title: Uppingham School

text: There are six girls' boarding houses: Johnson's, The Lodge (sixth form only), Fairfield, New House, Constables and Samworths'. Samworths' was built in 2001 as the first house for girls aged 13 to 18. It was named after the Samworth Brothers, Old Uppinghamians who helped to finance the construction.


title: Uppingham School

text: The 24th steam locomotive (Engine 923) in the Southern Railway's class V (of which there were 40) was originally named "Uppingham", but the name was changed after objections from the school.


title: Uppingham School

text: This class was also known as the Schools Class because all 40 of the class were named after prominent English public schools. 'Uppingham', as it was called, was built in December 1933 and had its name changed to Bradfield on 14 August 1934.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: A colorectal polyp is a polyp (fleshy growth) occurring on the lining of the colon or rectum. Untreated colorectal polyps can develop into colorectal cancer.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: Colorectal polyps are often classified by their behaviour (i.e. benign vs. malignant) or cause (e.g. as a consequence of inflammatory bowel disease). They may be benign (e.g. hyperplastic polyp), pre-malignant (e.g. tubular adenoma) or malignant (e.g. colorectal adenocarcinoma).


title: Colorectal polyp

text: Colorectal polyps are not usually associated with symptoms. When they occur, symptoms include bloody stools; changes in frequency or consistency of stools (such as a week or more of constipation or diarrhoea); and fatigue arising from blood loss. Anemia arising from iron deficiency can also present due to chronic blood loss, even in the absence of bloody stools. Another symptom may be an increased mucus production especially those involving villous adenomas. Copious production of mucous causes loss of potassium that can occasionally result in symptomatic hypokalemia. Occasionally, if a polyp is big enough to cause a bowel obstruction, there may be nausea, vomiting and severe constipation.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: Polyps are either pedunculated (attached to the intestinal wall by a stalk) or sessile (grow directly from the wall). In addition to the gross appearance categorization, they are further divided by their histologic appearance as tubular adenoma which are tubular glands, villous adenoma which are long finger like projections on the surface, and tubulovillous adenoma which has features of both.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: Several genes have been associated with polyposis, such as GREM1, MSH3, MLH3, NTHL1, RNF43 and RPS20.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: "Familial adenomatous polyposis" (FAP) is a form of hereditary cancer syndrome involving the APC gene located on chromosome q521. The syndrome was first described in 1863 by Virchow on a 15-year-old boy with multiple polyps in his colon. The syndrome involves development of multiple polyps at an early age and those left untreated will all eventually develop cancer. The gene is expressed 100% in those with the mutation and it is autosomal dominant. 10% to 20% of patients have negative family history and acquire the syndrome from spontaneous germline mutation. The average age of newly diagnosed patient is 29 and the average age of newly discovered colorectal cancer is 39. It is recommended that those affected undergo colorectal cancer screening at younger age with treatment and prevention are surgical with removal of affected tissues.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: "Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC, also known as Lynch syndrome)" is a hereditary colorectal cancer syndrome. It is the most common hereditary form of colorectal cancer in the United States and accounts for about 3% of all cases of cancer. It was first recognized by Alder S. Warthin in 1885 at the University of Michigan. It was later further studied by Henry Lynch who recognized an autosomal dominant transmission pattern with those affected having relatively early onset of cancer (mean age 44 years), greater occurrence of proximal lesions, mostly mucinous or poorly differentiated adenocarcinoma, greater number of synchronous and metachronous cancer cells, and good outcome after surgical intervention. The Amsterdam Criteria was initially used to define Lynch syndrome before the underlying genetic mechanism had been worked out. The Criteria required that the patient has three family members all first-degree relatives with colorectal cancer that involves at least two generations with at least one affected person being younger than 50 years of age when the diagnosis was made. The Amsterdam Criteria is too restrictive and was later expanded to include cancers of endometrial, ovarian, gastric, pancreatic, small intestinal, ureteral, and renal pelvic origin. The increased risk of cancer seen in patients with by the syndrome is associated with dysfunction of DNA repair mechanism. Molecular biologists have linked the syndrome to specific genes such as hMSH2, hMSH1, hMSH6, and hPMS2.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: "Peutz–Jeghers syndrome" is an autosomal dominant syndrome that presents with hamartomatous polyps, which are disorganized growth of tissues of the intestinal tract, and hyperpigmentation of the interlining of the mouth, lips and fingers. The syndrome was first noted in 1896 by Hutchinson, and later separately described by Peutz, and then again in 1940 by Jeghers. The syndrome is associated with malfunction of serine-threonine kinase 11 or STK 11 gene, and has a 2% to 10% increase in risk of developing cancer of the intestinal tract. The syndrome also causes increased risk of extraintestinal cancer such as that involving breast, ovary, cervix, fallopian tubes, thyroid, lung, gallbladder, bile ducts, pancreas, and testicles. The polyps often bleeds and may cause obstruction that would require surgery. Any polyps larger than 1.5 cm needs removal and patients should be monitored closely and screen every 2 years for malignancy.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: "Juvenile polyposis syndrome" is an autosomal dominant syndrome characterized by increased risk of cancer of intestinal tract and extraintestinal cancer. It often presents with bleeding and obstruction of the intestinal tract along with low serum albumin due to protein loss in the intestine. The syndrome is linked to malfunction of SMAD4 a tumor suppression gene that is seen in 50% of cases. Individuals with multiple juvenile polyps have at least 10% chance of developing malignancy and should undergo abdominal colectomy with ileorectal anastomosis, and close monitoring via endoscopy of rectum. For individuals with few juvenile polyps, patients should undergo endoscopic polypectomy.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: Most hyperplastic polyps are found in the distal colon and rectum. They have no malignant potential, which means that they are no more likely than normal tissue to eventually become a cancer.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: A neoplasm is a tissue whose cells have lost normal differentiation. They can be either benign growths or malignant growths. The malignant growths can either have primary or secondary causes. Adenomatous polyps are considered precursors to cancer and cancer becomes invasive once malignant cells cross the muscularis mucosa and invade the cells below. Any cellular changes seen above the lamina propria are considered non-invasive and are labeled atypia or dysplasia. Any invasive carcinoma that has penetrated the muscularis mocos has the potential for lymph node metastasis and local recurrence which will require more aggressive and extensive resection. The Haggitt's criteria is used for classification of polyps containing cancer and is based on the depth of penetration. The Haggitt's criteria has level 0 through level 4, with all invasive carcinoma of sessile polyp variant by definition being classified as level 4.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: Neoplastic polyps of the bowel are often benign hence called adenomas. An adenoma is a tumor of glandular tissue, that has not (yet) gained the properties of cancer.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: The common adenomas of the colon (colorectal adenoma) are the tubular, tubulovillous, villous, and sessile serrated (SSA). A large majority (65% to 80%) are of the benign tubular type with 10% to 25% being tubulovillous, and villous being the most rare at 5% to 10%.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: As is evident from their name, sessile serrated and traditional serrated adenomas (TSAs) have a serrated appearance and can be difficult to distinguish microscopically from hyperplastic polyps. Making this distinction is important, however, since SSAs and TSAs have the potential to become cancers, while hyperplastic polyps do not.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: The villous subdivision is associated with the highest malignant potential because they generally have the largest surface area. (This is because the villi are projections into the lumen and hence have a bigger surface area.) However, villous adenomas are no more likely than tubular or tubulovillous adenomas to become cancerous if their sizes are all the same.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: Hamartomatous polyps are tumours, like growths found in organs as a result of faulty development. They are normally made up of a mixture of tissues. They contain mucus-filled glands, with retention cysts, abundant connective tissue, and chronic cellular infiltration of eosinophils. They grow at the normal rate of the host tissue and rarely cause problems such as compression. A common example of a hamartomatous lesion is a strawberry naevus. Hamartomatous polyps are often found by chance; occurring in syndromes such as Peutz–Jegher syndrome or Juvenile polyposis syndrome.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: "Peutz–Jeghers syndrome" is associated with polyps of the GI tract and also increased pigmentation around the lips, genitalia, buccal mucosa feet and hands. People are often diagnosed with Peutz-Jegher after presenting at around the age of 9 with an intussusception. The polyps themselves carry little malignant potential but because of potential coexisting adenomas there is a 15% chance of colonic malignancy.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: "Juvenile polyps" are hamartomatous polyps that often become evident before twenty years of age, but can also be seen in adults. They are usually solitary polyps found in the rectum which most commonly present with rectal bleeding. Juvenile polyposis syndrome is characterised by the presence of more than five polyps in the colon or rectum, or numerous juvenile polyps throughout the gastrointestinal tract, or any number of juvenile polyps in any person with a family history of juvenile polyposis. People with juvenile polyposis have an increased risk of colon cancer.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: These are polyps that are associated with inflammatory conditions such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: Diet and lifestyle are believed to play a large role in whether colorectal polyps form. Studies show there to be a protective link between consumption of cooked green vegetables, brown rice, legumes, and dried fruit and decreased incidence of colorectal polyps.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: Colorectal polyps can be detected using a faecal occult blood test, flexible sigmoidoscopy, colonoscopy, virtual colonoscopy, digital rectal examination, barium enema or a pill camera.


