 1980s, no St. Olafian had read all three books in the local library.


title: Rose Nylund

text: Rose has the ability, which she calls "The Gift", to speak with animals and hear their conversations. This was initially thought to be a delusion of hers, until Dorothy was discovered to have this ability in season 2. It is never brought up again.


title: Rose Nylund

text: Outside "The Golden Girls" and "The Golden Palace", Rose appears on three episodes of "Empty Nest": "Strange Bedfellows", "Rambo of Neiman Marcus" and "Dr. Weston and Mr. Hyde". She also appears on the "Nurses" episode "Begone with the Wind".


title: .327 Federal Magnum

text: The .327 Federal Magnum is a cartridge introduced by Federal Premium Ammunition and also sold by Sturm, Ruger & Co. It is intended to provide the power of a .357 Magnum in a six-shot, compact revolvers, whose cylinders would otherwise only hold five rounds. The .327 has also been used in full-sized revolvers with a capacity of seven rounds or more.


title: .327 Federal Magnum

text: Introduced by the Federal Cartridge company, now known as Federal Premium Ammunition, the .327 Federal Magnum was an attempt to improve on the .32 H&R Magnum introduced in 1984. Like the .32 H&R, the .327 Federal is a lengthened version of the original .32 S&W cartridge, which dates back to 1878. In 1896, the .32 S&W Long was introduced, which generated slightly higher velocities. The introduction of the .32 H&R increased pressures from 15,000 psi to 21,000 CUP, giving velocities of approximately .


title: .327 Federal Magnum

text: Based on the .32 H&R Magnum, with a 1/8-inch longer case, a strengthened web at the base of the case, thicker case walls, and different heat-treatment and metallurgy, the .327 Federal can be loaded to much higher pressure levels () than its predecessor (21,000 CUP). The .327's actual bullet diameter is and achieves muzzle velocities up to with bullets, and up to with bullets, when fired from the 3 1/16 in (78 mm)-barreled Ruger SP101 revolver.


title: .327 Federal Magnum

text: While perceived recoil exceeds that of the .32 H&R, revolvers in .327 Federal are much easier to control than equivalent models chambered in .357 Magnum. Comparing the two calibers, Chuck Hawks says, "There is no doubt that, for most shooters, the .357 Magnum produces uncomfortable recoil and muzzle blast."


title: .327 Federal Magnum

text: The .327's recoil energy is for an jacketed hollowpoint (JHP) load, for the JHP, and for the softpoint (SP). For comparison, the figures are for an .32 H&R Magnum load and for a .357 Magnum load.


title: .327 Federal Magnum

text: Revolvers in .327 Federal Magnum were initially offered by Charter Arms, Taurus, Ruger, and Freedom Arms. The stainless-steel Ruger SP101 was originally selected as the development platform for the new cartridge. Freedom Arms made a single-action design, as did U.S. Fire Arms with its eight-shot Sparrowhawk. Ruger offered the double-action six-shot SP101 and seven-shot GP100, and the full-sized single-action eight-shot Blackhawk, revolvers chambered in .327 Federal Magnum. A version of the Ruger SP101 with a 3 1/16" barrel chambered in the .327 Federal Magnum was released in January 2008.


title: .327 Federal Magnum

text: In late 2014, Ruger introduced the smaller-framed Ruger Single-Seven, a seven-shot single-action .327 Federal Magnum revolver based on the Single-Six. In March 2015, Ruger re-introduced the SP101 in .327 Federal Magnum. The current version of the SP101 features fully adjustable sights and a longer, 4.2 in (107 mm) barrel. In September 2015, Ruger also introduced the LCR in .327 Federal Magnum, a double-action only, six-shot revolver with a polymer subframe. Ruger also offers the similar LCRx with an exposed hammer in this chambering.


title: .327 Federal Magnum

text: In early 2017, Henry Repeating Arms announced production of four new lever-action long guns (a rifle and a carbine, each available with its receiver manufactured from either steel or hardened brass), with shipping scheduled to begin in March. Hawks suggests that lever-action carbines in .327 Mag. will make "excellent, fun to shoot centerfire rifles for hunting javelina, jackrabbit, and coyote"; he also notes that revolvers with six-to-eight-inch barrels and adjustable sights "would be excellent hunting handguns for varmints and small predators, as well as offering flat-shooting protection from two-legged predators in the field."


title: .327 Federal Magnum

text: The .327 Federal Magnum provides performance similar to the high-velocity rifle loadings of the old .32-20 Winchester, though these velocities are achieved in a much shorter revolver barrel, thanks to a much higher pressure ceiling for the .327.


title: .327 Federal Magnum

text: Another similar cartridge is the .30 Carbine, which has been offered in Ruger's single-action Blackhawk revolver line since 1968. However, the .327 Federal Magnum has a higher maximum pressure (45,000 psi) than the .30 Carbine (40,000 psi).


title: .327 Federal Magnum

text: Gunsmiths working with Ruger and Freedom Arms have offered custom conversions of single-action .32 H&R Single Six and Freedom Arms revolvers to .327 Federal. Test results from the long barreled guns showed even higher velocities than the .30 Carbine, along with excellent accuracy.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: Norman Whiteside (born 7 May 1965) is a Northern Irish former professional footballer who played as a midfielder and striker.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: Whiteside began his career at Manchester United, signing professional forms in 1982 at the age of 17 and quickly becoming a key member of the side. He scored 68 goals in 278 league and cup appearances for the club over the next seven years, picking up two FA Cup winner's medals in 1983 and 1985, as well as playing in the 1982 FA Youth Cup final, the 1983 League Cup final, and the FA Charity Shield in 1983.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: He remained with United until July 1989, when he was sold to Everton for £600,000. However, he retired from playing two years later, aged only 26, due to a knee injury.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: Whiteside holds records as the youngest player to take part in a FIFA World Cup, the youngest player to score in a League Cup and FA Cup final, and the youngest player to score a senior goal for Manchester United. Winning 38 caps for Northern Ireland, he played at the 1982 and 1986 World Cups, and also helped his country to win the last British Home Championship in 1983–84. After retiring as a player he became a podiatrist, and still works at the corporate hospitality department at Old Trafford.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: Born in Belfast to Norman and Aileen Whiteside, he grew up on Shankill Road; because of this and his aggressive, physical playing style, he was later nicknamed the "Shankill Skinhead" by Manchester United supporters. The family later moved to 10 Danube Street, and the family's poverty meant that Whiteside had to share a bed with his two brothers. He remained relatively unscathed by The Troubles, for his Protestant parents kept a firm watch on their children to ensure that they did not stray far from home and that none of them became involved with Ulster loyalism. At the age of around seven he joined the Boys' Brigade, and quickly showed his natural talent for football, scoring ten goals in a game against boys almost twice his age. He was educated at Cairnmartin High School, and became famous in the Shankill area as a footballing prodigy by the age of 11.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: He was said to have been discovered by Ipswich Town scout Jim Rodgers (his goals at schoolboy level meant that he was already well known to all the football scouts in Northern Ireland), who was told by manager Bobby Robson to wait until Whiteside grew older. Instead, it was Manchester United's 80-year-old Ulster scout Bob Bishop, who previously unearthed Belfast-born George Best and Sammy McIlroy for the club, who first offered him a trial at an English club. Whiteside's family were Manchester United supporters, though the youngster himself held no particular allegiance. He found that he had been offered schoolboy terms at the club during a school trip to the United States; on the trip, he and his classmates met President Jimmy Carter at the Oval Office, a rare and extraordinary occasion for children from a disadvantaged background.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: A few days before Whiteside was old enough to sign schoolboy terms with Manchester United, he was offered a trial at Liverpool, causing United's chief scout Joe Brown to fly over to Belfast to immediately offer him the schoolboy contract to sign. Whiteside remained in Belfast, and flew over to Manchester every weekend for training. From the age of 14 he was constantly compared to George Best (by that time in the twilight of his career), and Whiteside did little to discourage such comparisons when he told a journalist that "the only thing I have in common with George Best is that we come from the same place, play for the same club and were discovered by the same man".


