title: Samuel Richardson

text: Although few were bothered by the epistolary style, Richardson feels obliged to continue his postscript with a defence of the form based on the success of it in "Pamela".


title: Samuel Richardson

text: However, some did question the propriety of having Lovelace, the villain of the novel, act in such an immoral fashion. The novel avoids glorifying Lovelace, as Carol Flynn puts it,


title: Samuel Richardson

text: But Richardson still felt the need to respond by writing a pamphlet called "Answer to the Letter of a Very Reverend and Worthy Gentleman". In the pamphlet, he defends his characterizations and explains that he took great pains to avoid any glorification of scandalous behaviour, unlike the authors of many other novels that rely on characters of such low quality.


title: Samuel Richardson

text: In 1749, Richardson's female friends started asking him to create a male figure as virtuous as his heroines "Pamela" and "Clarissa" in order to "give the world his idea of a good man and fine gentleman combined". Although he did not at first agree, he eventually complied, starting work on a book in this vein in June 1750. Near the end of 1751, Richardson sent a draft of the novel "The History of Sir Charles Grandison" to Mrs. Donnellan, and the novel was being finalized in the middle of 1752. When the novel was being printed in 1753, Richardson discovered that Irish printers were trying to pirate the work. He immediately fired those he suspected of giving the printers advanced copies of "Grandison" and relied on multiple London printing firms to help him produce an authentic edition before the pirated version was sold. The first four volumes were published on 13 November 1753, and in December the next two would follow. The remaining volume was published in March to complete a seven-volume series while a six-volume set was simultaneously published, and these met success. In "Grandison", Richardson was unwilling to risk having a negative response to any "rakish" characteristics that Lovelace embodied and denigrated the immoral characters "to show those mischievous young admirers of Lovelace once and for all that the rake should be avoided".


title: Samuel Richardson

text: In his final years, Richardson received visits from Archbishop Secker, other important political figures, and many London writers. By that time, he enjoyed a high social position and was Master of the Stationers' Company. In early November 1754, Richardson and his family moved from the Grange to a home at Parsons Green, now in west London. During this time Richardson received a letter from Samuel Johnson asking for money to pay a debt that Johnson was unable to afford. On 16 March 1756, Richardson responded with more than enough money and their friendship was certain by this time.


title: Samuel Richardson

text: At the same time as he was associating with important figures of the day, Richardson's career as a novelist drew to a close. "Grandison" was his final novel, and he stopped writing fiction afterwards. It was "Grandison" that set the tone for Richardson's followers after his death. However, he was continually prompted by various friends and admirers to continue to write along with suggested topics. Richardson did not like any of the topics, and chose to spend all of his time composing letters to his friends and associates. The only major work that Richardson would write would be "A Collection of the Moral and Instruction Sentiments, Maxims, Cautions, and Reflexions, contained in the Histories of Pamela, Clarissa, and Sir Charles Grandison". Although it is possible that this work was inspired by Johnson asking for an "index rerum" for Richardson's novels, the "Collection" contains more of a focus on "moral and instructive" lessons than the index that Johnson sought.


title: Samuel Richardson

text: After June 1758, Richardson began to suffer from insomnia, and in June 1761, he was afflicted with apoplexy. This moment was described by his friend, Miss Talbot, on 2 July 1761:


title: Samuel Richardson

text: Two days later, aged 71, on 4 July 1761, Richardson died at Parsons Green and was buried at St. Bride's Church in Fleet Street near his first wife Martha.


title: Samuel Richardson

text: During Richardson's life, his printing press produced about 10,000 pieces, including novels, historical texts, Acts of Parliament, and newspapers, making his print house one of the most productive and diverse in the 18th century. He wanted to keep the press in his family, but after the death of his four sons and a nephew, his printing press would be left in his will to his only surviving male heir, a second nephew. This happened to be a nephew whom Richardson did not trust, doubting his abilities as a printer. Richardson's fears proved well-founded, for after his death the press stopped producing quality works and eventually stopped printing altogether. Richardson owned copyrights to most of his works, and these were sold after his death, in twenty-fourth share issues, with shares in "Clarissa" bringing in 25 pounds each and those for "Grandison" bringing in 20 pounds each. Shares in "Pamela", sold in sixteenths, went for 18 pounds each.


title: Samuel Richardson

text: Richardson was a skilled letter writer and his talent traces back to his childhood. Throughout his whole life, he would constantly write to his various associates. Richardson had a "faith" in the act of letter writing, and believed that letters could be used to accurately portray character traits. He quickly adopted the epistolary novel form, which granted him "the tools, the space, and the freedom to develop distinctly different characters speaking directly to the reader". The epistolary form gave Richardson, as well as others, the means to impact his audience more effectively as readers were able to get a more intimate insight into a novel’s characters. This allowed a stronger sense of engagement with the text to develop. Richardson structured his epistolary work to offer multiple perspectives so readers could interpret the text in varied ways. However, Richardson “hoped he would eventually convince his audience to read in the ways that he chose—ways that he hoped would lead to moral regeneration.” These epistolary novels were a “moral project” as well as a literary one; Susan Whyman writes that Richardson’s “goal was not only to reform reading practices but to reform lives as well.”


title: Samuel Richardson

text: In his first novel, "Pamela", he explored the various complexities of the title character's life, and the letters allow the reader to witness her develop and progress over time. The novel was an experiment, but it allowed Richardson to create a complex heroine through a series of her letters. When Richardson wrote "Clarissa", he had more experience in the form and expanded the letter writing to four different correspondents, which created a complex system of characters encouraging each other to grow and develop over time. However, the villain of the story, Lovelace, is also involved in the letter writing, and this leads to tragedy. Leo Braudy described the benefits of the epistolary form of "Clarissa" as, "Language can work: letters can be ways to communicate and justify". By the time Richardson writes "Grandison", he transforms the letter writing from telling of personal insights and explaining feelings into a means for people to communicate their thoughts on the actions of others and for the public to celebrate virtue. The letters are no longer written for a few people, but are passed along in order for all to see. The characters of "Pamela", "Clarissa", and "Grandison" are revealed in a personal way, with the first two using the epistolary form for "dramatic" purposes, and the last for "celebratory" purposes.


title: Paradise Hotel

text: Paradise Hotel is an American reality television program. In the show, a group of singles live in a luxurious hotel resort, competing to see who can stay in the hotel the longest. Each week, the contestants pair off into couples, and must share a hotel room together. One person is left over, and he or she must either pair up in the following episode, or leave the hotel to be replaced by a new contestant. The format was created by Mentorn, a British production company, which has produced various versions of the show around the world.


title: Paradise Hotel

text: The show premiered on Fox in 2003, and was hosted by Amanda Byram. A second season, also hosted by Byram, was broadcast on MyNetworkTV and Fox Reality Channel in 2008. Fox revived "Paradise Hotel" in 2019, with new host Kristin Cavallari, but Fox cancelled the series again in August 2019.


title: Paradise Hotel

text: The first season of "Paradise Hotel", hosted by Amanda Byram, aired on Fox from June 18 to October 1, 2003, and consists of thirty episodes. The winners of the first season were Charla Pihlstrom and Keith Cuda, with Dave Kerpen and Tara Gerard finishing as runners-up. Charla and Keith had to decide whether to split their $250,000 prize with their respective partners – Keith decided to share his winnings with Tara, while Charla chose to keep the money for herself and give Dave nothing.


title: Paradise Hotel

text: A second season, titled Paradise Hotel 2, began airing on February 4, 2008, on the Fox-owned networks MyNetworkTV and Fox Reality Channel. It consists of sixteen episodes and a reunion special. Amanda Byram returned as host, and Mark Thompson returned as announcer.


title: Paradise Hotel

text: New episodes aired on MyNetworkTV Monday nights at 9 p.m., and repeated Saturday nights at 9 p.m. Fox Reality Channel aired more explicit, TV-MA versions of the episodes, at 1 a.m. on the same night that they premiered on MyNetworkTV, and repeated these episodes throughout the following week.


title: Paradise Hotel

text: Stephanie and Zack were the winners, but the runners-up, Tidisha and Ryan, were given the responsibility of choosing only one member of the winning couple to claim the "ultimate prize". They chose Zack, who was awarded $200,000. He chose to share $20,000 with Tidisha and $90,000 with Stephanie, keeping the remaining $90,000 for himself.


title: Paradise Hotel

text: In 2019, Fox ordered a revival of the series. Casting began in January, and Kristin Cavallari was chosen as the new host. The third season premiered on May 9, 2019. The revival's season was truncated, with its season finale airing on June 6, 2019. The winners as chosen by a jury of the other former contestants were Bobby Ray and Tatum, beating Carlos and Kaitlin, but in the final twist Bobby Ray chose to keep $200,000 of the prize for himself, leaving Tatum with nothing. The revival was officially canceled by Fox in August 2019.


title: Paradise Hotel

text: Despite being only a modest success in the United States, the "Paradise Hotel" franchise has been described as "an international hit", spawning versions in eighteen countries.


title: Ford of Europe

text: Ford of Europe GmbH is a subsidiary company of Ford Motor Company founded in 1967 in Cork, Ireland, with headquarters in Cologne, Germany.


