title: Bimetallism

text: Croesus (reigned – BCE), king of Lydia, who became associated with great wealth. Croesus is credited with issuing the Croeseid, the first true gold coins with a standardised purity for general circulation,


title: Bimetallism

text: Many ancient bimetallic systems would follow, starting with Achaemenid coinage. From around 515 BCE under Darius I, the minting of Croesids in Sardis was replaced by the minting of Darics and Sigloi. The earliest gold coin of the Achaemenid Empire, the Daric, followed the weight standard of the Croeseid, and is therefore considered to be later and derived from the Croeseid. The weight of the Daric would then be modified through a metrological reform, probably under Darius I.


title: Bimetallism

text: Sardis remained the central mint for the Persian Darics and Sigloi of Achaemenid coinage, and there is no evidence of other mints for the new Achaemenid coins during the whole time of the Achaemenid Empire. Although the gold Daric became an international currency which was found throughout the Ancient world, the circulation of the Sigloi remained very much limited to Asia Minor: important hoards of Sigloi are only found in these areas, and finds of Sigloi beyond are always very limited and marginal compared to Greek coins, even in Achaemenid territories.


title: Bimetallism

text: In 1881, a currency reform in Argentina introduced a bimetallic standard, which went into effect in July 1883. Units of gold and silver pesos would be exchanged with paper peso notes at given par values, and fixed exchange rates against key international currencies would thus be established. Unlike many metallic standards, the system was very decentralized: no national monetary authority existed, and all control over convertibility rested with the five banks of issue. This convertibility lasted only 17 months: from December 1884 the banks of issue refused to exchange gold at par for notes. The suspension of convertibility was soon accommodated by the Argentine government, since, having no institutional power over the monetary system, there was little they could do to prevent it.


title: Bimetallism

text: A French law of 1803 granted anyone who brought gold or silver to its mint the right to have it coined at a nominal charge in addition to the official rates of 200 francs per kilogram of 90% silver, or 3100 francs per kilogram of 90% fine gold. This effectively established a bimetallic standard at the rate which had been used for French coinage since 1785, i.e. a relative valuation of gold to silver of 15.5 to 1. In 1803 this ratio was close to the market rate, but for most of the next half century the market rate was above 15.5 to 1. As a consequence, silver powered the French economy and gold was exported. Then the Forty-Niners went to California and the resulting supply of gold reduced its value relative to silver. The market rate fell below 15.5 to 1, and remained below until 1866. Frenchmen responded by exporting silver to India and importing nearly two-fifths of the world's production of gold in the period from 1848 to 1870. Napoleon III introduced five franc gold coins which provided a substitute for the silver five franc coins which were hoarded, but still maintained the formal bimetallism implicit in the 1803 law.


title: Bimetallism

text: The national coinages introduced in Belgium (1832), Switzerland (1850), and Italy (1861) were based on France's bimetallic currency. These countries joined France in a treaty signed on 23 December 1865 which established the Latin Monetary Union (LMU). Greece joined the LMU in 1868 and about twenty other countries adhered to its standards. The LMU effectively adopted bimetallism by allowing unlimited free coinage of gold and silver at the 15.5 to 1 rate used in France, but also began to back away from bimetallism by allowing limited issues of low denomination silver coins struck to a lower standard for government accounts. A surplus of silver led the LMU to limit free coinage of silver in 1874 and to end it in 1878, effectively abandoning bimetallism for the gold standard.


title: Bimetallism

text: Medieval and early modern England used both gold and silver, at fixed rates, to provide the necessary range of coin denominations; but silver coinage began to be restricted in the 18th century, first informally, and then by an Act of Parliament in 1774. After the suspension of metal convertibility from 1797 to 1819, Peel's Bill set the country on the gold standard for the remainder of the century; however advocates of a return to bimetallism did not cease to appear. After the crash of 1825, William Huskisson argued strongly within the Government for bimetallism, as a way to increase credit (as well as to ease trade with South America). Similarly, after the banking crisis of 1847, Alexander Baring headed an external bimetallist movement hoping to prevent the undue restriction of the currency. It was, however, only in the last quarter of the century that the movement for bimetallism gathered real strength, drawing on Manchester cotton merchants and City financiers with Far East interests to offer a serious (if ultimately unsuccessful) challenge to the gold standard.


title: Bimetallism

text: In 1792, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton proposed fixing the silver to gold exchange rate at 15:1, as well as establishing the mint for the public services of free coinage and currency regulation "in order not to abridge the quantity of circulating medium." With its acceptance, of the Coinage Act of 1792 established: "That the proportional value of gold to silver in all coins which shall by law be current as money within the United States, shall be as fifteen to one, according to quantity in weight, of pure gold or pure silver;" the proportion had slipped by 1834 to sixteen to one. Silver took a further hit with the Coinage Act of 1853, when nearly all silver coin denominations were debased, effectively turning silver coinage into a fiduciary currency based on its face value rather than its weighted value. Bimetallism was effectively abandoned by the Coinage Act of 1873, but not formally outlawed as legal currency until the early 20th century. The merits of the system were the subject of debate in the late 19th century. If the market forces of supply and demand for either metal caused its bullion value to exceed its nominal currency value, it tends to disappear from circulation by hoarding or melting down.


title: Bimetallism

text: In the United States, bimetallism became a center of political conflict toward the end of the 19th century. During the Civil War, to finance the war the U.S. switched from bimetallism to a fiat money currency. After the war, in 1873, the government passed the Fourth Coinage Act and soon resumption of specie payments began (without the free and unlimited coinage of silver, thus putting the U.S. on a mono-metallic gold standard.) Farmers, debtors, Westerners and others who felt they had benefited from wartime paper money formed the short-lived Greenback Party to press for cheap paper money backed by silver. The latter element—"free silver"—came increasingly to the fore as the answer to the same interest groups' concerns, and was taken up as a central plank by the Populist movement. Proponents of monetary silver, known as the silverites, referred back to the Fourth Coinage Act as "The Crime of '73," as it was judged to have inhibited inflation, and favored creditors over debtors. Some reformers, however, like Henry Demarest Lloyd, saw bimetallism as a red herring and feared that free silver was "the cowbird of the reform movement," likely to push the other eggs out of the nest. Nevertheless the Panic of 1893, a severe nationwide depression, brought the money issue strongly to the fore again. The "silverites" argued that using silver would inflate the money supply and mean more cash for everyone, which they equated with prosperity. The gold advocates said silver would permanently depress the economy, but that sound money produced by a gold standard would restore prosperity.


title: Bimetallism

text: Bimetallism and "Free Silver" were demanded by William Jennings Bryan who took over leadership of the Democratic Party in 1896, as well as by the Populists, and a faction of Republicans from silver mining regions in the West known as the Silver Republicans who also endorsed Bryan. The Republican Party itself nominated William McKinley on a platform supporting the gold standard which was favored by financial interests on the East Coast.


title: Bimetallism

text: Bryan, the eloquent champion of the cause, gave the famous "Cross of Gold" speech at the National Democratic Convention on July 9, 1896, asserting that "The gold standard has slain tens of thousands." He referred to "a struggle between 'the idle holders of idle capital’ and 'the struggling masses, who produce the wealth and pay the taxes of the country;’ and, my friends, the question we are to decide is: Upon which side will the Democratic party fight?" At the peroration, he said: "You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold." However, his presidential campaign was ultimately unsuccessful; this can be partially attributed to the discovery of the cyanide process by which gold could be extracted from low-grade ore. This process and the discoveries of large gold deposits in South Africa (Witwatersrand Gold Rush of 1887 – with large-scale production starting in 1898) and the Klondike Gold Rush (1896) increased the world gold supply and the subsequent increase in money supply that free coinage of silver was supposed to bring. The McKinley campaign was effective at persuading voters in the business East that poor economic progress and unemployment would be exacerbated by the adoption of the Bryan platform. 1896 saw the election of McKinley. The direct link to gold was abandoned in 1934 in Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal program and later the link was broken by Richard Nixon when he closed the gold window.


title: Bimetallism

text: In 1992, economist Milton Friedman concluded that abandonment of the bimetallic standard in 1873 led to greater price instability than would have occurred otherwise, and thus resulted in long-term harm to the US economy. His retrospective analysis led him to write that the act of 1873 was "a mistake that had highly adverse consequences".


title: Simba rebellion

text: The Simba rebellion, also known as the Orientale revolt, was a regional uprising which took place in the Democratic Republic of the Congo between 1963 and 1965 in the wider context of the Congo Crisis and the Cold War. The rebellion, located in the east of the country, was led by the followers of Patrice Lumumba, who had been ousted from power in 1960 by Joseph Kasa-Vubu and Joseph-Désiré Mobutu and subsequently killed in January 1961 in Katanga. The rebellion was contemporaneous with the Kwilu rebellion led by fellow Lumumbist Pierre Mulele in central Congo.


title: Simba rebellion

text: The Simba rebels were initially successful and captured much of eastern Congo, proclaiming a "people's republic" at Stanleyville. However, the insurgency suffered from a lack of organization and coherence, as well as tensions between the rebel leadership and its international allies of the Eastern Bloc. When the Congolese government launched a number of major counter-offensives from late 1964, spearheaded by battle-hardened mercenaries and backed by Western powers, the rebels suffered several major defeats and disintegrated. By November 1965, the Simba rebellion was effectively defeated, though holdouts of the rebels continued their insurgency until the 1990s.


title: Simba rebellion

text: The causes of the Simba Rebellion should be viewed as part of the wider struggle for power within the Republic of the Congo following independence from Belgium on 30 June 1960 as well as within the context of other Cold War interventions in Africa by the West and the Soviet Union. The rebellion can be immediately traced back to the assassination of the first Prime Minister of the Congo, Patrice Lumumba, in January 1961. Political infighting and intrigue followed, resulting in the ascendancy of Joseph Kasa-Vubu and Joseph-Désiré Mobutu in Kinshasa at the expense of politicians who had supported Lumumba such as Antoine Gizenga, Christophe Gbenye, and Gaston Soumialot.


title: Simba rebellion

text: In 1961, this change in power led Antoine Gizenga to declare the creation of a rebel government in Stanleyville. This rival government, dubbed the Free Republic of the Congo, received support from the Soviet Union and China as they positioned themselves as being "socialists" opposed to American intervention in the Congo and involvement in the death of Lumumba although, as with Lumumba, there is some dispute over the true political inclinations of the Lumumbists.


