title: Griefer

text: The term "griefing" dates to the late 1990s, when it was used to describe the willfully antisocial behaviors seen in early massively multiplayer online games like "Ultima Online," and first-person shooters such as "Counter-Strike". Even before it had a name, griefer-like behavior was familiar in the virtual worlds of text-based Multi-User Domains (MUDs), where joyriding invaders inflicted "virtual rape" and similar offenses on the local populace. Julian Dibbell's 1993 article "A Rape in Cyberspace" analyzed the griefing events in a particular MUD, LambdaMOO, and the staff's response.


title: Griefer

text: In the culture of massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) in Taiwan, such as "Lineage", griefers are known as "white-eyed"—a metaphor meaning that their eyes have no pupils and so they look without seeing. Behaviors other than griefing that can cause players to be stigmatized as "white-eyed" include cursing, cheating, stealing, or unreasonable killing.


title: Griefer

text: Methods of griefing differ from game to game. What might be considered griefing in one area of a game, may even be an intended function or mechanic in another area. Common methods may include but are not limited to:


title: Griefer

text: The term is sometimes applied more generally to refer to a person who uses the internet to cause distress to others as a prank, or to intentionally inflict harm, as when it was used to describe an incident in March 2008, when malicious users posted seizure-inducing animations on epilepsy forums.


title: Griefer

text: Many subscription-based games actively oppose griefers, since their behavior can drive away business. It is common for developers to release server-side upgrades and patches to annul griefing methods. Many online games employ gamemasters that reprimand offenders. Some use a crowdsourcing approach, where players can report griefing. Malicious players are then red-flagged, and are then dealt with at a gamemaster's discretion. As many as 25% of customer support calls to companies operating online games deal specifically with griefing.


title: Griefer

text: Blizzard Entertainment has enacted software components to combat griefing. To prevent non-consensual attacks between players, some games such as "Ultima Online" have created separate realms for those who wish to be able to attack anyone at any time, and for those who do not. Others implemented separate servers.


title: Griefer

text: When "EverQuest" was released, Sony included a PvP switch where people could fight each other only if they had enabled that option. This was done in order to prevent the player-killing that was driving people away from "Ultima Online", which at that time had no protection on any of its servers.


title: Griefer

text: "Second Life" bans players for harassment (defined as being rude or threatening, making unwelcome sexual advances, or performing activities likely to annoy or alarm somebody) and assault (shooting, pushing, or shoving in a safe area, or creating scripted objects that target another user and hinder their enjoyment of the game) in its community standards. Sanctions include warnings, suspension from "Second Life", or being banned altogether.


title: Griefer

text: Some space simulators, like "Eve Online," have incorporated activities typically considered griefing as part of the gameplay mechanism. Corporate spying, theft, scams, gate-camping, and PvP on non-PvP players are all part of their gaming experience.


title: Griefer

text: Shooters such as "" have implemented peer review systems, where if a player is reported too many times, multiple higher ranked players are allowed to review the player and determine if the reports are valid, and apply a temporary ban to the player's account if necessary. The player's name is omitted during the replay, as well as those of the other 9 players in the game. In October 2016, Valve implemented a change that will permanently ban a player if he/she receives two penalties for griefing.


title: Griefer

text: Many "Minecraft" servers have rules against griefing. In "Minecraft" freebuild servers, griefing is often the destruction of another player's build, and in other servers the definition ranges, but almost all servers recognize harassment as griefing. Most servers use temporary bans for minor and/or first-time incidents, and indefinite bans from the server for more serious and/or repeat offences. While many servers try to fight this, some allow griefing as part of the gameplay.


title: Griefer

text: In recent years, "Grand Theft Auto Online" has experienced a drastic increase in griefing, due in part to the emergence of bugs and better money-making opportunities. Common griefing techniques within the game abuse passive mode and trivially accessible weaponized vehicles. Developer Rockstar has implemented measures such as a longer cool-down on passive mode, patching invincibility glitches, and removing passive mode from weaponized vehicles in recent updates. In addition, the game also features a reputation system that, in effect, after excessive "bad sport point" accumulation, will mark players as "bad sports", allowing them to only play in lobbies with other "bad sports". Such points are either accumulated over time or gained within a certain time frame and are acquired by actions such as destroying another player's personal vehicle, or quitting jobs early. This is one of the more controversial features of the game, as some point out flaws such as the game not considering if destruction of a vehicle was self-defense.


title: Griefer

text: "Fallout 76" discourages players from griefing by marking them as wanted criminals, which one can get a reward for killing. Wanted players cannot see any other players on the world map, and must rely on their normal player view.


title: Griefer

text: In the "South Park" episode "Make Love, Not Warcraft", the children attempt to vanquish a griefer in "World of Warcraft".


title: Ten Little Indians (1965 film)

text: Ten Little Indians is a 1965 British crime mystery film directed by George Pollock. It is the second film version of Agatha Christie's 1939 novel. It was produced by Oliver A. Unger, with co-producer Harry Alan Towers also credited as co-writer under his pen name Peter Welbeck.


title: Ten Little Indians (1965 film)

text: Although its background story is the same as the 1945 adaptation ("And Then There Were None"), with ten people invited to a remote location by a mysterious stranger, this one takes place on an isolated snowy mountain. This version is also the first adaptation of the novel to show the murders on screen. Actor Christopher Lee (uncredited) provided the pre-recorded gramophone voice of "Mr. U.N. Owen".


title: Ten Little Indians (1965 film)

text: Ten people travel by aerial tramway to a snowbound mansion, invited there by a Mr. U.N. Owen (Unknown) to spend the weekend. They discover that none of them has actually ever met Owen, including his secretary as well as a married housekeeper and cook, all hired through an agency.


title: Ten Little Indians (1965 film)

text: Framed copies of the children's nursery rhyme "Ten Little Indians" are hung on the walls of each guest's bedroom. Dinner is served by the butler Grohmann on a tray adorned with ten little Indian figurines, as well. At exactly 9 p.m., as instructed, Grohmann switches on a hidden tape recording. A man identifying himself as Owen reveals that each of the 10 guests has a scandalous secret, their involvement in various innocent people's deaths.


title: Ten Little Indians (1965 film)

text: One by one, the guests begin dying off. Mike Raven chokes after taking a drink and dies, and a small Indian figurine from the centerpiece tray is broken away. In the morning, the tram cable is cut, killing the cook, Mrs. Grohmann, who attempted to escape. General Mandrake conducts a search of the chalet's catacombs, splitting everyone into pairs, ultimately leading to his demise, stabbed after being led to a planted distraction (a cat). It becomes clear that their unseen killer is following the nursery rhyme. Ann Clyde, the secretary, enters into a romantic relationship with engineer Hugh Lombard as they and the others begin a deadly cat-and-mouse game, ultimately deducing that Owen is not their host but, in reality, one of them.


title: Ten Little Indians (1965 film)

text: After falling under suspicion from the others, Grohmann attempts to make his escape down the mountain peak, Devil's Leap, ending in his death after his lifeline is severed with an axe. Ilona bitterly confesses to having driven her husband to suicide, and is later found dead in her bedroom, killed with a syringe. By now, the five remaining guests fall under distrust of one another, and alliances are formed as the generator shuts down, casting the mansion into total darkness. At dinner, each person reveals the nature of their accusations, but before Ann can attest to her crime, she separates from the group to her room, where she screams upon discovering an Indian decoy hung from the ceiling. In the confusion, Judge Cannon is found with a gunshot wound to his head.


title: Ten Little Indians (1965 film)

text: Dr. Armstrong intimates his suspicions of Ann, which Lombard angrily rebuffs. Lombard later comes to Ann's room and confides that his real name is Charles Morley, and that the real Lombard had committed suicide and he took his place for the weekend. Morley gives Ann his revolver for her protection. In the morning, Blore discovers that Armstrong has vanished and the three conduct a search for him. Blore separates and goes outside, where he is crushed by a large statue of a bear. Ann and Morley discover the body of Dr. Armstrong in the snow and conclude that the killer can only be either of them. Ann pulls the revolver on Morley and shoots at him, before returning to the mansion. She goes upstairs and discovers Judge Cannon very much alive, who explains how he persuaded Dr. Armstrong to help him fake his death. He adds that he intends to poison himself, leaving Ann as the last remaining survivor, who must hang herself and fulfill the rhyme, or be punished by the law instead.


title: Ten Little Indians (1965 film)

text: As Judge Cannon is explaining his plan, having taken a fatal dose of poison, Morley reappears, alive. As he dies, Judge Cannon realizes his plan has failed, and Ann and Morley kiss in relief. They see the cat sitting with the fruit tray, with only two Indians attached.


title: Ten Little Indians (1965 film)

text: The house used in the film was Kenure House in Rush, County Dublin, Ireland. Most outdoor scenes were shot in the Zillertal in Tirol, Austria.


title: Ten Little Indians (1965 film)

text: Referring to "And Then There Were None" (1945), Bosley Crowther wrote in "The New York Times": "It would be foolish to say this remake comes within a country mile of that former movie version, which was directed by René Clair." Crowther added: "It does have sufficient of the essence of Miss Christie's strange and creepy tale ... to make it a gripping entertainment for youthful (and unfamiliar) mystery fans".


title: Ten Little Indians (1965 film)

text: "Variety" magazine commented the film "works quite a bit of suspense into the restricted action, successfully hiding identity of the tenth Indian without resorting to too many 'red herrings'".


title: Ten Little Indians (1965 film)

text: "Properly done, this old-fashioned brand of carnage can hardly miss. The remakers of "Indians" fail in every impossible way. By shifting the scene from a godforsaken island to an alpine retreat, they are able to engineer a couple of spectacular deaths among the crags, but the mood of boxed-in menace is effectively destroyed."


title: Ten Little Indians (1965 film)

text: Stuart Galbraith IV, writing for "DVD Talk" in 2006, described this version as "no better than workmanlike but the story is so good that it overcomes the blandness of the adaptation". It is "devoid of visual flair, quite unlike the dreamlike sweep" of the earlier version.


title: Ten Little Indians (1965 film)

text: "Ten Little Indians" was released to DVD by Warner Home Video on 14 March 2006 as a Region 1 widescreen DVD and also by Warner Archive as a MOD (manufacture-on-demand) DVD.


title: Compline

text: Compline ( ), also known as Complin, Night Prayer, or the Prayers at the End of the Day, is the final prayer service (or office) of the day in the Christian tradition of canonical hours, which are prayed at fixed prayer times.