title: Ford of Europe

text: Ford of Europe was founded in 1967 by the merger of Ford of Britain, Ford Germany, and Irish Henry Ford & Son Ltd divisions of the Ford Motor Company. The front-engined Ford Transit range of panel vans launched in 1965, was the first formal co-operation between the two entities, simultaneously developed to replace the German Ford Taunus Transit and the British Ford Thames 400E. Prior to this, the two companies avoided marketing their vehicles in one another's domestic markets, and in much of the rest of western Europe were direct competitors, with totally separate product lines, despite being owned by the same American parent, in a similar manner to General Motors’ Opel and Vauxhall subsidiaries at the same time - indeed GM followed Ford's precedent in the 1970s by merging the operations of Opel and Vauxhall into General Motors Europe. The process took several years to complete, as new model ranges arrived and the older model ranges were gradually phased out. One of the key justifications for keeping separate divisions was to circumvent the high trade tariffs imposed on vehicles being exported between Britain and the European Economic Community, however once the UK joined the bloc in 1973, it made sense to standardise the model ranges throughout Britain and Continental Europe. Crucially merging the two companies' operations and having a common product range would allow Ford to double source cars and components from either British or Continental plants (the Fiesta for example was simultaneously assembled at Dagenham, Valencia and Cologne), something which was especially important due to the fraught industrial relations problems which plagued the British motor industry in the 1970s; and would prove crucial in Ford's ascendancy in the UK market and overtaking the troubled British Leyland.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The first new model launched after the creation of Ford of Europe was the Escort, built in England from October 1967 and launched to market at the beginning of 1968. The Escort was a rear-wheel drive small family saloon that took the place of the British Anglia range and was built in both Britain and from 1970, Germany, although it was sold there from the outset. It was first available as a two-door saloon and later in estate, van and four-door saloon bodystyles. Power came from 950 CC, 1100 CC, and 1300 CC petrol engines. Later there was also a 2000 cc unit which came in the RS2000 performance version and was capable of . It quickly became popular with buyers, outselling key UK competitors from BMC (later British Leyland), Vauxhall (Opel in Germany) and the Rootes Group. The Escort would never achieve such dominance in Europe's largest auto market, but nevertheless took significant market share from the Opel and Volkswagen competitors of the time.


title: Ford of Europe

text: Ford Europe's second new car launch was the Capri sporting coupé at the beginning of 1969. Loosely based on Ford UK's rear-wheel drive Mk II Cortina saloon platform, it came with engines ranging from 1300 cc to 3000 cc and was made in Britain and Germany (with a different range of German V4 and V6 engines) and was an instant success, frequently featuring as one of Britain's top 10 best-selling cars and also doing well in most other European markets.


title: Ford of Europe

text: August 1970 saw the launch of the British Ford Cortina Mk III and its German cousin, the Taunus (replacing the Taunus 12M & 15M). The British and German models were based on the same platform, but had different sheet metal and used engines from their home countries, though both models could be had with the new German-built 2000cc OHC petrol engine. By 1972, the Cortina was the best-selling car in Britain and would stay at the top spot until 1981, except for 1976 when the smaller Escort was Britain's top-selling car for that year.


title: Ford of Europe

text: In March 1972, Ford Europe replaced their executive models from Britain (Zephyr/Zodiac) and Germany (17M/20M/26M) with the Consul and Granada (large saloon, estate and coupé) which was aimed directly at the Opel Rekord, Rover P6, Audi 100 and Triumph 2000. It quickly outsold its rivals in many countries and in 1973 was the tenth best-selling car in Britain. Like the Capri and Cortina/Taunus models, the early Consuls and Granadas were built in both Britain and Germany, each with a unique range of national engines.


title: Ford of Europe

text: In the early 1970s, Ford took the decision to enter the growing European supermini market and began to develop a competitor for the well-received new Fiat 127 and Renault 5. A site near Valencia, Spain, was chosen to build a new factory in order to accommodate production for the new car which was scheduled for a mid-1970s launch.


title: Ford of Europe

text: A revised Capri II arrived in early 1974 which saw a hatchback replacing the traditional "boot". This was the first time that Ford had produced a car with a hatchback, adopting this new concept which had first been patented by Renault in the mid-1960s.


title: Ford of Europe

text: Ford launched the Escort II at the start of 1975 which was essentially a rebodied version of the 1968 car and was largely mechanical identical, despite the larger, squarer body. The entry-level 950 cc engine which was rare in any country, was discontinued.


title: Ford of Europe

text: In 1975, Ford overtook British Leyland (the combine which included Austin, Morris and Rover) as the most popular make of car in the United Kingdom.


title: Ford of Europe

text: 1976 saw Ford Europe enter the supermini market with its first ever front-wheel-drive model. The Fiesta I was built at the company's new Valencia plant in Spain (and would also be produced at Dagenham and Cologne) and came with 950 cc, 1100 cc and 1300 cc petrol engines. It was briefly exported to the United States and Canada between 1978 and 1980. From 1981, it was available with a 1600 cc unit for the sporty XR2 version. In Britain where it launched in February 1977 and most of the rest of Europe took to it straight away and it was quickly among the best-selling cars in most of the continent, fighting off competition from the Volkswagen Polo, Renault 5, Fiat 127, Vauxhall Chevette and Peugeot 104.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The new Taunus saloon and estate were launched on the continent at the end of 1975, with the UK market Cortina version being launched in late September 1976. The integration of the Ford range across Europe was now virtually complete, with the different nameplates on the Taunus/Cortina being the only separator.


title: Ford of Europe

text: Ford launched the Granada II range in September 1977. In 1976, all Granada production had been concentrated to Cologne, Germany. The Consul badge was abandoned in 1975.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The Mk III Capri coupé arrived in early 1978. By now Capri production was also concentrated at Cologne. In 1979, the Cortina/Taunus was given a very light facelift to create the "Cortina 80" (or Cortina Mk5). However, this was very much a short-term measure, as Ford was beginning to develop an all-new successor ready for a 1982 launch.


title: Ford of Europe

text: 1980 saw one of the most important car launches in Ford's history. The Escort III went on sale across Britain and Europe in September that year, with its ultra-modern aerodynamic styling and updated front-wheel drive mechanical layout. It was also available as a hatchback for the first time, with the Escort-based Orion saloon not arriving until 1983. The 2000 cc engine was dropped and the range-topping Escort was now the XR3 which came with a fuel-injected 1600 cc unit. It was a huge sales success for the company throughout the 1980s, being Britain's best selling car from 1982 to 1989 and also topping the sales charts in several other countries.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The 1980s saw a radical change in most of the European Fords which had begun in September 1980 when the Escort switched to front-wheel drive and a hatchback from the traditional rear-wheel drive saloon which became a huge sales success across Europe.


title: Ford of Europe

text: 20 years of Cortina production came to an end in October 1982 with the launch of the new Ford Sierra. The new car retained the traditional rear-wheel-drive chassis, perhaps surprisingly at the time when a front-wheel drive system was becoming almost exclusive in this sector of car. But in place of its predecessor's conventional, square styling was Sierra's ultramodern aerodynamic styling that was way ahead of its time compared to the competition. Initial sales were disappointing, but demand soon increased and the Sierra was Britain's third best-selling car in 1983, its first full year on sale. It was built in Great Britain and Belgium and sold well in just about every European country. Cosworth versions of the Sierra were built from 1986, all of which were capable of . The three-door Sierra hatchback, mostly sold with only a 1.3 petrol engine, was not a popular choice and had been discontinued by the time the Sierra was facelifted in early 1987 when a Sapphire saloon version was launched and the 1.3 engine dropped. The original Sierra Cosworth was the last model in the range to feature a three-door hatchback.


title: Ford of Europe

text: 1983 saw the seven-year-old Ford Fiesta receive an updated MK2 version that retained the three-door hatchback bodyshell but smoothed out the previously boxy edges to give it a more modern look and keep it competitive with a string of new European and Japanese superminis which hit the market during 1982 and 1983. The sporty XR2 version was relaunched and its power output was increased, as well as receiving the first five-speed gearbox ever fitted to a Fiesta. Also in that year, Ford introduced a new four-door saloon to meet the demands of buyers looking for a booted alternative to the Escort and Sierra hatchbacks and estates. The saloon derived version of the Escort was named as the Orion but was aimed more upmarket than the Escort with no 1.1 litre engined version and initially only GL and Ghia trim levels. It was almost as long as a Sierra and many saw it as a true replacement for the traditional Cortina.


title: Ford of Europe

text: Ford launched another ground-breaking new car in May 1985 with the Granada-replacing Ford Scorpio, although the Granada name was retained in the United Kingdom and Ireland with "Scorpio" being used as a sub-brand for the highest specification models. It was based on a stretched version of Sierra's rear-wheel-drive chassis and was far more modern looking than any other cars in its sector at this time, being similar in appearance to the smaller Sierra. It was also the world's first volume production car to feature anti-lock brakes as standard. High equipment levels, a comfortable interior and solid build quality ensured that the German-built Scorpio was a success all over Europe and was voted European Car of the Year for 1986. A saloon version had joined the range by early 1990, as had a 2.9 V6 Cosworth high-performance hatchback while an estate version arrived in early 1992 as it was nearing replacement.


title: Ford of Europe

text: An updated Escort and Orion appeared in March 1986, called the "Mark 4", it featured Scorpio-influenced front-end styling, revised engine options and an all-new interior.


title: Ford of Europe

text: Production of the Capri coupé ended in December 1986 after 18 years and there was no replacement, although stocks of the model were sold into 1987, as sporting coupés were less popular at this time following the rise in popularity of fast hatchbacks such as the Ford Escort XR3i, Vauxhall Astra GTE, Peugeot 309 GTI and Volkswagen Golf GTI. Ford had proved successful in this sector with faster versions of the Fiesta, Escort, and Sierra.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The Sierra was facelifted in early 1987 and gained a saloon version for the first time, called the Sapphire, ensuring that it continued to sell well into the 1990s.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The third generation Fiesta was launched in March 1989 and the big news of the launch was the long-awaited availability of a five-door version, something that was already available on key rivals like the Austin Metro, Vauxhall Nova, Fiat Uno, SEAT Ibiza and the Peugeot 205. New to the range were the new 1.0 and 1.1 HCS (High Compression Swirl) petrol engines which ran alongside the long-running 1.4 unit. There was also a 1.8 diesel as well as the 1.6 fuel injected XR2i and RS Turbo sports models, the first Fiestas to feature fuel injection. Upmarket Ghia models were the first versions of the Fiesta to feature items such as electric windows and anti-lock brakes and was only available with the new five-door version.