title: Norman Whiteside

text: His injury problems started as early as 1980, when he was 15 years old and saw Glentoran's physio Bobby McGregor to resolve a groin strain; Whiteside said that the highly physical massage to which he was subjected damaged his pelvis and robbed him of his natural pace. His lack of pace was later seen as the one weakness in his game. Six weeks into his apprenticeship, in July 1981, and an innocuous looking challenge by a Preston North End player in an 'A' team game saw Whiteside requiring an operation on his right knee. Had the injury occurred a couple of years later he would have been able to have pioneering keyhole surgery, which could potentially have saved his career. After a seven-month lay-off and a further operation to remove cartilage, he returned to fitness in January 1982. He had to adapt his playing style to compensate for his damaged knee and pelvis, and developed well under youth team coach Eric Harrison.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: Whiteside became United's youngest first-team player since Duncan Edwards in 1953, when he made his debut as a substitute against Brighton & Hove Albion in a 1–0 league win at the Goldstone Ground on 24 April 1982, two weeks before his 17th birthday. He later played in the FA Youth Cup final defeat to Watford, though it would be just another year before he appeared in the final of the senior competition. He turned professional at Old Trafford on his 17th birthday, signing a three-year contract, and he shared a room with Steve Coppell, who was heading into retirement due to a knee injury of his own. He also struck up a close friendship with Paul McGrath, who would also face similar problems with his knee. On the final day of the season, eight days after his 17th birthday, he became the club's youngest goalscorer in a 2–0 home win over Stoke City.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: His performances at the World Cup convinced manager Ron Atkinson to start Whiteside alongside Frank Stapleton at the front of United's attack for the 1982–83 season. The pair were similar players in that they held the ball up and made frequent runs into the box, allowing midfielder Bryan Robson to join in the attack. Whiteside scored four goals in the first five games of the campaign, before entering a seventeen-game drought. He scored six goals in 16 games in domestic cup competitions that season, helping Manchester United to the finals of both the League Cup and FA Cup, notably by scoring past Arsenal in the FA Cup semi-finals. At the age of 17 years and 323 days, he beat Liverpool centre-half Alan Hansen to score in the League Cup final defeat at Wembley, making him the youngest player to score in a League Cup final; his consistent performances against Liverpool during the 1980s earned him the moniker of the "Scourge of the Scousers" from United supporters. He gave an assist to Stapleton in the FA Cup Final, which finished as a 2–2 draw with Brighton & Hove Albion. At the age of 18 years and 18 days, he then scored a headed goal in the replay, which United won 4–0, to become the youngest player to score in an FA Cup Final. He also became the first player to score in both domestic cup finals in the same season. He played 57 times in all competitions that season and missed just three league games, scoring a total of 14 goals.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: Manchester United later accepted a £1.5 million offer for Whiteside from A.C. Milan, and offered him £100,000 in cash to accept the transfer. He refused the move, for he felt he still had a good future with Manchester United and because he was given only a brief time to consider whether or not to relocate to a club and location about which he knew little. He continued to impress, despite on-loan striker Garth Crooks being tipped to take his first-team place and sign a permanent contract (which never happened). United were trophyless however in 1983–84, exiting both domestic cup competitions to Third Division sides. He did though play a part in the 3–0 win over Barcelona at Old Trafford in the Third Round of the European Cup Winners' Cup, which overturned a 2–0 deficit from the first leg. He lost his starting place to Mark Hughes for the semi-final clash with Juventus at the Stadio Olimpico di Torino, which ended in a 2–1 defeat.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: By February 1985, he had started just eight games in the 1984–85 season, having fallen behind in the pecking order to Stapleton, Hughes, and new signing Alan Brazil. However, injury to midfielder Remi Moses left an opening at the centre of the field, and Whiteside proved to be a revelation in the role with his intelligent play and positioning skills, and stayed in midfield for the rest of manager Ron Atkinson's time at the club. He formed a solid partnership with Bryan Robson, despite the two being similarly attacking players, and United lost just one of their first 15 games with this new midfield partnership in operation. Whiteside scored the only hat-trick of his professional career in a 4–2 home win over West Ham United on 9 March 1985, in the FA Cup quarter-finals; it was a 'perfect hat-trick' in that he scored once with each foot and once with his head. He went on to score the winning goal in the 1985 FA Cup Final, curling a shot in from the right hand side in the 20th minute of extra time, to give ten-man United victory over Everton, and Whiteside his second FA Cup winner's medal. The goal required vision, timing, and precise shooting; and "The Guardian" praised his "cool footballing brain" and "clever concealment of the shot". After this success he negotiated a new contract of £60,000 a year.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: United won their first 10 league games of the 1985–86 campaign, and unbeaten from their first 15, and seemed destined to win the First Division title. However they dropped off in mid-season and won just six of their final 18 games to end the season in fourth place, 12 points behind champions Liverpool. The press blamed the decline in form on the club's drinking culture and Ron Atkinson's lax disciplinary attitude, though in his autobiography Whiteside denies that this was to blame, and states that stories of the player's drinking sessions were exaggerated.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: Then came a decline in his career at an early age, which started to around the time of the arrival of new manager Alex Ferguson in November 1986, the change of manager coming after a dismal start to the season led to the decision to sack Ron Atkinson. Whiteside, still only 21, was facing trouble from his right knee which was now beginning to require serious medical procedures to prevent it from causing his retirement. Ferguson put Whiteside back up front, and in turn he scored three times in his first four games back from injury. Ferguson did though have to rebuke Whiteside after some of his numerous drinking sessions. He ended the 1986–87 season with 10 goals in 37 appearances, however United could only manage an 11th-place finish.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: At the start of the 1987–88 season, Whiteside represented the Football League in a game against the 'Rest of the World' to celebrate the league's centenary. He formed a solid partnership with new signing Brian McClair, scoring 10 goals in 35 appearances, though United finished second in the league behind Liverpool, and he often found himself back in midfield or on the bench when Peter Davenport was selected to play alongside McClair. However, he felt that he was due a better contract, and decided to 'call the bluff' of the club by handing in a transfer request. Recovering from injury and abuse from some supporters for his transfer request, he put what many United fans call the best performance of his career at Anfield on 4 April 1988, when he came off a substitute with his team 3–1 down to help United to salvage a point.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: He ruptured his Achilles midway through the 1987–88 season, and missed almost a year of first-team action. Whiteside's goal in a 2–1 win over Derby County in a league match at the Baseball Ground on 10 February 1988 would prove to be his last for Manchester United.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: In the summer of 1988, he was put on the transfer list and came close to joining American club Portland Timbers, before injury put negotiations on hold. A £1million price tag also deterred a great deal of potential interest.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: In the summer of 1988, Ferguson brought striker Mark Hughes back to Old Trafford after two years away, further limiting Whiteside's opportunities for the first team. His continued fitness problems, and the growing competition for places in the first team, meant that Whiteside played just six league games in the 1988–89 season.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: In view of Whiteside's medical reports, Ferguson rejected bids of £500,000 from Osasuna of Spain and from Ron Atkinson's new club Sheffield Wednesday, before accepting a bid of £600,000 (with £150,000 to follow if Whiteside reached 50 games) from Everton in July 1989. This was to the dismay of some of the club's supporters, who felt that there was still a way back for Whiteside at Old Trafford. Ferguson intended to build his own team having signed midfield duo Neil Webb and Mike Phelan, and also in the hunt for other players including Paul Ince, Gary Pallister and Danny Wallace.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: He had played a total of 274 games in all competitions for United, scoring 67 goals, and collected two winner's medals in the FA Cup, despite only being 24 years old when he left.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: Whiteside signed a four-year contract with Everton, and Alex Ferguson helped him to negotiate a pay deal that would see him earn more in two years at Goodison Park than he had done during his eight years in Manchester. He was also offered £50,000 to put his name to a tabloid article criticising Ferguson, though he declined the offer. At the time Everton boasted more recent success than Manchester United, having won two league titles, an FA Cup and the European Cup Winners' Cup. Manager Colin Harvey was planning to boost the "Toffees" chances of more silverware, and also in 1989 signed Mike Newell, Martin Keown, Stefan Rehn and Raymond Atteveld. Whiteside became Everton's playmaker in 1989–90, and formed an effective partnership with Stuart McCall in midfield to score 13 goals in his 35 appearances. Everton finished the season in sixth place, some 20 points behind rivals Liverpool.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: However intense running sessions ran by coach Mick Lyons took their toll on his right knee, and on 20 September 1990 he took a knock in a practice match, which required him to have yet another operation on his right knee. After the return of Howard Kendall as manager in November 1990, Whiteside managed to appear in a few reserve team games, but this only delayed the inevitable, and he was forced to retire from the game at the age of 26 in June 1991. He had a testimonial game between Manchester United and Everton at Old Trafford in May 1992, but as United lost the title the previous week, only 7,434 turned out for the occasion.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: Whiteside broke Pelé's record as the youngest player to appear in a World Cup, when he debuted for Northern Ireland aged 17 years and 41 days at the 1982 World Cup in Spain. When selected for the World Cup squad by manager Billy Bingham, he had played just two competitive games at club level. The opening game against Yugoslavia at the La Romareda in Zaragoza on 17 June was his international debut; he received a yellow card in the second half for a challenge on Nenad Stojković, and the game finished goalless. Five days later he helped his side to a 1–1 draw with Honduras, which was a disappointment, and many believed had doomed Northern Ireland's chances of advancing in the competition. They needed a win against hosts Spain in the third and final group game at the Mestalla Stadium in Valencia. They faced a partisan atmosphere with a mostly Spanish crowd and a Spanish speaking referee in Héctor Ortiz who was unwilling to punish dirty play from the Spanish players. However a mistake from goalkeeper Luis Arconada gifted Gerry Armstrong the only goal of the game, and despite having Mal Donaghy sent off on 60 minutes, Northern Ireland went on to record a 1–0 win. Whiteside played at left-midfielder for the 2–2 draw with Austria at the Vicente Calderón Stadium. A win against France would take them into the semi-finals, however a French team inspired by Michel Platini won 4–1 and therefore eliminated Northern Ireland from the competition.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: He featured in qualifying for UEFA Euro 1984. They won their final group game 1–0 over West Germany, Whiteside managing to get the better of one of the world's best man-markers in Karlheinz Förster. However the Germans secured the only qualification place in the group in their final match of the group with a late winner over Albania.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: Whiteside helped Northern Ireland win the 100th and last edition of the British Home Championship in 1983–84.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: Northern Ireland won qualification to the World Cup for a second successive tournament with a goalless draw with England in their final group game; Whiteside scored three goals during the qualification process, with his strike again Romania at Windsor Park proving to be crucial as they ended up qualifying at the Romanian's expense. At the 1986 FIFA World Cup finals in Mexico, he scored with a deflected free-kick in the 1–1 draw against Algeria at the Estadio Tres de Marzo. They were beaten in their other two group games, losing 2–1 to Spain and 3–0 to Brazil. Whiteside won a total of 38 caps and scored nine times in eight years playing for Northern Ireland.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: He married wife Julie on 4 October 1987; the two had met when Whiteside was 16 and she was 20. The relationship blossomed despite fears of reprisal on Shankill, with him being a Protestant and Julie being a Catholic. The marriage ended in 2001, after the couple had 20 years together and three children: Della, Blaine and Clodagh. He subsequently married Denise.