title: Compline

text: The English word is derived from the Latin , as compline is the completion of the waking day. The word was first used in this sense about the beginning of the 6th century by St. Benedict in his "Rule" ("Regula Benedicti"; hereafter, RB), in Chapters 16, 17, 18, and 42, and he even uses the verb "compleo" to signify compline: "Omnes ergo in unum positi compleant" ("All having assembled in one place, let them say compline"); "et exeuntes a completorio" ("and, after going out from compline")… (RB, Chap. 42).


title: Compline

text: Catholic, Anglican, Episcopalian, and Lutheran denominations prescribe compline services, as do Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, and certain other Christian liturgical traditions.


title: Compline

text: In Western Christianity, Compline tends to be a contemplative office that emphasizes spiritual peace. In most monasteries it is the custom to begin the "Great Silence" after compline, during which the whole community, including guests, observes silence throughout the night until after the Terce the next day. Compline comprises the final office in the Liturgy of the Hours.


title: Compline

text: From the time of the early Church, the practice of seven fixed prayer times have been taught; in "Apostolic Tradition", Hippolytus instructed Christians to pray seven times a day "on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight" and "the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion."


title: Compline

text: The origin of compline has given rise to considerable discussion among liturgists. In the past, general opinion ascribed the origin of this liturgical hour to St. Benedict, in the beginning of the 6th century. But Jules Pargoire and A. Vandepitte trace its source to Saint Basil. Vandepitte states that it was not in Cæsarea in 375, but in his retreat in Pontus (358–362), that Basil established compline, which hour did not exist prior to his time, that is, until shortly after the middle of the 4th century. Dom Plaine also traced the source of compline back to the 4th century, finding mention of it in a passage in Eusebius and in another in St. Ambrose, and also in John Cassian. These texts bear witness to the private custom of saying a prayer before retiring to rest. If this was not the canonical hour of compline, it was certainly a preliminary step towards it. The same writers reject the opinion of Paulin Ladeuze and Dom Besse who believe that compline had a place in the Rule of St. Pachomius, which would mean that it originated still earlier in the 4th century.


title: Compline

text: It might be possible to reconcile these different sentiments by stating that if it be an established fact that St. Basil instituted and organized the hour of compline for the East, as St. Benedict did for the West, there existed as early as the days of St. Cyprian and Clement of Alexandria the custom of reciting a prayer before sleep, in which practice we find the most remote origin of our compline.


title: Compline

text: It is generally thought that the Benedictine form of compline is the earliest western order, although some scholars, such as Dom Plaine, have maintained that the hour of compline as found in the Roman Breviary at his time, antedated the Benedictine Office. These debates apart, Benedict's arrangement probably invested the hour of compline with the liturgical character and arrangement which were preserved in the Benedictine Order, and largely adopted by the Roman Church. The original form of the Benedictine Office, lacking even an antiphon for the psalms, is much simpler than its Roman counterpart, resembling more closely the Minor Hours of the day.


title: Compline

text: Saint Benedict first gave the Office the basic structure by which it has come to be celebrated in the West: three psalms (4, 90, and 133) (Vulgate numbering) said without antiphons, the hymn, the lesson, the versicle "Kyrie eleison", the benediction, and the dismissal (RB, Chaps. 17 and 18).


title: Compline

text: The Roman Office of compline came to be richer and more complex than the simple Benedictine psalmody. A fourth psalm was added, "In te Domine speravi" (Psalm 30 in Vulgate). And perhaps at a fairly late date was added the solemn introduction of a benediction with a reading (based perhaps on the spiritual reading which, in the Rule of St. Benedict, precedes compline: RB, Chap. 42), and the confession and absolution of faults. This is absent from parallel forms, such as that of Sarum.


title: Compline

text: The distinctive character and greater solemnity of the Roman form of compline comes from the responsory," In manus tuas, Domine" ("Into Thy hands, O Lord"), with the evangelical canticle Nunc Dimittis and its anthem, which is particularly characteristic.


title: Compline

text: The hour of compline, such as it appeared in the Roman Breviary prior to the Second Vatican Council, may be divided into several parts, viz. the beginning or introduction, the psalmody, with its usual accompaniment of antiphons, the hymn, the "capitulum", the response, the "Nunc dimittis", the prayer, and the benediction.


title: Compline

text: By way of liturgical variety, the service of "initium noctis" may also be studied in the Celtic Liturgy, such as it is read in the Antiphonary of Bangor, its plan being set forth by Warren and by Bishop (see Bibliography, below).


title: Compline

text: In the breviary of 1974 Roman Catholic Liturgy of the Hours, compline is divided as follows: introduction, an optional examination of conscience or penitential rite, a hymn, psalmody with accompanying antiphons, scriptural reading, the responsory, the Canticle of Simeon, concluding prayer, and benediction. The final antiphon to the Blessed Virgin Mary ("Salve Regina", etc.) is an essential part of the Office.


title: Compline

text: The office of Compline is included in the various Lutheran books of worship and prayer books (along with Matins/Morning Prayer and Vespers/Evening Prayer), such as "For All the Saints: A Prayer Book for and by the Church". In some Lutheran Churches compline may be conducted by a layperson.


title: Compline

text: In the Anglican tradition, Compline was originally merged with Vespers to form Evening Prayer in the "Book of Common Prayer". The United States Episcopal Church's "Book of Offices" of 1914, the Church of England's 1928 proposed prayer book, the Scottish Episcopal Church's 1929 Scottish Prayer Book, the Anglican Church of Canada's 1959/1962 prayer book, and also the 2004 version of the "Book of Common Prayer" for the Church of Ireland, along with the 2009 "Daily Prayer" book of the Church in Wales, restored a form of compline to Anglican worship. Several contemporary liturgical texts, including the American 1979 "Book of Common Prayer", the Anglican Church of Canada's "Book of Alternative Services", and the Church of England's "Common Worship", provide modern forms of the service. A traditional form is provided in the 1991 Anglican Service Book. The "Common Worship" service consists of the opening sentences, the confession of sins, the psalms and other Bible lessons, the canticle of Simeon, and prayers, including a benediction. There are authorized alternatives for the days of the week and the seasons of the Christian year. As a public service of worship, like Morning Prayer and Evening Prayer, compline may be led by a layperson, quite similar to Lutheran use.


title: Compline

text: Compline is called literally, the after-supper (Greek ("τὸ") "Ἀπόδειπνον" , Slavonic "повечеріе", Povecheriye), has two distinct forms which are quite different in length Small Compline and Great Compline.


title: Compline

text: Both forms include a canon, typically those found Octoechos to the Theotokos, although alternative canons are used on certain forefeasts, afterfeasts and days during the Paschaltide. A further exception is on days when the service to the saint(s) of the day is displaced by, e.g., by a newly canonized or locally venerated saint (or icon), the displaced canon is used and after that are inserted the stichera prescribed for vespers.


title: Compline

text: The Office always ends with a mutual asking of forgiveness. In some traditions, most notably among the Russians, Evening Prayers (i.e., Prayers Before Sleep) are read at the end of compline. It is an ancient custom, practiced on the Holy Mountain and in other monasteries, for everyone present at the end of compline to venerate the relics and icons in the church, and receive the priest's blessing.


title: Compline

text: Small compline is prescribed for most nights of the year. It is presided over by a single priest without a deacon.


title: Compline

text: The service is composed of three Psalms (50, 69, 142), the Small Doxology, the Nicene Creed, the Canon followed by "Axion Estin", the Trisagion, Troparia for the day, "Kyrie eleison" (40 times), the Prayer of the Hours, the Supplicatory Prayer of Paul the Monk, and the Prayer to Jesus Christ of Antiochus the Monk. Following these are the mutual forgiveness and final blessing by the priest and the priest's reciting of a litany.


title: Compline

text: Before an all-night vigil, compline in the Greek tradition precedes great vespers, being read during the great incensing, while in Russian tradition it simply follows little vespers.


title: Compline

text: Unlike Small Compline, Great Compline has portions of the service which are chanted by the Choir and during Lent the Prayer of St. Ephraim is said with prostrations. During the First Week of Great Lent, the Great Canon of Saint Andrew of Crete is divided into four portions and read on Monday through Thursday nights.


title: Compline

text: Due to the penitential nature of Great Compline, it is not uncommon for the priest to hear Confession during the service.


title: Compline

text: Great Compline is composed of three sections, each beginning with the call to prayer, "O come, let us worship…":


title: Compline

text: In the Syriac Orthodox Church and Indian Orthodox Church, as well as the Mar Thoma Syrian Church (an Oriental Protestant denomination), the office of Compline is also known as Soutoro and is prayed at 9 pm using the Shehimo breviary.


title: Compline

text: In the Coptic Orthodox Church, an Oriental Orthodox denomination, the Compline is prayed at 9 pm using the Agpeya breviary before retiring.


title: Compline

text: There are two offices in the daily worship of the Armenian Apostolic Church which are recited between sundown and sleep: the Peace Hour and the Rest Hour. These are two distinct services of communal worship. It is the usage in some localities to combine these two services, with abbreviations, into a single service.


title: Compline

text: The Peace Hour (Armenian: Խաղաղական Ժամ "khaghaghakan zham") is the office associated with compline in other Christian liturgies.


title: Compline

text: In the Armenian Book of Hours, or Zhamagirk`, it is stated that the Peace Hour commemorates the Spirit of God, but also the Word of God, “when he was laid in the tomb and descended into Hades, and brought peace to the spirits.”


title: Compline

text: If the Song of Steps is recited: "Blessed is our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen. Our Father … Amen."; Psalm 34:1–7: "I have blessed the Lord at all times ()"…; "Glory to the Father" (Always with "Now and always … Amen".; "And again in peace let us pray to the Lord…"; "Blessing and glory to the Father … Amen."; Song of Steps: Psalm 120:1–3: "In my distress I cried ()"…; "Glory to the Father…"


title: Compline

text: If the Song of Steps is not said: "Blessed is our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen. Our father … Amen"; Psalm 88:1–2 "God of my salvation ()"…; "Glory to the Father…"; "And again in peace let us pray to the Lord …"; "Blessing and glory to the Father … Amen."; "Peace with all."


title: Compline

text: In either case the service continues here: Psalms 4, 6, 13, 16, 43, 70, 86:16–17; "Glory to the Father…"; Song: "Vouchsafe unto us (Shnorhea mez)…"; "Glory to the Father…"; Acclamation: "At the approach of darkness (I merdzenal erekoyis)…"; Proclamation: "And again in peace … Let us give thanks to the Lord ()…"; Prayer: "Beneficent Lord (Tēr Barerar)…"; Psalm 27 "The Lord is my light (Tēr loys im)…"; "Glory to the Father…"; Song: "Look down with love (Nayats` sirov)…"; Acclamation: "Lord, do not turn your face ()…"; Proclamation: "And again in peace … Let us beseech almighty God (Aghach`ests`ouk` zamenakal")…; Prayer: "Bestowing with grace (Shnorhatou bareats`)"…


title: Compline

text: On non-fasting days the service ends here with: "Blessed is our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen. Our father … Amen".