title: Ford of Europe

text: For much of the 1980s, the Ford Escort was the most popular model of car in the world and from 1982 to 1989, it was the best-selling new car in the UK every year. Despite the launch of the MK4 in March 1986, it was started to look a little dated by the end of the decade in the face of newer rivals like the Rover 200, Peugeot 309, Fiat Tipo and Renault 19.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The Mk5 Escort was launched in September 1990, along with the Orion saloon, but the motoring public and press gave it mixed to negative reviews. The car's styling lacked the flair of some rivals and it received mostly negative ratings for ride and handling, while it also retained the engine line-up of the previous generation with 1.3, 1.4 & 1.6 petrol units and a 1.8 diesel. The standard Escort models were later joined by the RS2000, XR3i and RS Cosworth performance versions that attracted a much more positive reaction. The RS2000 nameplate had been abandoned back in 1980 and the new version was undoubtedly the best, with its 2.0 16-valve I4 engine and the option of four-wheel drive, as well as its impressive top speed of more than . The RS Cosworth was a turbocharged version of the RS2000 and had a top speed of which helped bolster its fortunes in international rallies.


title: Ford of Europe

text: In spite of this and impressive new models being launched by rival companies Vauxhall and Rover, Ford were still firmly positioned at the top of the British car sales charts in the early 1990s and enjoyed a strong market share in virtually all European countries, expanding into Eastern Europe at the beginning of the 1990s following the collapse of communism. They even enlisted the help of Brian May to record a new song, Driven by you which featured in their new TV advertising campaign for the whole Ford range in the UK.


title: Ford of Europe

text: Ford responded to criticism of the Escort's shortcomings in September 1992 with a minor facelift which saw the introduction of its impressive new 1.4, 1.6 and 1.8 Zetec 16-valve units, the latter of which also found its way into the Fiesta RS1800. The Orion also received the same changes, only for the name to be shelved a year later and the saloon models absorbed into the Escort range. Ride and handling was also improved.


title: Ford of Europe

text: For 1993, Ford introduced a standard driver's airbag on all production models, with many cars also coming with a passenger's airbag as either standard or optional equipment.


title: Ford of Europe

text: February 1993 saw Ford launch a ground-breaking new family car in the shape of the Mondeo, the replacement for the Sierra made to rival the newer Opel Vectra/Vauxhall Cavalier, Peugeot 405 and Nissan Primera. Finally making the transition to front-wheel drive, the Mondeo came with an impressive range of new 16-valve Zetec petrol engines as well as a 2.5 V6 that joined the line-up in 1994. It was also one of the first volume production cars to feature an airbag as standard. Hatchback, saloon and estate versions made up the range which won European Car of the Year accolade the following year. 1993 also saw the launch of its first European 4x4 model, the Maverick which was based on the Nissan Terrano II. However, the Maverick was not a strong seller and it was discontinued in early 1999. 1994 was the year where Ford regained leadership of the large family car sector market in Britain in terms of sales, as the Vauxhall Cavalier had been the best seller of this size for the previous four years. From 1996 to 2001, Ford also imported its Explorer SUV to Europe from the USA, but like the smaller Spanish-built Maverick, it was not a strong seller either.


title: Ford of Europe

text: Ford reentered the coupé market in early 1994 with its American-built, Mazda-based Probe. Available with 2.0 16-valve and 2.5 V6 petrol engines, the Probe was well regarded for its handling and performance but failed to sell as well as Ford had hoped and was withdrawn from Europe three years later. Its American-built replacement, the Ford Cougar, was imported from Europe but was even shorter-lived and less successful in Europe, with imports finishing after just two years.


title: Ford of Europe

text: October 1994 saw the launch of the second generation Scorpio which replaced the long-running Granada nameplate in the UK and Ireland and sold with saloon and estate models only, the model quickly gained attention due to its controversial styling which was often criticised in the motoring press.


title: Ford of Europe

text: 1995 saw Ford launch its MK4 Fiesta and MK6 Escort ranges to keep them on the pace with the ever-growing number of new rivals that were threatening to decimate Ford's market share. Another new car launch that year was the Galaxy multi-purpose vehicle in June that was based upon the VW Sharan which quickly went straight to the top of the people carrier sales charts, remaining in production until the launch of an all-new replacement in 2006.


title: Ford of Europe

text: Ford entered the city car market in September 1996 with its oddly-named and oddly-styled Ka and was beaten into second place in the 1997 European Car of the Year award by the Renault Scenic. It made use of the Fiesta's chassis and 1300 cc petrol engine which gave it strong handling for such a small car. Going against the appeal were its cramped rear seats and tiny boot, but it managed to sell well for most of its 12-year production run. A month later in October, the Mondeo gained a facelift which saw the exterior styling brought up to date and the seating redesigned to improve space for rear seat passengers.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The Fiesta chassis also spawned the stylish Puma coupé in 1997 which included the Fiesta's floorpan and 1.4 engine as well as its own 1.7 unit. The Puma won plaudits for its styling, handling and performance. Despite its popularity, there was no direct successor when production finished in 2002.


title: Ford of Europe

text: Ford pulled out of the executive car market in 1998 upon the demise of its Scorpio which had replaced the Granada four years earlier. As well as a Europe-wide transition from mainstream brands to prestige brands during the 1990s, the Scorpio's sales potential was held back by its controversial styling.


title: Ford of Europe

text: In the late 1990s, Ford adopted a distinctive "New Edge" design on its model range. Some of the cars adopting this eye-catching new look were entirely new, while others were facelifted versions of earlier and more conservative designs.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The end was in sight for the Escort in October 1998 when its distinctively-styled successor, the Focus, went on sale. Its radical design meant that Ford kept the Escort on sale alongside it for two years, the van until 2002, giving buyers a more conventionally-styled alternative, perhaps in fear of a repeat of the controversy it had faced some 16 years earlier when the Sierra went on sale. But Ford need not have worried about the public's reaction to the new Focus which was European Car of the Year for 1999 and being one of the best-selling cars on the continent. At the height of its production, there was a new Ford Focus coming off a production line at an average of one every 12 seconds (Saarlouis, Germany, Valencia, Spain, Wayne, Michigan, USA and Hermosillo, Mexico). However, the Focus was never built in Britain.


title: Ford of Europe

text: 1998 also saw the launch of the Probe's replacement: the Cougar. Like its predecessor, the Cougar was built in the USA and used 2.0 and 2.5 petrol engines. Unlike its predecessor, it was based on the front-wheel-drive chassis of the Mondeo. It was very spacious for a coupé and offered superb road-holding and cruising ability. Sales were relatively low in Europe and it was dropped in Europe after 2000, with sales limited to its home market.


title: Ford of Europe

text: In 1999, Ford's European headquarters relocated from Brentwood in England to its current (2019) location in Cologne, Germany. It was from the adjacent Cologne factory that the 30 millionth Ford, a Fiesta, emerged from the production line on 19 November 1999. The aging MK4 Fiesta received a facelift in the Autumn of 1999 and continued to attract huge sales thanks to its excellent ride and handling that disguised its age well. The interior was, by now, one of the smartest in the supermini sector, though interior space, particularly in the back, was far from the best. This shortcoming was solved in Spring 2002 when the all-new MK5 Fiesta went on sale. This new Fiesta was to be built at Ford Cologne and Ford Valencia, each plant producing one Fiesta every 27 seconds. This also marked the end of Ford passenger car production in the UK after some 90 years, though commercial vehicles continued to be produced at Dagenham alongside the engine assembly for the passenger vehicles. In addition, Ford's Halewood plant was converted for Jaguar X-Type assembly in 2001. Ford also continued to build vans at its Southampton plant until relocating production to Turkey in 2013.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The Ford Mondeo was relaunched in an all-new MK2 version in late 2000 and was pipped for the European Car of the Year award by the Alfa Romeo 147. The new Mondeo was more competitively priced than its predecessor, but its real strengths were its excellent accommodation and driving experience which put it back on top of the large family car sector. Although demand for cars of this size dipped slightly across Europe during the 2000s, the Mondeo remained Britain's most popular large family car until 2007, when it was outsold by the facelifted Vauxhall Vectra.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The Maverick returned in late 2000, this time being a rebadged US-market Escape which launched in the same year, but sales were slow and was axed after 4 years.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The demise of the Puma in 2002 left Ford without a competitor in the coupé sector once more while the Focus ST170 which launched at that time could be seen as an indirect successor.


title: Ford of Europe

text: Ford entered the expanding compact MPV market in late 2003 with the Ford Focus C-Max which was unusually, the first car on the platform that would spawn the next generation Focus hatchback a year later. 2003 also saw a convertible version of the Ka launched as the StreetKa alongside a facelifted Mondeo.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The second generation Focus hatchback, saloon and estate models went on sale in late 2004, picking up where the original model left off. Excellent ride and handling, good equipment levels, solid build quality and a comfortable interior all won praise for those who experienced the new car. The only major criticism of the Focus was its unoriginal styling which differed little from that of its predecessor but it remained one of the most popular cars in Europe during a production life which lasted more than six years.


title: Ford of Europe

text: November 2005 saw the launch of a facelifted Fiesta which offered new styling inside and out as well as new colour options.


title: Ford of Europe

text: 2006 saw Ford launch two new people carriers, the S-MAX and the Ford Galaxy MK2. Both cars used the same underpinnings, but the S-MAX was a cheaper and sportier alternative to the more upmarket and practical Galaxy. The S-MAX then became the first full-size people carrier to be voted European Car of the Year.


title: Ford of Europe

text: Ford launched the third generation Mondeo in May 2007 and new generations of the Fiesta and Ka in late 2008.


title: Ford of Europe

text: 4 years after the Maverick was axed, Ford returned to the 4x4 market in early 2008 with the Focus-based Kuga which unlike its Maverick predecessors became a strong seller.


title: Ford of Europe

text: In 2005, Ford celebrated its 30th anniversary as Britain's most popular car brand. The Focus was the country's top-selling car, while the Fiesta occupied fifth place and the Mondeo ninth. In spite of this, the gap between Ford and its competitors was about as narrow as it had ever been, with Vauxhall and Renault just a short margin behind Ford in sales figures.