title: Colorectal polyp

text: In colonoscopy, colorectal polyps can be classified by NICE (Narrow-band imaging International Colorectal Endoscopic):


title: Colorectal polyp

text: Polyps can be removed during a colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy using a wire loop that cuts the stalk of the polyp and cauterises it to prevent bleeding. Many "defiant" polyps—large, flat, and otherwise laterally spreading adenomas—may be removed endoscopically by a technique called endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR), which involves injection of fluid underneath the lesion to lift it and thus facilitate endoscopic resection. Saline water may be used to generate lift, though some injectable solutions such as SIC 8000 may be more effective. Minimally invasive surgery is indicated for polyps that are too large or in unfavorable locations, such as the appendix, that cannot be removed endoscopically. These techniques may be employed as an alternative to the more invasive colectomy.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: Bixby Creek Bridge, also known as Bixby Canyon Bridge, on the Big Sur coast of California, is one of the most photographed bridges in California due to its aesthetic design, "graceful architecture and magnificent setting". It is a reinforced concrete open-spandrel arch bridge. The bridge is south of San Francisco and south of Carmel in Monterey County on State Route 1.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: Before the opening of the bridge in 1932, residents of the Big Sur area were virtually cut off during winter due to blockages on the often impassable Old Coast Road, which led inland. The bridge was built under budget for $199,861 (equivalent to $ in dollars) and, at , was the longest concrete arch span in the California State Highway System. When it was completed, it was the highest single-span arch bridge in the world, and it remains one of the tallest.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The land north and south of the bridge was privately owned until 1988 and 2001. A logging company obtained approval to harvest redwood on the former Bixby Ranch to the north in 1986, and in 2000 a developer obtained approval to subdivide the former Brazil Ranch to the south. Local residents and conservationists fought their plans, and both pieces of land were eventually acquired by local and federal government agencies. A $20 million seismic retrofit was completed in 1996, although its width does not meet modern standards requiring bridges to be wide.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The bridge is "one of the most photographed features on the West Coast" and in the world. It has been featured on "postcards, TV ads, everywhere," according to Debra Geiler, project manager for the Trust for Public Land. The bridge's location on the scenic Central Coast of California, the parabolic shape of the arch, the tall spandrel columns, and the architectural piers contribute to an "intense aesthetic experience." "It's the gateway to Big Sur and the interior has never been logged. The land is pristine." Zad Leavy, former executive director of the Big Sur Land Trust, described the land as "...the most spectacular meeting of ocean and land in the entire United States."