title: Norman Whiteside

text: Upon retirement, Whiteside studied to become a podiatrist, graduating with a degree from the University of Salford, and served Northwich Victoria as their assistant manager/physio from October 1991 until March 1992. He quit the role as he did not enjoy the amount of time spent travelling between games. During his playing career, he had attended courses at Lilleshall to qualify for his coaching badges, but he did not wish to go into coaching. He instead became an after-dinner speaker. He also worked for the Professional Footballers' Association, while taking a postgraduate course at Manchester Metropolitan University. He later took up private practice as a podiatrist in Manchester. Since 1994, he has also worked at the corporate hospitality department at Old Trafford. In 2003, he released a book entitled "My Memories of Manchester United". With the help of writer Rob Bagchi, he released his autobiography entitled "Determined" in August 2007, published by Headline, and with a foreword by actor James Nesbitt. "When Saturday Comes" magazine reviewer Joyce Woolridge wrote that ""Determined" is an entertaining, well written account of one of the less ordinary 1980s footballers, with the added twist of how Whiteside was able to rebuild his life, if not his knee." The next month it was reported that Whiteside had been diagnosed with irregular heart rhythms. Whiteside worked as a pundit on ITV's coverage of UEFA Euro 2016.


title: Tony Campos

text: Antonio Campos (born March 8, 1973) is an American musician. He is the current bassist for industrial metal bands Static-X and Fear Factory and the vocalist and bassist for Asesino. He is a former bassist for metal bands Prong, Soulfly, Ministry and Possessed.


title: Tony Campos

text: Campos was part of the original Static-X lineup, playing bass and performing backing vocals on all of the group's studio albums. Along with Wayne Static, he was one of the legal owners of the Static-X name, even though he did not participate in the band's temporary reunion from 2012–2013.


title: Tony Campos

text: In 2001, Campos broke his collarbone in a motorcycle accident, leaving him unable to play in the ongoing "Extreme Steel Tour". Campos continued to sing backing vocals on the tour, and Marty O'Brien took over bass duties.


title: Tony Campos

text: In 2002, Campos became part of Mexican American metal group Asesino. His stage name, "Maldito X", is Spanish for "Damned X". In the same year, he played bass with the Colombian band Agony during the Rock al Parque.


title: Tony Campos

text: Campos has played bass for Ministry in four stints (2007–2008, 2011–2012, 2014–2016, 2017–2019), following the death of Paul Raven. He has joined Ministry again for their US tour with Death Grips in Autumn 2017.


title: Tony Campos

text: From 2011-2012, he was a member of death metal band Possessed. He also played with Possessed in 2013 at The Oakland Metro.


title: Tony Campos

text: In May 2015, Campos announced his departure from Soulfly, and that he would be joining Fear Factory as their bassist.


title: Tony Campos

text: On October 23, 2018, Campos announced that he and the other two surviving original members – guitarist Koichi Fukuda and drummer Ken Jay – had reformed Static-X, who were planning to release a new album and tour in 2019 in memory of Wayne Static.


title: Tony Campos

text: Campos tunes to ADGCF when playing in Asesino. With Static-X, he played with several tunings: CFBbEbG and BbFBbEbAb during Shadow Zone and forward.


title: Tony Campos

text: Campos majored in computer science before becoming a musician. He's an avid video gamer and considers the "Doom" and "Halo" series as his all-time favorites.


title: 8.8 cm KwK 43

text: The 8.8 cm KwK 43 (Kampfwagenkanone —"fighting vehicle cannon") was an 88 mm 71 calibre length tank gun designed by Krupp and used by the German Wehrmacht during the Second World War. It was mounted as the primary armament on the Panzerkampfwagen VI Ausf. B "Tiger II". The 8.8 cm Pak 43, an anti-tank gun, was very similar in design but mounted on tank destroyers or deployed stand-alone on the field.


title: 8.8 cm KwK 43

text: At , the length of the KwK 43's barrel was over 1.3 metres longer than of that of the 8.8 cm KwK 36 used for the Tiger I. The cartridge of the KwK 43's shell was also considerably longer (at ) and wider than that of the KwK 36's meaning that the KwK 43 allows for more room for a heavier propellant charge in its shells than the KwK 36 could. All guns of the PaK/KwK 43 series could use the same ammunition interchangeably.


title: 8.8 cm KwK 43

text: The KwK 43 and PaK 43 were initially manufactured with monobloc barrels meaning the barrel was made from one piece. However, due to the weapons' extremely high muzzle velocity and operating pressures when fired, the weapon suffered from accelerated barrel wear. As a result, the change was made to manufacture the PaK/KwK 43 with a two-piece barrel instead of a monobloc barrel. This had minimal to no effect on the performance of the gun, but made replacing a worn-out barrel much faster and easier than before.


title: 8.8 cm KwK 43

text: In addition, the massively increased operating pressures of the new gun also required a new armour-piercing shell to be designed. The result of this was the PzGr.39/43 APCBC-HE projectile, which was similar to the older PzGr.39-1 APCBC-HE projectile used by the 8.8 cm KwK 36 and PaK 43 guns except for the addition of much wider driving bands. The wider driving bands of the PzGr.39/43 increased the weight of the shell to as a result. However, as the full transition to the newer PzGr.39/43 rounds was slow to take place, the older PzGr.39-1 rounds were instead allowed to be used for the KwK 43 & PaK 43 provided the gun had fired no more than 500 rounds. Above that set amount, the expected barrel wear combined with the narrower driving bands of the PzGr.39-1 would lead to a loss of pressure and therefore muzzle velocity in the gun. The new PzGr.39/43 could be fired without loss of pressure until the barrel was worn out, thus requiring no restriction.


title: 8.8 cm KwK 43

text: The same 278 gram BdZ 5127 fuse and 59 gram Amatol bursting charge was used for both types of projectile (PzGr.39-1 & PzGr.39/43), requiring armoured targets of 30 mm or thicker to ignite after penetration for maximum behind-armour effects.


title: 8.8 cm KwK 43

text: The anti-tank gun version of the 8.8 cm KwK 43 was known as the 8.8 cm PaK 43. This name was also applied to versions of this weapon mounted in various armored vehicles designed to hunt tanks, such as the Jagdpanther, Hornisse/Nashorn and Ferdinand/Elefant "Panzerjäger" tank destroyers. The Nashorn was the first vehicle to carry the KwK/PaK 43 series of guns. The series included: PaK 43 (cruciform mount), PaK 43/41 (two-wheel split-trail carriage), PaK 43/1 (Nashorn), and PaK 43/2 (Ferdinand/Elefant), all with monobloc (one-piece) barrels; PaK 43/3 and 43/4 (Jagdpanther) with two-piece barrels, and KwK 43 (Tiger II) with a two-piece barrel.