title: Ford of Europe

text: In 2008, Ford acquired a majority stake in Automobile Craiova, Romania. The Ford Transit Connect was Ford's first model produced in Craiova, followed in 2012 by the new Fiesta-based MPV B-Max and the small displacement engine 1.0-litre EcoBoost.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The first major car launch by Ford under the new "One Ford" policy for the 2010s was the third generation Focus in early 2011. For Europe, the Focus featured a lesser model range than its predecessors, with only a five-door hatchback and five-door estate being sold there were no saloon or three-door hatchback versions although the former bodystyle was sold in some European nations. The larger Mondeo had been facelifted the previous Autumn but this did little to halt dwindling sales over the next four years. Early 2013 saw the launch of a new-generation Kuga as well as a facelifted Fiesta.


title: Ford of Europe

text: In 2013, Ford announced that it would close three of its factories in Europe, two of them in the UK, the Southampton facility, manufacturing the Ford Transit van and the associated stamping facility in Dagenham in mid-2013. and the Genk, Belgium major car plant (producing the Mondeo and the Galaxy and S-Max MPV's) by the end of 2014. This amounted for 1,400 and 4,300 job cuts respectively, in an attempt by the company to stem losses in Europe on the background of a declining market.


title: Ford of Europe

text: After several delays and moving production to Valencia, Ford eventually launched a new-generation Mondeo in late 2014 which was based upon the US-market Fusion, around the same time, a facelifted Focus went on sale, as did a new small SUV, the EcoSport.


title: Ford of Europe

text: 2015 saw new versions of the S-Max & Galaxy MPV's launch which are again based on the Mondeo while the facelifted C-Max also launched.


title: Ford of Europe

text: In 2016, Ford once again returned to the coupe market with the US-sourced Mustang which would also be sold in RHD in the UK for the first time while the Edge crossover also joined the European line-up.


title: Ford of Europe

text: In late 2016, 20 years after the original launched, Ford relaunched the Ka as the Ka+ which would now be a five-door hatchback made in India but hasn't enjoyed the popularity of the original car and was axed after three years on sale. Around the same time, a facelifted Kuga launched.


title: Ford of Europe

text: 2017 saw the big-selling Fiesta enter its seventh-generation. It retained the dimensions of its predecessor but with new styling and more new features than ever before while new additions to the range includes an upmarket Vignale version as well as an SUV-inspired version called the Active.


title: Ford of Europe

text: 20 years after the original model launched, Ford's big-selling Focus entered its fourth-generation with all-new styling and being better to drive than its predecessor and like the smaller Fiesta also saw Vignale & Active models join the line-up.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The Commercial vehicles arm of Ford of Britain, was part of the operation until it was sold to Fiat's Iveco division in 1986. Its last significant models under Ford ownership were the Transcontinental and the Cargo. Ford has planned to build the European version F-Series pick-up trucks in Germany for the European market.


title: Ford of Europe

text: The production of tractors in Europe by Ford ceased following the sale of the division to Fiat in 1993 and the name changed from "Ford New Holland" to "New Holland". New Holland Ag is now part of CNH Global. Tractor production had been based at the Antwerp (now only builds drivelines) and Basildon factories.


title: Association Familiale Mulliez

text: The Association Familiale Mulliez (AFM) is the holding company of the Mulliez family. The entrepreneur family originates from around the Lille area of France, and is one of the wealthiest families in the country. AFM was founded in 1955 by Gérard Mulliez and is led by Barthélemy Guislain since 2014.


title: Association Familiale Mulliez

text: The Roman Catholic family clan's motto is "Tous dans tout" - literally: "all (family members) in all (businesses)".


title: Association Familiale Mulliez

text: Via the AFM the family exerts control over the following companies most of which were founded by them:


title: Political sociology

text: Political sociology is an interdisciplinary field of study concerned with exploring how governance and society interact and influence one another at the micro to macro levels of analysis. Interested in the social causes and consequences of how power is distributed and changes throughout and amongst societies, political sociology's focus ranges across individual families to the State as sites of social and political conflict and power contestation.


title: Political sociology

text: Political sociology was conceived as an interdisciplinary sub-field of sociology and politics in the early 1930s throughout the social and political disruptions that took place through the rise of Communism, Fascism, and World War II. This new area drawing upon works by Alexis de Tocqueville, James Bryce, Robert Michels, Max Weber, Émile Durkheim, and Karl Marx to understand an integral theme of political sociology; power.


title: Political sociology

text: Power's definition for political sociologists varies across the approaches and conceptual framework utilised within this interdisciplinary study. At its basic understanding, power can be seen as the ability to influence or control other people or processes around you. This helps to create a variety of research focuses and use of methodologies as different scholars' understanding of power differs. Alongside this, their academic disciplinary department/ institution can also flavour their research as they develop from their baseline of inquiry (e.g. political or sociological studies) into this interdisciplinary field (see ). Although with deviation in how it is carried out, political sociology has an overall focus on understanding why power structures are the way they are in any given societal context.


title: Political sociology

text: Political sociologists, throughout its broad manifestations, propose that in order to understand power, society and politics must be studied with one another and neither treated as assumed variables. "For any society to be understood, so must its politics; and if the politics of any society is to be understood, so must that society".


title: Political sociology

text: The development of political sociology from the 1930s onwards took place as the separating disciplines of sociology and politics explored their overlapping areas of interest. Sociology can be viewed as the broad analysis of human society and the interrelationship of these societies. Predominantly focused on the relationship of human behaviour with society. Political science or politics as a study largely situates itself within this definition of sociology and is sometimes regarded as a well developed sub-field of sociology, but is seen as a stand alone disciplinary area of research due to the size of scholarly work undertaken within it. Politics offers a complex definition and is important to note that what 'politics' means is subjective to the author and context. From the study of governmental institutions, public policy, to power relations, politics has a rich disciplinary outlook.


title: Political sociology

text: The importance of studying sociology within politics, and vice versa, has had recognition across figures from Mosca to Pareto as they recognised that politicians and politics do not operate in a societal vacuum, and society does not operate outside of politics. Here, political sociology sets about to study the relationships of society and politics.


title: Political sociology

text: Numerous works account for highlighting a political sociology, from the work of Comte and Spencer to other figures such as Durkheim. Although feeding into this interdisciplinary area, the body of work by Karl Marx and Max Weber are considered foundational to its inception as a sub-field of research.


title: Political sociology

text: The scope of political sociology is broad, reflecting on the wide interest in how power and oppression operate over and within social and political areas in society. Although diverse, some major themes of interest for political sociology include:


title: Political sociology

text: In other words, political sociology is concerned with how social trends, dynamics, and structures of domination affect formal political processes alongside social forces working together to create change. From this perspective, we can identify three major theoretical frameworks: pluralism, elite or managerial theory, and class analysis, which overlaps with Marxist analysis.


title: Political sociology

text: Pluralism sees politics primarily as a contest among competing interest groups. Elite or managerial theory is sometimes called a state-centered approach. It explains what the state does by looking at constraints from organizational structure, semi-autonomous state managers, and interests that arise from the state as a unique, power-concentrating organization. A leading representative is Theda Skocpol. Social class theory analysis emphasizes the political power of capitalist elites. It can be split into two parts: one is the "power structure" or "instrumentalist" approach, whereas another is the structuralist approach. The power structure approach focuses on the question of who rules and its most well-known representative is G. William Domhoff. The structuralist approach emphasizes the way a capitalist economy operates; only allowing and encouraging the state to do some things but not others (Nicos Poulantzas, Bob Jessop).


title: Political sociology

text: Where a typical research question in political sociology might have been, "Why do so few American or European citizens choose to vote?" or even, "What difference does it make if women get elected?", political sociologists also now ask, "How is the body a site of power?", "How are emotions relevant to global poverty?", and, "What difference does knowledge make to democracy?".


title: Political sociology

text: When addressing political sociology there is noted overlap in using 'sociology of politics' as a synonym. Sartori outlines, though, that 'sociology of politics' refers specifically to a sociological analysis of politics and not an interdisciplinary area of research that political sociology works towards. This difference is made by the variables of interest that both perspectives focus upon. Sociology of politics centres on the non-political causes of oppression and power contestation in political life, whereas political sociology includes the political causes of these actions throughout commentary with non-political ones. Both are valid lines of enquiry, but it is important to note that 'sociology of politics' is a sociological reductionist account of politics (e.g. exploring political areas through a sociological lens), whereas political sociology is a collaborative socio-political exploration of society and its power contestation.


title: Political sociology

text: Marx's ideas about the state can be divided into three subject areas: pre-capitalist states, states in the capitalist (i.e. present) era and the state (or absence of one) in post-capitalist society. Overlaying this is the fact that his own ideas about the state changed as he grew older, differing in his early pre-communist phase, the young Marx phase which predates the unsuccessful 1848 uprisings in Europe and in his mature, more nuanced work.


title: Political sociology

text: In Marx's 1843 "Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right", his basic conception is that the state and civil society are separate. However, he already saw some limitations to that model, arguing:


title: Political sociology

text: "He as yet was saying nothing about the abolition of private property, does not express a developed theory of class, and "the solution [he offers] to the problem of the state/civil society separation is a purely "political" solution, namely universal suffrage".


title: Political sociology

text: By the time he wrote "The German Ideology" (1846), Marx viewed the state as a creature of the bourgeois economic interest. Two years later, that idea was expounded in "The Communist Manifesto":


title: Political sociology

text: "The executive of the modern state is nothing but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie".


title: Political sociology

text: This represents the high point of conformance of the state theory to an economic interpretation of history in which the forces of production determine peoples' production relations and their production relations determine all other relations, including the political. Although "determines" is the strong form of the claim, Marx also uses "conditions". Even "determination" is not causality and some reciprocity of action is admitted. The bourgeoisie control the economy, therefore they control the state. In this theory, the state is an instrument of class rule.