title: Compline

text: On fasting days continue here: Psalm 119; "Glory to the Father–"; Hymn: "We entreat you (I k`ez hayts`emk`)…"


title: Compline

text: During the Great Fast: Evening Chant (varies); Acclamation: "To the spirits at rest ()…"; Proclamation: "And again in peace … For the repose of the souls (Vasn hangouts`eal)…; Lord, have mercy" (thrice); Prayer: "Christ, Son of God ()…; Blessed is our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen. Our father… Amen.”"


title: Compline

text: The Rest Hour (Armenian: Հանգստեան Ժամ ) is celebrated after the Peace Hour, and is the last of the offices of the day. It may be considered communal worship before sleep. It bears some resemblance in content to compline in the Roman Rite.


title: Compline

text: In the Armenian Book of Hours it is stated in many manuscripts that the Rest Hour commemorates God the Father, “that he protect us through the protecting arm of the Onlybegotten in the darkness of night.”


title: Compline

text: Outline of the Rest Hour: "Blessed is our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen. Our Father … Amen."; Psalm 43:3–5: "Lord, send your light and your truth (Arak`ea Tēr)…"; "Glory to the Father…; And again in peace let us pray to the Lord …; Blessing and glory to the Father … Amen.;" Psalms 119:41–56, 119:113–120, 119:169–176, 91, 123, 54, Daniel 3:29–34, Luke 2:29–32, Psalms 142:7, 86:16–17, 138:7–8, Luke 1:46–55; "Glory to the Father…"; Acclamation: "My soul into your hands ()…"; Proclamation: "And again in peace … Let us beseech almighty God (Aghach`ests`ouk` zamenakaln)…"; Prayer: "Lord our God (Tēr Astouats mer)…"


title: Compline

text: "Ending:" Psalm 4; Pre-gospel sequence; Gospel: John 12:24ff; "Glory to you, our God"; Proclamation: "By the holy Cross (Sourb khach`ivs…)…"; Prayer: "Protect us (; "Blessed is our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen. Our Father … Amen."


title: Compline

text: Ending during Fasts: Acclamation: "We fall down before you (Ankanimk` araji k`o)…"; Meditation Twelve of St. Gregory of Narek; Meditation 94 of St. Gregory of Narek; Meditation 41 of St. Gregory of Narek; Prayer: "In faith I confess (Havatov khostovanim)…" by St. Nerses the Graceful; Acclamation: "Through your holy spotless and virgin mother (Vasn srbouhvoy)…"; Proclamation: "Holy Birthgiver of God (Sourb zAstouatsatsinn), ,"; Prayer: "Accept, Lord (Unkal, Tēr)…"; "Blessed is our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen. Our Father … Amen."


title: Missouri Valley Football Conference

text: The Missouri Valley Football Conference (MVFC), formerly the Gateway Football Conference, is a collegiate athletic conference which operates in the Midwestern United States. It participates in the NCAA's Division I Football Championship Subdivision (FCS) as a football-only conference.


title: Missouri Valley Football Conference

text: In 1985, the MVC stopped sponsoring football. At that time, the two remaining I-AA members from the MVC (Illinois State and Southern Illinois) joined Eastern Illinois, Northern Iowa, Southwest Missouri State, and Western Illinois from the AMCU and together became a football conference under the Gateway's auspices. Indiana State, which had left MVC football after the 1981 season to become a Division I-AA independent while remaining a full MVC member, would join the next year.


title: Missouri Valley Football Conference

text: In 1992, when the Gateway Collegiate Athletic Conference merged with the MVC, the football conference kept the Gateway charter, with a minor name change to Gateway Football Conference. After Eastern Illinois joined the Ohio Valley Conference for football in 1995, Youngstown State joined in 1997 and was followed by Western Kentucky University in 2001. Southwest Missouri State changed its name to Missouri State in 2005.


title: Missouri Valley Football Conference

text: Western Kentucky moved to the Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS; formerly Division I-A) after the 2006 season, leaving the GFC with seven members for the 2007 season. Great West Football Conference members North Dakota State and South Dakota State were invited to join the conference beginning with the 2008 season. Subsequently, the Gateway Football Conference changed its name to the Missouri Valley Football Conference in June 2008. This change aligned the conference with the Missouri Valley Conference, a conference in which five of the nine Missouri Valley Football schools were (and still are) all-sports members. The conferences continue to share the "Missouri Valley" name, and space in the same building in St. Louis, but remain separate administratively.


title: Missouri Valley Football Conference

text: The University of South Dakota joined as the 10th member in 2012. The University of North Dakota joined as the 11th member in 2020, bringing back the yearly rivalries among North Dakota, North Dakota State, South Dakota and South Dakota State which had existed under the Division 2 North Central Conference that NDSU and SDSU left in 2004–05.


title: Missouri Valley Football Conference

text: The most recent change to the MVFC membership was announced on April 4, 2022. Murray State University, which becomes a full MVC member in July 2022, will join the MVFC in 2023.


title: Missouri Valley Football Conference

text: 11 different teams have won MVFC championships. The most recent champion is South Dakota State. The school with the most championships is Northern Iowa (10).


title: Binary prefix

text: A binary prefix is a unit prefix for multiples of units. It is most often used in data processing, data transmission, and digital information, principally in association with the bit and the byte, to indicate multiplication by a power of 2. As shown in the table to the right there are two sets of symbols for binary prefixes, one set established by International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and several other standards and trade organizations using two-letter symbols, e.g. "Mi" indicating with a second set established by semiconductor industry convention using one-letter symbols, e.g., "M" also indicating .


title: Binary prefix

text: In most contexts, industry uses the multipliers "kilo" ("k"), "mega" ("M"), "giga" ("G"), etc., in a manner consistent with their meaning in the International System of Units (SI), namely as powers of 1000. For example, a 500-gigabyte hard disk holds bytes, and a 1 Gbit/s (gigabit per second) Ethernet connection transfers data at nominal speed of bit/s. In contrast with the "binary prefix" usage, this use is described as a "decimal prefix", as 1000 is a power of 10 (10).


title: Binary prefix

text: The computer industry has historically in citations of main memory (RAM) capacity used the units "kilobyte", "megabyte", and "gigabyte", and the corresponding symbols "KB", "MB", and "GB", in a binary sense: "gigabyte" customarily means bytes. As this is a power of 1024, and 1024 is a power of two (2), this usage is referred to as a binary measurement.


title: Binary prefix

text: The use of the same unit prefixes with two different meanings has caused confusion. Starting around 1998, the IEC and several other standards and trade organizations attempted to address the ambiguity by publishing standards and recommendations for a set of binary prefixes that refer exclusively to powers of 1024. Accordingly, the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) requires that SI prefixes be used only in the decimal sense: kilobyte and megabyte denote one thousand bytes and one million bytes respectively (consistent with SI), while new terms such as kibibyte, mebibyte, and gibibyte, having the symbols KiB, MiB, and GiB, denote 1024 bytes, bytes, and bytes, respectively. In 2008, the IEC prefixes were incorporated into the standard alongside the decimal prefixes of the international standard system of units.


title: Binary prefix

text: In response to litigation over the use of metric prefixes, the United States District Court for the Northern District of California includes a judicial notice that "the U.S. Congress has deemed the decimal definition of gigabyte to be the 'preferred' one for the purposes of 'U.S. trade and commerce.


title: Binary prefix

text: Early computers used one of two addressing methods to access the system memory; binary (base 2) or decimal (base 10).


title: Binary prefix

text: For example, the IBM 701 (1952) used binary and could address 2048 words of 36 bits each, while the IBM 702 (1953) used decimal and could address ten thousand 7-bit words.


title: Binary prefix

text: By the mid-1960s, binary addressing had become the standard architecture in most computer designs, and main memory sizes were most commonly powers of two. This is the most natural configuration for memory, as all combinations of their address lines map to a valid address, allowing easy aggregation into a larger block of memory with contiguous addresses.


title: Binary prefix

text: Early computer system documentation would specify the memory size with an exact number such as 4096, 8192, or words of storage. These are all powers of two, and furthermore are small multiples of 2, or 1024. As storage capacities increased, several different methods were developed to abbreviate these quantities.


title: Binary prefix

text: The method most commonly used today uses prefixes such as kilo, mega, giga, and corresponding symbols K, M, and G, which the computer industry originally adopted from the metric system. The prefixes "kilo-" and "mega-", meaning 1000 and respectively, were commonly used in the electronics industry before World War II. Along with "giga-" or G-, meaning , they are now known as SI prefixes after the International System of Units (SI), introduced in 1960 to formalize aspects of the metric system.


title: Binary prefix

text: The International System of Units does not define units for digital information but notes that the SI prefixes may be applied outside the contexts where base units or derived units would be used. But as computer main memory in a


title: Binary prefix

text: binary-addressed system is manufactured in sizes that were easily expressed as multiples of 1024, "kilobyte", when applied to computer memory, came to be used to mean 1024 bytes instead of 1000. This usage is not consistent with the SI. Compliance with the SI requires that the prefixes take their 1000-based meaning, and that they are not to be used as placeholders for other numbers, like 1024.


title: Binary prefix

text: The use of K in the binary sense as in a "32K core" meaning words, i.e., words, can be found as early as 1959.


title: Binary prefix

text: Gene Amdahl's seminal 1964 article on IBM System/360 used "1K" to mean 1024. This style was used by other computer vendors, the CDC 7600 "System Description" (1968) made extensive use of K as 1024. Thus the first binary prefix was born.


title: Binary prefix

text: Another style was to truncate the last three digits and append K, essentially using K as a decimal prefix similar to SI, but always truncating to the next lower whole number instead of rounding to the nearest. The exact values words, words and words would then be described as "32K", "65K" and "131K". (If these values had been rounded to nearest they would have become 33K, 66K, and 131K, respectively.)


title: Binary prefix

text: These two styles (K = 1024 and truncation) were used loosely around the same time, sometimes by the same company. In discussions of binary-addressed memories, the exact size was evident from context. (For memory sizes of "41K" and below, there is no difference between the two styles.) The HP 21MX real-time computer (1974) denoted (which is 192×1024) as "196K" and as "1M",


title: Binary prefix

text: The "truncation" method gradually waned. Capitalization of the letter K became the "de facto" standard for binary notation, although this could not be extended to higher powers, and use of the lowercase k did persist. Nevertheless, the practice of using the SI-inspired "kilo" to indicate 1024 was later extended to "megabyte" meaning 1024 () bytes, and later "gigabyte" for 1024 () bytes. For example, a "512 megabyte" RAM module is bytes (512 × , or ), rather than .