title: Tun Tun

text: Tun Tun (11 July 1923 – 24 November 2003) was the screen name of Indian playback singer and actress-comedienne, Uma Devi Khatri, who was called "Hindi cinema's first-ever comedienne".


title: Tun Tun

text: Uma was born in a small village near Amroha District of present-day Uttar Pradesh, India in 1923. Her parents and brother were murdered for land arrogate. Just before two days of her demise she had been interviewed by film critic and historian Shishir Krishn Sharma. She said : "I don't remember who my parents were and how they looked, I would be two to two and half years when they passed away, I had a brother eight or nine years old whose name was Hari, I just remembered that we were living in a village named Alipur. One day brother was killed and left for maid servant to relatives in exchange for two times meal, that time I was four or five years old".


title: Tun Tun

text: Uma Devi's childhood was marked by poverty. She later met Akhtar Abbas Kazi, an Excise Duty Inspector, who helped and inspired her. At the time of the India-Pakistan partition, Kazi moved to Lahore, Pakistan. She was fed up with the circumstances of the time and she moved to Bombay to pursue singing in movies. Kazi also eventually moved to Bombay, where they got married in 1947.


title: Tun Tun

text: She arrived in Bombay (Mumbai) at the age of 23, having run away from home, and knocked on composer Naushad Ali's door. She told him that she could sing and that she would throw herself in the ocean if he didn't give her a chance. He auditioned her, and hired her on the spot. She made her debut as a solo playback singer in Nazir's "Wamiq Azra" (1946). She soon signed a contract with the producer-director A.R. Kardar, who used Naushad as music director, and went on to make a place for herself amidst music stalwarts like Noor Jehan, Rajkumari, Khursheed Bano and Zohrabai Ambalewali.


title: Tun Tun

text: In 1947, she had huge hits with "Afsana Likh Rahi Hoon Dil-e-Beqarar Ka", "Yeh Kaun Chala Meri Aankhon Mein Sama Kar" and "Aaj Machi Hai Dhoom Jhoom Khushi Se Jhoom", which she sang for actress Munawar Sultana in A.R. Kardar's "Dard" (1947), again under the music direction of Naushad, she also sang a duet; "Betaab Hai Dil Dard-e-Mohabat Ke Asar Se", with Suraiya. In fact, a gentleman from Delhi was so enamoured by her song "Afsana Likh Rahi Hoon", that he stayed with her in Bombay. They got married, and the couple had two daughters and two sons; her husband, whom she called Mohan, died in 1992.


title: Tun Tun

text: The success of "Dard" meant that she next received Mehboob Khan's "Anokhi Ada" (1948), which again had two hit numbers, "Kahe Jiya Dole" and "Dil Ko Lagake Humne Kuch Bhi Na Paya". This brought her into the league of highly rated playback singers. She reached her peak as a vocalist in director S.S. Vasan's "Chandralekha" (1948) made by Gemini Studios, Madras. Her seven songs, which include hits such as "Saanjh Ki Bela" remain her most accomplished work in her singing career, though signing for the film also meant a breach of contract with producer-director Kardar, which led to her dwindling fortunes in the industry.


title: Tun Tun

text: Moreover, in the following years, owing to her older style of singing and limited vocal range, she found it difficult to compete with the rising singing stars Lata Mangeshkar and Asha Bhosle. Eventually Naushad suggested that she take up acting, because she had a very bubbly personality and wonderful comic timing. She was inspired and awestruck by Dilip Kumar and had a wish, maintaining it stubbornly that in her first film, she would act alongside him. Knowing about this crazy love for Dilip Kumar, Naushad asked Dilip Kumar, who was his friend, to cast her in one of his films, and she appeared in "Babul" (1950) with him, which had Nargis as the lead actress; it is he who renamed her "Tun Tun" to suit her comic persona, the name stayed with her, and a comedic legend was born.


title: Tun Tun

text: She went on to act in Guru Dutt's classics such as "Aar Paar" (1954), "Mr. & Mrs. '55" (1955) and "Pyaasa" (1957). In the 1960s and 1970s, she was a permanent comic relief in numerous Bollywood films; a few years down the line, she most notably starred with Amitabh Bachchan in "Namak Halaal" (1982), a Prakash Mehra blockbuster.


title: Tun Tun

text: In her career spanning five decades, she acted in about 198 films in Hindi/Urdu and other languages like Punjabi etc., pairing with top comedy actors of her times such as Bhagwan Dada, Agha, Sunder, Mukri, Dhumal, Johnny Walker and Keshto Mukherjee. She was last seen in Hindi films in "Kasam Dhande Ki" (1990).


title: Tun Tun

text: She died on 23 November 2003 in Andheri, Mumbai, after a prolonged illness at the age of 80 and is survived by her four children and four grandchildren.


title: 72 (number)

text: 72 (seventy-two) is the natural number following 71 and preceding 73. It is half a gross or 6 dozen (i.e., 60 in duodecimal).


title: 72 (number)

text: 72 is an abundant number, with a total of 12 factors, and a Euler totient of 24. 72 is also a highly totient number, as there are 17 solutions to the equation φ("x") = 72, more than any integer below 72. It is equal to the sum the sum of its preceding smaller highly totient numbers 24 and 48, and contains the first six highly totient numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, 12 and 24 as a subset of its proper divisors. 144, or twice 72, is also highly totient, as is 576, the square of 24. While 17 different integers have a totient value of 72, the sum of Euler's totient function φ("x") over the first 15 integers is 72. 72 is also a Harshad number in decimal, as it is divisible by the sum of its digits.


title: 72 (number)

text: 72 plays a role in the Rule of 72 in economics when approximating annual compounding of interest rates of a round 6% to 10%, due in part to its high number of divisors.


title: 72 (number)

text: There are 72 compact and paracompact Coxeter groups of ranks four through ten: 14 of these are compact finite representations in only three-dimensional and four-dimensional spaces, with the remaining 58 paracompact or noncompact "infinite" representations in dimensions three through nine. These terminate with three paracompact groups in the ninth dimension, of which the most important is formula_7: it contains the final semiregular hyperbolic honeycomb 6 made of only regular facets and the 5 Euclidean honeycomb as its vertex figure, which is the geometric representation of the formula_6 lattice. Furthermore, formula_7 shares the same fundamental symmetries with the Coxeter-Dynkin over-extended form formula_6 equivalent to the tenth-dimensional symmetries of Lie algebra formula_11.


title: 72 (number)

text: 72 lies between the eighth pair of twin primes (71, 73), where 71 is the largest supersingular prime that is a factor of the largest sporadic group, the friendly giant, with all primes greater than or equal to 73 non-supersingular. Sporadic groups are a family of twenty-six finite simple groups, where formula_2, formula_4, and formula_6 are associated exceptional groups that are part of sixteen finite Lie groups that are also simple, or non-trivial groups whose only normal subgroups are the trivial group and the groups themselves.


title: Suzanne Scott

text: Suzanne Scott is the current CEO of Fox News, the second CEO in the network's history. She was ranked 61st in Forbes's 2021 list of the World’s 100 Most Powerful Women.


title: Suzanne Scott

text: Scott was raised in Parsippany, New Jersey. Her father ran a trucking company out of the family home, and her mother worked as a real estate agent. She is a 1988 graduate of the private American University in Washington D.C..


title: Suzanne Scott

text: Scott worked as an executive assistant to Chet Collier at CNBC before moving with him to Fox News at its inception in 1996. She began her work there as a programming assistant.


title: Suzanne Scott

text: According to a 2018 Fox News Channel press release, "Throughout her tenure at Fox News, Scott has risen through the ranks in a number of programming, production and creative positions including: executive vice president of programming (2016); senior vice president of programming and development (2009); vice president of programming (2007); network executive producer (2005); as well as associate producer, producer and senior producer of "On the Record with Greta Van Susteren" (2002-2005). In addition, she was responsible for the launch of numerous on-air and digital initiatives, including the 2002 primetime debut of On the Record."


title: Suzanne Scott

text: After founder and former CEO Roger Ailes departed in 2016 but before he died in 2017, Scott, Jay Wallace, and Jack Abernethy are credited with “turning Fox News around” after the scandal involving Ailes. In that time, Scott worked as the president of programming, overseeing Fox News Channel's opinion shows including "Fox & Friends", "The Five" and "Hannity".


title: Suzanne Scott

text: On May 17, 2018, Scott was named CEO of both Fox News and Fox Business Network. During this announcement, Lachlan Murdoch said Scott “has now made history as [Fox’s] first female CEO.” She was also the only woman in charge of a major TV news organization until Rashida Jones was installed as head of MSNBC.