title: Simba rebellion

text: However, in August 1961, Gizenga dissolved the government in Stanleyville with the intention of taking part in the United Nations sponsored talks at Lovanium University. These talks ultimately did not deliver the Lumumbist government that had been intended. Gizenga was arrested and imprisoned on Bula-Mbemba and many of the Lumumbists went into exile.


title: Simba rebellion

text: It was in exile that the rebellion began to take shape. In 1963, the Conseil National de Libération (CNL) was founded by Gbenye and Soumialot in Brazzaville, capital of the neighbouring Republic of the Congo. The CNL was backed by pro-Lumumba leaders as well as "emerging local warlords" based in Orientale Province as well as Kivu in eastern Congo. However, whilst these plans for rebellion were being developed in exile, Pierre Mulele returned from his training in China to launch a revolution in his native province of Kwilu in 1963.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Mulele proved to be a capable leader and scored a number of early successes, although these would remain localised to Kwilu. With the country again seeming to be in open rebellion of the government in Kinshasa, the CNL launched its rebellion in their political heartland of eastern Congo.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Christophe Gbenye's forces were organized as the "Armée Populaire de Libération" (APL), though were generally nicknamed "Simbas", meaning a lion or big lion in Swahili. They were recruited from ANC mutineers, tribesmen, and youth militants ("jeunesse"). In general, the "Armée Populaire de Libération" was divided into regular units which were organized like the ANC (namely the "unités d'operations" and "unités de garnison"), and units which were more akin to irregular militias ("barriéres"). Although they were on average well motivated, the Simbas lacked discipline and their command as well as control were often chaotic. They were also poorly armed, with many rebels relying on machetes and spears due to lacking guns.


title: Simba rebellion

text: The majority of the Simbas were young men and teens although children were not unheard of in the conflict. The rebels were led by Gaston Soumialot and Gbenye, who had been members of Gizenga's Parti Solidaire Africain (PSA), and Laurent-Désiré Kabila, who had been a member of the Lumumba aligned "Association générale des Baluba du Katanga" (BALUBAKAT).


title: Simba rebellion

text: Because of the range of political beliefs amongst the Simba rebels, attributing an ideology to the rebellion is very complex. Whilst the leaders claimed to be influenced by Chinese Maoist ideas, the Cuban military advisor Che Guevara wrote that the majority of the fighters did not hold these views. The fighters also practised a system of traditional beliefs which held that correct behaviour and the regular reapplying of "dawa" (water ritually applied by a medicine man) would leave the fighters impervious to bullets. Researcher Ato Kwamena Onoma described the Simba rebellion as "Lumumbist". The rebellion was backed by the MNC-L party.


title: Simba rebellion

text: In addition to native Congolese, the Simba rebels included Rwandan exiles. Known as "Inyenzi" in Rwanda, these exiles had repeatedly attempted to retake their home country without success, most prominently during the Bugesera invasion of December 1963. Frustrated that Congolese authorities hampered their activities and radicalised by their repeated failures, Inyenzi based in the Congo joined the Simba rebellion because they hoped that a Simba-led government would support their own efforts in Rwanda. Rwandan exiles held prominent positions within the rebel hierarchy, with Inyenzi leaders Louis Bidalira and Jerome Katarebe serving as chief of staff and "chef de cabinet" respectively. The Rwandan exiles held a reputation as good and disciplined fighters among the insurgents.


title: Simba rebellion

text: As the Kwilu rebellion spread and escalated, Soumialot obtained the support of the government of Burundi in recruiting thousands of troops along the Burundian-Congolese border. With these forces, he invaded South Kivu in late 1963. After taking control of most of the province, Soumialot's army overran the last local government holdouts at Uvira on 15 May 1964, followed by Fizi shortly after. Pro-Simba forces successfully revolted in the important harbor town of Albertville in late May, capturing Jason Sendwe, President of North Katanga Province. On 30 May 1964, a small ANC detachment led by Louis Bobozo retook the town, rescuing Sendwe and killing about 250 rebels. The government troops soon alienated the locals due to their brutal behavior. When another rebellion broke out in the town on 19 June 1964, Soumialot's forces exploited the resulting chaos and captured Albertville. The government forces fled, leaving Sendwe behind; he was subsequently murdered by either Simba rebels or, less likely, ANC soldiers, though the circumstances remain unclear and disputed.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Meanwhile, Christophe Gbenye and Nicholas Olenga rose in revolt in northeastern Congo, quickly expanding their army and territories. By June 1964, they held North Kivu, and southern Orientale Province. They did not coordinate their operations with Soumialot who distrusted Gbenye. A third rebel force, independent of Soumialot, Gbenye, and Olenga, rebelled in northern Katanga in early June. These insurgents considered themselves "true" Communists, and were led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila and Ildéphonse Massengo. They had no real connections to the other Simba factions. Kabila and Massengo's troops conquered the entire western shore of Lake Tanganyika, including Moba by late June. They then advanced into the Province of Maniema, and captured its strategically important capital Kindu on 22 July.


title: Simba rebellion

text: The local "Armée Nationale Congolaise" (ANC) garrisons reacted with brutal counter-insurgency actions that failed to defeat the Simbas, but alienated the population of the eastern provinces. Furthermore, the Simba rebels often managed to intimidate well-equipped ANC units into retreating or defecting without a fight, thereby capturing much-needed weaponry for the insurgency. As the Simba rebellion in eastern Congo spread, the states of the Eastern Bloc took increasing interest. The Soviet Union implored neighboring nationalist regimes to aid the rebels. The Soviet leadership promised that it would replace all weaponry given to the Simbas in given time, but rarely did so. In order to supply the rebels, the Soviet Union transported equipment via cargo planes to Juba in allied Sudan. From there, the Sudanese brought the weapons to Congo This operation backfired, however, as southern Sudan was engulfed in its own civil war. The Sudanese Anyanya insurgents consequently ambushed the Soviet-Sudanese supply convoys and captured the weapons for themselves.


title: Simba rebellion

text: When the CIA learned of these attacks, it allied with the Anyanya. The Anyanya consequently helped the Western/Congolese air forces to locate Simba rebel camps and supply routes, and destroy them. In return, the Sudanese rebels were given weapons for their own war. Angered by the Soviet support for the insurgents, the Congolese government expelled the Soviet embassy's personnel from the country in July 1964; the Soviet leadership responded by increasing its aid for the Simbas. Meanwhile, the Simbas continued to advance. By late July 1964, the insurgents controlled about half of the Congo. Utterly demoralized by repeated defeats, many ANC soldiers believed that the Simba rebels had become invincible thanks to magical rituals performed by insurgent shamans. Amid these rebel successes, the United States government pressured President Kasa-Vubu to dismiss Prime Minister Cyrille Adoula, and install a new government led by Moïse Tshombe. The U.S. and Belgian leadership believed that Tshombe was supportive of their interests as well as a more effective leader, thereby being the ideal person to lead the Congo in the conflict against the Simba rebels. With few options left, Kasa-Vubu agreed and Tshombe returned from exile as the new prime minister on 30 July 1964.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Tshombe reorganized the Congolese war effort, circumventing other political and military leaders such as Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu. He asked the Western nations for military assistance, recruited White mercenaries, and brought his exiled loyalist troops (the Katangese Gendarmerie) back into the country. The mercenary-led forces gradually arrived at the frontlines from July 1964. Tshombe's rise to power caused considerable displeasure in the Congo and other African countries. The Ugandan government, which felt that the newly installed Tshombe government was beholden to Western interests, promptly offered covert aid to Gbenye. This included the use of government forces to train the rebels as well as the allowance for Ugandan territory to be used as a resupply route. Some Ugandan troops served alongside the rebels in combat, and the Congolese ANC and the Uganda Army's 1st Battalion directly clashed along the border of the two countries at some point in 1964. Other countries which sent covert military support through weapons shipments and training included Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser, and Algeria under Ahmed Ben Bella. China also provided limited aid to the rebels, with Chinese experts based in the Congo, Burundi, and Tanzania suspected of training Simba insurgents.


title: Simba rebellion

text: By August 1964, they had captured Stanleyville where a 1,500-man ANC force fled leaving behind weapons and vehicles which the Simba rebels captured. The attack consisted of a charge, led by shamans, with forty Simba warriors. No shots were fired by the Simba rebels. Following the conquest of Stanleyville, the rebels proclaimed a "People's Republic of the Congo" ("République populaire du Congo") while portraying the existing Congolese government as Western puppet regime.


title: Simba rebellion

text: As the rebel movement spread, acts of violence and terror increased. Thousands of Congolese were executed in systematic purges by the Simbas, including government officials, political leaders of opposition parties, provincial and local police, school teachers, and others believed to have been Westernized. Many of the executions were carried out with extreme cruelty, in front of a monument to Patrice Lumumba in Stanleyville. About 1,000 to 2,000 Westernized Congolese were murdered in Stanleyville alone. In contrast, the rebels initially left whites and foreigners mostly alone. Following the fall of Stanleyville, the Congolese government reacted to the prominent involvement of Rwandan exiles in the Simba rebellion by ordering that all Rwandan refugees were to be expelled from the Congo. Even though the vast majority of Rwandans in the Congo were uninvolved in the uprising and living peacefully, they were consequently the target of ethnic violence and blamed "for all sorts of evil" by Congolese authorities.