title: Binary prefix

text: The symbols Kbit, Kbyte, Mbit and Mbyte started to be used as "binary units"—"bit" or "byte" with a multiplier that is a power of 1024—in the early 1970s. For a time, memory capacities were often expressed in K, even when M could have been used: The IBM System/370 Model 158 brochure (1972) had the following: "Real storage capacity is available in 512K increments ranging from 512K to 2,048K bytes."


title: Binary prefix

text: In 1998, the International Electrotechnical Commission IEC introduced the binary prefixes kibi, mebi, gibi, etc., to mean 1024, 1024, 1024 etc., so that 1048576 bytes could be referred to unambiguously as 1 mebibyte. The IEC prefixes were defined for use alongside the International System of Quantities (ISQ) in 2009.


title: Binary prefix

text: The disk drive industry has followed a different pattern. Disk drive capacity is generally specified with unit prefixes with decimal meaning, in accordance to SI practices. Unlike computer main memory, disk architecture or construction does not mandate or make it convenient to use binary multiples. Drives can have any practical number of platters or surfaces, and the count of tracks, as well as the count of sectors per track may vary greatly between designs.


title: Binary prefix

text: The first commercially sold disk drive, the IBM 350, had fifty physical disk platters containing a total of sectors of 100 characters each, for a total quoted capacity of 5 million characters. It was introduced in September 1956.


title: Binary prefix

text: In the 1960s most disk drives used IBM's variable block length format, called Count Key Data (CKD). Any block size could be specified up to the maximum track length. Since the block headers occupied space, the usable capacity of the drive was dependent on the block size. Blocks ("records" in IBM's terminology) of 88, 96, 880 and 960 were often used because they related to the fixed block size of 80- and 96-character punch cards. The drive capacity was usually stated under conditions of full track record blocking. For example, the 100-megabyte 3336 disk pack only achieved that capacity with a full track block size of bytes.


title: Binary prefix

text: Floppy disks for the IBM PC and compatibles quickly standardized on 512-byte sectors, so two sectors were easily referred to as "1K". The 3.5-inch "360 KB" and "720 KB" had 720 (single-sided) and 1440 sectors (double-sided) respectively. When the High Density "1.44 MB" floppies came along, with 2880 of these 512-byte sectors, that terminology represented a hybrid binary-decimal definition of "1 MB" = 2 × 10 = 1 024 000 bytes.


title: Binary prefix

text: In contrast, hard disk drive manufacturers used "megabytes" or "MB", meaning 10 bytes, to characterize their products as early as 1974. By 1977, in its first edition, Disk/Trend, a leading hard disk drive industry marketing consultancy segmented the industry according to MBs (decimal sense) of capacity.


title: Binary prefix

text: One of the earliest hard disk drives in personal computing history, the Seagate ST-412, was specified as "Formatted: 10.0 Megabytes". The drive contains four heads and active surfaces (tracks per cylinder), 306 cylinders. When formatted with a sector size of 256 bytes and 32 sectors/track it has a capacity of . This drive was one of several types installed in the IBM PC/XT and extensively advertised and reported as a "10 MB" (formatted) hard disk drive. The cylinder count of 306 is not conveniently close to any power of 1024; operating systems and programs using the customary binary prefixes show this as 9.5625 MB. Many later drives in the personal computer market used 17 sectors per track; still later, zone bit recording was introduced, causing the number of sectors per track to vary from the outer track to the inner.


title: Binary prefix

text: The hard drive industry continues to use decimal prefixes for drive capacity, as well as for transfer rate. For example, a "300 GB" hard drive offers slightly more than , or , bytes, not (which would be about ). Operating systems such as Microsoft Windows that display hard drive sizes using the customary binary prefix "GB" (as it is used for RAM) would display this as "279.4 GB" (meaning bytes, or ). On the other hand, macOS has since version 10.6 shown hard drive size using decimal prefixes (thus matching the drive makers' packaging). (Previous versions of Mac OS X used binary prefixes.)


title: Binary prefix

text: Disk drive manufacturers sometimes use "both" IEC and SI prefixes with their standardized meanings. Seagate has specified data transfer rates in select manuals of some hard drives with both units, with the conversion between units clearly shown and the numeric values adjusted accordingly.


title: Binary prefix

text: "Advanced Format" drives uses the term "4K sectors", which it defines as having size of "4096 (4K) bytes".


title: Binary prefix

text: Computer clock frequencies are always quoted using SI prefixes in their decimal sense. For example, the internal clock frequency of the original IBM PC was 4.77 MHz, that is . Similarly, digital information transfer rates are quoted using decimal prefixes:


title: Binary prefix

text: By the mid-1970s it was common to see K meaning 1024 and the occasional M meaning for words or bytes of main memory (RAM) while K and M were commonly used with their decimal meaning for disk storage. In the 1980s, as capacities of both types of devices increased, the SI prefix G, with SI meaning, was commonly applied to disk storage, while M in its binary meaning, became common for computer memory. In the 1990s, the prefix G, in its binary meaning, became commonly used for computer memory capacity. The first terabyte (SI prefix, bytes) hard disk drive was introduced in 2007.


title: Binary prefix

text: The dual usage of the kilo (K), mega (M), and giga (G) prefixes as both powers of 1000 and powers of 1024 has been recorded in standards and dictionaries. For example, the obsolete standard ANSI/IEEE Std 1084-1986 defined dual uses for kilo and mega.


title: Binary prefix

text: Oxford online dictionary historically defined, for example, megabyte as: "Computing: a unit of information equal to one million or (strictly) bytes."


title: Binary prefix

text: The units Kbyte, Mbyte, and Gbyte were found in the trade press and in IEEE journals. Gigabyte was formally defined in obsolete standard IEEE Std 610.10-1994 as either or 2 bytes.


title: Binary prefix

text: The hardware industry measures system memory (RAM) using the binary meaning while magnetic disk storage uses the SI definition. However, many exceptions exist. Labeling of one type of diskette uses the megabyte to denote bytes. In the optical disks market, compact discs use "MB" to mean 1024 bytes while DVDs use "GB" to mean 1000 bytes.


title: Binary prefix

text: Computer storage has become cheaper per unit and thereby larger, by many orders of magnitude since "K" was first used to mean 1024.


title: Binary prefix

text: Because both the SI and "binary" meanings of kilo, mega, etc., are based on powers of 1000 or 1024 rather than simple multiples, the difference between 1M "binary" and 1M "decimal" is proportionally larger than that between 1K "binary" and 1k "decimal", and so on up the scale. The relative difference between the values in the binary and decimal interpretations increases, when using the SI prefixes as the base, from 2.4% for kilo to nearly 27% for the quetta prefix. Although the prefixes ronna and quetta have been defined, as of 2022 no names have been officially assigned to the corresponding binary prefixes.


title: Binary prefix

text: In the early days of computers (roughly, prior to the advent of personal computers) there was little or no consumer confusion because of the technical sophistication of the buyers and their familiarity with the products. In addition, it was common for computer manufacturers to specify their products with capacities in full precision.


title: Binary prefix

text: In the personal computing era, one source of consumer confusion is the difference in the way many operating systems display hard drive sizes, compared to the way hard drive manufacturers describe them. Hard drives are specified and sold using "GB" and "TB" in their decimal meaning: one billion and one trillion bytes. Many operating systems and other software, however, display hard drive and file sizes using "MB", "GB" or other SI-looking prefixes in their binary sense, just as they do for displays of RAM capacity. For example, many such systems display a hard drive marketed as "1 TB" as "931 GB". The earliest known presentation of hard disk drive capacity by an operating system using "KB" or "MB" in a binary sense is 1984; earlier operating systems generally presented the hard disk drive capacity as an exact number of bytes, with no prefix of any sort, for example, in the output of the MS-DOS or PC DOS CHKDSK command.


title: Binary prefix

text: The different interpretations of disk size prefixes has led to class action lawsuits against digital storage manufacturers. These cases involved both flash memory and hard disk drives.


title: Binary prefix

text: Early cases (2004–2007) were settled prior to any court ruling with the manufacturers admitting no wrongdoing but agreeing to clarify the storage capacity of their products on the consumer packaging. Accordingly, many flash memory and hard disk manufacturers have disclosures on their packaging and web sites clarifying the formatted capacity of the devices or defining MB as 1 million bytes and 1 GB as 1 billion bytes.


title: Binary prefix

text: On 20 February 2004, Willem Vroegh filed a lawsuit against Lexar Media, Dane–Elec Memory, Fuji Photo Film USA, Eastman Kodak Company, Kingston Technology Company, Inc., Memorex Products, Inc.; PNY Technologies Inc., SanDisk Corporation, Verbatim Corporation, and Viking Interworks alleging that their descriptions of the capacity of their flash memory cards were false and misleading.


title: Binary prefix

text: Vroegh claimed that a 256 MB Flash Memory Device had only 244 MB of accessible memory. "Plaintiffs allege that Defendants marketed the memory capacity of their products by assuming that one megabyte equals one million bytes and one gigabyte equals one billion bytes." The plaintiffs wanted the defendants to use the customary values of 1024 for megabyte and 1024 for gigabyte. The plaintiffs acknowledged that the IEC and IEEE standards define a MB as one million bytes but stated that the industry has largely ignored the IEC standards.


title: Binary prefix

text: The parties agreed that manufacturers could continue to use the decimal definition so long as the definition was added to the packaging and web sites. The consumers could apply for "a discount of ten percent off a future online purchase from Defendants' Online Stores Flash Memory Device".


title: Binary prefix

text: On 7 July 2005, an action entitled "Orin Safier v. Western Digital Corporation, et al." was filed in the Superior Court for the City and County of San Francisco, Case No. CGC-05-442812. The case was subsequently moved to the Northern District of California, Case No. 05-03353 BZ.


title: Binary prefix

text: Although Western Digital maintained that their usage of units is consistent with "the indisputably correct industry standard for measuring and describing storage capacity", and that they "cannot be expected to reform the software industry", they agreed to settle in March 2006 with 14 June 2006 as the Final Approval hearing date.


title: Binary prefix

text: Western Digital offered to compensate customers with a free download of backup and recovery software valued at US$30. They also paid $ in fees and expenses to San Francisco lawyers Adam Gutride and Seth Safier, who filed the suit. The settlement called for Western Digital to add a disclaimer to their later packaging and advertising.