title: Suzanne Scott

text: This decision has been met with some media backlash due to Scott's alleged complicity in several sexual harassment suits within the company. Scott was not a defendant in the suits, but was cited within them, and was involved in several internal complaints. She denies the accusations.


title: Suzanne Scott

text: A 2017 article quoting numerous former Fox News Channel on-air talent & support staff alleged that the "...executive assistant-turned-Fox News vice president of programming Suzanne Scott enforces with the wardrobe and makeup departments an aesthetic that features skimpy dresses, high-heeled open-toed shoes, and big hair for the channel’s on-air women."


title: Suzanne Scott

text: Former anchor Ed Henry in a June 2021 lawsuit filing alleged Scott covered up an affair between the president of Fox News and a subordinate during her time helming the network.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: The Reichsautobahn system was the beginning of the German autobahns under Nazi Germany. There had been previous plans for controlled-access highways in Germany under the Weimar Republic, and two had been constructed, but work had yet to start on long-distance highways. After previously opposing plans for a highway network, the Nazis embraced them after coming to power and presented the project as Hitler's own idea. They were termed "Adolf Hitler's roads" ("") and presented as a major contribution to the reduction of unemployment. Other reasons for the project included enabling Germans to explore and appreciate their country, and there was a strong aesthetic element to the execution of the project under the Third Reich; military applications, although to a lesser extent than has often been thought; a permanent monument to the Third Reich, often compared to the pyramids; and general promotion of motoring as a modernization that in itself had military applications.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Hitler performed the first ceremonial shoveling of dirt on September 23, 1933, at Frankfurt, and work officially began simultaneously at multiple sites throughout the Reich the following spring. The first finished stretch, between Frankfurt and Darmstadt, opened on May 19, 1935, and the first were completed on September 23, 1936. After the annexation of Austria, the planned network was expanded to include the "Ostmark", and a second sod-breaking ceremony for the first "Reichsautobahn" on formerly Austrian territory took place near Salzburg on April 7, 1938. When work ceased in 1941 because of World War II, had been completed.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Two controlled-access highways had been built prior to the Nazi era. The long AVUS (short for – automobile traffic and practice road) was built in Berlin starting in 1913. The corporation to build it was organized in 1909, and construction continued during World War I using prisoners of war, but it was not completed and officially opened until 1921. This was originally intended as a race track and was used for testing vehicles and road surfaces, but it had many of the characteristics of the later Reichsautobahn and served as a model for Piero Puricelli's 1924 autostrada between Milan and the northern Italian lakes, the first true motorway in the world. In 1929–32, a highway some long that also resembled the Reichsautobahn except for the lack of a median strip was built between Cologne and Bonn using unemployed labor; on the basis of this, the then Lord Mayor of Cologne and chairman of the provincial committee for , Konrad Adenauer, could be credited as having built an autobahn before Hitler. The "Opladen bypass" between Cologne and Düsseldorf was also built in 1931–33. Adenauer also began construction of a ring road encircling Cologne, which was more in accord with demand at the time. According to a 1936–37 traffic survey, the highest road traffic was still around the major cities.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Corporations were also formed and plans drawn up for motorized highways between Mannheim and Heidelberg, between Munich and Berlin via Leipzig, between Munich and Lake Starnberg, between Leipzig and Halle, and between Cologne and Aachen, in addition to plans for networks totaling or in length. In 1930 the Ministry of Transportation became involved in trying to establish guidelines for the building of a highway network. Most notably, the organization known as HaFraBa or HAFRABA (an acronym for - Association for the preparation of the motorway Hamburg [later "Hansestädte", Hanseatic cities, after Lübeck and Bremen were added] – Frankfurt – Basel), was founded in 1926 at the instigation of , who had been inspired by the Italian highways, and projected a north–south highway to be expanded into a network. Detailed engineering specifications were prepared, bound in 70 volumes, and this planning would form the basis of the Reichsautobahn network.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: However, HAFRABA was never able to surmount the logistical problems of building a highway through many different jurisdictions, or the funding problems of such a large undertaking. Moreover, legislators condemned it as a luxury project that would benefit only the few wealthy enough to own cars; the Nazi Party was against public spending on highways for this reason, as were the Communists and the Reichsbahn, the German national railroad, which feared highways would take some of its freight business. Even the association of German car manufacturers did not support highway projects; they were concerned that long-distance driving would overtax their vehicles.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: After the Nazis came to power at the end of January 1933, their position changed rapidly. Fritz Todt produced a report arguing for the building of highways, "Straßenbau und Straßenverwaltung", known as the "Brown Report" ("Braune Denkschrift" or "Brauner Bericht"), and in a speech at the Berlin Motor Show on February 11, Hitler presented it as a necessity and as the future measure of a people, as railroads had been in the past. A law establishing the Reichsautobahn project under that name was passed on June 27, 1933, and the "Gesellschaft Reichsautobahnen" (Reichsautobahns Association) was founded on August 25 as a subsidiary of the Reichsbahn, thereby removing its objections. Todt was named "Generalinspektor für das deutsche Straßenwesen" (Inspector-General for the German Road System) on June 30. HAFRABA and other organizations were folded into the planning arm, known as GEZUVOR ("Gesellschaft zur Vorbereitung der Reichsautobahn", Society for the Preparation of the Reichsautobahn). The Chairman of the Board of HAFRABA, Dr. Ludwig Landmann, the Mayor of Frankfurt, was Jewish, which provided the Nazis with a reason to take it over. The autobahn was presented to the German public as Hitler's idea: he was represented as having sketched out the future network of highways while in Landsberg Prison in 1924. They were to be "the Führer's roads", a myth promoted by Todt himself, who coined the phrase and warned close associates not to "in any way [let] the impression arise that I built the autobahns. They are to be reckoned as simply and solely the Führer's roads." Hof, an enthusiastic party member, resigned on December 22, 1934; the editor of the HAFRABA magazine, Kurt Kaftan, had caused a political problem by presenting Hof as the originator of the idea, or jointly responsible for it with Hitler. The overlapping responsibilities of the "Gesellschaft Reichsautobahnen" (in charge of construction) and of Todt's office (in charge of planning but also of all roads in the Reich) exemplified the growth of central authorities in the Third Reich and inevitably led to conflicts, but only on January 1, 1941 was the Gesellschaft Reichsautobahnen removed from the Reichsbahn and placed directly under Todt.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: On August 5, 1933, a radio play by Peter Hagen and Hans Jürgen Nierenz, "Wir bauen eine Straße" ("We are Building a Road"), was broadcast throughout the Reich. On September 23, 1933, the first 720 unemployed marched to the Frankfurt Stock Exchange, where they were ceremonially invested with shovels as Reichsautobahn workers, then from there accompanied by SA men, marched behind Todt and Jakob Sprenger, the Reichsstatthalter of Hesse, to the bank of the Main. There after further speeches, Hitler was to inaugurate work on the autobahn system with the first ceremonial shoveling of dirt to form the base of an embankment. However, as Todt described the scene in an illustrated album published in 1935, "again and again his shovel plunged into the mound [of dirt]. This was no symbolic shoveling; this was real construction work!" Two of the workers "sprang ... to help him", and they worked "until the mound had been dealt with in an orderly fashion and ... the first drops of sweat were dripping from his brow onto the earth." The image of Hitler shoveling was used many times in propaganda, including superimposed on the workers' march in Heinrich Hoffmann's poster urging Germans to ratify the Nazi government in the November 1933 Reichstag election. The location was marked with a park and a commemorative stone.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Preparatory work at several sites was done over the following winter, but full-scale construction officially began on March 21, 1934, as the showpiece of the opening of the "Arbeitsschlacht" ("work battle"), which also included construction of dams and residences and agricultural work. Autobahn work sites had been established at 22 locations, governed by 9 regional work divisions (which became 15 by mid-1934), distributed throughout the Reich for maximum public visibility, and work was ceremonially initiated at 15 of the sites. At Unterhaching, Hitler made a short speech ending with the command, ""Fanget an!"" ("Begin!") This was broadcast nationwide on the radio, after which his representatives opened work with the first shoveling of dirt at the other 14 locations: Hermann Göring at Finowfurth near Berlin, for example. A monument in the highway median at Unterhaching later commemorated the event: it took the form of a cylinder inscribed with Hitler's command and the date and surmounted by shovels in the manner of weapons on a military monument. 