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The bridge is in total length and wide, with of clearance below, and has a main span of , which places 50% of the total roadbed above the arch. The arch ribs are five feet thick at the deck and nine feet thick at the springing line, where they join the towers at their base. The arches are four and one-half feet wide. The bridge was designed to support more than six times its intended load.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The two large, vertical buttresses or supporting pillars on either side of the arch, while aesthetically pleasing, are functionally unnecessary. Engineers of later arch bridges such as the Frederick W. Panhorst Bridge omitted them from the design. The Rocky Creek Bridge and the Malpaso Creek Bridge to the north are also open-spandrel arch bridges built of reinforced concrete.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The state first began building Route 56, or the Carmel–San Simeon Highway, in 1919. A number of bridges needed to be constructed, the largest among them across Bixby Creek.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: State engineers considered two alternatives to crossing the creek, an inland route and a smaller bridge, or a coastal location and a larger bridge. The inland route would have needed an 890-foot (270 m) tunnel cut through the Santa Lucia Mountains to a 250-foot (76 m) bridge upstream. The engineers selected the coastal route because it was safer, more scenic, and least affected the environment.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: California state highway engineer C. H. Purcell and bridge engineer and designer F. W. Panhorst considered whether to build a steel or concrete span. A steel bridge would cost more to build and maintain, as the sea air would require expensive ongoing maintenance and painting. A steel bridge was also less in keeping with the natural environment. Using concrete reduced material costs and allowed more of the total cost to be paid to workers, which was a positive aspect of the design during the Depression. They chose concrete in part because it would not only reduce both construction and maintenance costs but would also echo the color and composition of the natural rock cliff formations in the area.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The state awarded a contract for $203,334 to the lower bidder, Ward Engineering Company of San Francisco, on August 13, 1931. Construction began on August 24, 1931.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: Over 300,000 board feet (700 m) of Douglas fir timber, used to build a 250-foot (76 m) high falsework to support the arch during construction, was transported from the railroad terminal in Monterey over the narrow, one-way road to the bridge site. The falsework, built by crews led by E. C. Panton, the general superintendent, and I. O. Jahlstrom, resident engineer of Ward Engineering Co., was difficult to raise, because it was constantly exposed to high winds. Some of the falsework timbers were . It took two months to construct the falsework alone. When high waves threatened the falsework foundation, construction was halted for a short time until winter storms abated.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The crews excavated of earth and rock. Eight hundred and twenty-five trucks brought in 600,000 pounds of reinforcing steel. Sand and gravel were supplied from a plant in Big Sur.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: Construction required 45,000 sacks or of cement which was transported from Davenport, near Santa Cruz, and from San Andreas. Crews began placing concrete on November 27. The concrete was transported across the canyon on platforms using slings suspended from a cable above the creek.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The bridge was completed on October 15, 1932, although the highway was not finished for another five years. At its completion, the bridge cost $199,861 and, at , was the longest concrete arch span on the California State Highway System. The bridge was necessary to complete the two-lane road which opened in 1937 after 18 years of construction. The completion of construction was celebrated with a ribbon-cutting ceremony led by Dr. John L.D. Roberts, who had conceived of the need for the road.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: After the bridge was completed, it was at times known as the Rainbow Bridge, due to the presence of the Rainbow Lodge resort on the creek upstream from the bridge. It was operated by former Army Captain Howard Sharpe and his wife, Frida. After timber harvesting was no longer profitable, Sharpe bought the Bixby Creek Canyon ranch in 1919. He built a dirt road from the lodge up the canyon to Bixby Landing and another road down to the beach at the mouth of Bixby Creek. He sold part of his land to the state as part of the bridge right-of-way in 1930. When the bridge was completed and tourists no longer needed to descend to his lodge on the creek, he built a new lodge on the highway north of the bridge.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The bridge was retrofitted beginning in 1996 with an analysis by bridge engineering company Buckland & Taylor as part of the Caltrans Phase II seismic retrofit program. In their detailed evaluation of the bridge's seismic vulnerabilities, they were challenged to find a solution that met several difficult issues, including severe load factors, extremely limited physical access, maintaining the appearance of the existing historical structure, and a requirement by the State of California that at least one lane of the bridge remain open at all times. The crux of the design was the longitudinal post-tensioning of the entire bridge deck from end to end.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The $20 million seismic retrofit began in May 1998. The cost of the retrofit was considerably increased by the requirement to preserve the historical look of the bridge. Prime contractor Vahani Construction of San Francisco was assisted by Faye Bernstein & Associates and Waldron Engineering. To reinforce the abutments supporting the bridge deck at either end, engineers put in place a floating slab, continuous with the deck, keyed into a massive pile cap with six 72-inch (1,800 mm) diameter cast-in-drilled-hole (CIDH) piles behind each abutment. To support the towers, engineers designed a full height structural wall that was integrated within each of the two existing towers. During the retrofit, they removed the top portion of the towers, including the roadway, and replaced them with a prestressed diaphragm that anchors the full height of the vertical tower. The diaphragm simultaneously distributes the vertical prestressing forces uniformly to the new concrete structural wall and the existing tower's concrete.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The deck, which curves from one end to the other, was reinforced by adding heavily confined edge beams encasing high strength steel along the inside face of the exterior longitudinal girders underneath. These rods extended from one end of the roadway to the other. The reinforced edge beams ensure continuity across the many expansion joints and help distribute the bending strains due to lateral flexure. In addition to the reinforced edge beam, four large prestressing tendons were installed the length of the bridge along the underside of the deck slab. These tendons are stressed to pre-compress the concrete deck to approximately 800 psi and also serve as flexural reinforcement along with the high strength rods. Finally, engineers found a way to reinforce the bent columns attached to the arch, which possess complex and varying geometric challenges. They encased the bent columns with thin, lightweight, composite carbon fiber jackets that provide the necessary degree of confinement to ensure ductile response and also mimic the original design.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: In addition to the analyses performed by Buckland and Taylor, Caltrans commissioned Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory to perform an independent study of the structure both with and without the proposed retrofit measures in place. The final report, which was published in June 1999, concludes that the retrofit appears to be appropriate even for earthquake ground motions including near-field displacement pulses, which were not considered in the original analyses.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: As a result of the retrofit, the continuous, stiffened deck has four lateral reaction points: two new massive abutments anchored by large-diameter, cast-in-drilled-hole piles. The two towers are strengthened and anchored to rock with tie-down anchors within the towers. The arch ribs are laterally supported at their crowns by new shear keys that link them to the reinforced deck. The expensive retrofit, completed in November 2000, still left the bridge officially classified as "functionally obsolete" because at in width, the bridge is less than the standard required of newly built bridges.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The land was historically occupied by the native Esselen people who visited the coast seasonally to harvest shellfish and to fish offshore. When the Spanish established the California mission system, only a very few were not baptized and conscripted, and they soon left the mountains to work on the nearby ranches. Governor Juan Alvarado granted the land from present day Carmel south to Palo Colorado Canyon, two miles north of Bixby Creek, to Marcelino Escobar in 1839 as part of the Rancho San Jose y Sur Chiquito. The land was later acquired by Alvarado's brother-in-law José Castro. Castro noted the existence of on a Native American trail from Monterey to Palo Colorado Canyon in 1853, when he filed a map of his grant.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: Bixby Creek is named after pioneering Yankee businessman Charles Henry Bixby. Originally from Livingston County, New York, he arrived in California in 1852 and remained for five years. He returned east before coming back to California. After some success raising cattle in Sonoma County, he obtained a patent on April 10, 1889 for south of Bixby Creek, and later bought additional tracts of land on the north side of the creek, between it and Palo Colorado Canyon. He built a sawmill with a capacity of twelve thousand feet of lumber per day on the creek, which for many years was known as Mill Creek. He harvested timber and turned it into shakes, shingles, railroad ties, and trench posts. He also harvested the bark of the tanbark oak, which was used for tanning cow hides. He built a landing chute and hoist to transfer the lumber to ships anchored slightly offshore. Schooners were moored to deadeyes embedded in rocks of the adjacent shore. Cargo was hoisted in slings from the landing along a cable winched onto the waiting ship.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: Bixby discovered lime deposits on Long Ridge above Mill Creek. He had kilns built and used mules to haul the lime to the coast on wooden sleds. It was impossible to build a wharf from the cliffs that dropped into the ocean, and he instead built a hoist that could be used to ferry goods to and from ships anchored slightly offshore. The powdered lime was packed into barrels that were then attached to cable strung from the coastal cliff and about 50 yards out into the Pacific Ocean, where it was loaded aboard coastal schooners. He sold the fired lime for use in cement, mortar, and other building materials.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: Bixby tried to persuade the county to build a road to Bixby Creek, but they refused, replying that "no one would want to live there." In 1870, Bixby and his father hired men to improve the track and constructed the first wagon road including 23 bridges from the Carmel Mission to Bixby Creek. Near Malpaso Creek, the creek has very steep side slopes and the crossing was a ford only above sea level until the Malpaso Creek Bridge was built in 1935 as part the Big Sur Coast Highway.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: Sometime later Bixby partnered with William B. Post and extended what became known as the Old Coast Road south to his ranch. At Bixby Creek, the road was necessarily built inland to circumvent the deep canyon. It also went inland to circumvent the Little Sur River. It then led to the Post Ranch on the Rancho El Sur near present-day Andrew Molera State Park. The 30-mile (48 km) trip from Carmel could take three days by wagon or stagecoach. The single-lane road was closed in winter when it became impassable. Coast residents would occasionally receive supplies via a hazardous landing by boat from Monterey or San Francisco.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: In 1906, after he exhausted the supply of commercial timber, Bixby sold the land to the Monterey Lime Company. Lime was in great demand to help re-build San Francisco following the 1906 earthquake. The company built lime kilns up Bixby Canyon from the coast and mined the high grade limestone located in the area. To feed the limekiln fires, they cut much of the old growth redwood in the canyon. They built a aerial tram to haul the barrels of limestone from Long Ridge to Bixby Landing. A small group of homes grew up around the original Bixby Homestead. The kilns operated for four years until 1911 when a log jam during winter rains caused a flood in the canyon. The tram was used for a while longer to off and on-load supplies for the community from schooners.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: In 1986 a portion of the land formerly owned by Bixby was held by Humboldt County-based Philo Lumber Company. They obtained a state permit to log over a million board feet of redwood. The residents of Palo Colorado Canyon were intensely opposed to the plan, but it was only derailed by the savings and loan crisis. The property was seized by federal financial regulators and was later sold to the Big Sur Land Trust for $1.2 million dollars in September 1987. The Trust agreed to hold the land for the Monterey Peninsula Regional Park District until the district could secure funding through Proposition 70 or other means. The Trust's purchase was made possible only through a "bridge" loan made by the David and Lucile Packard Foundation. Big Sur Trust board member Nancy Hopkins was a daughter-in-law of Hewlett Packard founder David Packard and was the trust's first president. The Trust sold the land to the Monterey Peninsula Regional Park District in 1988. The district joined it with three adjacent properties to form the Mill Creek Redwood Preserve.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: In the 20th century, Axel Adler built a cabin on the former Bixby Ranch and gradually acquired more land. In 2013, a portion of the Adler Ranch was put on the market for $15 million. It is located at the end and south of Palo Colorado Road. It is adjacent to Los Padres National Forest, Mill Creek Redwoods Preserve, and includes the peak of Bixby Mountain and the upper portions of Mescal Ridge. The El Sur Ranch and Pico Blanco Mountain are to the south. The property is especially valuable because it includes nine legal parcels, five of which can be built on. The Big Sur Land Trust stated it is not interested in acquiring the property.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The nonprofit Western Rivers Conservancy, which buys land with the goal to protect habitat and provide public access, secured a purchase agreement. It was interested in selling the land to the US Forest Service, which would make it possible for hikers to travel from Bottcher's Gap to the sea. But some local residents are opposed to the forest service acquiring the land. They are concerned about a lack of federal funding to maintain a critical fire break on the land. On October 2, 2019, the California Natural Resources Agency announced it was seeking funding through Proposition 68, a bond measure approved by voters in 2018, to obtain the land for the tribe. The Adler family agreed to sell of the Adler Ranch. The land was purchased through a $4.52 million grant from the California Natural Resources Agency. In late July 2020 the purchase of the Adler Ranch successfully closed and the property was transferred to the Esselen tribe. The land acquisition could help facilitate federal recognition of the tribe.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: A post office was established near the sawmill in the early 1880s and was then moved west to the mouth of the canyon. Thomas Fussell bought the land and then sold it to Horace Hogues. In 1919, Captain Howard G. and Frida Sharpe bought the Bixby Creek canyon property. Remnants of its prior use included an old ranch house, barn, corral, dance hall, stable, numerous out-buildings, and several cabins that they rented to visitors. Sharpe built a dirt road from the lodge up the canyon to Bixby Landing and another road down to the beach at the mouth of Bixby Creek.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: When the bridge was completed, the lodge on Bixby Creek was no longer on the route used by tourists. In 1931 Sharpe built a new stone Rainbow Lodge on the western shoulder of the highway immediately north of the bridge. The former lodge in the canyon bottom was abandoned. In 1938, Sharpe re-discovered a colony of California sea otters, thought to be extinct. More tourists came to see the sea otters and Sharpe added cabins and renamed it the Bixby Inn. A fire in 1941 burned what was left of the ranch on the canyon floor, and the Sharpes subdivided the property and sold parcels.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The restaurant was closed at the beginning of World War II, when gas conservation regulations severely restricted non-essential travel. It was later sold to Gallatin Powers, who renamed it Gallatins, and later the Crocodile's Tail. Years later, the site was found to be geologically unsafe and in November 1953 the building was bulldozed over the cliff.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The former Brazil Ranch (also known as the Bixby Ocean Branch) is located on Serra Hill immediately south of Bixby Creek and the Bixby Creek Bridge, making it one of the most photographed spots on the Big Sur coast. Job Heath obtained a land patent on May 20, 1884 and he and his wife Serena Waters homesteaded the ranch. Antonio Brazil married Mary Pfeiffer and they bought Heath's property. The hill is not named for Junipero Serra, but is a corruption of the Spanish word, "cerro", meaning "high hill."