title: Binary prefix

text: A lawsuit ("Cho v. Seagate Technology (US) Holdings, Inc.", San Francisco Superior Court, Case No. CGC-06-453195) was filed against Seagate Technology, alleging that Seagate overrepresented the amount of usable storage by 7% on hard drives sold between 22 March 2001 and 26 September 2007. The case was settled without Seagate admitting wrongdoing, but agreeing to supply those purchasers with free backup software or a 5% refund on the cost of the drives.


title: Binary prefix

text: On 22 January 2020, the district court of the Northern District of California ruled in favor of the defendant, SanDisk, upholding its use of "GB" to mean .


title: Binary prefix

text: While early computer scientists typically used k to mean 1000, some recognized the convenience that would result from working with multiples of 1024 and the confusion that resulted from using the same prefixes for two different meanings.


title: Binary prefix

text: Several proposals for unique binary prefixes were made in 1968. Donald Morrison proposed to use the Greek letter kappa (κ) to denote 1024, κ to denote 1024, and so on. (At the time, memory size was small, and only K was in widespread use.) Wallace Givens responded with a proposal to use bK as an abbreviation for 1024 and bK2 or bK for 1024, though he noted that neither the Greek letter nor lowercase letter b would be easy to reproduce on computer printers of the day. Bruce Alan Martin of Brookhaven National Laboratory further proposed that the prefixes be abandoned altogether, and the letter B be used for base-2 exponents, similar to E in decimal scientific notation, to create shorthands like 3B20 for , a convention still used on some calculators to present binary floating point-numbers today.


title: Binary prefix

text: None of these gained much acceptance, and capitalization of the letter K became the "de facto" standard for indicating a factor of 1024 instead of 1000, although this could not be extended to higher powers.


title: Binary prefix

text: As the discrepancy between the two systems increased in the higher-order powers, more proposals for unique prefixes were made. In 1996, Markus Kuhn proposed a system with "di" prefixes, like the "dikilobyte" (KB or K2B). Donald Knuth, who uses decimal notation like 1 MB = 1000 kB, proposed that the powers of 1024 be designated as "large kilobytes" and "large megabytes", with abbreviations KKB and MMB. Double prefixes were already abolished from SI, however, having a multiplicative meaning ("MMB" would be equivalent to "TB"), and this proposed usage never gained any traction.


title: Binary prefix

text: The set of binary prefixes that were eventually adopted, now referred to as the "IEC prefixes", were first proposed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry's (IUPAC) Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IDCNS) in 1995. At that time, it was proposed that the terms kilobyte and megabyte be used only for 10 bytes and 10 bytes, respectively. The new prefixes "kibi" (kilobinary), "mebi" (megabinary), "gibi" (gigabinary) and "tebi" (terabinary) were also proposed at the time, and the proposed symbols for the prefixes were kb, Mb, Gb and Tb respectively, rather than Ki, Mi, Gi and Ti. The proposal was not accepted at the time.


title: Binary prefix

text: The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) began to collaborate with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) to find acceptable names for binary prefixes. IEC proposed "kibi", "mebi", "gibi" and "tebi", with the symbols Ki, Mi, Gi and Ti respectively, in 1996.


title: Binary prefix

text: The names for the new prefixes are derived from the original SI prefixes combined with the term "binary", but contracted, by taking the first two letters of the SI prefix and "bi" from binary. The first letter of each such prefix is identical to the corresponding SI prefix, except that "k" is capitalised to "K".


title: Binary prefix

text: The IEEE decided that their standards would use the prefixes "kilo", etc. with their metric definitions, but allowed the binary definitions to be used in an interim period as long as such usage was explicitly pointed out on a case-by-case basis.


title: Binary prefix

text: In January 1999, the IEC published the first international standard (IEC 60027-2 Amendment 2) with the new prefixes, extended up to "pebi" (Pi) and "exbi" (Ei).


title: Binary prefix

text: The IEC 60027-2 Amendment 2 also states that the IEC position is the same as that of BIPM (the body that regulates the SI system); the SI prefixes retain their definitions in powers of 1000 and are never used to mean a power of 1024.


title: Binary prefix

text: In usage, products and concepts typically described using powers of 1024 would continue to be, but with the new IEC prefixes. For example, a memory module of bytes () would be referred to as 512 MiB or 512 mebibytes instead of 512 MB or 512 megabytes. Conversely, since hard drives have historically been marketed using the SI convention that "giga" means , a "500 GB" hard drive would still be labeled as such. According to these recommendations, operating systems and other software would also use binary and SI prefixes in the same way, so the purchaser of a "500 GB" hard drive would find the operating system reporting either "500 GB" or "466 GiB", while bytes of RAM would be displayed as "512 MiB".


title: Binary prefix

text: The second edition of the standard, published in 2000, defined them only up to "exbi", but in 2005, the third edition added prefixes "zebi" and "yobi", thus matching all then-defined SI prefixes with binary counterparts.


title: Binary prefix

text: The harmonized ISO/IEC IEC 80000-13:2008 standard cancels and replaces subclauses 3.8 and 3.9 of IEC 60027-2:2005 (those defining prefixes for binary multiples). The only significant change is the addition of explicit definitions for some quantities. In 2009, the prefixes kibi-, mebi-, etc. were defined by ISO 80000-1 in their own right, independently of the kibibyte, mebibyte, and so on.


title: Binary prefix

text: The BIPM standard JCGM 200:2012 "International vocabulary of metrology – Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM), 3rd edition" lists the IEC binary prefixes and states "SI prefixes refer strictly to powers of 10, and should not be used for powers of 2. For example, 1 kilobit should not be used to represent bits (2 bits), which is 1 kibibit."


title: Binary prefix

text: The additional decimal prefixes "ronna-" for 1000 and "quetta-" for 1000 were adopted by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in 2022. The natural binary counterparts to "ronna-" and "quetta-" were suggested in a consultation paper of the International Committee for Weights and Measures' Consultative Committee for Units (CCU) as "robi-" (Ri, 1024) and "quebi-" (Qi, 1024). , no corresponding binary prefixes have been adopted by the IEC and ISO.


title: Binary prefix

text: The IEC standard binary prefixes are now supported by other standardization bodies and technical organizations.


title: Binary prefix

text: The United States National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) supports the ISO/IEC standards for


title: Binary prefix

text: "Prefixes for binary multiples" and has a web page documenting them, describing and justifying their use. NIST suggests that in English, the first syllable of the name of the binary-multiple prefix should be pronounced in the same way as the first syllable of the name of the corresponding SI prefix, and that the second syllable should be pronounced as "bee". NIST has stated the SI prefixes "refer strictly to powers of 10" and that the binary definitions "should not be used" for them.


title: Binary prefix

text: The microelectronics industry standards body JEDEC describes the IEC prefixes in its online dictionary with a note: "The definitions of kilo, giga, and mega based on powers of two are included only to reflect common usage." The JEDEC standards for semiconductor memory use the customary prefix symbols K, M and G in the binary sense.


title: Binary prefix

text: On 19 March 2005, the IEEE standard IEEE 1541-2002 ("Prefixes for Binary Multiples") was elevated to a full-use standard by the IEEE Standards Association after a two-year trial period. However, , the IEEE Publications division does not require the use of IEC prefixes in its major magazines such as "Spectrum" or "Computer".


title: Binary prefix

text: The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), which maintains the International System of Units (SI), expressly prohibits the use of SI prefixes to denote binary multiples, and recommends the use of the IEC prefixes as an alternative since units of information are not included in SI.


title: Binary prefix

text: The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) prohibits the use of SI prefixes with anything but a power-of-1000 meaning, but does not recommend or otherwise cite the IEC binary prefixes.


title: Binary prefix

text: The European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) adopted the IEC-recommended binary prefixes via the harmonization document HD 60027-2:2003-03. The European Union (EU) has required the use of the IEC binary prefixes since 2007.


title: Binary prefix

text: Most computer hardware uses SI prefixes to state capacity and define other performance parameters such as data rate. Main and cache memories are notable exceptions.


title: Binary prefix

text: Capacities of main memory and cache memory are usually expressed with customary binary prefixes On the other hand, flash memory, like that found in solid state drives, mostly uses SI prefixes to state capacity.


title: Binary prefix

text: Some operating systems and other software continue to use the customary binary prefixes in displays of memory, disk storage capacity, and file size, but SI prefixes in other areas such as network communication speeds and processor speeds.


title: Binary prefix

text: In the following subsections, unless otherwise noted, examples are first given using the common prefixes used in each case, and then followed by interpretation using other notation where appropriate.


title: Binary prefix

text: Prior to the release of Macintosh System Software (1984), file sizes were typically reported by the operating system without any prefixes. Today, most operating systems report file sizes with prefixes.


title: Binary prefix

text: , most software did not distinguish symbols for binary and decimal prefixes. The IEC binary naming convention is not yet used universally.


title: Binary prefix

text: One of the stated goals of the introduction of the IEC prefixes was "to preserve the SI prefixes as unambiguous decimal multipliers". Programs such as fdisk/cfdisk, parted, and apt-get use SI prefixes with their decimal meaning.


title: Binary prefix

text: Example of the use of IEC binary prefixes in the Linux operating system displaying traffic volume on a network interface in kibibytes (KiB) and mebibytes (MiB), as obtained with the ifconfig utility:


title: Binary prefix

text: Software that uses IEC binary prefixes for powers of 1024 "and" uses standard SI prefixes for powers of 1000 includes:


title: Binary prefix

text: Software that uses standard SI prefixes for powers of 1000, and does not use any prefixes for powers of 1024, includes:


title: Binary prefix

text: Software that supports decimal prefixes for powers of 1000 "and" binary prefixes for powers of 1024 (but does not follow SI or IEC nomenclature for this) includes:


title: Binary prefix

text: Hardware types that use powers-of-1024 multipliers, such as memory, continue to be marketed with customary binary prefixes.


title: Binary prefix

text: Measurements of most types of electronic memory such as RAM and ROM are given using customary binary prefixes (kilo, mega, and giga). This includes some flash memory, like EEPROMs. For example, a "512-megabyte" memory module is bytes (512 × , or ).


title: Binary prefix

text: JEDEC Solid State Technology Association, the semiconductor engineering standardization body of the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA), continues to include the customary binary definitions of kilo, mega and giga in their "Terms, Definitions, and Letter Symbols" document,


title: Binary prefix

text: Many computer programming tasks reference memory in terms of powers of two because of the inherent binary design of current hardware addressing systems. For example, a 16-bit processor register can reference at most items (bytes, words, or other objects); this is conveniently expressed as "64K" items. An operating system might map memory as 4096-byte pages, in which case exactly 8192 pages could be allocated within bytes of memory: "8K" (8192) pages of "4 kilobytes" (4096 bytes) each within "32 megabytes" (32 MiB) of memory.