15,000 workers were now engaged; however, at several of the work sites, the men were immediately sent home because mechanized excavations and other preparation had to be done first. According to a Sopade report in April–May 1934, only 6,000 workers on a stretch between Frankfurt and Heidelberg and 700 on a stretch between Munich and the border were actually active. GEZUVOR presented its 788 volumes of plans to Todt on June 1, 1934.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Despite initial promises that the first segment would open in September 1934, to coincide with the one-year anniversary of the ground-breaking and with the 7th International Road Congress, this did not happen until May 19, 1935, when the stretch between Frankfurt and Darmstadt was opened. Hitler rewarded Todt with a three-axle Mercedes-Benz touring car. Two further segments opened that year, a total of . The celebration of the first took place on September 27, 1936 at Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland), five segments being opened to traffic that day. were completed by the end of 1937, and by the end of 1938, when the planned network was also extended from to after the annexation of Austria and the Sudetenland. A second inaugural ceremony for the first autobahn construction on formerly Austrian soil took place on April 7, 1938, with Hitler shoveling dirt into a decorated dumpster near Salzburg, and on December 1, 1938, Rudolf Hess broke ground at Eger for a projected "transit autobahn" from Breslau to Vienna via Brünn (Brno). However, the emphasis on east–west connections and on attracting foreign tourists and promoting automobile touring meant that the completed sections did not constitute a useful network for freight transportation until 1937. In 1938, construction priorities shifted with the preparation for war. Todt was given responsibility for building the Westwall, and in 1939 only were added to the Reichsautobahn. In addition, Hitler ordered important sections of the autobahns to be widened, from to and ultimately to , which further diverted resources from building new sections.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Working conditions were hard and the pay very low, because it was based on the lowest local wage and unlike unemployment payments did not include an allowance for living expenses. There was also no payment until winter 1938 for bad weather days when work could not take place. Workers were initially housed in barracks, barns, industrial buildings, and tents, and complained about the work, the conditions, and the pay. On October 18, 1934, the workers on the Hamburg-Bremen segment of the autobahn at Gyhum went on strike; the 141 who could not be talked into resuming work were transported to Berlin for interrogation by the Gestapo. To avoid a recurrence of such problems, a policy was put in place of investigating men for political reliability before they were hired for work on the autobahn, access to the workers' camps was restricted, a surveillance network was instituted in which the Gestapo participated increasingly, and the few SA members among the workers were organized into "Baustürme" ("construction storms") that provided both example and intimidation at work sites. There were nonetheless several further strikes in 1935, and increasing numbers of fires were ascribed to sabotage by disgruntled workers. Todt attempted to make worker housing into "worthy lodgings", and had camps specially built, beginning with a model camp at Werbellin on the Berlin-Stettin autobahn that was opened in December 1934. "Kraft durch Freude" entertainment, books, and propaganda movies were also provided from that point on. One worker wrote in 1975 of the camp where he had lived in 1937 that he would still describe the living conditions as "absolutely model". However, conditions remained very poor. Work sites were often remote, as far as two hours' march from the camp, and had no access to food or water. The pressure on the workers was considerable, especially after Hitler publicly alluded in 1937 to the objective of completing a year. After mid-1936, workdays lasting 11 to 12 hours were the norm. There was a high incidence of back injuries to men who were unaccustomed to physical work after long unemployment and in many cases undernourished. Numerous accidents occurred, some fatal, due to the rapid pace of work, exhaustion, and unfamiliarity with heavy machinery; after the first five years, one worker died per completed.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: As the economy improved and the rearmament effort accelerated, it became impossible to find enough workers; they were for a while brought in from the big cities where unemployment remained highest, primarily Hamburg and Berlin, but in 1937 full employment was achieved, and armaments factories offered far superior pay and working conditions. The policy of minimizing the use of machinery was reversed and pay was increased, those unemployed who refused assignment to the autobahn were punished by suspension of benefits for up to 12 weeks, and after the annexation of Austria and of the Sudetenland, workers from there were almost immediately put to work on the autobahn, but increasingly the project used forced labor of various kinds. Several times, up to 1,400 youths fulfilling their obligation to work through the "Reichsarbeitsdienst" were used as autobahn workers, mostly doing simple hard labor, in November 1937, women and school-age children were put to work at a site in Silesia, and soon after, 17 and 18-year-olds in Hanover. Eventually, the inmates of re-education camps—the "work-shy", Social Democrats and Communists—constituted the majority of Reichsautobahn workers, and during the war increasing numbers of prisoners of war were used. The war also removed the main obstacle to using prison inmates and Jews from the concentration camps, that foreign visitors would see the necessary armed guards and form a bad impression; previously they had been used only at remote locations such as quarries. In October 1939 an SS re-education camp was built at Hinzert that housed recalcitrant workers on the autobahn as well as the Westwall; in all, 50 forced labor camps were established for Reichsautobahn workers, and transferred to regular SS use when construction stopped. In fall 1940, an internal report counted approximately 62,600 workers engaged on the autobahn, of whom approximately 21,900 were contract workers, 300 women, 28,600 prisoners including prisoners of war, 1,100 Poles, 5,700 Czechs, and 4,700 other foreigners.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: The Reichsautobahn network as it was ultimately conceived was to extend into most of the planned "Lebensraum" in the conquered territories; along with a trio of eastward and southward extensions of the extreme broad-gauge "Breitspurbahn" rail system, the highways were intended to provide the main connections for the "settlement strings" of German immigrant "Wehrbauer" communities to be located in conquered Soviet territory. The addition of Austria to the Reich in 1938 resulted in an extension of the previously Vienna-centered road system and major planning and construction efforts in the Alpine regions. The West Autobahn between Vienna and Salzburg was started within weeks with much publicity, but only a few kilometers around Salzburg were finished by 1942.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: After the war began in September 1939, a further of autobahn were completed, bringing the total to , before work ceased almost entirely in late 1941 with the worsening of the war situation in Russia. This included the connection of the Avus to the ring road around Berlin, celebrated on September 23, 1940, the seventh anniversary of Hitler's opening of the project. Work on approximately had begun but remained unfinished; of this, work had stopped on approximately in October 1940. Completion of the 4,000th kilometer was foreseen and a medallion designed to celebrate it, but that milestone was never reached. The engineers were put to work restoring bridges in the occupied territories and later, converting rail tracks in the USSR to standard gauge. In 1942 Albert Speer, who succeeded Todt after his death, folded the Reichsautobahn completely into the war-oriented Organisation Todt.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: In July 1941, Dieter Wisliceny, the "Judenberater" for Slovakia, invited Slovak government officials to tour several Reichsautobahn camps in Upper East Silesia. During the trip, the Reichsautobahn made inquiries about the use of Slovak Jews on its construction projects. However, Izidor Koso, president of the Interior Ministry, commented that the Germans' methods were "un-Christian and inhumane" and Slovakia would have to find another way. The visitors understood that Jews in Poland lived under conditions that would eventually cause mass death.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: A speed limit of had been imposed in May 1939 to save fuel; during the war this was lowered to , and private cars were allowed on the autobahns only in exceptional circumstances. (By 1943, traffic was so low that bicycles were permitted.) Other than official traffic, which picked up toward the end of the war, the autobahns were used for some deliveries of tank parts and finished U-boats and motor-boats, and as runways for fighter planes, including in one case for final assembly and test flights of Messerschmitt Me 262s after the factories in Augsburg and Regensburg were bombed. As the war progressed, vehicles were at risk of strafing by Allied aircraft. However, most damage to the autobahns was caused late in the war by the retreating Wehrmacht, which blew up numerous bridges in an effort to slow the Allied advance; on March 19, 1945, Hitler ordered the destruction in retreat of "all military, transportation, news, industrial, and provisions facilities".