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The Brazil family operated the ranch for nearly a century. In 1977, Tony and Margaret Brazil sold the ranch to Allen Funt, creator of the television show "Candid Camera". Funt raised quarter horses and cattle on it. He built a cabin and barn on the site and improved it for use as a ranch. After Funt had a stroke in 1993, he tried to interest environmental groups in buying the land without success.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: After Funt died in 1999, land speculator Brian Sweeney and two partners, acting as Woodside Partners, a Las Vegas-based company, began nine months of negotiations to buy the property. Sweeney's lawyer unearthed long-forgotten records showing that the property was originally composed of nine land patents. He and his partners persuaded county officials to keep mum and bought the land for $9.2 million. As permitted by law, he obtained county permission to subdivide the land into nine parcels, vastly increasing its value. He soon sold Funt's house and the parcel it stood on for $7.2 million.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: Sweeney's actions stunned local community leaders and activists, who joined together to prevent him and his partners from subdividing and developing the land. Less than a year later, the Trust for Public Land bought the property for more than $26.25 million, almost tripling what the partners paid. On September 24, 2002, they and the U.S. Forest Service announced that the land had been added to the Los Padres National Forest. While criticized by some for the huge profit they took in selling the property to the trust, a local real estate agent said if Sweeney and his partners had sold the land to private parties, they could have earned as much as $50 million.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The public can enter the USFS land using an unmarked gate to a little-used dirt road on the east side of Highway 1, south of the Bixby Creek Bridge. There is no parking lot. Visitors can hike up a steep trail to the ridge overlooking the coast.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: To allow access to the Mill Creek Redwood Preserve, a trail was built by hand over ten years from Palo Colorado Road to an overlook. The trail was closed in 2016 due to destruction from the Soberanes fire. , the Palo Colorado Road is closed due to washouts caused by rains after the Soberanes Fire in 2017. To limit traffic on narrow Palo Colorado Road, access is limited to day use and only six permits per day are available. Visitors must obtain a permit in advance from the Monterey Peninsula Regional Park District to visit the preserve. The trail head is located inland on Palo Colorado Road. The Old Coast Road that the bridge replaced remains open to vehicles, weather permitting. The Old Coast Road from the north side of Bixby Creek is long, cutting inland across the Little Sur River, and ends near the northern border of Andrew Molera State Park, to the south along Highway 1.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The bridge contributes to the scenic attraction of driving Highway 1. The section of the highway from Cambria to Carmel Highlands was the first in the state to be designated as a Scenic Highway in 1965. In 1966 First Lady Lady Bird Johnson led the official scenic road designation ceremony at Bixby Creek Bridge.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The bridge was already popular before the introduction of smart phones and social media, and visitors to the Bixby Creek Bridge and other Big Sur attractions have dramatically increased since then. Due to the large number of visitors, congestion and slow traffic between Carmel and the bridge is frequently the norm during popular holiday and vacation periods. The bridge was rated as the No. 1 “Instagram-Worthy Destination for 2019 Travels” by the website Travelpulse.com. The California state tourism commission describes the bridge as "a must-see road trip spot for many and probably the most Instagrammed features along [the] Highway 1 coastline." It promotes the bridge world-wide, including a deal with China's online tourism operator Tuniu that put the bridge on a custom route.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: During holiday weekends and most summer vacation periods, the bridge area is "like a Safeway parking lot" according to a local resident. Traffic can come to a standstill as motorists wait for a parking spot. There is a pull out to the north and west side of Highway 1, but when it is full, visitors sometimes fail to completely pull off the highway, leaving inadequate space for passing vehicles.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The area near the bridge has become overwhelmed by visitors. Tourists routinely ignore warning signs to stay off the cliffs, and walk across the narrow wide bridge, although there is no room for pedestrians. There are no toilets within several miles of the bridge, and visitors resort to defecating in nearby bushes. Residents complain about toilet paper, human waste, and trash littering the roadside. On December 29, 2018, two dozen residents and business leaders turned out with signs alongside the northern approach to the bridge to launch a campaign they've named The Big Sur Pledge, encouraging visitors to treat the region with more respect.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The bridge was commemorated in an express mail stamp issued on February 3, 2010. The United States Postal Service introduced an $18.30 definitive stamp designed by Carl T. Herrman of North Las Vegas, Nevada. The stamp features a color digital illustration of Bixby Creek Bridge by Dan Cosgrove of Clarendon Hills, Illinois.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The Bixby Creek Bridge features prominently in the main icon for Apple's Big Sur operating system. It also appears in the "Big Sur Day," "Big Sur Night," and "Big Sur Aerial" built-in desktop pictures.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The bridge was featured in the opening scene of the 1969-70 television series "Then Came Bronson", in the films "Play Misty for Me," "Escape To Witch Mountain" and "The Sandpiper", and in numerous auto commercials. The bridge is also featured in the video game "Grand Theft Auto V". Most recently, the bridge was featured in the opening credits of the 2017 television series "Big Little Lies".


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: The American alternative rock band Death Cab for Cutie’s 2008 album "Narrow Stairs" opens with the song “Bixby Canyon Bridge”, written by the band’s founder Ben Gibbard.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: Individuals have been known to BASE jump off the bridge. Monterey County Sheriff Steve Bernal told the media that while it is technically legal to jump off the bridge, jumpers land on private property, constituting trespassing. It is also easy to commit traffic violations while on the bridge.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: Steven Jester, who lived in Aptos at the time, jumped off the bridge in 2010 in defiance of a Highway Patrol officer who attempted to stop him. Someone assisting him recorded the confrontation with the officer and his jump. It got over two million views on YouTube. Jester was found guilty of threatening violence against a peace officer, driving under the influence of alcohol, possession of marijuana and disobeying peace officer order. He could have been sentenced to three years in jail, but the judge gave him probation and required him to enter an alcohol rehab program.


title: Bixby Creek Bridge

text: On January 20, 2016, two BASE jumpers died when they landed near the surf and were overwhelmed by waves. Officials only determined that the two were missing on January 23 after their rental car was found abandoned near the bridge. Searchers found only the man's parachute, helmet, and video camera on the shore beneath the bridge. Video recovered from the helmet camera revealed how they died. Mary Catherine Connell landed safely on the small beach but was overwhelmed in succession by three waves. BASE jumping instructor Rami Kajala saw her overtaken by the waves and unsuccessfully attempted to rescue her. Kajala was known as one of the world's leaders in BASE jumping and instructed individuals around the world. Kajala's body was found more than two weeks later. Connell's body was never recovered.


title: Anthem of the Peaceful Army

text: Anthem of the Peaceful Army is the debut studio album by American rock band Greta Van Fleet. The album was released on October 19, 2018, and follows the band's two EP releases, "Black Smoke Rising" and "From the Fires". The first single, "When the Curtain Falls", was released in July 2018. A second single, "You're the One" was released around the time of the album's release.


title: Anthem of the Peaceful Army

text: The album was the top selling album in its debut week in the US, selling 87,000 copies. Factoring in album equivalent units, it debuted at number three on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Anthem of the Peaceful Army

text: The band had formed in 2012, but was largely relegated to local live shows and touring until 2017, with the band's release of the EPs "Black Smoke Rising" and "From the Fires". The band found success with the releases, namely with the singles "Highway Tune" and "Safari Song", which both topped the "Billboard" Mainstream Rock chart, for five and three weeks respectively. With the songs' success, they moved to record a full-length album, while still actively touring in support of the EPs.


title: Anthem of the Peaceful Army

text: The band's original plan had been to quickly record songs they had written over the course of the last three to five years, of which the band had amassed a large number. However, upon entering the studio, the band opted to write and record mostly new music, all during a short two week stint in the studio. It was later clarified that about 75% of the album was written during the 2018 sessions. They experimented more in the studio with different tones and instruments than they did recording the EPs. A lap steel guitar was used on "Anthem" and a guitar modified to sound like a sitar in "Watching Over". The name of the album comes from a poem Josh Kiszka wrote on the tour bus after having words come to him as he drifted in and out of sleep. In the studio, the project became what Sam Kiszka admitted was a concept album that addressed ecological concerns as well as themes of hate, greed and evil. "It kind of dives into roots and beliefs. I think it asks fairly large questions. What are we doing to ourselves? What are we doing to our environment? What are we doing to each other? Why must there be hate? And why must there be greed and evil? I think it simply asks the question of why can't we all be one? We're all people. We all look up at the same sky, breathing the same air. We all come from the same place." Additional songs were written during a stay at a cabin deep in the woods of Chattanooga, Tennessee. According to Jake Kiszka he would stay up late at night editing and mixing and "very clearly" hear footsteps behind him that only stopped when he commanded them to. Danny Wagner also reported hearing the laugh of a little girl while alone in the cabin. Jake said these incidents ended up influencing some of the tracks. In an interview for "Rolling Stone" Josh said "If there’s a haunted fucking cabin, this would be the one. It was quite an experience. We set the drums up in this big room in front of a fireplace. We wanted to get out into more of a wilderness setting because that’s where these things become clear. Jake would get nice and drunk and talk to the spirits. I’d step out on the balcony and look down, and he’d just be drunk and talking off into space like nothing existed." Sam also said he has "very specific memories of "Age of Man" being written and coming to life there." and went on to agree he believed the cabin was haunted. "Age of Man" also contains the line "lands of ice and snow", a probable quote of the Led Zeppelin song "Immigrant Song". When asked if this was intentional, Josh said "In some ways it was a bit of a wink..."


title: Anthem of the Peaceful Army

text: The album's first single, "When the Curtain Falls", was released in July 2018, along with the band promoting the song with their live national television debut on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon". In November 2018, the single peaked at number 1 on the "Billboard" Mainstream Rock songs chart. The album's title, "Anthem of the Peaceful Army", and release date, October 19, 2018, was announced in early September 2018. A small album teaser, along with a new song, "Watching Over", were also released around the time of the announcement. Further songs "Lover, Leaver", "Anthem" and "You're the One" were released ahead of the album on September 21, October 5 and 16, respectively. The day before the album came out, the band setup an online promotion that allowed users to listen to the song "Age of Man" if they walked to a local park and opened a link on their mobile phone. Digital versions have a slightly different tracklist than physical copies, due to including an alternate version of "Lover Leaver".


title: Anthem of the Peaceful Army

text: Critical reviews of "Anthem of the Peaceful Army" were mixed, the album garnering an aggregate Metacritic score of 53 out of 100 based on thirteen reviews. "Classic Rock" magazine strongly praised the album, concluding that it was "one of the most exciting records released by a new band in recent years...partly a result of the amount of money and attention that's being thrown at them – this is the first time in years that a rock band has been given a genuine fighting chance by a major label – but it's mostly down to the youthful, unmanufacturable exhilaration that courses through its 10 tracks." Conversely, "Esquire" reasoned that "the state of guitar music in general [had] been waiting for another Black Keys or Kings of Leon to come along to revive interest in a rapidly aging sound," explaining the praise towards the album, but the actual music was "bad and [the band's] entire aesthetic feels disingenuous" because it was released by a major label. Jeremy D. Larson of "Pitchfork" heavily criticized the album, calling it "half-baked boomer fetishism" and an "interminable 49-minute drag." Larson's statements were met with controversy and criticism by some, with Tyler Sharp of "Loudwire" noting that the response was 'unparalleled in terms of rock music criticism in 2018'. In a negative review, YouTube music reviewer Anthony Fantano accused the album of being unoriginal and of ripping off the sound of Led Zeppelin, and said that "it spits in the face of artistic evolution."