title: Simba rebellion

text: With much of northern Congo and the Congolese upcountry under their control, the Simba rebels moved south against Kasaï Province. Kasaï had rich mining concerns but was also a strategic key to more lasting control of Congo. If the rebels could capture Kasai Province up to the Angola border they could cut the government forces in half, isolating Katanga Province and severely overstretching ANC lines. In August 1964 unknown thousands of Simbas moved down out of the hills and began the conquest of Kasaï. As before ANC forces retreated with little fight by either throwing down arms completely or defecting to the rebels.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Newly appointed Prime Minister Tshombe acted decisively against the new threat. Using contacts he had made while exiled in Spain, Tshombe was able to organize an airlift of his former soldiers currently exiled in rural Angola. The airlift was enacted by the United States and facilitated by the Portuguese as both feared a Soviet influenced socialist state in the middle of Africa. Tshombe's forces were composed primarily of Belgian trained Katangese Gendarmes who had previously served the Belgian Colonial Authority. They were a highly disciplined and well equipped force who had only just barely lost a bid for independence in the previous conflict. In addition the force was accompanied by Jerry Puren and a score of mercenary pilots flying Second World War surplus training planes fitted with machine guns. The combined force marched on Kasai Province and encountered Simba forces near Luluabourg. Its mercenary pilots strafed nearby Simba columns which lacked any anti-aircraft equipment. At the behest of accompanying shamans, many Simba warriors had even discarded their firearms as a way of purifying themselves from "Western" corruption. The engagement began in a shallow, long valley with Simba forces attacking in an irregular mixture of infantry and motorized forces, which charged directly at the ANC force. In response, the ANC troops also advanced directly, led by jeeps and trucks. The Simba rebels encountered heavy losses because of ANC machine-gun fire. It was a decisive defeat and the Simba rebels were forced to abandon their attacks in Kasai.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Success in Kasai justified Tshombe's decision to bring in Western mercenaries to augment well-trained Katangese formations. Two hundred mercenaries from France, South Africa, West Germany, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain, and Angola arrived in Katanga Province over the next month. The largely white mercenaries provided the ANC with a highly trained and experienced force that was unaffected by the indiscipline and social tensions within the ANC. They provided an expertise that could not be matched. Ironically, their presence also strengthened the recruitment efforts of the Simba rebels who could portray the ANC as a Western puppet. Once the mercenaries were concentrated they spearheaded a combined offensive against Albertville. Once captured, Albertville would give the ANC access to Lake Tanganyika and serve as a staging base for future offensives to relieve Government enclaves in the North. Simba forces were deployed in several large mobs around Albertville in expectation for an attack by ANC infantry and the motorized Gendarmes.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Mike Hoare, a white mercenary commander, led three boats of mercenaries around the Simba rebel flank to attack Albertville from the rear in a night attack. The move made good progress but was diverted when it ran across a Catholic priest who convinced the mercenaries to rescue 60 clergy being held by Simba troops. The mercenaries failed to either rescue the priests or capture the Albertville airport. The next day ANC infantry and the motorized Gendarmes re-captured the city, overwhelming poorly armed Simba resistance. Together with the success in Kasai the victory at Albertville stabilized the government southern flank. The abuse of the clergy also increased Western support for the Tshombe Government.


title: Simba rebellion

text: The rebels started taking hostages from the local white population in areas under their control. Several hundred hostages were taken to Stanleyville and placed under guard in the Victoria Hotel. A group of Belgian and Italian nuns were taken hostage by rebel leader Gaston Soumaliot. The nuns were forced into hard labor and numerous atrocities were reported by news agencies all over the world. Uvira, near the border with Burundi was a supply route for the rebellions. On October 7, 1964, the nuns were liberated. From Uvira they escaped by road to Bukavu from where they returned to Belgium by airplane.


title: Simba rebellion

text: In late October 1964, nearly 1,000 European and U.S. citizens were taken hostage by rebel forces in Stanleyville. In response, Belgium and the United States launched a military intervention on 24 November 1964.


title: Simba rebellion

text: As aid from the Soviet Union was received by the Simba military establishment, the Simba force made one final push against the government capital of Leopoldville. The advance made some headway but was stopped cold when several hundred mercenaries were airlifted North and attacked the flank of the Simba pincer. The mercenaries were then able to capture the key town of Boende. After this success, more mercenaries were hired and dispatched to every province in Congo.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Once that the final Simba offensives were checked, the ANC began to squeeze Simba-controlled territory from all sides. ANC commanders formed a loose perimeter around rebel areas, pushing in with a variety of shallow and deep pincers. With mercenaries acting as shock contingent for ANC forces, the Congolese government used aircraft to transport mercenaries to hotspots or rebel strongholds. Mercenary forces became adept at outflanking and then reducing Simba positions with enfilade fire.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Though war was turning in favor of the ANC, problems remained for the Congolese government. Most notably, the rebels still held numerous hostages and important towns in eastern Congo. In response, the Congolese government turned to Belgium and the United States for help. The Belgian Army sent a task force to Léopoldville, airlifted by the U.S. 322d Airlift Division. The Belgian and American governments tried to come up with a rescue plan. Several ideas were considered and discarded, while attempts at negotiating with the Simba force failed.


title: Simba rebellion

text: The Congolese government and its Western allies finally decided to launch a multi-pronged campaign. ANC troops led by mercenary columns would advance from the west, southwest, southeast (Albertville) and east (Bukavu). The mercenaries were well equipped for the campaign, and given access to jeeps, trucks, mortars and armoured fighting vehicles. In addition, the ANC was provided with foreign advisors, including about 200 Cuban CIA agents who operated on the ground and also flew for the Congolese Air Force. The ground forces which were coming from the west and attacking Bas-Uele were also supported by armoured trains. While these ground offensives were going on, an international task force was prepared for airborne attacks on the urban centers of the rebels.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Though the initial ground attacks met with some success, the Simbas still managed to offer significant resistance, and even retook some areas amid counter-attacks soon after the campaign's beginning. The first airborne assault was carried out on 24 November. Organized by Belgian Colonel Charles Laurent, the attack was code-named "Dragon Rouge" and targeted Stanleyville. Five US Air Force C-130 transports dropped 350 Belgian paratroopers of the Para-Commando Regiment onto Simi-Simi Airport on the western outskirts of Stanleyville. Once the paratroopers had secured the airfield and cleared the runway they made their way to the Victoria Hotel, prevented Simba rebels from killing most of the 60 hostages, and evacuated them via the airfield. Over the next two days over 1,800 Americans and Europeans were evacuated, as well as around 400 Congolese. However, almost 200 foreigners and thousands of Congolese were executed by the Simbas. Among them were several missionaries such as the American Dr. Paul Carlson or the Belgian Dox brothers. While the Belgians were securing Stanleyville, the ANC's columns "Lima I" and "Lima II" broke through the Simba defenses and arrived at Stanleyville on the same day. On 26 November, a second mission ("Dragon Noir") was flown by the Belgians and captured Isiro. The Belgians withdrew most of their forces from the Congo after the successful conclusion of "Dragon Rouge" and "Dragon Noir". The fall of Stanleyville and Isiro "broke the back of the eastern insurrection, which never recovered." The Simba leadership fled into exile while descending into disarray and severe disagreements; Gbenye was shot in the shoulder by one of his generals after dismissing him. However, many African states voiced support for the Simbas' cause after the Belgian operations.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Though the main rebel forces had been dispersed, large areas in eastern Congo remained under Simba control. In fact, the government offensives stalled after the reconquest of Stanleyville and Isiro. The Simba rebels proved to be still a capable fighting force by inflicting a major defeat on the ANC near Bafwasende in early February 1965, followed by another, smaller rebel victory near Bumba later that month. Regardless, the insurgents had become too weak to actually restart their offensives and were unable to exploit their defensive successes, resulting in a temporary stalemate. Meanwhile, their international supporters continued to arm and train the rebels, although Burundi expelled local Chinese experts who had possibly aided the insurgency around early February. In January 1965 Ugandan Prime Minister Milton Obote arranged for Gbenye to meet with him, Kenyan President Jomo Kenyatta, and Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere in Mbale. Gbenye gained their sympathies, and it was decided that covert aid would be channeled to him primarily through Uganda, due to its proximity to the geographic base of the rebellion. Obote selected Colonel Idi Amin to lead the assistance effort. As Uganda continued to support the rebels, the Congolese government retaliated by bombing the two villages of Paidha and Goli in Uganda's West Nile District on 13 February 1965. The bombings caused minimal damage, but resulted in a public outcry in Uganda whose government promptly expanded the military to defend its borders. There were also reports about Ugandan troops crossing the border in a raid targeting Mahagi and Bunia in retaliation for the Congolese air attacks.


title: Simba rebellion

text: In March 1965, around 100 Afro-Cuban volunteers under Che Guevara arrived to train the remaining Simba forces in eastern Congo. There were also plans to send trainers from other communist countries to Congo as well. Instead, however, international support for the Simbas declined. This resulted from growing conflicts within and among the socialist states, most notably the 1965 Algerian coup d'état and the Sino-Soviet split. Furthermore, the Maoist leadership of the Simbas disagreed with the Cubans over ideology, resulting in tensions that undermined any military cooperation. In contrast, the Rwandan exiles continued to back the Simba rebels, and became even more important to the Simba forces due to the gradual end of other foreign support. The "Rwanadese Popular Movement" and the "Rwanda Youth National Union" led by Jean Kayitare, son of Rwandan exile leader François Rukeba, each mobilized a battalion to assist the beleaguered Simbas. One Rwandan exile later explained that their continued support for the Simba rebels was mostly motivated by the fact that they were being expelled from other countries such as Burundi, making this "the only choice we had". Despite this, their working relationship with the Congolese insurgents became more strained. The Simba rebels also alienated the Banyamulenge who lived in South Kivu during this time, as the retreating insurgents killed the Banyamulenge's cows for food. Even though they were related to ethnic Rwandans, the Banyamulenge had previously tried to remain neutral and now opted to side with the Congolese government. They organized militias and began to hunt for the rebels.