title: Political sociology

text: Antonio Gramsci's theory of hegemony is tied to his conception of the capitalist state. Gramsci does not understand the state in the narrow sense of the government. Instead, he divides it between political society (the police, the army, legal system, etc.) – the arena of political institutions and legal constitutional control – and civil society (the family, the education system, trade unions, etc.) – commonly seen as the private or non-state sphere, which mediates between the state and the economy. However, he stresses that the division is purely conceptual and that the two often overlap in reality. Gramsci claims the capitalist state rules through force plus consent: political society is the realm of force and civil society is the realm of consent. Gramsci proffers that under modern capitalism the bourgeoisie can maintain its economic control by allowing certain demands made by trade unions and mass political parties within civil society to be met by the political sphere. Thus, the bourgeoisie engages in passive revolution by going beyond its immediate economic interests and allowing the forms of its hegemony to change. Gramsci posits that movements such as reformism and fascism, as well as the scientific management and assembly line methods of Frederick Taylor and Henry Ford respectively, are examples of this.


title: Political sociology

text: English Marxist sociologist Ralph Miliband was influenced by American sociologist C. Wright Mills, of whom he had been a friend. He published "The State in Capitalist Society" in 1969, a study in Marxist political sociology, rejecting the idea that pluralism spread political power, and maintaining that power in Western democracies was concentrated in the hands of a dominant class.


title: Political sociology

text: Nicos Poulantzas' theory of the state reacted to what he saw as simplistic understandings within Marxism. For him Instrumentalist Marxist accounts such as that of Miliband held that the state was simply an instrument in the hands of a particular class. Poulantzas disagreed with this because he saw the capitalist class as too focused on its individual short-term profit, rather than on maintaining the class's power as a whole, to simply exercise the whole of state power in its own interest. Poulantzas argued that the state, though relatively autonomous from the capitalist class, nonetheless functions to ensure the smooth operation of capitalist society, and therefore benefits the capitalist class. In particular, he focused on how an inherently divisive system such as capitalism could coexist with the social stability necessary for it to reproduce itself—looking in particular to nationalism as a means to overcome the class divisions within capitalism. Borrowing from Gramsci's notion of cultural hegemony, Poulantzas argued that repressing movements of the oppressed is not the sole function of the state. Rather, state power must also obtain the consent of the oppressed. It does this through class alliances, where the dominant group makes an "alliance" with subordinate groups as a means to obtain the consent of the subordinate group.


title: Political sociology

text: Bob Jessop was influenced by Gramsci, Miliband and Poulantzas to propose that the state is not as an entity but as a social relation with differential strategic effects. This means that the state is not something with an essential, fixed property such as a neutral coordinator of different social interests, an autonomous corporate actor with its own bureaucratic goals and interests, or the 'executive committee of the bourgeoisie' as often described by pluralists, elitists/statists and conventional Marxists respectively. Rather, what the state is essentially determined by is the nature of the wider social relations in which it is situated, especially the balance of social forces.


title: Political sociology

text: In political sociology, one of Weber's most influential contributions is his "Politics as a Vocation" ("Politik als Beruf") essay. Therein, Weber unveils the definition of the state as that entity that possesses a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force. Weber wrote that politics is the sharing of state's power between various groups, and political leaders are those who wield this power. Weber distinguished three ideal types of political leadership (alternatively referred to as three types of domination, legitimisation or authority):


title: Political sociology

text: In his view, every historical relation between rulers and ruled contained such elements and they can be analysed on the basis of this tripartite distinction. He notes that the instability of charismatic authority forces it to "routinise" into a more structured form of authority. In a pure type of traditional rule, sufficient resistance to a ruler can lead to a "traditional revolution". The move towards a rational-legal structure of authority, utilising a bureaucratic structure, is inevitable in the end. Thus this theory can be sometimes viewed as part of the social evolutionism theory. This ties to his broader concept of rationalisation by suggesting the inevitability of a move in this direction.


title: Political sociology

text: Weber described many ideal types of public administration and government in "Economy and Society" (1922). His critical study of the bureaucratisation of society became one of the most enduring parts of his work. It was Weber who began the studies of bureaucracy and whose works led to the popularisation of this term. Many aspects of modern public administration go back to him and a classic, hierarchically organised civil service of the Continental type is called "Weberian civil service". As the most efficient and rational way of organising, bureaucratisation for Weber was the key part of the rational-legal authority and furthermore, he saw it as the key process in the ongoing rationalisation of the Western society. Weber's ideal bureaucracy is characterised by hierarchical organisation, by delineated lines of authority in a fixed area of activity, by action taken (and recorded) on the basis of written rules, by bureaucratic officials needing expert training, by rules being implemented neutrally and by career advancement depending on technical qualifications judged by organisations, not by individuals.


title: Political sociology

text: Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923), Gaetano Mosca (1858–1941), and Robert Michels (1876–1936), were cofounders of the Italian school of elitism which influenced subsequent elite theory in the Western tradition.


title: Political sociology

text: The outlook of the Italian school of elitism is based on two ideas: Power lies in position of authority in key economic and political institutions. The psychological difference that sets elites apart is that they have personal resources, for instance intelligence and skills, and a vested interest in the government; while the rest are incompetent and do not have the capabilities of governing themselves, the elite are resourceful and strive to make the government work. For in reality, the elite would have the most to lose in a failed state.


title: Political sociology

text: Pareto emphasized the psychological and intellectual superiority of elites, believing that they were the highest achievers in any field. He discussed the existence of two types of elites: Governing elites and Non-governing elites. He also extended the idea that a whole elite can be replaced by a new one and how one can circulate from being elite to non-elite. Mosca emphasized the sociological and personal characteristics of elites. He said elites are an organized minority and that the masses are an unorganized majority. The ruling class is composed of the ruling elite and the sub-elites. He divides the world into two group: Political class and Non-Political class. Mosca asserts that elites have intellectual, moral, and material superiority that is highly esteemed and influential.


title: Political sociology

text: Sociologist Michels developed the iron law of oligarchy where, he asserts, social and political organizations are run by few individuals, and social organization and labor division are key. He believed that all organizations were elitist and that elites have three basic principles that help in the bureaucratic structure of political organization:


title: Political sociology

text: Contemporary political sociology takes these questions seriously, but it is concerned with the play of power and politics across societies, which includes, but is not restricted to, relations between the state and society. In part, this is a product of the growing complexity of social relations, the impact of social movement organizing, and the relative weakening of the state as a result of globalization. To a significant part, however, it is due to the radical rethinking of social theory. This is as much focused now on micro questions (such as the formation of identity through social interaction, the politics of knowledge, and the effects of the contestation of meaning on structures), as it is on macro questions (such as how to capture and use state power). Chief influences here include cultural studies (Stuart Hall), post-structuralism (Michel Foucault, Judith Butler), pragmatism (Luc Boltanski), structuration theory (Anthony Giddens), and cultural sociology (Jeffrey C. Alexander).


title: Political sociology

text: Political sociology attempts to explore the dynamics between the two institutional systems introduced by the advent of Western capitalist system that are the democratic constitutional liberal state and the capitalist economy. While democracy promises impartiality and legal equality before all citizens, the capitalist system results in unequal economic power and thus possible political inequality as well.


title: Political sociology

text: For pluralists, the distribution of political power is not determined by economic interests but by multiple social divisions and political agendas. The diverse political interests and beliefs of different factions work together through collective organizations to create a flexible and fair representation that in turn influences political parties which make the decisions. The distribution of power is then achieved through the interplay of contending interest groups. The government in this model functions just as a mediating broker and is free from control by any economic power. This pluralistic democracy however requires the existence of an underlying framework that would offer mechanisms for citizenship and expression and the opportunity to organize representations through social and industrial organizations, such as trade unions. Ultimately, decisions are reached through the complex process of bargaining and compromise between various groups pushing for their interests. Many factors, pluralists believe, have ended the domination of the political sphere by an economic elite. The power of organized labour and the increasingly interventionist state have placed restrictions on the power of capital to manipulate and control the state. Additionally, capital is no longer owned by a dominant class, but by an expanding managerial sector and diversified shareholders, none of whom can exert their will upon another.


title: Political sociology

text: The pluralist emphasis on fair representation however overshadows the constraints imposed on the extent of choice offered. Bachrauch and Baratz (1963) examined the deliberate withdrawal of certain policies from the political arena. For example, organized movements that express what might seem as radical change in a society can often by portrayed as illegitimate.


title: Political sociology

text: A main rival to pluralist theory in the United States was the theory of the "power elite" by sociologist C. Wright Mills. According to Mills, the eponymous "power elite" are those that occupy the dominant positions, in the dominant institutions (military, economic and political) of a dominant country, and their decisions (or lack of decisions) have enormous consequences, not only for the U.S. population but, "the underlying populations of the world." The institutions which they head, Mills posits, are a triumvirate of groups that have succeeded weaker predecessors: (1) "two or three hundred giant corporations" which have replaced the traditional agrarian and craft economy, (2) a strong federal political order that has inherited power from "a decentralized set of several dozen states" and "now enters into each and every cranny of the social structure," and (3) the military establishment, formerly an object of "distrust fed by state militia," but now an entity with "all the grim and clumsy efficiency of a sprawling bureaucratic domain."


title: Political sociology

text: Importantly, and in distinction from modern American conspiracy theory, Mills explains that the elite themselves may not be aware of their status as an elite, noting that "often they are uncertain about their roles" and "without conscious effort, they absorb the aspiration to be ... The Onecide." Nonetheless, he sees them as a quasi-hereditary caste. The members of the power elite, according to Mills, often enter into positions of societal prominence through educations obtained at establishment universities.


title: Political sociology

text: The resulting elites, who control the three dominant institutions (military, economy and political system) can be generally grouped into one of six types, according to Mills:


title: Political sociology

text: Mills formulated a very short summary of his book: "Who, after all, runs America? No one runs it altogether, but in so far as any group does, the power elite."


title: Political sociology

text: "Who Rules America?" is a book by research psychologist and sociologist, G. William Domhoff, first published in 1967 as a best-seller (#12), with six subsequent editions. Domhoff argues in the book that a power elite wields power in America through its support of think-tanks, foundations, commissions, and academic departments. Additionally, he argues that the elite control institutions through overt authority, not through covert influence. In his introduction, Domhoff writes that the book was inspired by the work of four men: sociologists E. Digby Baltzell, C. Wright Mills, economist Paul Sweezy, and political scientist Robert A. Dahl.