title: Reichsautobahn

text: After the war, the Reichsautobahns were declared national property of the various post-war states (for example "Bundesvermögen", federal property, under Article 90 of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949) and became the foundation of the modern autobahn networks in Germany and Austria. Several stretches were no longer within the redrawn German borders, notably the unfinished highway between Berlin and Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia), now known unofficially as the Berlinka. Others were no longer useful because of the altered borders, including the occupation zone boundary that became the inner German border between the Federal Republic and the German Democratic Republic. A stretch of highway near Kaiserslautern became the access road to the U.S. Ramstein Air Base. Most of the destroyed bridges were either reconstructed or rebuilt in a different style, although the Saale River Bridge at Rudolphstein, on the inner German border, was not replaced until the 1960s. The debris of the destroyed bridges still lies below the rebuilt series of viaducts at the Drackensteiner Hang in the Swabian Alps. Elsewhere, unfinished autobahn construction was left abandoned; the Wommen Viaduct, also on the inner German border, was completed in 1993, after German reunification.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: The specifications for the autobahns were based on those developed by HAFRABA. They were designed as four-lane limited-access highways, with a central median, road surfaces in each direction normally wide (widened on some major segments immediately before the war), surfaced in concrete. There were no shoulders. In addition to having no intersections, the route was to limit grades as much as possible, to no more than 8%, and curves were to fall within a range of and in radius. One segment just south of Dessau of roughly 10 km in length was designed for speed record attempts (the "Dessauer Rennstrecke") and had six lanes in each direction.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: The network as planned had three east–west highways (between the Ruhr and Berlin via Hanover, between the Southwest and Munich via Stuttgart, and between the Main-Neckar region and Breslau via Erfurt and Leipzig), two north–south (between the Hanseatic cities and Basel via Frankfurt and between Königsberg and Munich via Stettin—now Szczecin in Poland—Berlin, and Nuremberg), and diagonal connections between Berlin and Hamburg and Breslau. HAFRABA's main north–south route was truncated; it was only completed in 1962. However, in addition to the extension of plans into the former Austria, as territories were added to the Reich during the early phases of the war, Reichsautobahn planning was extended to include them. Autobahn engineers went into Poland before the invasion was complete, Hitler ordered the incorporation of a highway reaching from Aachen through Brussels to Calais, and autobahns between Trier and Paris via Luxembourg, between Oslo and Trondheim in Norway, and between Yaroslavl and Kiev in the USSR and Riga, Latvia, and Leningrad were all being planned in 1940–41. Ground was broken by Todt himself on September 14, 1941, for the autobahn between Lübeck and Copenhagen.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: When construction was stopped, of the of completed highway segments, approximately 80% was surfaced in concrete, approximately 10% paved, and the remaining 10% surfaced with asphalt. This compared to approximately of concrete-surfaced roads in the Reich in 1933. Some stretches were only completed in one direction; in some low-traffic areas, particularly in Thuringia and Silesia, this was planned.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: The Reichsautobahn was initially to be financed by a road use tax, but in 1936 this was rejected and instead fuel taxes were raised and car owners taxed. In addition, the Reichsbahn and the national bank provided loans. However, approximately 60% of the financing came from the "Reichsanstalt für Arbeitsvermittlung und Arbeitslosenversicherung", the government employment department. At the end of the war, total costs were 6.5 billion Reichsmarks (equivalent to € billion in ), of which 4.6 billion RM was still owed, almost 74% to the employment department. Costs were inflated by the aesthetic requirements, by shortages of raw materials, by the need to repair work that had been performed poorly under time pressure, and by the initial failure to include in the cost estimates connector roads between the autobahns and existing roads. In post-war Germany, opinions of the Reichsautobahn included recognizing that it had been a white elephant.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Reduction of unemployment was presented as the main reason for the Reichsautobahn project, and propaganda both used the autobahn to represent the "Arbeitsschlacht" and Nazi reduction of unemployment in general and emphasized the project's role. This included misleading graphs and exaggerated statistics. For the first two years of construction, mechanization was avoided so far as possible in order to create more work (although lack of machinery was also a factor). Numerous celebrations all over the Reich kept the project in the public eye. It was therefore logical from the point of view of the regime that the majority of funding came from the employment department. Todt had foreseen the creation of at least 600,000 jobs. However, autobahn employment peaked in 1936 at 124,483 directly employed in construction and a similar number in the supply chain, so that the autobahn never directly or indirectly employed more than 250,000 workers. Rearmament was responsible for a far greater share of unemployment reduction, and the peak years of autobahn employment came long after the first two years of Nazi rule, when the need for jobs was most urgent.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Another important reason for building highways was to motorize Germany. This accorded with the Nazis' self-presentation as modernizers. On February 11, 1933, at the Berlin Motor Show, Hitler had already presented promotion of motoring as an important objective, and named an extensive road-building program as the third on his list of four means of realizing it. Weimar Germany was car-mad, and the number of private vehicles had increased from 130,346 in 1924 to 489,270 in 1932, but the percentage of car owners lagged behind that in other European countries, not to mention the U.S. This was still true in 1937; at best, most Germans could afford a motorbike, not a car, and the following year the highway commissioner of the State of Michigan observed, "Germany has the roads while we have the traffic." Car ownership was a "powerful public desire". Motoring and the use of the autobahn for outings were heavily promoted. German manufacturers produced touring buses for the non-car-owning public, and the Volkswagen (then called the "KdF-Wagen", Strength Through Joy car, for the Nazi recreation organization) was developed and marketed in association with the autobahn to promote car ownership; Hitler first publicly called for its development at the opening of the first Reichsautobahn segment. The war effort put an end to efforts at mass motorization, as savings and production cability for the KdF-Wagen instead went into the "Kübelwagen", the military version for all the branches (Wehrmacht Heer, Kriegsmarine and Luftwaffe) of the combined Wehrmacht armed forces. Mass production of the "Beetle" started only after 1945.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Motorization clearly had a military application, providing trucks and drivers that could be used by the military. In addition, Todt's report cited troop transportation as a reason to develop highways: he stated that using 100,000 requisitioned vehicles, it would be possible to transport 300,000 shock troops the width of the Reich in two nights. A second memorandum written six months later by Gottfried Feder also stressed military uses. The military disagreed. Georg Halter, professor of road construction and railroads at the Technical University of Munich and a Nazi Party member, wrote several pieces beginning in fall 1933 in which he contested Todt's report, with respect to strategic applications pointing out that road vehicles had less than a third of the weight capacity of railroad freight wagons, in addition to which the steel wheel-rims and treads of armored vehicles would severely damage the roadway. He also regarded the light-colored concrete that was to be used for the roadways as a guide for enemy aircraft (beginning in 1937, the surface was tinted black for this reason, which distressed Hitler) and the planned large viaducts as tempting targets, "like honey to wasps". Border segments that could have been useful at the start of the war had not been completed because of earlier fears that enemies would use them to invade, and weight testing was not performed until March 1939. The German military rarely used the autobahns for troop movements (one of the exceptions being transporting flak units); they were used much more extensively at war's end by the advancing Allies, who did indeed damage them in the process. In fact as the war continued, fuel shortages led the German military to make increasing use of horses rather than motorized transportation.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: It was once common to consider military applications as having been the true main reason the Nazis constructed autobahns, but historians now generally agree that this was an exaggeration. Foreigners suggested a covert military purpose for the Reichsautobahns as early as 1934, but a 1946 British Intelligence report noted that sections that would have been militarily useful were not completed and that some completed sections were not apparently used during the war. The project did, however, develop logistical skills and technology that were used for military purposes, notably in the building of the Westwall under Todt's supervision, and it disguised the development of those resources.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: A purpose for the project that increasingly came to the fore was to unify Germany, by enabling Germans to explore it and appreciate its beauty; including the new territories that had been added to the Reich under the Nazis; Albert Speer stated that the autobahns were uniform in design to express the unity of the Reich. In 1933 Todt hired Alwin Seifert, a landscape architect, as his deputy on the Reichsautobahn project and gave him the title "Reichslandschaftsanwalt" (Reich supervisor of landscape protection). Seifert called for architects, rural planners, plant sociology experts and ecologists to contribute to the effort, and maps were made of the native vegetation with the intention of preserving it and providing a "genuine" experience of the landscape. A "Landschaftsanwalt" (counsel for the landscape) was appointed in each construction district to ensure minimum harm, and in 1935 Hitler temporarily stopped work on the Berlin - Munich autobahn near Bayreuth because of harm to the landscape.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Nonetheless, the first completed segments were based on the HAFRABA plans and thus consisted of straightaways long joined by curves that were arcs of circles, as in railroads; the minimum radius of the curves was defined in planning documents (, less in mountainous terrain, down to ). A debate spearheaded by Seifert, who argued that straight stretches were "unnatural" and moreover would lead to accidents through highway hypnosis, led to increasing dominance of the view that the autobahns should provide, as Emil Maier-Dorn put it in 1938, "not the shortest but, rather, the most sublime connection between two points". By 1939 and possibly earlier, sinuous forms predominated. Although Todt had hired Seifert and his landscapers in order to ensure the "German character" of the autobahn, he initially favored the railroad engineers' views on layout; the decisive factor was cost, namely the reduction in the number of embankments and bridges needed.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: The showpiece aesthetic stretch of the Reichsautobahn was the Irschenberg on the autobahn from Munich to the Austrian border, where instead of passing through the valley, the highway was routed in a curving path up the hill to the summit, from which there was a full view of the Alps to the south. A rest stop was located there. (The Irschenberg autobahn segment was one of those that limited the usefulness of the highways for freight transport, and with the increase in traffic after the war it became a notorious bottleneck and accident site. Many such segments have been straightened and in some cases the highway has been relocated.) In 1936 Otto Illauer's view of this stretch of highway won first prize in the photography contest "Die schöne Straße in Bau und unter Verkehr" (the beautiful road under construction and in use); the only criticism of the picture was that the contrast between the light-colored road and the landscape was too harsh, illustrating the strong desire for harmony between the highway and its surroundings. In fact this entire segment epitomizes planning to maximize aesthetic appreciation of the landscape. Todt, who was credited with choosing the route, described it as an orchestrated experience culminating in the surprise view of the Chiemsee, where "[a]nyone who has a proper feel for this landscape ... turns off the motor and silently glides down the three-kilometer-long slope to the southern shore of the lake, where a bathing beach, parking places, or the [inn] invite you to stay and rest"; and according to Seifert, of the 13 possibilities for the continuation from the Chiemsee down to the Salzburg plain, the engineers had selected the only one that "[made] the impossible possible" by "continu[ing the sequence of landscape beauty] ... on another level".