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: The "Pohjanmaa" class is a series of four multi-role corvettes currently under development for the Finnish Navy as part of the Squadron 2020 () project. Together with the existing four s, the four new surface combatants will form the backbone of the Finnish Navy from the mid-2020s onwards. They will replace seven older vessels that have been or are due to be decommissioned; the minelayer , two s and four s.


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: The overall length of the "Pohjanmaa"-class corvettes will be about and the beam about . The maximum draught of the vessels will be about which corresponds to a displacement of about . With these main dimensions, the new multi-role corvettes will be the largest Finnish surface combatants since the 1930s coastal defence ships and . Each ship will have a complement of about 70 officers and crew. Designed for year-round service in the seasonally freezing Baltic Sea, "Pohjanmaa"-class corvettes will feature an ice-strengthened hull and ability to operate independently in ice. Although no Finnish-Swedish ice class exists for military vessels, the ice capacity of the corvettes will be equivalent to that ice class 1A for merchant ships.


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: The "Pohjanmaa" class will feature a combined diesel-electric and gas (CODLAG) propulsion system with a total output of about . During normal patrol operations, the ship's twin ice-strengthened controllable pitch propellers are driven by electric propulsion motors. However, two of the four 12-cylinder MAN 12V175D type diesel generating sets are installed on double resilient mountings within soundproof enclosures to reduce noise and vibration during anti-submarine warfare (ASW) missions. When higher speeds are required, a single General Electric LM2500 gas turbine driving both propeller shafts via a common gearbox can be used to achieve speeds in excess of . For low-speed maneuvering, the ships are fitted with two bow thrusters.


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: The combat management system (CMS) of the "Pohjanmaa"-class corvettes will be provided by the Swedish defence company Saab. The integrated communication system (ICS) TactiCall is provided by Saab. Built around the 9LV CMS, the system will include Sea Giraffe 4A FF fixed-face AESA and Sea Giraffe 1X short-range 3D radars installed on a Saab Lightweight Integrated Mast (SLIM), two CEROS 200 fire control directors, TactiCall integrated communications system, and a laser warning system. Before final selection, the Finnish Navy shortlisted Saab together with Lockheed Martin Canada and Atlas Elektronik as the potential combat management system provider and integrator.


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: The underwater sensor suite will consist of Kongsberg's SS2030 active hull-mounted sonar and SD9500 lightweight over-the-side dipping sonar. In addition, "Pohjanmaa"-class corvettes will be equipped with Patria's lightweight dual-tow Sonac DTS that includes both an active variable-depth sonar as well as a passive towed receiving array.


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: "Pohjanmaa"-class corvettes will be armed with a single dual-purpose naval gun, surface-to-surface and surface-to-air missiles, anti-submarine torpedoes, naval mines, close-in weapon systems, and a decoy system.


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: The forward-mounted Bofors 57 mm Mk3 dual-purpose main gun will be recycled from the s. In addition, each "Pohjanmaa"-class corvette will be fitted with two Saab Trackfire remote controlled weapon stations for close-in self-defence and four Rheinmetall Multi Ammunition Softkill System (MASS) decoy launchers.


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: The primary surface-to-surface armament of the "Pohjanmaa" class is the Gabriel 5 subsonic anti-ship missile. The latest version of Israel Aerospace Industries's anti-ship missile family was selected over Kongsberg's Naval Strike Missile, MBDA's Exocet, Boeing's Harpoon and Saab's RBS15. In Finnish Navy service, the missile system will be referred to as PTO2020 ("Pintatorjuntaohjus 2020", ""surface defence missile"").


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: Against aerial targets, "Pohjanmaa"-class corvettes will be armed with Raytheon RIM-162 Evolved Seasparrow Missile (ESSM) surface-to-air missiles. Each vessel will be capable of carrying a total of 32 missiles quad-packed to eight Mark 41 Vertical Launching System silos. In Finnish Navy service, the system will be referred to as ITO20 ("Ilmatorjuntaohjus 20").


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: For underwater warfare, the vessels will be fitted with Saab Torped 47 lightweight anti-submarine torpedoes. In addition, "Pohjanmaa"-class corvettes will be able to lay naval mines.


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: The initial development of the new surface combatants for the Finnish Navy began with a research and planning phase in 2008 and the Squadron 2020 project was officially launched in 2015. The 647.6 million euro shipbuilding contract was awarded to the Finnish shipbuilder Rauma Marine Constructions in September 2019. In November 2021, the shipyard announced that it would need from 6 to 12 months additional time to complete the design. , the estimated delay has reportedly increased to 14 to 18 months.


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: According to the initial schedule, the construction of the four-strong class would be staggered over 2022–2025 and full operational status would be achieved in 2028. Due to delays, this has been postponed to 2029.


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: One of the Finnish Navy's traditions has been to name its major combat ships after regions in Finland. The name "Pohjanmaa", which is the Finnish name for the region Ostrobothnia, has been used both by the Finnish and Swedish navies for previous ships and classes of ships, dating back to the 18th century with the first recorded vessel being "Gamla Pojama" "("Old Pohjanmaa")", that was launched in 1760, and the last one, being the minelayer/training vessel , which was sold in 2016. The aforementioned 18th century Pohjanmaa, alongside the Hämeenmaa, Uusimaa and Turunmaa types were also the four main "archipelago frigate" types used in the 1790 Battle of Svensksund, which is one of the largest Finnish (Finland was a part of Sweden at the time) naval victories and the largest naval battle in the Baltic Sea to date.


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: While the Finnish Navy and the Ministry of Defence refer to the new surface combatants as multi-role corvettes, several commentators have pointed out that by displacement the vessels should be classified as frigates. In late September 2019, shortly after the construction contract was awarded, MP Johannes Yrttiaho (Left Alliance) submitted a written question to the Parliament of Finland about, among other related topics, the classification of the new ships.


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: In the official blog of the Finnish Defence Forces, Flotilla admiral Jori Harju (Commander of the Finnish Navy) noted that one of the reasons leading to the increased displacement is the additional strengthening of the hull, propulsion shaft lines and propellers required for year-round operation in the seasonally freezing Finnish territorial waters. He also pointed out that the "Pohjanmaa" class is intended to operate primarily in coastal waters whereas frigates are traditionally considered as the smallest class of warships operating in the high seas as part of a so-called blue-water navy.


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: Since the early 2000s, Finnish Navy's surface combatant fleet has consisted mainly of fast attack craft with displacements of . Until the planned commission of the new "Pohjanmaa" class, the largest surface combatants of the Finnish Navy remain the two s. Several commentators have criticized the Squadron 2020 program due to the size of the new corvettes: according to critics, the ships are too large for the often shallow Finnish territorial waters riddled with skerries as well as too attractive and large targets for Russian anti-ship missiles. Furthermore, it has been speculated that the ship size has been driven by their suitability for international missions rather than domestic defence needs and that the whole concept has been derived from the s operated by the United States Navy.


title: Pohjanmaa-class corvette

text: The Finnish Navy has argued that the size of the new ships is a result of combining multiple missions within a single hull. In particular, the ability to lay naval mines has been raised as one of the key features necessitating a larger vessel. Despite some similarities in external appearance to other naval ships, the new multi-role corvettes have been tailored for the Finnish Navy's missions in the Baltic Sea and thus represent a completely new vessel concept with no reference design in service anywhere in the world.


title: East Frisia

text: East Frisia or East Friesland (; ; ) is a historic region in the northwest of Lower Saxony, Germany. It is primarily located on the western half of the East Frisian peninsula, to the east of West Frisia and to the west of Landkreis Friesland.


title: East Frisia

text: Administratively, East Frisia consists of the districts Aurich, Leer and Wittmund and the city of Emden. It has a population of approximately 469,000 people and an area of .


title: East Frisia

text: There is a chain of islands off the coast, called the East Frisian Islands ("Ostfriesische Inseln"). From west to east, these islands are: Borkum, Juist, Norderney, Baltrum, Langeoog and Spiekeroog.


title: East Frisia

text: The geographical region of East Frisia was inhabited in Paleolithic times by reindeer hunters of the Hamburg culture. Later there were Mesolithic and Neolithic settlements of various cultures. The period after prehistory can only be reconstructed from archaeological evidence. Access to the early history of East Frisia is possible in part through archaeology and in part through the studying of external sources such as Roman documents.


title: East Frisia

text: The first proven historical event was the arrival of a Roman fleet under Drusus in 12 BC; the ships sailed into the course of the Ems river and returned.


title: East Frisia

text: The earlier settlements, known solely through material remnants but whose people's name for themselves remains unknown, led up to the invasion of Germanic tribes belonging to the Ingvaeonic group. Those were Chauci mentioned by Tacitus, and Frisians. The region between the rivers Ems and Weser was thereupon inhabited by the Chauci; however, after the second century AD there is no mention of the Chauci. They were partly displaced by Frisian expansion after about 500, and were later partially absorbed into the Frisian society.


title: East Frisia

text: Saxons also settled the region and the East Frisian population of medieval times is based on a mixture of Frisian and Saxon elements. Nevertheless, the Frisian element is predominant in the coastal area, while the population of the higher Geest area expresses more Saxon influence.