title: Binary prefix

text: USB flash drives, flash-based memory cards like CompactFlash or Secure Digital, and flash-based solid-state drives (SSDs) use SI prefixes;


title: Binary prefix

text: for example, a "256 MB" flash card provides at least 256 million bytes (), not 256×1024×1024 (). The flash memory chips inside these devices contain considerably more than the quoted capacities, but much like a traditional hard drive, some space is reserved for internal functions of the flash drive. These include wear leveling, error correction, sparing, and metadata needed by the device's internal firmware.


title: Binary prefix

text: Floppy disks have existed in numerous physical and logical formats, and have been sized inconsistently. In part, this is because the end user capacity of a particular disk is a function of the controller hardware, so that the same disk could be formatted to a variety of capacities. In many cases, the media are marketed without any indication of the end user capacity, as for example, DSDD, meaning double-sided double-density.


title: Binary prefix

text: The last widely adopted diskette was the 3.5-inch high density. This has a formatted capacity of bytes or 1440 KB (1440 × 1024, using "KB" in the customary binary sense). These are marketed as "HD", or "1.44 MB" or both. This usage creates a third definition of "megabyte" as 1000×1024 bytes.


title: Binary prefix

text: When these disks were commonplace, most operating systems displayed the capacity using "MB" in the customary binary sense, resulting in a display of "1.4 MB" (). Some users have noticed the missing 0.04 MB and both Apple and Microsoft have support bulletins referring to them as 1.4 MB.


title: Binary prefix

text: The earlier "1200 KB" ( bytes) 5.25-inch diskette sold with the IBM PC AT was marketed as "1.2 MB" (). The largest 8-inch diskette formats could contain more than a megabyte, and the capacities of those devices were often irregularly specified in megabytes, also without controversy.


title: Binary prefix

text: Older and smaller diskette formats were usually identified as an accurate number of (binary) KB, for example the Apple Disk II described as "140KB" had a -byte capacity, and the original "360KB" double sided, double density disk drive used on the IBM PC had a -byte capacity.


title: Binary prefix

text: In many cases diskette hardware was marketed based on unformatted capacity, and the overhead required to format sectors on the media would reduce the nominal capacity as well (and this overhead typically varied based on the size of the formatted sectors), leading to more irregularities.


title: Binary prefix

text: The capacities of most optical disc storage media like DVD, Blu-ray Disc, HD DVD and magneto-optical (MO) are given using SI decimal prefixes. A "4.7 GB" DVD has a nominal capacity of about 4.38 GiB. However, CD capacities are always given using customary binary prefixes. Thus a "700-MB" (or "80-minute") CD has a nominal capacity of about 700 MiB (approximately 730 MB).


title: Binary prefix

text: Two examples are hertz (Hz), which is used to measure the clock rates of electronic components, and to bit/s and B/s, which are used to measure data transmission speed.


title: Binary prefix

text: IEC prefixes are used by Toshiba, IBM, HP to advertise or describe some of their products. According to one HP brochure, "[t]o reduce confusion, vendors are pursuing one of two remedies: they are changing SI prefixes to the new binary prefixes, or they are recalculating the numbers as powers of ten." The IBM Data Center also uses IEC prefixes to reduce confusion. The IBM Style Guide reads To help avoid inaccuracy (especially with the larger prefixes) and potential ambiguity, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in 2000 adopted a set of prefixes specifically for binary multipliers (See IEC 60027-2). Their use is now supported by the United States National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and incorporated into ISO 80000. They are also required by EU law and in certain contexts in the US.


title: Binary prefix

text: However, most documentation and products in the industry continue to use SI prefixes when referring to binary multipliers. In product documentation, follow the same standard that is used in the product itself (for example, in the interface or firmware). Whether you choose to use IEC prefixes for powers of 2 and SI prefixes for powers of 10, or use SI prefixes for a dual purpose ... be consistent in your usage and explain to the user your adopted system.


title: Binary prefix

text: The international standard ISO 80000-1 defines the prefixes kibi-, mebi-, gibi- ... without limiting their application to information technology. Uses of binary prefixes for quantities other than bits or bytes include their use to indicate binary multiples of the frequency unit hertz (Hz), for example the kibihertz (symbol KiHz) is 1024 Hz.


title: Jodi (1999 film)

text: Jodi () is a 1999 Indian Tamil-language romantic drama film directed by Praveen Gandhi and produced by Murali Manohar. The film stars Prashanth and Simran in the lead roles, with Vijayakumar, Nassar and Srividya in supporting roles. The soundtrack is composed by A. R. Rahman, featuring music reused from his own earlier soundtrack for the Hindi film "Doli Saja Ke Rakhna," except for the song "Oru Poiyavathu". Due to Rahman's unavailability, Praveen Gandhi signed Sabesh–Murali to quickly compose the background score. The film was the 25th film of Prashanth. The film was released on 9 September 1999. It opened to positive reviews and became a commercial success. A reviewer noted that "the director's light-veined screenplay keeps the movie moving at a good pace". The film was remade in Kannada in 2006 as "Sajni".


title: Jodi (1999 film)

text: Kannan is a young music shop employee. He dreams of a girl who wears gold anklets and decides to find her. One day, he sees the feet of a running girl, and realises that she is the girl he has been dreaming of and follows her. Soon after, he goes to a music college to repair music instruments. Gayathri, a student of that college, is the girl which Kannan found as his dream girl. She and her friends approach and request him to not repair the music instruments, as they are very old and unfit to use for the music contest. Kannan uses the opportunity to become close to her but Gayathri is angered by his behaviour. He accompanies Gayathri to Bangalore for the music contest, where Gayathri sees him getting money from a rival music band. On the day of the contest, Gayathri and her team are shocked to learn that the song which they have composed was stolen by the other troupe. She assumes that Kannan has stolen and sold their work for money despite Kannan's protest that he is innocent. He lends her one of the love poems he had written for her, and she sings it in the contest and wins the prize. Gayathri understands that Kannan has no role in the stealing of the song and he got money from the troop for fixing their repaired music instruments. She realises her mistake and rushes to apologize and accept his love, and soon, they start dating. Kannan gets news that his father was injured and rushes home.


title: Jodi (1999 film)

text: Kannan's father Rudramurthy works at a registrar office where he witnesses many marriages take place without the consent of couple's parents. He is against such marriages and prevents one such marriage by advising the girl who had come to marry her lover and sending her home, which led to an attack by the groom and his friends. Kannan understood that he is going to have a tough time with his love and his father who hates love marriages. Gayathri, on other hand, has a family with a father who is very depressed by an incident which took place in his life. Gayathri's friend and her lover commit suicide due to pressure put up by the parents against their love. This upsets Gayathri and she is scared on how to marry Kannan. Both of them plan to visit the family of the other, impress them, and get permission for their marriage.


title: Jodi (1999 film)

text: Gayathri sets out to Kannan's home as the lost daughter of troublesome neighbour of Kannan and Kannan sets to Gayathri's home only to earn a name of vagabond from her family. They try their level best to get into the home of other's families and succeed to some extent. Gayathri manages to win the heart of Rudramurthy when she stops his daughter, who was about to run away from her home with her lover. This makes Rudramurthy accept her as his daughter-in-law. On the other hand, Kannan visits his home with much depression reason being failing to accomplish his mission. Kannan finds the reason for Gayathri's father Vengudu's condition as one incident. Vengudu is a music critic and his criticism plays a vital role in one's music career. Vengudu once made a bad criticism about a male vocalist in front of the audience and also in the next day newspaper which led the vocalist to commit suicide. The wife of the vocalist shouts at him and curses him for bring her a fate. From then he stopped his critic job and has been living with remorse. Kannan attempts to solve his problem by visiting the vocalist's house and explains the current condition of Vengudu. He requests them forgive him and visit his home to which the lady accepts. On the day of the visit the lady proposes marriage alliance of her son Sivabalan, who met Gayathri on the music contest at Bangalore with Vengudu's daughter Gayathri, to which Vengudu accepts. On hearing about her marriage, Gayathri screams that she will not let this happen and goes to convince her father. On seeing her father, he falls at her feet and she is tongue tied as she finds her father has changed a lot and her marriage would bring him complete relief from his guilt.


title: Jodi (1999 film)

text: However, on the day of the marriage, Sivabalan sings the love song written by Kannan for Gayathri, which she sang in the music contest. On hearing this song, Gayathri runs to Kannan and hugs him. Sivabalan explains to Vengudu that Kannan and Gayathri love each other very much, and tells him not to separate them. Vengudu accepts them as he does not want to commit another mistake and spend his life in guilt. Kannan and Gayathri are united together in the end.


title: Jodi (1999 film)

text: Sunanda Murali Manohar was keen to film Tamil versions of A. R. Rahman's songs from the Hindi film "Doli Saja Ke Rakhna" (1998) as a music album, and discussed making the project with director Praveenkanth, cinematographer Jeeva and choreographer Raju Sundaram. The director, Praveenkanth, reverted to his original name, after being known as Praveen Gandhi in his debut film "Ratchagan" (1997). He later chose to write a script and screenplay to accompany the songs, carefully deciding on the placement of them in the proposed film. The idea was later backed by Manohar and Rahman, who added two further songs for the film.


title: Jodi (1999 film)

text: Praveen first approached Vijay to play the lead role, but his refusal meant that Prashanth, who had appeared in Manohar's earlier productions "Jeans" (1998) and "Kaadhal Kavidhai" (1998), was selected. Aishwarya Rai was offered the female lead role after the success of her previous Tamil film, "Jeans", but her busy schedule in Hindi films and her decision to prioritise her work in "Kandukondain Kandukondain" (2000), resulted in Simran eventually being cast in the role. Aishwarya had then agreed to appear in a guest appearance in the film, but her unavailability led to Isha Koppikar eventually doing the part. Trisha Krishnan, winner of the Miss Chennai 1999 beauty pageant, made an appearance in an uncredited role as a friend of Simran's character.


title: Jodi (1999 film)

text: The film shared a similar storyline to the Suriya and Jyothika starrer "Poovellam Kettuppar", which incidentally had Vijayakumar and Nassar playing similar roles of leader of feuding families.