title: Simba rebellion

text: By April 1965, several thousand pro-Simba Rwandan militants operated in eastern Congo, but their support did little to stem the ANC's advance. The ANC launched two major campaigns in 1965 against the two last major Simba strongholds which were located along the Ugandan and Sudanese borders as well as at Fizi-Baraka in South Kivu. By May 1965, the Simbas had lost a majority of their territory in northeastern Congo. Despite this, the Cubans attempted to improve the training and organization of the Congolese and Rwandan insurgents. In late June, Kabila ordered a first Cuban-Simba-Rwandan attack aimed at the ANC garrison of Bendera. The operation (which was opposed by Che Guevara) failed completely, with the Rwandans being particularly poorly motivated and fleeing upon the first sign of combat. However, the Cubans continued their training and the performance of the rebels began to improve, resulting in a series of well-organized ambushes against ANC targets. However, these successes came at a significant cost. One Rwandan rebel leader told Che Guevara that he was losing so many of his fighters that the exiles' plans to invade Rwanda in future had become almost impossible.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Despite the occasional rebel success, the ANC and the mercenaries continued their advance, and began to cut off the insurgents from their supply roues across Lake Tanganyika. This forced the rebels to make stands and face the government forces head-on in battles in which they were disadvantaged. The final Simba stronghold near Bukavu held out for a month. It was captured only after the Simba force had killed several thousand civilians. Morale among the rebels plummeted, and many Rwandans wanted to quit the conflict. As local farmers also turned against the Simbas, showing insurgent camps to the government troops, the Cubans realized that no revolution would occur in the Congo. In November 1965, the Communist Cubans left the Congo in a nightly evacuation. At this point, the Simba rebellion was effectively defeated. According to historian Gérard Prunier, most of the remaining Simba rebels were "slaughter[ed]" by the ANC, mercenaries, and Banyamulenge militias. Many Simbas and their families were able to escape into exile; some ultimately relocated to Cuba.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Though the Simba rebellion had been crushed, rebel remnants continued to be active. Weak and no real threat to the Congolese government, they waged a low-level guerrilla war from bases in remote frontier regions. Of the rebel leadership, Kabila and Soumialot continued to support the remaining insurgents from their exile in Tanzania. In contrast, Gbenye and Olenga initially became businessmen in Sudan and Uganda. They made peace with Mobutu and returned to the Congo in 1971. Soumialot was probably killed by his own troops while waging an insurgency in the Fizi-Baraka area of the Congo in the late 1960s. Notable Simba holdouts were located in the western Virunga Mountains (these forces eventually became the Parti de Libération Congolais) and in South Kivu (Kabila's People's Revolution Party). The Rwandan exiles no longer played a significant role in the Simba holdouts. Some exiled Simbas resumed their insurgency in the 1980s or 1990s. Notable examples include the Front for the Liberation of Congo – Patrice Lumumba (FLC-L) and André Kisase Ngandu's forces.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Some of the Simba holdouts continued to be active until the First Congo War in 1996/97 when Kabila became President of the Congo. Ex-Simbas played a major role in Kabila's government until his murder in 2001.


title: Simba rebellion

text: The Banyamulenge's involvement in the conflict would result in lasting ethnic resentment in South Kivu, as the Simba insurgents of the region had mostly belonged to the Bembe people. Accordingly, the memory of the Banyamulenge-Simba fighting became ethnically charged, a development which was further fuelled by the Banyamulenge exploiting their victory over the rebels by expanding their holdings in South Kivu after the rebellion. The local ethnic rivalries would have a major impact on the First and Second Congo War.


title: Simba rebellion

text: The decision to aid the Simbas divided the Ugandan government, as it strained relations with the Congolese government and with the United States. It also created differences between the Ugandan national government and the sub-national Bugandan government. A Ugandan Member of Parliament later accused Colonel Amin of taking advantage of the situation to embezzle funds allocated for aid to Gbenye and smuggling gold, coffee, and ivory from the Congo, triggering the Gold Scandal. Several ex-Simba rebels were eventually enlisted in the Uganda Army after Idi Amin seized power in Uganda in 1971.


title: Simba rebellion

text: Thousands of Simba rebels fled to Burundi. Many of them joined with Hutu militants in a revolt against President Michel Micombero in 1972.


title: Simba rebellion

text: The emigration of about 500 ex-Simbas to Cuba after the rebellion, as well as the subsequent intermarriage between ethnic Cubans and ex-Simbas, resulted in the emergence of a Cuban-Congolese community. Marked by a unique blend of Cuban and Congolese cultures, this community spread beyond Cuba, as some Cuban-Congolese ultimately returned to Africa or relocated to other parts of the world. Many ex-Simbas greatly profited from the better education opportunities in Cuba, and integrated well into the society of their host country. Despite being relatively small, the community has played a major part in modern Congolese politics due to the influence of Cuba-based ex-Simbas on the first post-Mobutu government of the Congo.


title: Il ballo della vita

text: Il ballo della vita () is the debut studio album by Italian rock band Måneskin. It was released on 26 October 2018. The album peaked at number one on the Italian Albums Chart, managed to reach Top 20 on European music charts, and received a triple platinum certification by FIMI. The album includes the hit singles "Morirò da re", "Torna a casa", "Fear for Nobody", "L'altra dimensione" and "Le parole lontane".


title: Il ballo della vita

text: Like in the previous EP "Chosen", "Il ballo della vita" is a modern Italian pop rock record with influences from funk, reggae and ska. In an "The Upcoming" interview, the band cited Led Zeppelin, Arctic Monkeys, Harry Styles, Red Hot Chili Peppers and Bruno Mars as inspirations for the album.


title: Il ballo della vita

text: The album's title is meaning a "celebration of youth, of freedom". The central figure of the album's lyrics is the fictional muse "Marlena", a "woman who represents beauty and the message we want to communicate: a message of freedom of choice, of attitude, of style to which we have tried to give a face, a name and a voice". Another protagonist is a man who wants to be with her until the very end. According to Damiano David, she is also a "personification of the fear of not being able to be oneself. Man is security, believing in oneself, like a father or an older brother, and he takes this woman into an objectively uncomfortable situation to bring her to a better version: not changing her, but making her accept herself, her aspirations".


title: Il ballo della vita

text: Five out of twelve songs in the album contain lyrics in English: "New Song", "Sh*t Blvd", single "Fear for Nobody", "Are You Ready?" and "Close to the Top".


title: Il ballo della vita

text: In October 2018, the band released "This Is Måneskin", a documentary film which delved into the band's career beginnings, personal life and the creative process of producing the album.


title: Il ballo della vita

text: The album was promoted by their first career tour which was held between 2018 and 2019, and which had sold-out over 70 dates with more than 140,000 tickets, including their first European tour with eleven sold-out dates in Spain, France, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium and the United Kingdom.


title: Il ballo della vita

text: By May 2019, the tracks accumulated more than 196 million streams on Spotify. Following the band's win at the Eurovision Song Contest 2021 with the song "Zitti e buoni" (from their succeeding album ""), the album entered charts outside Italy (and Switzerland) for the first time.


title: Il ballo della vita

text: All tracks are written by Damiano David, with track #7 co-written by Matteo Privitera and composed by Luigi Florio.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: Ian Royston Jones (born 24 January 1953), better known as Bruce Jones, is an English actor. He is best known for his role as taxi driver Les Battersby in "Coronation Street". He left the role in 2007.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: Jones was born to Bruce and Irene Jones in Collyhurst, Manchester. He was brought up in a typical working-class household before he went to live with his grandmother in Wales where he joined his school drama group at the age of eleven and dreamt of becoming an actor.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: Jones' first introduction into show business was when he formed a comedy duo with a friend, and went to work on the club circuit as "Clarke and Jones" for many years. He began using his father's name as his stage name.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: It was during this time that Jones decided to try to act, and his first big break came in 1993 when he was cast as the lead role of Bob Williams in the feature film "Raining Stones" by director Ken Loach. The film won the "Evening Standard" British Film Awards for Best Film and Best Screenplay. Jones was presented with the European Actors Award.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In 1995, Jones had a role as a prostitute's client in "Band of Gold". In 1996 he appeared as Bob in the film "Bob's Weekend", then went on a UK national tour of "The Wonderful World of Pantomime" produced by Broomstick Productions playing the part of the "Good Robber" alongside playwright Charlotte Jones and Stuart Wolfenden ("Coronation Streets"'s Mark Casey) and directed by Gary Broomhead. In 1997, he had a small part in the film "The Full Monty". He played one of the males who auditioned to be a stripper, and he received the Stage Actor's Guild Award, (SAG). He also appeared in the Shane Meadows film "Twenty Four Seven" with actor Bob Hoskins in 1997.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In June 1997, Jones joined the cast of the ITV soap "Coronation Street", playing the role of the outspoken rogue, Les Battersby.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: Over the following years, Jones gained numerous credits for film and television productions including: "Heartbeat", "A Touch of Frost", "Roughnecks", and "Hillsborough". Jones appeared as Dean Martin in "Celebrity Stars in Your Eyes", Mr. Bumble in "Oliver" for "Children in Need" and the Robber in Granada's televised Christmas pantomime "Cinderella". He also made several television appearances in game shows and chat shows.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In March 2007, he was suspended from "Coronation Street" after allegedly getting drunk with an undercover reporter, making inappropriate comments and revealing future storylines. It was confirmed in May that he would not be returning to the show, and would be suspended until his contract ended in September.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: He performed stand-up comedy routines in Benidorm. On 23 March 2008, Jones featured in "Celebrity Wife Swap" with Sinitta. Jones played Mick the Manager in the film "Souled Out", and also appeared on the TV programme "The Dark Side of Fame" with Piers Morgan.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: Jones took part in the BBC One show "Famous, Rich and Homeless", which was broadcast in June 2009. He was joined by four other celebrities who would leave their life of fame and fortune for the cold and lonely streets of London. Jones was clearly the most affected by the experience, regularly seen breaking into tears and considering pulling out of the programme. In a state of frustration, desperation and anger, Jones ranted to the camera expressing his support to the idea of returning the death penalty to the UK, in order to allow money to be freed to aid the homeless and the elderly. In his rant, Jones said that "rippers" should all be hanged in order for taxpayers' money to be spent on the homeless and pensioners instead. He added that he would "smile at him" as it happened and referenced his horrific discovery of one of the Yorkshire Ripper's victims, describing himself as a victim.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In November 2009, Jones appeared in "Celebrity Come Dine with Me". The competition also featured presenter Yvette Fielding, Atomic Kitten member Natasha Hamilton and was won by former "Catchphrase" host Roy Walker.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: Jones appeared as King Rat in pantomime "Dick Whittington" at the Contemporary Urban Centre from 14 December 2009 until 3 January 2010.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In 2009, he worked with Manchester-based production company "Gritish Films", featuring in the short film "Down Our Way", alongside Inspiral Carpets vocalist Clint Boon and actor Gary Graham Smith.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: Jones performed as Captain Hook and Mr. Darling in "Peter Pan" at the Blackfriars Arts Centre, Boston, Lincolnshire over the 2011 Christmas period. He struggled with this role and was reported to have lost his voice; despite his alcoholism, he continued to drink throughout the run of the show.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In April 2012, Jones appeared in a music video for the British rock band Never A Hero which was featured on Kerrang! TV.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In October 2012, Jones commissioned author and playwright Huw Roberts to write a monologue about tackling and recovering from depression. Starring Jones, "TALK!! Tackling the Taboo" premiered at Theatre Colwyn, Colwyn Bay, North Wales in April 2013.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: On 22 August 2013, Jones entered the "Celebrity Big Brother" house with his on-screen "Coronation Street" ex-wife, Vicky Entwistle and on 6 September 2013, he was the fourth housemate to be evicted losing to Abz Love, Courtney Stodden, Lauren Harries, Louie Spence and Entwistle.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In the Netflix series "The Ripper" (episode: "Between Now and Dawn"), Jones spoke of his involvement in the discovery of the body of Jean Jordan and how it affected him.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: By May 2013, Jones had been cast for two new feature films (boxing film "The Journeyman" and British gangster thriller "Looters, Tooters and Sawn-Off Shooters").