title: East Frisia

text: Historical information becomes clearer by early Carolingian time, when a Frisian kingdom united the whole area from present-day West Frisia (the Dutch provinces of Friesland and Groningen and part of North Holland) throughout East Frisia up to the river Weser. It was ruled by kings like the famous Radbod whose known names were still mentioned in folk tales until recent times. Frisia was a short-lived kingdom, and it was crushed by Pippin of Herstal in 689. East Frisia then became part of the Frankish Empire. Charles the Great then divided East Frisia into two counties. At this time, Christianization by the missionaries Liudger and Willehad started; one part of East Frisia became a part of the diocese of Bremen, the other the diocese of Münster.


title: East Frisia

text: With the decay of the Carolingian empire, East Frisia lost its former bindings, and a unity of independent self-governed districts was established. Their elections were held every year to choose the "Redjeven" (councillors), who had to be judges as well as administrators or governors. This system prevented the establishment of a feudalistic system in East Frisia during medieval times. Frisians regarded themselves as free people not obliged to any foreign authority. This period is called the time of the "Friesische Freiheit" (Frisian freedom) and is represented by the still well-known salute "Eala Frya Fresena" (Get Up, Free Frisian!) that affirmed the non-existence of any feudality.


title: East Frisia

text: Frisian representatives of the many districts of the seven coastal areas of Frisia met once a year at the Upstalsboom, located at Rahe (near Aurich).


title: East Frisia

text: In the early Middle Ages, people could only settle on the higher situated "Geest" areas or by erecting in the marsh-areas "Warften", artificial hills to protect the settlement, whether a single farming estate or a whole village, against the North Sea floods.


title: East Frisia

text: In about 1000 AD the Frisians started building large dikes along the North Sea shore. This had a great effect on establishing a feeling of national identity and independence. Until the late Middle Ages Ostfriesland resisted the attempts of German states to conquer the coasts.


title: East Frisia

text: During the 14th century adherence to the Redjeven constitution decayed. Catastrophes and epidemics such as pestilence intensified the process of destabilization. This provided an opportunity for influential family-clans to establish a new rule. As chieftains (in Low German: "hovedlinge"; in standard German: "Fürsten") they took control over villages, cities, and regions in East Frisia; however, they still did not establish a feudal system as it was known in the rest of Europe. Instead, the system implemented in Frisia was a system of fellowship which has some similarity to older forms of rule known from Germanic cultures of the North. There was a specific relation of dependence between the inhabitants of the ruled area and the chieftain, but the people retained their individual freedom and could move where they wanted.


title: East Frisia

text: The Frisians controlled the mouth of the Ems river and threatened the ships coming down the river. For this reason the County of Oldenburg made several attempts to subjugate East Frisia during the 12th century. Thanks to the swampy terrain, the Frisian peasants defeated the Oldenburgian armies every time. In 1156 even Henry the Lion failed to conquer the region. The conflicts lasted for the next few centuries. In the 14th century Oldenburg gave up on plans to conquer Ostfriesland, restricting their attacks to irregular invasions, killing livestock then leaving.


title: East Frisia

text: The East Frisian chieftains used to provide shelter for pirates such as the famous Klaus Störtebeker and Goedeke Michel, who were a threat to the ships of the powerful Hanseatic League which they attacked and robbed. In 1400 a punitive expedition of the Hanseatic League against East Frisia succeeded. The chieftains had to promise to discontinue their support for the pirates. In 1402 Störtebeker, who was not a Frisian by birth, was captured and executed in Hamburg.


title: East Frisia

text: The range of power and influence differed between the chieftains. Some clans achieved a predominant state. One of these was the Tom Broks from the Brokmerland (nowadays: Brookmerland) who ruled a large part of Eastern Friesland over several generations until a former follower, Focko Ukena from Leer, defeated the last Tom Brok. But a party of opposing chieftains under the leadership of the Cirksenas from Greetsiel defeated and expelled Fokko, who later died near Groningen.


title: East Frisia

text: After 1465 one of the last chieftains from the house of Cirksena was made a count by Emperor Frederick III and accepted the sovereignty of the Holy Roman Empire. However, in 1514 the emperor ordered that a duke of Saxony should be the heir to the count of East Frisia. Count Edzard of East Frisia refused to accept this order and was outlawed. Twenty-four German dukes and princes invaded Frisia with their armies. Despite their numerical superiority they failed to defeat Edzard, and in 1517 the emperor had to accept Edzard and his descendants as counts of East Frisia.


title: East Frisia

text: East Frisia played an important role in the Reformation period. Menno Simons, founder of the Mennonite church, found refuge there.


title: East Frisia

text: In 1654 the counts of East Frisia, seated at Aurich, were elevated to the rank of princes. Their power, however, remained limited because of a number of factors. Externally East Frisia became a satellite of the Netherlands, Dutch garrisons being stationed in different cities permanently. Important cities like Emden were autonomously administrated by their citizens, the Prince not having much influence on them. A Frisian Parliament, the Ostfreesk Landschaft, was an assembly of different social groups of East Frisia, jealously protecting the traditional rights and freedoms of the Frisians against the Prince. East Frisian independence ended in 1744, when the region was taken over by Prussia after the last Cirksena prince had died without issue. There was no resistance to this takeover, since it had been arranged by contract beforehand. Prussia respected the traditional autonomy of the Frisians, governed by the Frisian chancellor Sebastian Homfeld.


title: East Frisia

text: In 1806 East Frisia (now called Oostfreesland) was annexed by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland and later became part of the French Empire. Most of East Frisia was renamed the Département Ems-Oriental, while a small strip of land, the Rheiderland, became part of the Dutch Département Ems-Occidental. The French Emperor Napoléon I undertook the greatest reform of Frisian society in history: He introduced mayors, where the local administration was still in the hands of autonomous groups of elders (like the Diekgreven, Kerkenolderlings etc.), introduced the Code Civil and reformed the ancient Frisian naming system by newly introducing family names in 1811. In the following years the East Frisians registered their family names, often depending on their father's name, area or (if unfree) master.


title: East Frisia

text: After the Napoleonic Wars East Frisia occupied first by Prussian and the Russian soldiers in 1813 was re-annexed by Prussia. However, in 1815, Prussia had to cede East Frisia to the Kingdom of Hanover, which itself was annexed by Prussia in 1866.


title: East Frisia

text: The landscape is influenced by its proximity to the North Sea. The East Frisian Islands stretch for 90 kilometres along the coast. They offer dunes and sand beaches, though in their center they have grass and woods as well. The area between the islands and the coast is unique in the world: the tide leaves a broad stretch of mudflat with creeks that attract an extraordinary number of species, worms and crabs as well as birds or seals. For this reason, the UNESCO World Heritage Fund declared the Wadden Sea, which had already been a national park, a global heritage site. Away from the coastal area, much of the physical geography is "Geest" and Heathland.


title: East Frisia

text: The original language of East Frisia was East Frisian, which now is almost extinct, largely replaced by East Frisian Low Saxon. Original East Frisian survived somewhat longer in several remote places as for example in the islands, such as Wangerooge. Today a modern variant of East Frisian can be found in the Saterland, a district near East Frisia. In former times people from East Frisia who left their homes under pressure had settled in that remote area surrounded by moors and kept their inherited language alive. This language which forms the smallest language-island in Europe is called Saterland Frisian or, by its own name, "Seeltersk". It is spoken by about 1000 people.


title: East Frisia

text: East Frisian Low Saxon (or Eastern Friesland Low Saxon, as some people prefer to say for a better distinction from East Frisian, which is Frisian but not Low Saxon) is a variant of Low German with many of its own features due to the Frisian substrate and some other influences originating in the varied history of East Frisia. It is similar to the Gronings dialect spoken in the adjacent Netherlands province of Groningen.


title: East Frisia

text: In modern Germany, East Frisians in general are the traditional butt of ethnic jokes similar to Polish jokes in the United States. This is mainly the case in the North.


title: East Frisia

text: In an otherwise coffee drinking country, East Frisia is noted for its consumption of tea and its tea culture. Per capita, the East Frisian people drink more tea than any other people group, about 300 litres per person every year.


title: East Frisia

text: Strong black tea is served whenever there are visitors to an East Frisian home or other gathering, as well as with breakfast, in mid-afternoon and mid-evening. The tea is sweetened with "kluntjes", a rock candy sugar that melts slowly, allowing multiple cups to be sweetened. Heavy cream is also used to flavour the tea. The tea is generally served in traditional small cups, with little cookies during the week and cake during special occasions or on weekends as a special treat. Some of the most common traditional cakes and pastries to accompany tea are apple strudel, black forest cake, and other cakes flavored with chocolate and hazelnut.


title: East Frisia

text: Brown rum, mixed with "kluntjes" and left for several months, is also added to black tea in the winter. The tea is alleged to cure headaches, stomach problems, and stress, among many other ailments.


title: East Frisia

text: The tea is not only a kind of beverage for the population, but also part of its cultural tradition. Over the years the region developed a unique tea ceremony that can be strictly observed in older households. As a part of these rules, the oldest woman in the round has to serve the other guests with tea, starting with the second oldest and then going down in age regardless of gender. The "kluntje" must be placed inside the teacup before the tea is poured right on top of it. After that some heavy cream is added carefully just as a top layer so it can make "clouds" (wulkjes) that swim on the tea itself. It's then forbidden to stir the tea, so the layers stay mild, strong and then sweet from top to bottom. Depending on the area of East Frisia, the tea can also be poured out of the cup into its saucer and drunk from there. If you don't want any more tea, you have to put your spoon into the cup or else the host will refill your cup immediately after everyone in the round finished their current cup of tea.