title: Political sociology

text: T. H. Marshall's Social Citizenship is a political concept first highlighted in his essay, "Citizenship and Social Class" in 1949. Marshall's concept defines the social responsibilities the state has to its citizens or, as Marshall puts it, “from [granting] the right to a modicum of economic welfare and security to the right to share to the full in the social heritage and to live the life of a civilized being according to the standards prevailing in the society”. One of the key points made by Marshall is his belief in an evolution of rights in England acquired via citizenship, from “civil rights in the eighteenth [century], political in the nineteenth, and social in the twentieth”. This evolution however, has been criticized by many for only being from the perspective of the white working man. Marshall concludes his essay with three major factors for the evolution of social rights and for their further evolution, listed below:


title: Political sociology

text: Many of the social responsibilities of a state have since become a major part of many state’s policies (see United States Social Security). However, these have also become controversial issues as there is a debate over whether a citizen truly has the right to education and even more so, to social welfare.


title: Political sociology

text: In "Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics" political sociologist Seymour Martin Lipset provided a very influential analysis of the bases of democracy across the world. Larry Diamond and Gary Marks argue that "Lipset's assertion of a direct relationship between economic development and democracy has been subjected to extensive empirical examination, both quantitative and qualitative, in the past 30 years. And the evidence shows, with striking clarity and consistency, a strong causal relationship between economic development and democracy." The book sold more than 400,000 copies and was translated into 20 languages, including: Vietnamese, Bengali, and Serbo-Croatian. Lipset was one of the first proponents of Modernization theory which states that democracy is the direct result of economic growth, and that “[t]he more well-to-do a nation, the greater the chances that it will sustain democracy.” Lipset's modernization theory has continued to be a significant factor in academic discussions and research relating to democratic transitions. It has been referred to as the "Lipset hypothesis" and the "Lipset thesis".


title: The Heroic Legend of Arslan (manga)

text: A 25-episode anime television series adaptation by Liden Films and Sanzigen was broadcast in Japan on MBS from April to September 2015, followed by an 8-episode series, titled "The Heroic Legend of Arslan: Dust Storm Dance", broadcast from July to August 2016. The anime series is licensed in North America by Funimation.


title: The Heroic Legend of Arslan (manga)

text: The manga adaptation of Yoshiki Tanaka's "The Heroic Legend of Arslan" by Hiromu Arakawa was announced in the June issue of Kodansha's "Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine", released in May 2013. The series began in the August issue of the magazine, released on July 9, 2013. Kodansha has collected its chapters into individual "tankōbon" volumes. The first volume was released on April 9, 2014. As of December 9, 2022, eighteen volumes have been released.


title: The Heroic Legend of Arslan (manga)

text: In North America, the manga was digitally published in English by "Crunchyroll Manga" from 2014 until 2018, when the company announced that they would no longer publish manga from Kodansha. Kodansha USA began publishing the manga in print and digital format on August 19, 2014.


title: The Heroic Legend of Arslan (manga)

text: An anime television series was announced in November 2014. The series is directed by Noriyuki Abe, with scripts by Makoto Uezu. The series aired from April 5 to September 27, 2015 on MBS's Nichigo timeslot and other Japan News Network stations. The series' first opening theme is , performed by Uverworld, while the first ending theme is , performed by Eir Aoi. The second opening theme is , performed by Nico Touches the Walls, while the second ending theme is "One Light", performed by Kalafina. An original animation DVD (OAD) was bundled with the manga's fifth limited edition volume, released on May 9, 2016.


title: The Heroic Legend of Arslan (manga)

text: In North America, Funimation announced the license to the series in April 2015, and began a broadcast dub in June of the same year.


title: The Heroic Legend of Arslan (manga)

text: An 8-episode second season, titled , aired from July 3 to August 21, 2016. Another OAD was bundled with the manga's sixth limited edition volume, which released on November 9, 2016.


title: The Heroic Legend of Arslan (manga)

text: A "Musou" crossover game developed by Koei Tecmo, titled , was released on PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 in Japan on October 1, 2015. The game was released in North America on February 9, 2016 and in Europe on February 12.


title: The Heroic Legend of Arslan (manga)

text: Alongside "How Are You?", "The Heroic Legend of Arslan" ranked 17th on Takarajimasha's "Kono Manga ga Sugoi!" list of best manga of 2015 for male readers. The manga ranked 8th on "Nationwide Bookstore Employees' Recommended Comics of 2015" by the Honya Club online bookstore. The series was nominated for the 42nd Kodansha Manga Award in the "shōnen" category in 2018. The series ranked 35th on "Da Vinci" magazine's 17th annual "Book of the Year" 2017 list and ranked 45th on the magazine's 19th 2019 list.


title: The Heroic Legend of Arslan (manga)

text: As of June 2018, "The Heroic Legend of Arslan" manga had 5.5 million copies in circulation. The 3rd volume of the series was Kodansha's #11 manga volume with biggest first printings from the period between April 2014 and March 2015, with 370,000 copies in circulation. The 7th volume of the series was Kodansha's #6 manga volume with biggest first printings from the period between April 2017 and March 2018, with 358,000 copies in circulation. The 11th volume of the series was Kodansha's #8 manga volume with biggest first printings from the period between April 2019 and March 2020, with 265,000 copies in circulation.


title: The Heroic Legend of Arslan (manga)

text: Kate O'Neil of "The Fandom Post" ranked the first volume of the manga as B+, and wrote: ""Arslan" has an appropriately dark start for a story about war. The action is strong, vicious and bloody. The stakes in the war are high, with death all around the young prince and his loyal retainer. It’s a solid start to what will hopefully turn out to be an excellent tale. While the leads haven’t grabbed me yet there’s plenty of time to develop them further". Rebecca SIlverman of "Anime News Network" gave the first volume a B and wrote: "If you enjoy an epic fantasy with plenty of historical detail and battle scenes and don't mind waiting for the story to really get going, "The Heroic Legend of Arslan"s first volume is worth reading".


title: The Heroic Legend of Arslan (manga)

text: Theron Martin of "Anime News Network" ranked the anime series as B. Martin called "The Heroic Legend of Arslan" "a cross between "Yona of the Dawn" and "Guin Saga"", and said that the series is "often most interesting when focusing on anyone but Arslan himself". Martin concluded: ""The Heroic Legend of Arslan" is an ambitious series, inviting plenty of discussion about slavery and religion and politics in general. While its first half has its flaws, if you are looking for an epic fantasy story largely free of romantic distractions, then you could definitely do a lot worse".


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: Saroja (stylised as Sa-Ro-Ja) is a 2008 Indian Tamil-language comedy thriller film written and directed by Venkat Prabhu and produced by T. Siva. It stars Shiva, Vaibhav, Premji, S. P. B. Charan, and Vega Tamotia, while Jayaram, Prakash Raj, Sampath Raj, Nikita Thukral, Bose Venkat and Kajal Aggarwal play other vital roles. Several other popular Tamil television artists and crew members make special appearances throughout the film. The score and soundtrack were composed by Yuvan Shankar Raja with cinematography by Sakthi Saravanan.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: The film follows the journey of four young men who travel from Chennai to Hyderabad to watch a cricket match. Due to a road accident, they are forced to take a diversion off the main road to arrive on time. This leads them to a gang who have kidnapped a schoolgirl, Saroja, the only daughter of a millionaire.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: The film was released on 5 September 2008 to very positive reviews and critical acclaim, while also emerging a high commercial success. It was dubbed and partially reshot in Telugu with Srihari reprising Jayaram's role. This film was based on Judgement Night