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In April 2014, production started on a Welsh feature film called "Cream" where Jones plays the lead character Ron Harris. Filming took place in and around Llandudno in North Wales.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In 2004, Jones was awarded the Silver Heart by the Variety Club of Great Britain in acknowledgement of his charity work. On 16 February 2011, Jones made an appearance for the Sir Norman Wisdom tribute at De Montfort Hall in Leicester, raising money for the Roy Castle Fund; he spoke of Wisdom's time on "Coronation Street".


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: Jones married Sue Margaret Bailey on 12 June 1971 at St. Oswald's Church, Collyhurst. The couple had two sons, John and Sebastien. The couple divorced in 1982. In 1984, Jones married Sandra; the couple had two children and lived in Marple.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: On the morning of 9 October 1977, Jones discovered the mutilated body of 20-year-old Jean Jordan on an allotment in Chorlton, Manchester – a victim of the "Yorkshire Ripper", Peter Sutcliffe. Despite being innocent, Jones was treated as a suspect, and lost his first wife and children as a result.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In 1998, he pleaded guilty to drink driving after being tested by police and found to be more than twice the legal limit, Jones was banned from driving for three years. By 2000, his alcoholism became so heavy that he spent a period in the celebrity rehab clinic the Priory.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In August 2009, Jones grabbed and repeatedly jerked the steering wheel of his car whilst his wife was driving it on the A55 in North Wales, causing it to swerve. On 19 March 2010 at Mold Crown Court, he pleaded guilty to dangerous driving and drink-driving. His wife told the court that he had physically and emotionally abused her for years. On 27 April 2010, the same court sentenced him to eight months imprisonment, suspended for eighteen months.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: Jones told "The People" newspaper in January 2009 that he had blown his £1,000,000 fortune and had not received any offers of work since leaving "Coronation Street", and owed £30,000 in taxes. In September 2009, he was living alone in a caravan in North Wales. In May 2010, it was reported that Jones had been made homeless after the bank repossessed his £500,000 Cheshire house in order to pay his large debts, and that he could not afford to go into rehab for his chronic alcoholism.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: On 15 July 2011, the bank was forced to repossess his second home, a bungalow in North Wales. Court documents reveal that the Bank of Scotland actioned legal proceedings to retrieve £204,641 in outstanding mortgage repayments.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In June 2012, Jones told the "Daily Mirror" that he had regularly contemplated suicide after losing both his homes. He had been warned by doctors that he would die soon if he did not stop drinking, but said he no longer cared. At the peak of his alcoholism he admitted drinking fifteen pints a day.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In June 2015, Jones appeared in a documentary about celebrities who have hit hard times and rely entirely on social security payments. The programme was called "Celebs on Benefits". He was shown to be in receipt of Jobseeker's Allowance (JSA) and housing benefit payments.


title: Bruce Jones (actor)

text: In 2019, Jones hit out against the rollout of Universal Credit, and called for the six-week wait for the first payment to be scrapped, saying it was pushing families into poverty and increasing reliance on foodbanks.


title: David Green (entrepreneur)

text: David Green (born November 13, 1941) is an American businessman and the founder of Hobby Lobby, a chain of arts and crafts stores. He is a major financial supporter of Evangelical organizations in the United States and funded the Museum of the Bible in Washington, D.C.


title: David Green (entrepreneur)

text: In 1970, while a store manager with variety store chain TG&Y, Green took a $600 loan and started a home business in his garage assembling and selling miniature picture frames, with a partner, Larry Pico. The business, Greco Products, capitalized on a decorating fad of the time. Eventually, Green bought out Pico and the growing business staffed a small factory with cerebral palsy patients, paying them ten cents per frame. By August 1972, the focus was on arts and crafts, and the business had thrived to such an extent that Green and his wife were able to open a 300 square-foot store in northwest Oklahoma City called Hobby Lobby. In 1975, Green left his 13-year career with TG&Y and opened a second Hobby Lobby location with 6,000 square feet of space.


title: David Green (entrepreneur)

text: In 2017, Green and co-author Bill High published "Giving It All Away...And Getting It All Back Again", which discusses Green's belief that tithing secures God's protection and highlights God's focus on future generation, an aspect of prosperity theology.


title: David Green (entrepreneur)

text: Green grew up in Altus, Oklahoma where his father was a Christian pastor with a congregation of 35. All five of his siblings are pastors or pastors' wives. He asserts that he has built his business on biblical principles. Green is very supportive of Christian organizations, and is one of the largest individual donors to Evangelical causes in the United States. Green commits half of Hobby Lobby's total pretax earnings to a portfolio of evangelical ministries, and as of 2012, he had donated an estimated $500 million. Green has taken a public stance against the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) because of its inclusion of a provision mandating that companies include the "morning-after pill" in their health coverage. He sued the federal government in "Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.", overturning the mandate to provide that medication.


title: David Green (entrepreneur)

text: Green lives in southwest Oklahoma City with his wife, Barbara. Hobby Lobby is owned by them and their three children. The eldest son, Mart Green, is the founder and CEO of the Mardel Christian & Education book store and Every Tribe Entertainment. Steve Green is president of Hobby Lobby, as well as founder and primary funder of the Museum of the Bible, and patron of the Green Collection. Daughter Darsee Lett is Creative Director for the Hobby Lobby stores.


title: David Green (entrepreneur)

text: Green funded the Museum of the Bible in Washington, D.C. at the cost of $500 million. In 2017, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement announced that they had returned 3,800 ancient artifacts found in the Hobby Lobby warehouse to the Republic of Iraq. In 2020, an additional 11,500 artifacts were returned to Egypt and Iraq. Also a large number of papyrus fragments purported to be part of the Dead Sea Scrolls were revealed to be forgeries.


title: David Green (entrepreneur)

text: In July 2020, "Forbes magazine" reported the museum had received between $2 million and $5 million from the Paycheck Protection Program to retain 249 jobs (a calculated annual average salary between $38,000 and $97,000). In a statement to the magazine, a museum spokesperson said that the “Museum of the Bible applied for and received a PPP loan to pay our employees while the museum had to stay closed, taking in no other revenue."


title: Marcelino Sánchez

text: Marcelino Sánchez (December 5, 1957 – November 21, 1986) was a Puerto Rican actor, known for playing the character Rembrandt in the 1979 film "The Warriors".


title: Marcelino Sánchez

text: Sánchez began acting in the late 1970s. His first major role was in the film "The Warriors" (1979), playing the character of Rembrandt, a young gang member with a flair for spray painting. He played Ricardo on "The Bloodhound Gang" mystery vignettes featured on the 1980s children's educational television show "3-2-1 Contact". He also appeared on the TV series "CHiPs" and "Hill Street Blues", as well as in the feature film "48 Hrs." (1982).


title: Gamers!

text: Keita Amano, a high school student and gamer, meets the beautiful school idol Karen Tendō, and joins the school's Gaming Club. After finding it is centered around competitive gaming, he declines her offer. This rejection sets off a chain of events in the lives of Keita and his friends in matters of both video games and romance with several misunderstandings along the way.


title: Gamers!

text: Sekina Aoi first published the series in 2015 through Fujimi Shobo's Fujimi Fantasia Bunko with illustrations by Saboten. Twelve volumes were released from March 20, 2015 to October 19, 2019.


title: Gamers!

text: A manga adaptation with art by Tsubasa Takahashi was serialized in Fujimi Shobo's "Shōnen Ace" from October 2016 to September 2019. The seventh and final volume was released on October 26, 2019.


title: Gamers!

text: An anime television series adaptation directed by Manabu Okamoto and produced by Pine Jam was announced. It aired in Japan from July 13 to September 28, 2017. The opening theme is "GAMERS!" by Hisako Kanemoto, Manaka Iwami and Rumi Ōkubo. The ending themes are "Fight on!" for all episodes except for episode nine and ten which is , both performed by Luce Twinkle Wink☆. Crunchyroll streamed the series, while Funimation had licensed it in North America and streamed an English dub. Following Sony's acquisition of Crunchyroll, the dub was moved to Crunchyroll.


title: Gamers!

text: The light novel ranked seventh in 2017 in Takarajimasha's annual light novel guide book "Kono Light Novel ga Sugoi!", in the "bunkobon" category. It ranked eighth in 2018. The anime ranked fourth in popularity on Crunchyroll in summer 2017, an unheard of ranking for a show that was a short-running Shonen Action series.


title: Devonte' Graham

text: Devonte' Terrell Graham (born February 22, 1995) is an American professional basketball player for the New Orleans Pelicans of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Kansas Jayhawks.


title: Devonte' Graham

text: Graham attended Broughton High School in Raleigh, North Carolina. As a senior, Graham averaged 15.7 points and 5.4 assists per game, leading the team to a 26–6 record and the 4A state championship game during the 2012–13 season.


title: Devonte' Graham

text: Graham originally committed to Appalachian State before deciding he wanted to play elsewhere. However, Appalachian State’s head coach at the time, Jason Capel, would not allow him to de-commit, as he felt other teams may have been tampering with Graham following his commitment to the university. Due to this, Graham elected to play a post-graduate year at Brewster Academy, in Wolfeboro, New Hampshire, rather than honor his commitment to play for Appalachian State.


title: Devonte' Graham

text: At Brewster Academy, Graham averaged 17.2 points and 5.0 assists per game, leading the team to the national prep championship and the New England championship during the 2013–14 season. On May 2, 2014, Graham committed to Kansas, choosing them over North Carolina and Virginia.