title: East Frisia

text: East Frisia is predominantly Protestant. In Rheiderland, Krummhörn and around Emden, the Reformed Church (Calvinism) is the dominant church, while in Leer, Norden and Aurich the Lutherans are the dominant church. However, the main church of the Reformed Christians is in Leer. There are 266,000 Lutherans and about 80,000 Reformed – so about 346,000 of the approximately 465,000 citizens of East Frisia profess one of the two denominations. The Concordat of Emden in 1599 set rules for the cooperation of Lutherans and Calvinists in the county of East Frisia. Since then it is a special feature of the Protestant Landeskirchen in East Frisia, that Lutherans and Calvinists are members of each other's local church communities in places, where only one of both exists.


title: East Frisia

text: East Frisia is a rural area. However, there are some industrial sites such as the Volkswagen car factory in Emden and the Enercon (windturbine) company in Aurich. Leer is, after Hamburg, the second most important location for shipping companies in Germany. Although just on the other side of the border to Emsland, the Meyer Werft is an important employer for East Frisians as well. Main industrial sites are the harbours of Emden and Leer, and Wilhelmshaven east of East Frisia.


title: East Frisia

text: Around 1900, many people left East Frisia due to lack of jobs and emigrated to the United States or elsewhere. Today the region is again suffering from the loss of young educated people, who go away to find better employment in, for example, southern Germany. Many communities face a rising number of aged people, creating structural problems in the future. There are few academic jobs in the area, and those are focused on engineering. The closest universities are the University of Oldenburg and Groningen. A Fachhochschule is located in Emden. The former nautical academy in Leer merged with Fachhochschule Emden in 2009.


title: East Frisia

text: The people of East Frisia have close cultural ties to those of West Frisia, in the Netherlands, and of North Frisia, on the Jutland peninsula. The Frisians migrated to Germany from the coast of Holland in the 12th century.


title: Movie star

text: A movie star (also known as a film star or cinema star) is an actor or actress who is famous for their starring, or leading, roles in movies. The term is used for performers who are marketable stars as they become popular household names and whose names are used to promote movies, for example in trailers and posters. The most prominent movie stars are known in the industry as bankable stars.


title: Movie star

text: In the early days of silent movies, the names of the actors and actresses appearing in them were not publicized or credited because producers feared this would result in demands for higher salaries. However, audience curiosity soon undermined this policy. By 1909, actresses such as Florence Lawrence and Mary Pickford were already widely recognized, although the public remained unaware of their names. Lawrence was referred to as the “Biograph Girl” because she worked for D. W. Griffith's Biograph Studios, while Pickford was "Little Mary." In 1910, Lawrence switched to the Independent Moving Pictures Company, began appearing under her own name, and was hailed as "America's foremost moving picture star" in IMP literature. Pickford began appearing under her own name in 1911.


title: Movie star

text: The Independent Moving Pictures Company promoted their "picture personalities", including Florence Lawrence and King Baggot, by giving them billing, credits and a marquee. Promotion in advertising led to the release of stories about these personalities to newspapers and fan magazines as part of a strategy to build brand loyalty for their company's actors and films. By the 1920s, Hollywood film company promoters had developed a "massive industrial enterprise" that "...peddled a new intangible—fame." Early Hollywood studios tightly controlled who was a movie star, as only they had the ability to place stars' names above the title; according to film historian Jeanine Basinger, this was done "only for economic reasons".


title: Movie star

text: Hollywood "image makers" and promotional agents planted rumors, selectively released real or fictitious biographical information to the press, and used other gimmicks to create glamorous personas for actors. Publicists thus "created" the "enduring images" and public perceptions of screen legends such as James Dean, Judy Garland, Rock Hudson, Marilyn Monroe, and Grace Kelly. The development of this "star system" made fame "something that could be fabricated purposely, by the masters of the new 'machinery of glory'." However, regardless of how "...strenuously the star and their media handlers and press agents may ... try to 'monitor' and 'shape' it, the media and the public always play a substantial part in the image-making process." According to Madow, "fame is a 'relational' phenomenon, something that is conferred by others. A person can, within the limits of his natural talents, make himself strong or swift or learned. But he cannot, in this same sense, make himself famous, any more than he can make himself loved."


title: Movie star

text: Madow goes on to point out "fame is often conferred or withheld, just as love is, for reasons and on grounds other than 'merit'." According to Sofia Johansson the "canonical texts on stardom" include articles by Boorstin (1971), Alberoni (1972) and Dyer (1979) that examined the "representations of stars and on aspects of the Hollywood star system". Johansson writes that "more recent analyses within media and cultural studies (e.g. Gamson 1994; Marshall 1997; Giles 2000; Turner, Marshall and Bonner 2000; Rojek 2001; Turner 2004) have instead dealt with the idea of a pervasive, contemporary, 'celebrity culture'." In the analysis of the celebrity culture, "fame and its constituencies are conceived of as a broader social process, connected to widespread economic, political, technological and cultural developments."


title: Movie star

text: In the 1980s and 1990s, entertainment companies began using stars for a range of publicity tactics including press releases, movie junkets, and community activities. These promotional efforts are targeted and designed using market research, to increase the predictability of success of their media ventures. In some cases, publicity agents may create “provocative advertisements” or make an outrageous public statement to trigger public controversy and thereby generate "free" news coverage. Movie studios employed performers under long-term contracts. They developed a star system as a means of promoting and selling their movies. "Star vehicles" were filmed to display the particular talents and appeal of the most popular movie stars of the studio.


title: Movie star

text: Egypt's most famous movie stars include Youssef Wahbi, Fatima Rushdi, Leila Mourad, Anwar Wagdi, Naguib El-Rihani, Taheyya Kariokka, Ismail Yassine, Faten Hamama, Salah Zulfikar, Shadia, Soad Hosny, Nadia Lutfi, Ahmed Zaki, Nour El Sherif, Mervat Amin, Adel Emam, Naglaa Fathi, Mahmoud Yassin, Mona Zaki, Ahmed Ezz, Menna Shalabi, Ahmed El Sakka, Karim Abdel Aziz, and many more considered Egyptian Cinema movie stars.


title: Movie star

text: Movie stars enjoy considerable prominence in Asia. In Asian film industries, many movies often run on the weight of the star's crowd pulling power more than any other intrinsic aspect of film making.


title: Movie star

text: A number of Chinese film actors have become some of the most popular movie stars in Eastern Asia, and several are also well known in the Western world. They include Jackie Chan, Jet Li, Chow Yun-fat, Stephen Chow, Sammo Hung, Gong Li, Ziyi Zhang, Maggie Cheung, and the late Bruce Lee.


title: Movie star

text: The Indian film industry consists of various regional cinema industries. One regional cinema, the Hindi film industry, commonly known as Bollywood, has its own set of rules in this respect. There are often superstars in this region who command premium pay commensurate with their box office appeal.


title: Movie star

text: Some mainstream Indian movie stars, like the Khans of Bollywood (Aamir Khan, Shah Rukh Khan, Salman Khan,), Madhubala, Raj Kapoor, Nargis, Mithun Chakraborty, Amitabh Bachchan and Aishwarya Rai gained international fame across Asia and Eastern Europe. For example, Bollywood films were popular in the Soviet Union, more so than Hollywood films and occasionally even domestic Soviet films. Indian actors like Raj Kapoor, Nargis and Mithun Chakroborty were household names in the Soviet Union, with films such as "Awaara" (1951) and "Disco Dancer" (1982) drawing more than 60 million viewers in the country. The Hindi film actors Raj Kapoor and Aamir Khan also became very popular in China, with films such as "Awaara", "3 Idiots" (2009), and "Dangal" (2016), one of the top 20 highest-grossing films in China.


title: Movie star

text: The film industry of the Malay Archipelago (also known as Nusantara) consists primarily of film industries which made the cinema of Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Singapore. Over the past century, these four cinemas have collaborated on a number of projects. A number of actors from this region have become some of the most sought-after movie stars in southeast Asia, commonly in Malay-speaking countries. Many of these movie star have acted in all four countries


title: Movie star

text: In the Philippines their most recognizable thespian consisted of Nora Aunor, Joseph Estrada, Jose Padilla, Fernando Poe Sr., Fernando Poe Jr., Roy Marten, Rudy Fernandez, Dolphy, Palito, Ramon Zamora, among many more. Philippines first international celebrity and sole in the movie star category was Ernesto dela Cruz under the pseudonym Weng Weng, who in 1981 with his hit film the action comedy film "For Your Height Only," became the world's first and shortest leading man standing at 2 foot 9 while even with a short lived career the international success of the film hasn't been topped locally.


title: Movie star

text: Indonesia's movie stars consist of Rima Melati, Deddy Mizwar, Christine Hakim, Rano Karno, and many more.


title: Movie star

text: Malaysia's most renown film celebrities are P. Ramlee, Yusof Haslam, Jins Shamsuddin, Michelle Yeoh, Eman Manan, Alex Komang, etc.


title: Movie star

text: Singapore's most famous included Fauziah Ahmad Daud, Nordin Ahmad, Saadiah, and others are also considered Singaporeans movie stars of the 20th century.