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: Ajay Raj, Ganesh Kumar, and brothers Ram Babu and Jagapathi Babu are close friends who spend a lot of time together in Chennai. Ajay is a television actor, Ganesh is a fun-loving engineering student who falls in love with every woman he sees, Jagapathi is an engineer who is married and has a six-year-old daughter, and Ram is Jagapathi's younger brother who lives with him. Ram is in love with Pooja, but before he has a chance to tell her, Pooja tells Ram that she is in love with Ajay. Pooja and Ajay eventually get engaged, leaving Ram heartbroken. He soon forgets his grief and has a good time with Ajay, Ganesh, and Jagapathi. One day, the four friends decide to go in Ajay's old ramshackle Volkswagen Samba to Hyderabad to watch a cricket match.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: Vishwanath is a business tycoon in Hyderabad who has no time for his wife and teenage daughter Saroja. One day, Saroja is kidnapped, and the police enter the scene, with Vishwanath's friend ACP Ravichandran handling the case.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: Meanwhile, a huge tanker lorry carrying highly inflammable and dangerous chemicals overturns on the National Highway between Chennai and Hyderabad and the four friends are stuck in a massive traffic jam. They attempt to take a shortcut to Hyderabad, but they end up in a dark, desolate area where their real troubles begin.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: After arguing about which direction to take at a crossroad, Ajay convinces the others to drive into a forest, receiving instructions from Venkat Prabhu in a cameo appearance. As they proceed further, an injured man named R. Venkatraman suddenly falls on their car from above. Wanting to save Venkatraman, Jagapathi asks Ganesh and Ram to ask for help in a nearby building. Ajay, horrified by Venkatraman's bullet wounds, is even more shocked when he urges Jagapathi and Ajay to escape. Jagapathi, however, attempts to save Venkatraman, who repeatedly urges them to leave quickly.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: A few men arrive in a jeep and shoot at them from a distance. Ajay rushes to the driver's seat and attempts to flee from the area. Their van gets hit by the other vehicle and is overturned, throwing Venkatraman outside. Ajay and Jagapathi remain inside the van. Sampath Kumar, the leader of the gang in the black jeep, steps out of his vehicle and shoots Venkatraman after a short conversation. Sampath then discovers that two men (Jagapathi and Ajay) had attempted to save the injured man; he orders his henchmen to kill them. Upon hearing Sampath's order, Ajay and Jagapathi run for their lives.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: Meanwhile, Ganesh and Ram have entered an abandoned factory in search of help. Finding the place empty, they walk out and wander around for some time. They soon reach the place where the van had overturned and realize that their friends are missing. At the same time, Ajay and Jagapathi are trapped inside a room within close range of one of the hitmen and escape narrowly. Ganesh and Ram continue to search the area for their friends and eventually find them after fighting with a few hitmen. Realizing that they are caught in a dangerous situation, all four run away from the factory toward the distant sound of a train. They barely manage to board the last car. Jagapathi does not board the train; he sees that his pocket has been torn, and he deduces that his wallet had fallen somewhere inside the factory. Ajay and Ram frantically attempt to convince Jagapathi to board the train. Jagapathi fears that the assassins might cause problems for his wife and child, since his wallet (containing his identity) might be in the hands of the gangsters. Thus, all four friends return to the factory to recover the lost wallet.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: After a short argument in which the frightened Ajay hesitates to go along with Jagapathi to the factory, Ganesh is pushed to accompany him. Jagapathi and Ganesh enter the room where the wallet was dropped. One of the gangsters momentarily walks into the room, in the view of Ganesh. Ganesh hides and tries to warn Jagapathi to stay out of sight. When Jagapathi finds the wallet and turns around, he realizes that Ganesh has disappeared. After searching the room thoroughly, Jagapathi decides to leave. When he walks out, Ajay and Ram are waiting alone, and there is no sign of Ganesh. This sparks off another argument; Ajay asserts that he would not leave the place without Ganesh. Meanwhile, it is revealed that Ganesh had wandered into another room to save himself. Finding Saroja tied up inside, he frees her and explains to her that he is not a member of the gang. In his usual manner, he falls in love and tries to impress her. Saroja and Ganesh then sneak out of the room. The other three set out to rescue Ganesh but get caught in the process.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: Sampath continues to demand money from Vishwanath to release his daughter. Ravichandran consoles Vishwanath and does all that he can to help rescue Saroja. Meanwhile, the gangsters taunt the three men whom they have captured and continue to do so until Kalyani, Sampath's girlfriend, walks in and informs the group that Saroja has escaped. Sampath sends all of his men to find the girl, leaving a single gangster with the three captives. Ram attacks the gangster and kills him. They run out of the factory and catch up with Ganesh and Saroja. They are soon trapped in a building with a single entry. The henchmen follow them and await them in front. The friends are convinced that the only way to escape is to fight the gangsters. Suddenly, Jagapathi comes up with the idea of designing a contraption using objects in the building as weapons in a grand Rube Goldberg machine. In the meantime, Sampath asks Vishwanath to come to the area at once to take his daughter in exchange for the ransom money. Soon, Vishwanath and Ravichandran arrive, and Ravichandran is disguised as Vishwanath's driver.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: The four friends and Saroja finally arrive at the railway station to escape. They soon realize to their horror that the railway station is actually the exact spot where Sampath is planning to collect the ransom money from Vishwanath and Ravichandran. Vishwanath and Ravichandran are standing on the other side of the tracks. Saroja leaves the hideout, crosses the tracks, and embraces Ravichandran out of relief.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: Just as Vishwanath is overjoyed that his daughter is back in safe hands, Ravichandran pulls out a gun and points it at Saroja. At that moment, Vishwanath realizes that Ravichandran is actually the mastermind behind Saroja's abduction and that Sampath is just another henchman responsible for carrying out Ravichandran's orders. A flashback reveals that Ravichandran and Sampath are good friends and that they have long been jealous of Vishwanath for his social status and wealth.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: In the nick of time, the heroes emerge from the hideout and fight the goons with all their might. Vishwanath finally shoots and kills Ravichandran, and Saroja is reunited with her family. As everyone returns home, the four friends try to recall the name of the girl whom they have just rescued.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: After the success of "Chennai 600028", Venkatprabhu announced his next project in 2007 titled "Saroja" inspired from a hit song of his previous hit film. Film launch was held on 5 December at Green Park Hotel in Vadapalani, Chennai. Shruti Haasan and then Varalaxmi Sarathkumar were initially offered the role of the titular character but later rejected it. Jai wanted to appear in the film but director said big no as there is no scope for him; Jai accepted to play a small role. Venkatprabhu added that "Saroja" is a thriller. The film was partially reshot in Telugu and Srihari reprises the inspector role played by Jayaram in Tamil.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: After the success of "Chennai 600028" (2007), director Venkat Prabhu teamed up with his cousin Yuvan Shankar Raja again for the musical score of "Saroja". The soundtrack was released on 15 July 2008 at the Chennai Trade Center Convention Hall in Nandambakkam by composer A. R. Rahman. It features six tracks, out of which one song ("My Life") was designed as a promotional song, which would feature in television channels and popularize the film. The song, also composed by Yuvan Shankar Raja, was performed by Indian band Yodhakaa from Mumbai. The lyrics were provided by 'Kavignar' Vaali, Gangai Amaran and Yuvan Shankar Raja. The song "Cheeky Cheeky" was sung by Mathilda D'Silva, with Yuvan Shankar Raja and Nirdhiya, who was a contestant of the reality show "Singapore Idol".


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: The album received very positive reviews from critics, and the songs became widely popular. It was listed in many "Top 10 Albums of the Year" lists. "Dosth Bada Dosth" was a chartbuster, among the most frequently played songs, and became an anthem of friendship.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: "Saroja" received positive reviews worldwide. It was a huge commercial success as well, grossing almost 4 crores at the Chennai box office in 14 weeks according to the comparison website Behindwoods.com, thus making it Venkat Prabhu's second successive hit after "Chennai 600028". The film completed 100 days all over Tamil Nadu, making it one of the blockbusters of 2008.


title: Saroja (2008 film)

text: A sequel to the film was announced during August 2016, which would be directed by Venkat Prabhu's assistant Skantha Priyan and written by Samaran. S. J. Surya, Premji and VTV Ganesh were reported to be portraying the lead roles.


title: Bob Barr

text: Robert Laurence Barr Jr. (born November 5, 1948) is an American attorney and politician. He served as a federal prosecutor and as a Congressman. He represented Georgia's 7th congressional district as a Republican from 1995 to 2003. Barr attained national prominence as one of the leaders of the impeachment of President Bill Clinton. During his time in the House of Representatives, he authored the Defense of Marriage Act, which was later overturned.


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr joined the Libertarian Party in 2006<ref name="Evans2006/"></ref> and served on its National Committee. He was the Libertarian Party's nominee for President of the United States in the 2008 election. Barr announced his return to the Republican party in December 2011. He lost a subsequent bid in 2014 for a Congressional seat.


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr was born in Iowa City, Iowa, to Robert Laurence Barr and Beatrice Barr. His father, a career military officer who had graduated from West Point, was stationed in various locations around the world while pursuing his career in civil engineering.


title: Bob Barr

text: The second of six children, Bob Jr. lived as a boy in Malaysia, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Baghdad, and finally Tehran, Iran, where he graduated from Community High School in 1966.


title: Bob Barr

text: He returned to the United States for college, attending the University of Southern California. There he joined the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity in 1967. He was elected to the position of Grand Prytanis on the fraternity's Grand Council, serving from 2013 to 2015.


title: Bob Barr

text: During college, Barr's mother introduced him to the work of writer Ayn Rand. This fostered a newfound appreciation for conservatism and prompted Barr to join the Young Trojan Republican Club. He completed his B.A., "cum laude", from the University of Southern California (USC) in 1970. He married his first wife while still in college. They divorced in 1976.


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr continued in graduate school, earning a master's degree in International Affairs from George Washington University's Elliott School of International Affairs in 1972. He next earned his J.D. from Georgetown University Law Center (attending at night) in 1977. From 1971 to 1978, Barr worked for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) as an analyst of Latin American issues.


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr married his second wife, Gail, in 1976. They have two children. Gail and Bob Barr divorced in 1986.


title: Bob Barr

text: After leaving the CIA, Barr moved to northern Georgia. He practiced law and became active in the Republican Party, serving as county chair. Barr made an unsuccessful bid for the Georgia House of Representatives in 1984.


title: Bob Barr

text: In 1986 Barr married his third wife, Jerilyn Dobbins, who was later known as Jeri Barr. Barr's website stated in 2008 that Jeri and he have four children and six grandchildren.


title: Bob Barr

text: In 1986, Barr was appointed by President Ronald Reagan to serve as U.S. Attorney for the Northern District of Georgia – a post Barr held until 1990. His office prosecuted state and local officials, members of the Medellin drug cartel, and got a perjury indictment on then-sitting Republican Congressman Pat Swindall, who ultimately served a year in prison on the charges. From 1990 to 1991, Barr was president of the Southeastern Legal Foundation., an Atlanta-based law firm and policy center that litigates in support of "limited government, individual economic freedom, and the free enterprise system".


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr sought the Republican Party nomination for U.S. Senate in 1992, but lost the primary election to Paul Coverdell. The primary was very close, with Barr losing by fewer than 1,600 votes in a runoff election. Subsequently, Coverdell came in behind incumbent Senator Wyche Fowler in the general election, but the 3% showing by a Libertarian candidate (Jim Hudson) forced a runoff, which Coverdell won.


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1994 as a Republican, upsetting six-term Democrat Buddy Darden, to represent Georgia's 7th congressional district in the 104th United States Congress. Barr was one of 73 Republican freshmen ushered into Congress in that election. The election became known as the "Republican Revolution" because it resulted in the first Republican House majority in 40 years – since the 1955 adjournment of the 83rd Congress.


title: Bob Barr

text: After a Federal Election Commission audit of his 1994 and 1996 campaigns, Barr paid a $28,000 fine for illegal campaign payments.