title: Devonte' Graham

text: As a freshman at Kansas, Graham averaged 5.7 points and 2.1 assists per game. He had a season-high 20 points against TCU on February 21, 2015. In the NCAA Tournament, he scored 17 points against Wichita State.


title: Devonte' Graham

text: After scoring a then career-high 27 points on 8-of-13 shooting against Oklahoma, Graham was named Big 12 Player of the Week for the week of February 14, 2016. At the conclusion of the regular season, Graham was named to the Big 12 All-Defensive Team. He was named MVP of the 2016 Big 12 men's basketball tournament after scoring 27 points against West Virginia in the championship game. As a sophomore in the 2015–16 season, Graham averaged 11.3 points per game while shooting 46 percent overall and 44 percent from 3 point territory.


title: Devonte' Graham

text: As a junior, Graham was named to the Second Team All-Big 12. Along with Frank Mason III, Graham formed the backcourt of a Kansas team that went 31–5 but lost in the Elite Eight, as Graham shot 0 for 7 from the field and missed six 3-pointers in a season-ending 74–60 loss to Oregon. For the season, he averaged 13.4 points, 4.1 assists and 3.1 rebounds per game. In April, Graham announced on Twitter that he was returning for his senior year.


title: Devonte' Graham

text: In his senior season, Graham was named the preseason Big 12 Player of the Year for the 2017–18 season. On November 28, Graham scored a career high 35 points in a 96–58 win over Toledo. The following game, a 76–60 win over Syracuse, Graham again scored 35 points. Graham would go on to be unanimously selected as the Big 12 Player of the Year, averaging 17.6 points and 7.2 assists per game as a senior. He was also named a consensus member of the First Team All-America by multiple organizations. During his senior season, he averaged about 38 minutes a game.


title: Devonte' Graham

text: Graham was drafted in the 2nd round, 34th overall, of the 2018 NBA draft by the Atlanta Hawks before being traded to the Charlotte Hornets in exchange for two second round picks. In the Hornets' first three summer league games, he averaged ten points and six assists per contest. However, he would miss the rest of summer league with a knee injury.


title: Devonte' Graham

text: Graham made his NBA debut on October 22, 2018, against the Toronto Raptors, recording no points and one assist in five and a half minutes of play. On October 23, 2019, Graham scored 23 points along with eight assists and four rebounds in a 126–125 win over the Chicago Bulls. Graham hit six three-pointers to help the Hornets set a new franchise record for three-point field goals made in a single game. On December 11, 2019, Graham scored a career-high 40 points with five rebounds and five assists in a 113–108 win over the Brooklyn Nets.


title: Devonte' Graham

text: Graham was featured on The Dodo's Youtube channel in June 2021, in a video about his basketball career and his life with his German Shepherd dog 'Charlotte', who is named after the team he had been playing for.


title: Devonte' Graham

text: On December 15, Graham hit a 61-foot shot to hoist the Pelicans to a 113–110 win over the Oklahoma City Thunder. The shot set the NBA record for the longest buzzer-beating game-winner in league history, beating out Mahmoud Abdul-Rauf's 55-foot shot in 1992 for the Denver Nuggets.


title: Andrey Lugovoy

text: Andrey Konstantinovich Lugovoy (; born 19 September 1966), also spelled Lugovoi, is a Russian politician and businessman and deputy of the State Duma, the lower house of the Russian parliament, for the LDPR. He worked as a KGB bodyguard and as head of "Ninth Wave", a security firm. He is wanted by British police on suspicion of the murder of Alexander Litvinenko, a former KGB and later FSB officer. Russia has rejected the request for his extradition, as the country forbids the extradition of its own citizens.


title: Andrey Lugovoy

text: Born in 1966 in Baku, Lugovoy attended the elite Moscow Higher Military Command School of the Soviet Army from 1983 to 1987.


title: Andrey Lugovoy

text: In 1987, he joined the KGB's 9th directorate which provided security for top state officials. He was a platoon commander for five years and then served as a commander in the Kremlin Regiment's training company. In 1991, he was transferred to the Federal Protective Service of Russia until his resignation at the end of 1996. During this time he provided security for Prime Minister Yegor Gaidar, the head of the presidential administration Sergey Filatov and Foreign Minister Andrey Kozyrev.


title: Andrey Lugovoy

text: Lugovoy went on to work in the private security business. For several years he was head of security at the private television company ORT, then owned by now fugitive tycoons Boris Berezovsky and Badri Patarkatsishvili. In 2001, Lugovoy was arrested and charged with organizing the escape of Nikolai Glushkov, a former deputy director-general of Aeroflot arrested in 2000 on fraud charges.


title: Andrey Lugovoy

text: Lugovoy met with Litvinenko on the day Litvinenko fell ill (1 November 2006). Litvinenko died later in November from radiation poisoning caused by Polonium-210, and, on 22 May 2007, British officials charged Lugovoy with Litvinenko's murder, announcing they would seek his extradition from Russia. Russia declined to extradite Lugovoy, citing that extradition of citizens is not allowed under the Russian constitution. Russia said that they could take on the case themselves if Britain provided evidence against Lugovoy but that Britain had not handed over any evidence. The head of the investigating committee at the General Prosecutor's Office said Russia has not yet received any evidence from Britain on Lugovoy. "We have not received any evidence from London of Lugovoy's guilt, and those documents we have are full of blank spaces and contradictions."


title: Andrey Lugovoy

text: Lugovoy had visited London at least three times in the month before Litvinenko's death and met with him four times. Lugovoy met with Litvinenko on the day he fell ill (November 1). Traces of polonium-210 have been discovered in all three hotels where Lugovoy stayed after flying to London on 16 October, in the Pescatori restaurant, Dover Street, Mayfair, where Lugovoy is understood to have dined before 1 November and aboard two aircraft on which he had traveled. He was treated at a Moscow hospital for suspected radiation poisoning but declined to say whether he had been contaminated with polonium-210, the substance that led to Litvinenko's death on 23 November 2006.


title: Andrey Lugovoy

text: Following the interest in Lugovoy in regards to Litvinenko's death, on 15 September 2007, Vladimir Zhirinovsky, leader of the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR), announced that Lugovoy would be in the second place after Zhirinovsky on his party's candidate list for the Duma election. This meant that Lugovoy could become a Russian MP in December 2007 and acquire parliamentary immunity. Lugovoy himself confirmed that he would take part in the following Duma election and on 17 September 2007, during a Liberal Democratic Party of Russia meeting, has also said he would like to bid for the Kremlin run.


title: Andrey Lugovoy

text: On 10 December 2007, British Ambassador in Moscow Tony Brenton voiced regret over the election of Lugovoy to the Duma, saying:


title: Andrey Lugovoy

text: It is a pity that a man wanted for murder gains political recognition. It does Russia no good at all to have Lugovoy there in the parliament. It continues the suspicion. If he steps a foot out of Russia he will be arrested. We want him.


title: Andrey Lugovoy

text: In December 2008, Lugovoy voiced support for harsher laws against dissent in Russia. He told the Spanish newspaper "El País"


title: Andrey Lugovoy

text: "If someone has caused the Russian state serious damage, they should be exterminated. […] Do I think someone could have killed Litvinenko in the interests of the Russian State? If you're talking about the interests of the Russian State, in the purest sense of the word, I myself would have given that order." He then clarified himself: "I'm not talking about Litvinenko but about any person who causes serious damage."


title: Andrey Lugovoy

text: On 13 March 2009, the LDPR announced it plans to nominate Lugovoy for the elections of Mayor of Sochi. On 24 March, Lugovoy announced his decision not to run and instead to remain an MP in the Duma.


title: Andrey Lugovoy

text: On 9 January 2017, under the Magnitsky Act, the United States Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control updated its Specially Designated Nationals List and blacklisted Aleksandr I. Bastrykin, Andrei K. Lugovoi, Dmitri V. Kovtun, Stanislav Gordievsky, and Gennady Plaksin, which froze any of their assets held by American financial institutions or transactions with those institutions and banned their travelling to the United States.


title: Osteoblast

text: Osteoblasts (from the Greek combining forms for "bone", ὀστέο-, "osteo-" and βλαστάνω, "blastanō" "germinate") are cells with a single nucleus that synthesize bone. However, in the process of bone formation, osteoblasts function in groups of connected cells. Individual cells cannot make bone. A group of organized osteoblasts together with the bone made by a unit of cells is usually called the osteon.


title: Osteoblast

text: Osteoblasts are specialized, terminally differentiated products of mesenchymal stem cells. They synthesize dense, crosslinked collagen and specialized proteins in much smaller quantities, including osteocalcin and osteopontin, which compose the organic matrix of bone.


title: Osteoblast

text: In organized groups of disconnected cells, osteoblasts produce hydroxylapatite, the bone mineral, that is deposited in a highly regulated manner, into the organic matrix forming a strong and dense mineralized tissue, the mineralized matrix. The mineralized skeleton is the main support for the bodies of air breathing vertebrates. It is also an important store of minerals for physiological homeostasis including both acid-base balance and calcium or phosphate maintenance.


title: Osteoblast

text: The skeleton is a large organ that is formed and degraded throughout life in the air-breathing vertebrates. The skeleton, often referred to as the skeletal system, is important both as a supporting structure and for maintenance of calcium, phosphate, and acid-base status in the whole organism. The functional part of bone, the "bone matrix", is entirely extracellular. The bone matrix consists of protein and mineral. The protein forms the "organic matrix." It is synthesized and then the mineral is added. The vast majority of the organic matrix is collagen, which provides tensile strength. The matrix is mineralized by deposition of hydroxyapatite (alternative name, hydroxylapatite). This mineral is hard, and provides compressive strength. Thus, the collagen and mineral together are a composite material with excellent tensile and compressive strength, which can bend under a strain and recover its shape without damage. This is called elastic deformation. Forces that exceed the capacity of bone to behave elastically may cause failure, typically bone fractures.


title: Osteoblast

text: Bone is a dynamic tissue that is constantly being reshaped by osteoblasts, which produce and secrete matrix proteins and transport mineral into the matrix, and osteoclasts, which break down the tissues.