title: Jodi (1999 film)

text: A critic from Indolink.com reviewed that "the director's light-veined screenplay keeps the movie moving at a good pace. As for the performances, Prashanth rises above the material and gives yet another breezy performance. A ravishing Simran emotes with ease and parades her umblical beauty in the song sequences."


title: Jodi (1999 film)

text: The film was remade into Kannada language version, "Sajni", was released in 2007. A Hindi version of the film was also planned by the director with different songs and small changes in the storyline, but the project never took off. The film's success prompted director Praveen Kanth to collaborate with Prashanth and Simran again in a project called "Star", but Simran soon dropped out and the film failed to replicate the success of "Jodi". Furthermore, Simran and Prashanth were later paired together in Saran's "Parthen Rasithen" (2000), after being dubbed as a "hit pair".


title: Jodi (1999 film)

text: The director approached A. R. Rahman to compose music for the film. But Rahman's tight schedules made him decline the offer. But the director went ahead with using Rahman's earlier tunes from the 1997 Hindi film "Doli Saja Ke Rakhna", with a new song "Oru Poiyavadhu" added. Due to Rahman's unavailability, the director brought the duo Sabesh–Murali to complete the background score soon. Lyrics were penned by Vairamuthu. A.R. Rahman penned the opening lyrics to "Oru Poiyavadhu".


title: Steve Kanaly

text: Steven Francis Kanaly (; born March 14, 1946) is an American actor, best known for his role as Ray Krebbs on the CBS primetime soap opera "Dallas".


title: Steve Kanaly

text: Kanaly was born in Burbank, California, and grew up in the San Fernando Valley. He attended California State University, Northridge. Kanaly served in the Vietnam War as a radio operator with the First Air Cavalry Division. He provided details of his experiences in the service to "Apocalypse Now" screenwriter John Milius for scenes in the film involving the character of Colonel Bill Kilgore (Robert Duvall). He once described how he entered film acting-


title: Steve Kanaly

text: Kanaly is best known for his role as Ray Krebbs, foreman of the Southfork Ranch, on the prime-time soap opera "Dallas" from 1978 to 1989. He reprised the role for the final episode of the series in 1991, and again for the made-for-TV reunion movie "" (1998). He reprised the role again in the 2012 TNT revival attending his nephew Christopher's wedding. In 2013, Kanaly reprised the role of Ray Krebbs to attend the funeral of J. R. Ewing.


title: Steve Kanaly

text: During Dallas' run, he also guested in other series, including "Time Express" in 1979. From 1994 to 1995, he also had a role on the ABC daytime drama series "All My Children" as Seabone Hunkle, the father of Dixie Cooney Martin (played by Cady McClain). Kanaly has also guest starred on numerous other television series. In film, he collaborated frequently with writer-director John Milius, appearing in, among others, "The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean", "Dillinger", "The Wind and the Lion" and "Big Wednesday". Milius befriended Kanaly when they attended the same shooting range in California, and turned him to acting by recommending him to John Huston for "Roy Bean". Other film roles include "The Terminal Man", "My Name Is Nobody" and "Midway". He starred as J. T. Fuller in an episode of "Walker, Texas Ranger".


title: Steve Kanaly

text: Kanaly recorded a radio public service announcement for CARE in 1981, and he and former "Dallas" costar Susan Howard were featured in 1992 NRA advertisements promoting responsible firearms ownership. He and his wife live on a ranch in Ojai, California. He is a highly regarded watercolor artist.


title: Fairy Tail (season 1)

text: The first season of the "Fairy Tail" anime series was directed by Shinji Ishihira and produced by A-1 Pictures and Satelight. It follows the first adventures of Natsu Dragneel and Lucy Heartfilia of the fictional guild Fairy Tail. The season adapts the first 16 volumes of Hiro Mashima's "Fairy Tail" manga series. Natsu befriends Lucy who joins the titular guild and later goes on missions with her to earn money along with fellow wizards Gray Fullbuster and Erza Scarlet, as well as Natsu's flying cat, Happy. The five go on a forbidden S-Class mission with Gray and Erza to save Galuna Island and fight Gray's rival Lyon Vastia. Shortly after, the guildhall is attacked by their rival guild Phantom Lord, leading into a guild war. After the dissolution of Phantom Lord, the group learns of Erza's past as a slave in the Tower of Heaven and confront Jellal Fernandez to destroy the tower. Lastly, once back at Fairy Tail, Natsu and the others face Laxus Dreyar and the Raijin Tribe as they stage a coup in Fairy Tail.


title: Fairy Tail (season 1)

text: The season initially ran from October 12, 2009 to September 27, 2010 on TV Tokyo in Japan. It was later released on DVD in 12 compilations, each containing four episodes, by Pony Canyon between January 29 and December 24, 2010. Crunchyroll streamed the whole season's episode subtitled in English for free on its website. The season's episodes were streamed as a simulcast, only one hour after they aired on TV Tokyo in Japan. The season was licensed by Animax Asia for a Southeast Asian broadcast. Their adaptation aired from September 30, 2010 to December 6, 2011. DVDs of their adaptations were not released. In 2011, Funimation Entertainment licensed the series for an English DVD release in North America. The season was released in four compilations between November 22, 2011 and March 20, 2012. The series also began airing on the Funimation Channel in North America beginning on November 22, 2011.


title: Fairy Tail (season 1)

text: The season makes use of eight pieces of theme music: four opening themes and four ending themes. The opening themes are "Snow Fairy", performed by Funkist for episodes 1 to 11, by Idoling!!! for episodes 12 to 24, "Ft." performed by Funkist for episodes 25 to 35, and "R.P.G. (Rockin' Playing Game)" performed by Sug for the remainder of the season. The ending themes respectively used with the opening themes are performed by Watarirouka Hashiritai, by Onelifecrew, performed by Shiho Nanba, and by Mikuni Shimokawa.


title: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: The Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC, IAST: Puṇe Mahānagarpālikā) is the civic body that governs the inner limits of Pune, India. It is in charge of the civic needs and infrastructure of the metropolis, which is spread over an area of 484.61 sq. km. and has 3.4 million residents. Established on 15 February 1950, the executive power of the PMC is vested in the Municipal Commissioner, an Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer appointed by the Government of Maharashtra. The position is held by Vikram Kumar, IAS.The general body of the PMC consists of 162 directly elected councilors, popularly known as "corporators", headed by a mayor. Murlidhar Mohol (BJP) was elected as the mayor and Sunita Wadekar (RPI(A)) as the deputy mayor by the newly elected in April 2021. The land for Pune Municipal Corporation was donated by Late Hon. Shri. Bhausaheb Shirole (Patil) who was second Mayor of Pune city and later became an MLC.


title: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: The city comes under the Pune District, Maharashtra. The Collector is in charge of property records and revenue collection for the Central government. Appointed by the State government, the Collector also function as the election officer and conducts general as well as state elections in the city. The Pune City Police is the law enforcement agency in the city and answers to the Ministry of Home Affairs of the GoM. It is headed by a Police Commissioner, an Indian Police Service (IPS) officer.


title: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: In July 2017, eleven villages surrounding the city were merged in PMC bringing an additional area of 80.7 sq. km. and a population of 278,000 under the civic body's jurisdiction. PMC now governs a total area of 331.26 sq. km. The merged villages include: Uruli Devachi, Phursungi, Bavdhan Budruk, Lohegaon (remaining), Hadapsar (Sadesatra Nali), Mundhwa (Keshavnagar area), Shivane (remaining), Dhayari (remaining), Undri, Ambegaon Khurda and Ambegaon Budruk. This merger was preceded by the merger of 23 villages in 1997.


title: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: On December 23, 2020, the state government issued a draft notification for the merger of 23 adjoining villages within PMC limits, namely Mhalunge, Sus, Bavdhan Budhruk, Kirkatwadi, Pisoli, Kondhwe-Dhawade, Kopre, Nanded, Khadakwasla, Manjari Budhruk, Narhe, Holkarwadi, Autade-Handewadi, Wadachiwadi, Shewalewadi, Nandoshi, Sanasnagar, Mangdewadi, Bhilarewadi, Gujar Nimbalkarwadi, Jambhulwadi, Kolewadi and Wagholi. The total area of the PMC would be around 485 sq km making it the municipal corporation with the largest area in the state.


title: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: To serve citizens better, PMC has taken initiative for e-Governance. Presently a few big corporations like Persistent Systems are lending help for developing the E-governance system, as a part of their social service initiative. A public-private partnership is perceived to bring tremendous changes in the future.


title: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: The major responsibility of PMC is to look after the civic and infrastructural needs of the citizens. The administration consists of two major branches: the executive branch headed by the Municipal Commissioner and the deliberative branch headed by the Mayor.


title: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: The executive branch is headed by the Municipal Commissioner appointed by the State government from the Indian Administrative Service for a term not exceeding three years according to Section 36 of the Maharashtra Municipal Corporation Act, 1949. Additional Municipal Commissioner(s) assist the Municipal Commissioner in the administration of the departments deputed to them. As of April 2018, there are three Additional Commissioners supervising the general, special and estate administration of the city. Each of these categories consist of several departments. The Municipal Commissioner also serves on the boards of directors of the two public transport companies, PMPML and MahaMetro.


title: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: For the convenience of administration, the city is divided into five zones each headed by a Deputy Municipal Commissioner. Each zone consists of three ward offices (Marathi: क्षेत्रिय कार्यालय, IAST: Kṣhetriya Kāryālay) overseen by an Assistant Municipal Commissioner. A ward office typically has jurisdiction over more than one election ward. Ward offices not only coordinate major civic projects in their respective areas but also deal with minor works such as maintenance and repair. Residents can avail municipal services at their local ward office eliminating the need to visit the PMC headquarters.


title: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: The deliberative branch is the elected branch of the PMC headed by the Mayor. The city is divided into 41 multi-member wards (Marathi: प्रभाग, IAST: Prabhāg), 39 of which are represented by four corporators each while two are represented by three corporators each. Thus, the general body of the PMC consists of 162 corporators. They are elected for a five year term by adult franchise in municipal elections. All major political parties active in the state contest the elections.


title: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: The corporators elect the Mayor, a ceremonial position with limited duties who acts as an ambassador and representative of the city, as well as a Deputy Mayor. The corporators approve the city budget and act as watchdogs on implementation of policy by the staff under the Municipal Commissioner.


title: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: The corporators form several committees which deliberate on various issues. At present, PMC has the following subject committees: Law, City Development, Women and Child Welfare, and Sports. The Standing Committee is the perhaps the most important committee of the PMC formed according to Section 20 of Maharashtra Municipal Corporation Act, 1949. It consists of 16 members headed by a President appointed at the first meeting of the newly elected Corporation, half of whom retire every succeeding year. A new President is also appointed every year. The Standing Committee along with 15 ward committees are together responsible for financial approvals.