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr was later re-elected three times, serving from 1995 to 2003. While in Congress, Barr served as a senior member of the Judiciary Committee, as vice-chairman of the Government Reform Committee, and as a member of the Committee on Financial Services and the Committee on Veteran's Affairs.


title: Bob Barr

text: In Congress, Barr became famous for his "dour" image and told constituents, "You don't send me to Washington to smile." He also said in a radio interview "If it's not in the Constitution, I won't smile". He later explained "I don't consider politicians who smile to be worth a heck of a lot... all things considered, it doesn't make a dime's worth of difference if the politicians in Washington smile or not, what matters is how much of your hard-earned dollars they take to spend in pure pork". Barr said in 2010 "I can see a situation where the federal government is going to bring an entire suitcase of San Francisco values to the American family, and while I would love to explain all the things that are wrong with that, the fact is that this is a corrupting, left-leaning, influence on a section of society that so many liberal elites want to see taken out of the 'red state' column. The only solution to this kind of behavior is dour and austere social conservatism, like my own". Adding to his image, Barr has frequently protested about "cult hairstyles", saying "I cannot abide by people who adopt a cult hairstyle, or persistently dress inappropriately for meetings with me".


title: Bob Barr

text: Georgia's congressional districts were reorganized by the Democratic-controlled Georgia legislature ahead of the 2002 elections for the 108th Congress. As part of the legislature's effort to get more Democrats elected from the state, Barr's district was renumbered as the 11th District and made significantly more Democratic. A large slice of his base was drawn into the same district as fellow Republican John Linder. The new district was numerically Barr's district – the 7th – but contained most of the territory from Linder's old 11th District. This move profited Democrats by leading to the inevitable defeat of an incumbent Republican (i.e., either Barr or Linder). Recognizing Barr's precarious situation, the Libertarian Party seized on the opportunity to oust one of the federal drug war's most vocal proponents (Barr), and ran TV ads criticizing Barr's opposition to medical marijuana during the Republican primaries. Barr was soundly defeated by a 2-to-1 margin. Before the medical marijuana ads were aired, the Linder campaign acknowledged the race as being tight; and Pat Gartland, southeastern director of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, called it "too close to call".


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr's defeat was applauded by many Democrats and Libertarians. Rob Kampia of the Marijuana Policy Project called it "glorious news". Ron Crickenberger, the Libertarian Party's political director and producer of the TV ads, was quick to warn other supporters of the War on Drugs:


title: Bob Barr

text: However, some individuals within these groups lamented Barr's defeat as a setback for privacy rights and libertarian causes in general. J. Bradley Jansen, vice chair of the Libertarian Party in the District of Columbia, opined:


title: Bob Barr

text: During his tenure, Barr was regarded as one of the most conservative members of Congress. In 2002, he was described by Bill Shipp in an OnlineAthens.com article as "the idol of the gun-toting, abortion-fighting, IRS-hating hard right wing of American politics". However, Barr's criticism of the Bush administration's policies on privacy and other civil liberties after the 9/11 attacks was unusual among House Republicans (see "Criticism of Bush Administration" below). This criticism earned Barr other labels such as "Maverick", "Jekyll-and-Hyde", and "Libertarian".


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr is a staunch proponent of gun rights, and is opposed to any and all efforts to restrict the ownership of guns.


title: Bob Barr

text: During the 2002 race, a supporter handed Barr an antique pistol during a fundraiser at a private home. The gun went off in Barr's hands, though no one was injured.


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr was originally a strong supporter of the War on Drugs, reflecting his previous experience as an Anti-Drug Coordinator for the United States Department of Justice. While in Congress, he was a member of the Speaker's Task Force for a Drug-Free America. This task force was established in 1998 by then-Speaker Newt Gingrich to "design a World War II-style victory plan to save America's children from illegal drugs." The task force crafted legislation specifically designed to "win the War on Drugs by 2002".


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr advocated complete federal prohibition of medical marijuana. In 1998, he successfully blocked implementation of Initiative 59 – the "Legalization of Marijuana for Medical Treatment Initiative of 1998" – which would have legalized medical marijuana in Washington, D.C. The "Barr Amendment" to the 1999 Omnibus spending bill not only blocked implementation of Initiative 59, but also prohibited the vote tally from even being released. Nearly a year passed before a lawsuit filed by the American Civil Liberties Union eventually revealed the initiative had received 69 percent of the vote. In response to the judge's ruling, Barr simply attached another "Barr Amendment" to the 2000 Omnibus spending bill that overturned Initiative 59 outright. The Barr Amendment also prohibited future laws that would "decrease the penalties for marijuana or other Schedule I drugs" in Washington, D.C. This preemptively blocked future attempts by Marijuana Policy Project (MPP) to reform marijuana laws in DC via the initiative process. In March 2002, U.S. District Judge Emmet Sullivan struck down this portion of the Barr Amendment as being an unconstitutional restriction on free speech. Barr's response to the ruling was defiant:


title: Bob Barr

text: The federal government later prevailed on appeal, reinstating the Barr Amendment just in time to thwart MPP's initiative 63 – "The Medical Marijuana Initiative of 2002" – which had already qualified for the November 2002 ballot. In 2009, both the United States Senate and House of Representatives voted to lift the ban against a medical marijuana initiative, effectively overturning the Barr Amendment.


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr later reversed his position on medical marijuana, joining MPP as a lobbyist five years later. In a June 4, 2008, interview with Stephen Colbert on the "Colbert Report", Barr confirmed that he now supports ending marijuana prohibition, as well as the War on Drugs, for which he once vehemently fought. In 2009, he was hired by the MPP to lobby to successfully overturn the amendment that he had authored.


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr took a lead in legislative debate concerning same-sex marriage. He authored and sponsored the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), a law enacted in 1996 which states that only marriages that are between a man and a woman can be federally recognized, and individual states may choose not to recognize a same-sex marriage performed in another state. At the 2008 Libertarian National Convention, he apologized for the part of DOMA which prevents the federal government from recognizing same-sex marriages.


title: Bob Barr

text: He now supports same-sex marriage and opposed the Federal Marriage Amendment, having contended that it is a violation of states' rights. Before the United States Supreme Court mandated recognition of same-sex marriage in "Obergefell v. Hodges", Barr supported the Respect for Marriage Act, which would have repealed the Defense of Marriage Act.


title: Bob Barr

text: He voted for the first USA PATRIOT Act, but only after his amendments adding "sunset clauses" were added to the final bill. Barr played a similar role during the debate over Bill Clinton's Comprehensive Anti-terrorism Act of 1995, crafting pro-civil liberties amendments to the original text. He now publicly regrets his Patriot Act vote.


title: Bob Barr

text: In 2002 Barr voted for the Iraq Resolution. He has since called for withdrawal of U.S. forces from Iraq, leaving no permanent military bases. A press release from Barr's presidential campaign stated: "The next president should commit to a speedy and complete withdrawal from Iraq, and tell the Iraqi people that the U.S. troops will be going home."


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr advocates the repeal of the 16th Amendment, which gives the U.S. Congress the power to levy an income tax without apportionment. As an alternative, he proposes a form of consumption tax, such as the FairTax.


title: Bob Barr

text: The National Review described Barr as one of the few people able to "ask effective questions and make clear points" while questioning government witnesses during the 1995 House Waco siege hearings on the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives and Federal Bureau of Investigation actions against the Branch Davidians in 1993, sponsored by subcommittees of the House Judiciary Committee and Government Reform and Oversight Committee. Barr has written: "The hearing was a farce: a virtual lovefest, during which members of the Clinton Administration responded to softball questions from their colleagues in the House with superficial answers, and Republican queries were ignored or glossed over with disdain, if not outright contempt." Barr called for Congress to reopen investigations, but senior House Republicans refused. In 2003 testimony submitted to the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee Barr wrote: "[T]here remains time to turn back the constitutional clock and roll back excessive post-9/11 powers before we turn the corner into another Japanese internment or, closer to our own experiences, before we witness a legally sanctioned Ruby Ridge or Waco scenario."


title: Bob Barr

text: In the early 1990s, Barr was photographed at a fundraising event licking whipped cream off a woman. According to "The Washington Post" "Two people who observed the act say it wasn't exactly a bosom lick but more like a neckline lick, at the sort of event where business and civic leaders perform dares to raise money. 'Not exactly Mr. Effusive,' says Matt Towery, the former chairman of Newt Gingrich's political organization, who observed the brief and awkward licking. 'You can hardly get the guy to smile.'"


title: Bob Barr

text: Barr is best known for his role as one of the House managers during President Bill Clinton's impeachment trial.


title: Bob Barr

text: In the spring of 1997, Republican, Bob Barr, wrote House Committee on the Judiciary chairman Henry Hyde, encouraging him to open an impeachment inquiry. Hyde responded that such an action would be premature.


title: Bob Barr

text: In November 1997, Barr first introduced a resolution directing the House Judiciary Committee to begin an impeachment inquiry against Clinton, with this resolution coming months before the Monica Lewinsky scandal came to light. This resolution, introduced in November 1997 did not specify any charges or allegations. Foremost among the concerns Barr cited at the time was apparent obstruction of Justice Department investigations into Clinton campaign fundraising from foreign sources, chiefly the People's Republic of China. Barr argued that Clinton had been "systematically operating outside the bounds" of the law. He accused Clinton of "systematic abuse of office", alleging campaign finance law violations and obstruction of congressional investigations. Eighteen other Republican members of the House of Representatives joined Barr in signing on to the resolution as co-sponsors. These members were Roscoe Bartlett, Helen Chenoweth, Barbara Cubin, John Doolittle, Lindsey Graham, Duncan L. Hunter, Sam Johnson, Jack Kingston, Jack Metcalf, John Mica, Ron Paul, Dana Rohrabacher, Pete Sessions, Chris Smith, Mark Souder, Linda Smith, Bob Stump, and Todd Tiahrt.


title: Bob Barr

text: After the Lewinsky scandal broke, Barr was the first lawmaker in either chamber to call for Clinton's resignation. After the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal came to light, Barr ramped up his efforts to push for Clinton's impeachment, appearing regularly on television, as well as even publishing a scholarly article in the Texas Law Review on the subject.