title: Osteoblast

text: Osteoblasts are the major cellular component of bone. Osteoblasts arise from mesenchymal stem cells (MSC). MSC give rise to osteoblasts, adipocytes, and myocytes among other cell types. Osteoblast quantity is understood to be inversely proportional to that of marrow adipocytes which comprise marrow adipose tissue (MAT). Osteoblasts are found in large numbers in the periosteum, the thin connective tissue layer on the outside surface of bones, and in the endosteum.


title: Osteoblast

text: Normally, almost all of the bone matrix, in the air breathing vertebrates, is mineralized by the osteoblasts. Before the organic matrix is mineralized, it is called the osteoid. Osteoblasts buried in the matrix are called osteocytes. During bone formation, the surface layer of osteoblasts consists of cuboidal cells, called "active osteoblasts". When the bone-forming unit is not actively synthesizing bone, the surface osteoblasts are flattened and are called "inactive osteoblasts". Osteocytes remain alive and are connected by cell processes to a surface layer of osteoblasts. Osteocytes have important functions in skeletal maintenance.


title: Osteoblast

text: Osteoclasts are multinucleated cells that derive from hematopoietic progenitors in the bone marrow which also give rise to monocytes in peripheral blood. Osteoclasts break down bone tissue, and along with osteoblasts and osteocytes form the structural components of bone. In the hollow within bones are many other cell types of the bone marrow. Components that are essential for osteoblast bone formation include mesenchymal stem cells (osteoblast precursor) and blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients for bone formation. Bone is a highly vascular tissue, and active formation of blood vessel cells, also from mesenchymal stem cells, is essential to support the metabolic activity of bone. The balance of bone formation and bone resorption tends to be negative with age, particularly in post-menopausal women, often leading to a loss of bone serious enough to cause fractures, which is called osteoporosis.


title: Osteoblast

text: Bone is formed by one of two processes: endochondral ossification or intramembranous ossification. Endochondral ossification is the process of forming bone from cartilage and this is the usual method. This form of bone development is the more complex form: it follows the formation of a first skeleton of cartilage made by chondrocytes, which is then removed and replaced by bone, made by osteoblasts. Intramembranous ossification is the direct ossification of mesenchyme as happens during the formation of the membrane bones of the skull and others.


title: Osteoblast

text: During osteoblast differentiation, the developing progenitor cells express the regulatory transcription factor Cbfa1/Runx2. A second required transcription factor is Sp7 transcription factor. Osteochondroprogenitor cells differentiate under the influence of growth factors, although isolated mesenchymal stem cells in tissue culture may also form osteoblasts under permissive conditions that include vitamin C and substrates for alkaline phosphatase, a key enzyme that provides high concentrations of phosphate at the mineral deposition site.


title: Osteoblast

text: Key growth factors in endochondral skeletal differentiation include bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) that determine to a major extent where chondrocyte differentiation occurs and where spaces are left between bones. The system of cartilage replacement by bone has a complex regulatory system. BMP2 also regulates early skeletal patterning. Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), is part of a superfamily of proteins that include BMPs, which possess common signaling elements in the TGF beta signaling pathway. TGF-β is particularly important in cartilage differentiation, which generally precedes bone formation for endochondral ossification. An additional family of essential regulatory factors is the fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) that determine where skeletal elements occur in relation to the skin


title: Osteoblast

text: Many other regulatory systems are involved in the transition of cartilage to bone and in bone maintenance. A particularly important bone-targeted hormonal regulator is parathyroid hormone (PTH). Parathyroid hormone is a protein made by the parathyroid gland under the control of serum calcium activity. PTH also has important systemic functions, including to keep serum calcium concentrations nearly constant regardless of calcium intake. Increasing dietary calcium results in minor increases in blood calcium. However, this is not a significant mechanism supporting osteoblast bone formation, except in the condition of low dietary calcium; further, abnormally high dietary calcium raises the risk of serious health consequences not directly related to bone mass including heart attack and stroke. Intermittent PTH stimulation increases osteoblast activity, although PTH is bifunctional and mediates bone matrix degradation at higher concentrations.


title: Osteoblast

text: The skeleton is also modified for reproduction and in response to nutritional and other hormone stresses; it responds to steroids, including estrogen and glucocorticoids, which are important in reproduction and energy metabolism regulation. Bone turnover involves major expenditures of energy for synthesis and degradation, involving many additional signals including pituitary hormones. Two of these are adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and follicle stimulating hormone. The physiological role for responses to these, and several other glycoprotein hormones, is not fully understood, although it is likely that ACTH is bifunctional, like PTH, supporting bone formation with periodic spikes of ACTH, but causing bone destruction in large concentrations. In mice, mutations that reduce the efficiency of ACTH-induced glucocorticoid production in the adrenals cause the skeleton to become dense (osteosclerotic bone).


title: Osteoblast

text: In well-preserved bone studied at high magnification via electron microscopy, individual osteoblasts are shown to be connected by tight junctions, which prevent extracellular fluid passage and thus create a bone compartment separate from the general extracellular fluid. The osteoblasts are also connected by gap junctions, small pores that connect osteoblasts, allowing the cells in one cohort to function as a unit. The gap junctions also connect deeper layers of cells to the surface layer ("osteocytes" when surrounded by bone). This was demonstrated directly by injecting low molecular weight fluorescent dyes into osteoblasts and showing that the dye diffused to surrounding and deeper cells in the bone-forming unit. Bone is composed of many of these units, which are separated by impermeable zones with no cellular connections, called cement lines.


title: Osteoblast

text: Almost all of the organic (non-mineral) component of bone is dense collagen type I, which forms dense crosslinked ropes that give bone its tensile strength. By mechanisms still unclear, osteoblasts secrete layers of oriented collagen, with the layers parallel to the long axis of the bone alternating with layers at right angles to the long axis of the bone every few micrometers. Defects in collagen type I cause the commonest inherited disorder of bone, called osteogenesis imperfecta.


title: Osteoblast

text: Minor, but important, amounts of small proteins, including osteocalcin and osteopontin, are secreted in bone's organic matrix. Osteocalcin is not expressed at significant concentrations except in bone, and thus osteocalcin is a specific marker for bone matrix synthesis. These proteins link organic and mineral component of bone matrix. The proteins are necessary for maximal matrix strength due to their intermediate localization between mineral and collagen.


title: Osteoblast

text: However, in mice where expression of osteocalcin or osteopontin was eliminated by targeted disruption of the respective genes (knockout mice), accumulation of mineral was not notably affected, indicating that organization of matrix is not significantly related to mineral transport.


title: Osteoblast

text: The primitive skeleton is cartilage, a solid avascular (without blood vessels) tissue in which individual cartilage-matrix secreting cells, or chondrocytes, occur. Chondrocytes do not have intercellular connections and are not coordinated in units. Cartilage is composed of a network of collagen type II held in tension by water-absorbing proteins, hydrophilic proteoglycans. This is the adult skeleton in cartilaginous fishes such as sharks. It develops as the initial skeleton in more advanced classes of animals.


title: Osteoblast

text: In air-breathing vertebrates, cartilage is replaced by cellular bone. A transitional tissue is mineralized cartilage. Cartilage mineralizes by massive expression of phosphate-producing enzymes, which cause high local concentrations of calcium and phosphate that precipitate. This mineralized cartilage is not dense or strong. In the air breathing vertebrates it is used as a scaffold for formation of cellular bone made by osteoblasts, and then it is removed by osteoclasts, which specialize in degrading mineralized tissue.


title: Osteoblast

text: Osteoblasts produce an advanced type of bone matrix consisting of dense, irregular crystals of hydroxyapatite, packed around the collagen ropes. This is a strong composite material that allows the skeleton to be shaped mainly as hollow tubes. Reducing the long bones to tubes reduces weight while maintaining strength.


title: Osteoblast

text: The mechanisms of mineralization are not fully understood. Fluorescent, low-molecular weight compounds such as tetracycline or calcein bind strongly to bone mineral, when administered for short periods. They then accumulate in narrow bands in the new bone. These bands run across the contiguous group of bone-forming osteoblasts. They occur at a narrow (sub-micrometer) mineralization front. Most bone surfaces express no new bone formation, no tetracycline uptake and no mineral formation. This strongly suggests that facilitated or active transport, coordinated across the bone-forming group, is involved in bone formation, and that only cell-mediated mineral formation occurs. That is, dietary calcium does not create mineral by mass action.


title: Osteoblast

text: The mechanism of mineral formation in bone is clearly distinct from the phylogenetically older process by which cartilage is mineralized: tetracycline does not label mineralized cartilage at narrow bands or in specific sites, but diffusely, in keeping with a passive mineralization mechanism.


title: Osteoblast

text: Osteoblasts separate bone from the extracellular fluid by tight junctions by regulated transport. Unlike in cartilage, phosphate and calcium cannot move in or out by passive diffusion, because the tight osteoblast junctions isolate the bone formation space. Calcium is transported across osteoblasts by facilitated transport (that is, by passive transporters, which do not pump calcium against a gradient). In contrast, phosphate is actively produced by a combination of secretion of phosphate-containing compounds, including ATP, and by phosphatases that cleave phosphate to create a high phosphate concentration at the mineralization front. Alkaline phosphatase is a membrane-anchored protein that is a characteristic marker expressed in large amounts at the apical (secretory) face of active osteoblasts.


title: Osteoblast

text: At least one more regulated transport process is involved. The stoichiometry of bone mineral basically is that of hydroxyapatite precipitating from phosphate, calcium, and water at a slightly alkaline pH:


title: Osteoblast

text: In a closed system as mineral precipitates, acid accumulates, rapidly lowering the pH and stopping further precipitation. Cartilage presents no barrier to diffusion and acid therefore diffuses away, allowing precipitation to continue. In the osteon, where matrix is separated from extracellular fluid by tight junctions, this cannot occur. In the controlled, sealed compartment, removing H drives precipitation under a wide variety of extracellular conditions, as long as calcium and phosphate are available in the matrix compartment. The mechanism by which acid transits the barrier layer remains uncertain. Osteoblasts have capacity for Na/H exchange via the redundant Na/H exchangers, NHE1 and NHE6. This H exchange is a major element in acid removal, although the mechanism by which H is transported from the matrix space into the barrier osteoblast is not known.


title: Osteoblast

text: In bone removal, a reverse transport mechanism uses acid delivered to the mineralized matrix to drive hydroxyapatite into solution.