title: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: Municipal elections were held on 16 February 2012 to elect a total of 152 councillors in 76 wards (2 per ward). Vaishali Bankar (NCP) and Deepak Mankar (Congress) were elected as the Mayor and Deputy Mayor respectively.


title: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: Municipal Elections were held on 21 February 2017 to elect a total of 162 councillors in 41 wards. The BJP won an absolute majority in the 2017 elections, marking the first time the city got a mayor from the party. Mukta Tilak (BJP) was elected as the mayor and Navanth Kamble (RPI (A)) as the deputy mayor by the newly elected general body in March 2017. Tilak is the first member of the BJP to hold the position. Following Kamble's demise while in office, Siddharth Dhende of the RPI (A) was elected as the deputy mayor in June 2017.


title: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: The demise of the Deputy Mayor Navnath Kamble (RPI (A)) in May 2017 necessitated by-elections in the Koregaon Park-Ghorpadi ward. The RPI (A) retained the seat with Himali Kamble elected as the new councillor. Another round of bypolls was held on 4 April 2018 following the death of ex-mayor Chanchala Kodre NCP , who was elected in 2017 from the Mundhwa-Magarpatta ward. NCP retained the seat and Puja Kodre was elected as the new councillor.


title: Just the Ten of Us

text: Just the Ten of Us is an American sitcom starring stand-up comedian Bill Kirchenbauer as Coach Graham Lubbock, a teacher and the head of a large Catholic family with eight children living in Eureka, California. The series is a spin-off of "Growing Pains", in which Kirchenbauer portrayed the same character on a recurring basis. As the series progressed, Coach Lubbock's four eldest daughters, the teenagers Marie (Heather Langenkamp), Cindy (Jamie Luner), Wendy (Brooke Theiss), and Connie (JoAnn Willette), became the primary focus of the show.


title: Just the Ten of Us

text: "Just the Ten of Us" aired on ABC starting with a trial run from April 26 to May 17, 1988. After the first four episodes in an abbreviated first season were aired, the show was renewed for two more seasons, eventually ending after 47 episodes on May 4, 1990. The show was a part of ABC's early "TGIF" programming block.


title: Just the Ten of Us

text: The series focuses on Graham Lubbock (Bill Kirchenbauer), a Catholic gym teacher who used to teach at the high school that "Growing Pains" characters Mike and Carol Seaver (Kirk Cameron and Tracey Gold) had attended on Long Island, and the father of eight children.


title: Just the Ten of Us

text: In the pilot episode (which aired on "Growing Pains" in the spring of 1988), Graham's job is in jeopardy due to district budget cutbacks. Mike leads a protest after he learns that Lubbock is trying to support a large family (including yet another baby on the way). Despite this, Graham loses his job but soon receives an offer at St. Augustine's Academy, an all-boys private Catholic school in Eureka, California. Graham and his pregnant wife Elizabeth promptly move their family to California.


title: Just the Ten of Us

text: By special arrangement, the older children — four teenage girls — were allowed to attend St. Augustine's, much to the chagrin of the school's administration (and, of course, the delight of the male students). They were:


title: Just the Ten of Us

text: The first season consisted of four episodes for a trial run in the spring of 1988. ABC was pleased with their success and ordered a second season. In the second season, Cindy and Wendy seemed to switch personalities, with Cindy becoming more ditzy, and Wendy becoming the schemer. Also, the show focused more and more on the four older girls and frequently revolved around the family's efforts to save money, dating, and other typical family sitcom issues. In later episodes, the four teenage girls formed a singing group called "The Lubbock Babes" (partly to help bring in much-needed extra income). The girls had many boyfriends and love interests that Graham took great pride in testing—and in most cases, fending off—but the most permanent fixture among them was Marie's goofy boyfriend, Gavin Doosler (Evan Arnold).


title: Just the Ten of Us

text: Those on the St. Augustine's staff included Father Robert Hargis (Frank Bonner), the affable headmaster; Coach Duane Johnson (Dennis Haysbert), Graham's earnest young assistant during the first two seasons and pulled some strings with Father Hargis to hire Lubbock; and in the third season, featured teachers Father Budd (Lou Richards) and elderly, madcap Sister Ethel (Maxine Elliott).


title: Just the Ten of Us

text: A week after the series debuted on April 8, 1988, the show placed 7th in ratings. The second season garnered a total of 20.1 million viewers.


title: Just the Ten of Us

text: USA Network picked up the entire series in reruns shortly after it was canceled, and aired the show on a daily basis until 1996.


title: Instrumentation amplifier

text: An instrumentation amplifier (sometimes shorthanded as in-amp or InAmp) is a type of differential amplifier that has been outfitted with input buffer amplifiers, which eliminate the need for input impedance matching and thus make the amplifier particularly suitable for use in measurement and test equipment. Additional characteristics include very low DC offset, low drift, low noise, very high open-loop gain, very high common-mode rejection ratio, and very high input impedances. Instrumentation amplifiers are used where great accuracy and stability of the circuit both short- and long-term are required.


title: Instrumentation amplifier

text: Although the instrumentation amplifier is usually shown schematically identical to a standard operational amplifier (op-amp), the electronic instrumentation amplifier is almost always internally composed of 3 op-amps. These are arranged so that there is one op-amp to buffer each input (+, −), and one to produce the desired output with adequate impedance matching for the function.


title: Instrumentation amplifier

text: The most commonly used instrumentation amplifier circuit is shown in the figure. The gain of the circuit is


title: Instrumentation amplifier

text: The rightmost amplifier, along with the resistors labelled formula_2 and formula_3 is just the standard differential-amplifier circuit, with gain formula_4 and differential input resistance formula_5. The two amplifiers on the left are the buffers. With formula_6 removed (open-circuited), they are simple unity-gain buffers; the circuit will work in that state, with gain simply equal to formula_4 and high input impedance because of the buffers. The buffer gain could be increased by putting resistors between the buffer inverting inputs and ground to shunt away some of the negative feedback; however, the single resistor formula_6 between the two inverting inputs is a much more elegant method: it increases the differential-mode gain of the buffer pair while leaving the common-mode gain equal to 1. This increases the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of the circuit and also enables the buffers to handle much larger common-mode signals without clipping than would be the case if they were separate and had the same gain.


title: Instrumentation amplifier

text: Another benefit of the method is that it boosts the gain using a single resistor rather than a pair, thus avoiding a resistor-matching problem and very conveniently allowing the gain of the circuit to be changed by changing the value of a single resistor. A set of switch-selectable resistors or even a potentiometer can be used for formula_6, providing easy changes to the gain of the circuit, without the complexity of having to switch matched pairs of resistors.


title: Instrumentation amplifier

text: The ideal common-mode gain of an instrumentation amplifier is zero. In the circuit shown, common-mode gain is caused by mismatch in the resistor ratios formula_10 and by the mismatch in common-mode gains of the two input op-amps. Obtaining very closely matched resistors is a significant difficulty in fabricating these circuits, as is optimizing the common-mode performance.


title: Instrumentation amplifier

text: An instrumentation amplifier can also be built with two op-amps to save on cost, but the gain must be higher than two (+6 dB).


title: Instrumentation amplifier

text: Instrumentation amplifiers can be built with individual op-amps and precision resistors, but are also available in integrated circuit form from several manufacturers (including Texas Instruments, Analog Devices, Linear Technology and Maxim Integrated Products). An IC instrumentation amplifier typically contains closely matched laser-trimmed resistors, and therefore offers excellent common-mode rejection. Examples include INA128, AD8221, LT1167 and MAX4194.


title: Instrumentation amplifier

text: Instrumentation amplifiers can also be designed using "indirect current-feedback architecture", which extend the operating range of these amplifiers to the negative power supply rail, and in some cases the positive power supply rail. This can be particularly useful in single-supply systems, where the negative power rail is simply the circuit ground (GND). Examples of parts utilizing this architecture are MAX4208/MAX4209 and AD8129/AD8130.


title: Instrumentation amplifier

text: Feedback-free instrumentation amplifier is the high-input-impedance differential amplifier designed without the external feedback network. This allows reduction in the number of amplifiers (one instead of three), reduced noise (no thermal noise is brought on by the feedback resistors) and increased bandwidth (no frequency compensation is needed).


title: Instrumentation amplifier

text: Chopper-stabilized (or zero-drift) instrumentation amplifiers such as the LTC2053 use a switching-input frontend to eliminate DC offset errors and drift.


title: Bayesian optimization

text: Bayesian optimization is a sequential design strategy for global optimization of black-box functions that does not assume any functional forms. It is usually employed to optimize expensive-to-evaluate functions.


title: Bayesian optimization

text: The term is generally attributed to and is coined in his work from a series of publications on global optimization in the 1970s and 1980s.


title: Bayesian optimization

text: Bayesian optimization is typically used on problems of the form formula_1, where formula_2 is a set of points, formula_3, which rely upon less than 20 dimensions (formula_4), and whose membership can easily be evaluated. Bayesian optimization is particularly advantageous for problems where formula_5 is difficult to evaluate due to its computational cost. The objective function, formula_6, is continuous and takes the form of some unknown structure, referred to as a "black box". Upon its evaluation, only formula_5 is observed and its derivatives are not evaluated.


title: Bayesian optimization

text: Since the objective function is unknown, the Bayesian strategy is to treat it as a random function and place a prior over it. The prior captures beliefs about the behavior of the function. After gathering the function evaluations, which are treated as data, the prior is updated to form the posterior distribution over the objective function. The posterior distribution, in turn, is used to construct an acquisition function (often also referred to as infill sampling criteria) that determines the next query point.


title: Bayesian optimization

text: There are several methods used to define the prior/posterior distribution over the objective function. The most common two methods use Gaussian processes in a method called kriging. Another less expensive method uses the Parzen-Tree Estimator to construct two distributions for 'high' and 'low' points, and then finds the location that maximizes the expected improvement.


title: Bayesian optimization

text: Standard Bayesian optimization relies upon each formula_8 being easy to evaluate, and problems that deviate from this assumption are known as "exotic Bayesian optimization" problems. Optimization problems can become exotic if it is known that there is noise, the evaluations are being done in parallel, the quality of evaluations relies upon a tradeoff between difficulty and accuracy, the presence of random environmental conditions, or if the evaluation involves derivatives.


title: Bayesian optimization

text: and hybrids of these. They all trade-off exploration and exploitation so as to minimize the number of function queries. As such, Bayesian optimization is well suited for functions that are expensive to evaluate.