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Both the hilltop rest stop at the Irschenberg and the rest stop at the Chiemsee were in accordance with general practice on the Reichsautobahn: the highway detoured from the direct route to provide access to cultural sights and views, and rest stops and filling stations were constructed at these points to facilitate leaving the car to appreciate them. For example, at the Annaberg in Silesia (now Góra Świętej Anny, Poland), while the highway was kept a respectful distance away, a parking lot was provided from which motorists could make the ten-minute walk to the mausoleum of the members of the Freikorps who had fallen there in 1921 at the Battle of Annaberg and to the Thingspiel arena below it. Similarly, bridges were to avoid the "inorganic architecture" of the 19th century associated with the Reichsbahn, and were not to obtrude into the motorist's view with high arches, so they were almost unnoticeable from the highway, and therefore viewing platforms were provided so that travelers could stop to see and admire them.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Mitigating damage to the environment was a concern, as part of creating an authentic experience of the landscape, which was to unroll like a movie from the motorist's perspective. The median strip was therefore relatively narrow; trees were retained close to the highway and sometimes, for example in the oak forest near Dessau, in the median. In fact the driver's experience of the forest, assigned symbolic importance in German Romanticism and particularly under the Nazis, was maximized by avoiding straightaways in forested areas so that the driver remained enclosed by the trees as long as possible. To some extent the autobahn landscapers were influenced in this emphasis on the natural environment by the American parkways; Todt had a 1934 USDA bulletin on "Roadside Improvement" reprinted for his planners' use, and Nazi designers visited Westchester County to study them, about the same time that the Westchester County Parks Commission (WCPC) was partly overseeing the construction of what is today the Taconic State Parkway's southern stretches. But the Reichsautobahn aimed for a more natural, less parklike view from the road, and although in both countries using natively occurring plants in highway landscaping was important, the Americans selectively emphasized those with an attractive appearance. Also, the autobahn was at the time presented, by Todt and others, as an improvement to the natural landscape; Todt refused to avoid the Siebengebirge, a protected conservation area, arguing not only that the area should be opened up for visits but that the road would make it more beautiful. This was not the policy in the U.S., where, most famously, the Blue Ridge Parkway was designed to be narrow and unobtrusive. Cost had the opposite effect with respect to plantings than it did with respect to curves: the Reichsautobahn landscapers had performed pioneering analyses of local ecosystems that led them to plant intensively in order to reconstruct what they determined would have been naturally present at the site, but at the end of 1936, as a result of cost overruns as well as his personal philosophy, Todt severely curtailed plantings, calling for an emphasis on open views.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: From the 1950s through the 1970s there was a broad-based movement in West Germany to remove trees from beside the autobahns as a danger, greatly changing their appearance.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: All advertising was banned on the Reichsautobahn. Instead of advertising signs, noticeboards to be used to alert drivers to telephone messages were placed on the median near exits. The Reichsautobahn and its innkeeping subsidiary retained all commercial rights in a strip extending in either direction from the highway; gasoline was bought in bulk and sold by the Reichsautobahn, so that there were no brand names on the filling stations, and station attendants trained at a special school at Michendorf on the Berlin ring road so that they would correctly embody the autobahn. "Straßenmeistereien" (road governance stations) at roughly intervals maintained the highway and assisted motorists in trouble. These were usually located near settlements, where they provided jobs for 15 to 20 people. The first filling stations were located in the triangle formed by the exit and access lanes, and were of simple, modern design, most of them built to a few standardized designs; the Bauhaus architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe designed two. Beginning in 1936–37, they were relocated to the side of the road where there was more space, and developed from purely utilitarian service stations into rest stops with overnight accommodation intended to be attractive to the driver. Both the rest stops and the less visible "Straßenmeistereien" were designed to reflect local architecture, to guard against the danger of the autobahn acting as a homogenizing influence. So, for example, the Chiemsee rest stop took the form of an Alpine chalet. The result has been described as "a kind of "völkisch" Disney World". Seifert went so far as to write in 1941 that the rest stops should reflect their locations "not only in material and form, but also in their interiors, their dishware, their decorations ... right up to the check and the music". However, the Alpine style tended to predominate.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Probably most importantly, the autobahns were created as a monument to the Third Reich, both internally and internationally; in the words of historian Thomas Zeller, "to symbolize power and the conquest of space". Todt insisted that they always be referred to as the Reichsautobahns, never simply "autobahns", and sought to eliminate use of the rival term "Kraftfahrbahn" (motor route).


title: Reichsautobahn

text: They were frequently classed as a wonder of the modern world and especially compared to the Egyptian pyramids. For example, Emil Maier-Dorn wrote: "The Reichsautobahn must become, like the Great Wall of China, like the Acropolis of the Athenians, [and] like the pyramids of Egypt, a tower[ing presence] on the landscape of history, [it] must stand like a duke in the parade of human achievements."


title: Reichsautobahn

text: One aspect of this was the sheer size of the project, which was constantly presented to the public not only by ceremonies starting work on and opening segments, but by radio broadcasts (including at least two dramas as well as informational broadcasts and coverage of ceremonies), posters, postcards, stamp issues, calendars, board games, etc., and a major exhibition, "Die Straße" (The Road), which opened in Munich in 1934 and in which the autobahns were presented in artworks as the culmination of the history of human roadbuilding. This exhibition was subsequently shown in Berlin and Breslau, and other exhibitions occurred later in, for example, Prague (1940) and Budapest (1942).


title: Reichsautobahn

text: The Reichsautobahn was also prominently represented in the 1937 exhibition celebrating the first four years of the regime's achievements, "Gebt mir vier Jahre Zeit" (Give Me Four Years, a slogan of Hitler's). In addition, Todt commissioned official artists, particularly , and photographers, particularly Erna Lendvai-Dircksen, to depict the construction of the autobahns in heroic terms.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Full-length movies called "Fahrzeuge und Straßen im Wandel der Zeiten" (Vehicles and Roads Throughout Time; scripted in 1934) and "Die große Straße" (The Great Road; to have been directed by Robert A. Stemmle) were never made; however, work on the autobahns is the setting of Stemmle's 1939 "Mann für Mann" (Man for Man), Harald Paulsen's "Stimme aus dem Äther" from earlier in the same year includes chase scenes on the autobahn, and some 50 short films were made about the project, including both technical films such as "Vom Wald zur Straßendecke" (From the Forest to the Road Surface, 1937) and shorts for popular consumption such as "Bahn Frei!" (Open Road) and UFA's "Vierhundert bauen eine Brücke" (Four Hundred Build a Bridge, 1937). These last were "Kulturfilme" (cultural films), which were shown at Party and club meetings and together with the "Wochenschau" (newsreel) formed part of theater programs. The autobahns also gave rise to several novels and a considerable amount of poetry.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: As Ernst Bloch wrote in 1937, the autobahns, despite their magnitude, were "rather flat". Photomontages attempted to impress upon the public the sheer volume of earth moved and materials used to build them, but the primary means of demonstrating the monumentality of the achievement were bridges and sculpture.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: Because it had no intersections, the autobahn required a huge number of bridges and underpasses. These were initially purely utilitarian in design, but after inspecting the first completed stretch, Todt sought to give them a more unified and aesthetic appearance. Paul Bonatz, who was hired in 1934 to oversee bridge design on the Reichsautobahn, wrote a few months before that they should be as unnoticeable as possible, minimal in mass and in obstruction of view. Like the rest stops, they were also designed to reflect local building styles and materials. One exception that proved the rule was the bare steel bridges spanning the "Dessauer Rennstrecke" high-speed section, which expressed its high-tech purpose and also alluded to the Junkers aircraft company that was headquartered in Dessau.


title: Reichsautobahn

text: The relatively few large bridges were major design statements; Todt wrote in 1937 that they "should not be [designed] for 1940, nor yet for 2000, but ... should extend their dominating presence, like the cathedrals of our past, into future millennia." The first of these was the Mangfall Bridge at Weyarn, a girder bridge designed by German Bestelmeyer that spanned the valley on two double pylons of reinforced concrete. Built in 1934–36, this served as the model for several subsequent autobahn bridges, and a model of one of the huge pylons dominated the Reichsautobahn exhibit at the "Gebt mir vier Jahre Zeit" exhibition.