title: Osteoblast

text: Feedback from physical activity maintains bone mass, while feedback from osteocytes limits the size of the bone-forming unit. An important additional mechanism is secretion by osteocytes, buried in the matrix, of sclerostin, a protein that inhibits a pathway that maintains osteoblast activity. Thus, when the osteon reaches a limiting size, it deactivates bone synthesis.


title: Osteoblast

text: Hematoxylin and eosin staining (H&E) shows that the cytoplasm of active osteoblasts is slightly basophilic due to the substantial presence of rough endoplasmic reticulum. The active osteoblast produces substantial collagen type I. About 10% of the bone matrix is collagen with the balance mineral. The osteoblast's nucleus is spherical and large. An active osteoblast is characterized morphologically by a prominent Golgi apparatus that appears histologically as a clear zone adjacent to the nucleus. The products of the cell are mostly for transport into the osteoid, the non-mineralized matrix. Active osteoblasts can be labeled by antibodies to Type-I collagen, or using naphthol phosphate and the diazonium dye fast blue to demonstrate alkaline phosphatase enzyme activity directly.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: Andrews Air Force Base (Andrews AFB, AAFB) is the airfield portion of Joint Base Andrews, which is under the jurisdiction of the United States Air Force. In 2009, Andrews Air Force Base merged with Naval Air Facility Washington to form Joint Base Andrews. Andrews, located near Morningside, Maryland in suburban Washington, D.C., is the home base of two Boeing VC-25A aircraft with the call sign Air Force One when the president is on board, that serve the President of the United States, and the President is typically flown in and out of Andrews when travelling from Washington, D.C. by plane.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: The host unit at Andrews is the 316th Wing, assigned to the Air Force District of Washington. It is responsible for maintaining emergency reaction rotary-wing airlift and other National Capital Region contingency response capabilities critical to national security and for organizing, training, equipping and deploying combat-ready forces for Air and Space Expeditionary Forces (AEFs). The 316th Wing also provides installation security, services and airfield management to support the President, Vice President, other U.S. senior leaders and more than 50 tenant organizations and federal agencies.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: The 316th Wing provides security, personnel, contracting, finance and infrastructure support for five wings, three headquarters, more than 80 tenant organizations, 148 geographically separated units, and 6,500 airmen in the Pentagon, as well as 60,000 airmen and families in the national capital region and around the world. The 316th Wing supports contingency operations in the capital of the United States with immediate response rotary-assets. It also provides security for the world's highest visibility flight line and is responsible for ceremonial support with the United States Air Force Band, Honor Guard and Air Force Arlington Chaplaincy.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: The wing commander is Colonel Tyler R. Schaff, and the command chief master sergeant is Chief Master Sergeant Thomas C. Daniels.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: Union American Civil War troops used a country church near Camp Springs, Maryland for sleeping quarters (now named Chapel Two) and on 25 August 1941, President Roosevelt directed use of the land for an airfield.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: Camp Springs Air Base was designated on 5 September 1942, and construction began on 16 September 1942. The Maryland World War II Army Airfield of the 1st Air Force was "designated a sub-base of Headquarters, Baltimore AAFld, late Nov 1942"—the 901st Quartermaster Company (Construction) became the base operating unit on 14 December 1942. Camp Springs Army Air Base opened on 2 May 1943, and the airfield became operational 2 May 1943 when the first Republic P-47 Thunderbolts arrived. after the 367th Fighter Squadron was stationed at Camp Springs on 21 April 1943. On 6 June 1943 the Camp Springs headquarters gained command of 4 sub-bases: Baltimore AAFld, Dover Army Airfield, Millville Army Airfield, and Philadelphia Municipal Airport became sub-bases of Camp Springs AAB.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: The airfield had runways by 1944 when the 90th Fighter Control Squadron was formed (28 March 1944), and the last Camp Springs combat units (e.g., 535th Fighter Escort Squadron) departed for World War II combat on 10 April 1944. Camp Springs was expanded to become the initial headquarters of Continental Air Forces (CONAF) (activated 12 December 1944)—the 161st AAF Base Unit (CONAF) became the "Andrews Field" operating unit on 16 April 1945.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: Andrews Field was named on 7 February 1945 in honor of Lt Gen. Frank Andrews and in 1946, Andrews was a sub-base of Bolling Field (3 January 1946 – 20 November 1946). Strategic Air Command headquarters transferred from Bolling Field to Andrews. The command of CONAF's Radar Bomb Scoring detachments (e.g., at Dallas Love Field) transferred to Andrews on 17 March 1946 when the "263 AAF BU" was assigned (transferred 23 February 1948) to Carswell AFB).


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: Andrews was transferred from the Army to the Air Force in 1947, and it was a Headquarters Command installation from 1947 through 1952 and again after 1957. Headquarters Military Air Transport Service controlled the base during the interim period. The year 1947 marked the arrival of the first permanently assigned jet-powered aircraft, the F-80 Shooting Star, at Andrews. The long-lived and versatile training version of the F-80, the T-33, still played an important role in proficiency flying programs at Andrews more than 30 years later.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: Andrews Air Force Base was designated on 24 June 1948, and in June 1950, Andrews rapidly became involved in combat readiness training for B-25 Mitchell medium bomber crews. Combat readiness training and proficiency flying for military pilots assigned non-flying duties in the Washington area have remained two key elements in the local mission since the establishment of the base. HQ Air Research and Development Command (later, Air Force Systems Command) moved to Andrews from Baltimore, 24 June 1958. With the construction of new facilities beginning in 1959, Andrews had become by early 1962 the primary USAF flight installation serving the Washington, DC, area with the closing of the runway at Bolling AFB.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: Andrews' air defense role was strengthened in the 1950s with the latest in fighter-interceptor hardware appearing on the flight line. F-94 Starfires, F-102 Delta Daggers and finally, F-106 Delta Darts formed the backbone of the three fighter interceptor squadrons which operated from the base until 1963.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: In the late 1950s Andrews began an annual open house and air show on base. This event later evolved into the Department of Defense Joint Services Open House, an annual event that now brings more than 700,000 visitors to the base every year. The open house is held every year over Armed Forces Day weekend.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: In the years since 1959, Andrews' flight operations and importance have increased greatly. In 1961, the last of the Military Air Transport Service's flying units at Washington National Airport transferred to Andrews. This was followed a year later by the transfer to Andrews of all fixed-wing flying activities from Bolling Air Force Base. Andrews has become firmly established as the main port of entry for foreign military and government officials en route to Washington and the United States. In July 1961, the official presidential aircraft was stationed here, known as "Air Force One" when the president is on board. Before 1961, the presidential airplane had been kept at Washington National Airport and Bolling AFB.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: In 1963, the Naval Air Facility (NAF), originally established at the former NAS Anacostia in 1919, moved to Andrews. The NAF handles Naval VIP flight operations. The Marine Corps detachment that flies the FA-18 Hornet is located here.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: In a major reorganization, Headquarters Command, U.S. Air Force, was disbanded 1 July 1976, restructured under the Military Airlift Command as the 76th Airlift Division and transferred its headquarters from Bolling AFB to Andrews. The 76th remained the parent unit of the Andrews host command, redesignated as the 1st Air Base Wing.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: In October 1977, the 76th Airlift Division became the 76th Military Airlift Wing. The 1st Air Base Wing was redesignated the 76th Air Base Group, and the 89th Military Airlift Wing became the 89th Military Airlift Group. The 76th MAW remained the parent unit at Andrews. On 15 December 1980, the 76th Airlift Division was reestablished, the 76th Air Base Group became the 1776th Air Base Wing and the 89th Military Airlift Group became the 89th Military Airlift Wing. On 1 October 1985, the 76th Airlift Division was inactivated as the result of activation of the Headquarters Air Force District of Washington at Bolling AFB. The 1776th Air Base Wing was designated the "host wing" for Andrews AFB and assumed base support responsibilities.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: During Operation Desert Storm, Andrews handled 16,540 patients in makeshift hospital facilities located in the base tennis center.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: On 12 July 1991, the 89th Military Airlift Wing was redesignated as the 89th Airlift Wing and assumed duties as the host wing at Andrews AFB. Support functions previously performed by the 1776th Air Base Wing now fall under the 89th and the 1776th was inactivated. With the consolidation of the two wings, the newly formed 89th Airlift Wing is one of the largest wings in Air Mobility Command with a work force approaching 9,000 people.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: Known as "The President's Wing," the 89th Airlift Wing continues to contribute to Andrews' rich history as the elite Air Mobility Command wing for transporting VIPs around the world. Not only does Andrews provide service for America's senior officials, but also kings, queens, presidents, prime ministers, popes, and local and foreign military leaders make Andrews AFB their first stop in the United States.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: On 5 January 2005 the Air Force reactivated the Air Force District of Washington (AFDW) as the single Air Force voice for planning and implementing Air Force and joint solutions within the National Capital Region (NCR). This event brought with it significant changes at Andrews. On 12 May 2006, the 89th Medical Group at Andrews and the 11th Medical Group, Bolling Air Force Base, Washington, D.C. combined into the 79th Medical Wing where it established its headquarters at Andrews. In June 2006, the 316th Wing stood up under the command of AFDW as the new host unit for Andrews Air Force Base and its nearly 50 tenant units to include organizations from the U.S. Army, the Air Force Reserve Command, Air National Guard, Navy Reserve, Marine Corps Reserve and the Civil Air Patrol. The activation of the 316th prompted the transfer of the 1st Helicopter Squadron from the 89th Airlift Wing to the 316th Operations Group. In May 2007 the AFDW, as well as the 844th Communications Group, transferred from Bolling AFB to Andrews AFB.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: In May 2005, several recommendations relating to Andrews AFB were made by the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission. The most significant was to realign Naval Air Facility (NAF) Washington, by relocating it's installation management functions to Andrews AFB, thereby establishing Joint Base Andrews-Naval Air Facility Washington.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: BRAC also recommended relocating several offices of the Secretary of the Air Force to Andrews from leased office space in Arlington, Virginia, thereby reducing reliance on leased floor space and increasing the security for those activities by locating them within a military installation.


title: Andrews Air Force Base

text: Other changes included the relocation of the Air Force Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI) headquarters from Andrews to Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia, and the relocation of the Air Force Flight Standards Agency (AFFSA) and its two C-21A to Will Rogers Air National Guard Base, Oklahoma.