title: Movie star

text: Other, more recent movie stars include Romalis Syafril, Erra Fazira, Rosyam Nor, Shaheizy Sam and Maya Karin, from Malaysia; Nicholas Saputra, Vino G. Bastian, Dian Sastrowardoyo, Tora Sudiro, and Iko Uwais, from Indonesia; Claudine Baretto, Piolo Pascual, John Lloyd Cruz, Jericho Rosales, Aga Muhlach, Kristine Hermosa, Dingdong Dantes, and Bea Alonzo, from the Philippines; and a few from Singapore, such as Aaron Aziz and Adi Putra.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: The M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle (CEV) is a full-tracked vehicle used for breaching, obstacle removal, and pioneering operations. Production commenced in 1965 and ceased in 1987. A total of 312 of all variants of these armored engineer vehicles were produced.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: Prototype development began in the late 1940s at Ft. Belvoir, VA by the US Army Engineer Research & Development Laboratories in conjunction with Chrysler. These early T39 Demolition Tank prototypes were based on the M26 using several different modified turrets, demolition guns and heavy mortars. The T118 prototypes used the T95 hull beginning in 1960. Both prototypes went through extensive testing at the Aberdeen Proving Grounds through 1963 and final trials in 1964. The T118E1, with a modified M60A1 turret was then accepted into service as the M728 in 1965 and achieved operational capability in 1968. The turrets for the M728 were manufactured at Chrysler Corp.'s Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant, Warren, Michigan. Final assembly and mating to the vehicle hulls was performed at Anniston Army Depot in Alabama. Initial production of the M728 was from 1965 to 1972. Many of the M782A1s were former M60A2 Patton tanks converted to M728A1s from 1982 to 1987. All M728A1s were converted and assembled at the Anniston Army Depot under contract with General Dynamics Land Systems with a total of 312 of all variants produced.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: The M728 is a full-tracked combat engineer vehicle designed to provide maximum ballistic protection for the crew and is a heavily armed derivative of the M60 series tank modified to provide a mobile and maneuverable weapon for combat support of ground troops and vehicles. The M728 vehicle is used for breaching, obstacle removal, and pioneering operations.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: Although the M728 consists of a tank hull and a short-barreled turret, it is not a tank and should not be routinely used against enemy tanks. It is an excellent heavy assault support vehicle when used as part of a combined engineer-infantry team. The CEV is issued two per Engineer Company in the Heavy Division, two per Engineer Company in Corps (Mechanized), three per Engineer Company in Armor/Infantry Separate Brigades and three per Engineer Company in the Armored Cavalry Regiment.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: It is usually equipped with either a hydraulically operated M9 Dozer Blade Assembly or a D7 Mine Plough. The M9 Dozer Blade Assembly is used for clearing the way, filling depressions, leveling ground and for other purposes. The D7 Mine Plough is a V-shaped plough that performs countermine activities by lifting surface laid mines and pushing them to the side as the vehicle moves forward. They are controlled by the driver.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: A winch and retractable A-frame crane are mounted on the turret for lifting, carrying and winching operations. The hull front contains the driver's compartment, controls and instruments. The hull rear contains the engine, transmission, fuel tanks, and related automotive components. The turret has positions for the commander, gunner, and loader. The vehicle is also equipped with a NBC protection system for the crew.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: It can produce a limited smokescreen by dumping raw diesel fuel into the exhaust system to visually obscure the area around the vehicle as well as provide a limited vehicle recovery capability.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: The vehicle is armed with a 165mm M135 short-barreled demolition gun with 30 rounds of HEP (high explosive, plastic) ammunition. The M135 is a license-built copy of the 165 mm L9A1 gun that was used on the British Army's FV4003 Centurion Mk.5 AVRE (armoured vehicle Royal Engineers) tank. Depending on the usage, the gun can be depressed and elevated against targets up to an effective range of . The gun's primary purpose is for clearing defensive fixtures and obstacles, such as walls, fences, roadblocks and bunkers, or for destroying buildings and is generally not meant to be for use in anti-personnel or anti-tank warfare. The pushing and heaving effects caused by the HEP round's base detonating fuze and large amount of explosive can demolish barriers and knock down walls. One round creates a 1-foot (0.3 m) diameter hole in a 7-inch (178 mm) thick reinforced concrete wall. The round's effects against bunkers and field fortifications are dramatic, often crushing or smashing entire walls. The gun fires two types of fixed ammunition, the M123E1 HEP Round and the M623 Target Practice Round. The main gun has a coaxial 7.62×51mm NATO M240E1 machine gun, with 2,000 rounds of 7.62mm ammunition. In addition, a .50 caliber M85 machine gun is mounted in the commander's cupola; this has 600 rounds of ammunition.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: It was first deployed in 1968 during the Vietnam War. The M728 was used in fire support, base security, counter ambush fire, direct assault of fortified positions, and limited reconnaissance by fire. They were also deployed at this time to West Germany during the Cold War to support combat engineer operations and participated in annual REFORGER exercises until 1991.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: During mine clearing operations in Operation Desert Shield, the M1 MCRS was found to be cumbersome, heavy and hard to transport. In addition, since they were originally designed for the firmer soil conditions of Europe, its rollers were unsuitable for the softer soil of the desert. Instead of rolling, they often merely skidded, pushing soil in front of them until they bogged down. A mine clearing rake was specially designed and fabricated for the CEV in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. The full width rake allows the CEV to clear minefields in non-cohesive, granular soils such as sand. The Mine Clearing Rake is a V-shaped tined plough that performs countermine activities by lifting buried mines with its tines and pushing them to the side as the vehicle moves forward. Attached to any M728 CEV's D7 Mine Plow or M60 series tank via a M9 Dozer Blade Assembly. The Mine Clearing Rake also uses an aluminum skid shoe which protrudes from the front of the tines and allows the rake to maintain a consistent plowing depth. It clears a path measuring 180 inches wide, accommodating heavy tanks and other armored vehicles. Additional features are that it weighs 4000 pounds and is easily assembled and installed.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: They were active during the Desert Shield phase of the Gulf War in clearing suspected minefields, creating temporary defensive fighting positions and staging areas in the deserts near the Iraqi Saudi border. The M728A1s of the 24th Infantry Division and US XVIII Airborne Corps breached the openings for the "Left Hook" flanking of Iraqi forces during the Desert Storm phase of the war, but they were left behind once they began the pursuit and exploitation phase of the operation. A CEV of the 6th Battalion, 6th Regiment, 1st Armored Division, fired 21 M123E1 rounds into the stubbornly defended town of Al Busayyah: "That totally destroyed all the resistance in the town," according to the battalion commander. After the cease-fire, CEV guns were used to break up coke piles that had formed around approximately 20% of the burning oil wells in Kuwait. According to the US Army, the guns reduced the time to break up coke formation from as long as two days to 15 minutes. Commanders were unanimous in their opinion that the engineer force needs an M1 chassis based vehicle for heavy breaching and gap crossing equipment to fully support the M1 Abrams and M2 Bradley vehicles.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: 3 M728CEVs were temporally acquired for use by the United States Department of Justice's FBI and ATF SWAT teams to conduct Operation Showtime during the 1993 Siege of Waco, Texas. They were provided to the ATF by Task Force Six of the Texas Army National Guard from Ft. Hood. They were used to destroy perimeter fences and structures and to crush automobiles to prevent escape from the compound.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: US Army M728A1s were deployed in support of the United Nations' Resolution, NATO led Implementation Force (IFOR) in December 1995. Their initial mission was to assist in protecting and demining the international airport at Sarajevo. By September 1996 their mission had expanded to include road clearance, bunker demolition and protecting humanitarian aid and assist relief delivery in the whole of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as to help protect civilian refugees when required by the Red Cross. Task Force Eagle assumed control of its area of responsibility during a ceremony with United Nations forces at Eagle Base in Tuzla on December 20 consisting of elements of the 1st Armored Division and its supporting elements from the U.S. V Corps and were joined by forces from twelve other nations. During the campaign in Bosnia, at least 3 M60 Panther MCDVs were used in conjunction with the M728. The Panther would lead the convoy followed by the M728. The Panther operator would control the vehicle from the M728 via a remote control system during road clearing operations. There was a Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) camera system attached to the front of the Panther so the remote-operator could see where the tank was going through a screen on the remote control unit. The radio control signal was received by a long antenna protruding from the engine deck. The M728 also provided a good secondary clearing action by use of its bulldozer blade as it followed the Panther. It would skim the trail cleared by the Panther pushing away debris and keeping the route clear for other following vehicles, also smoothing out the road surface and could be used for filling in craters left by any exploding mines or ordnance. The CEV was also useful for quickly recovering the Panther should it become stuck, and its crane allowed easy loading and unloading of the mine roller onto transport vehicles. The 1st Armored Division was relieved by the 1st Infantry Division and returned to Germany in November 1996.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: The M728 has been determined by the US Army to be inadequate to fully support the M1 Abrams and M2 Bradley vehicles, also cited were the rising costs to maintain and difficulty in acquiring parts for a low density piece of equipment and was retired from combat use with no clear replacement in 2000. In the late 1990s, the Army decided it could not afford to continue developing complicated, maintenance-heavy vehicles for this purpose. The M1 Grizzly Combat Mobility Vehicle (CMV) was canceled in 2001, and the prototype developed never went into full production. The Marine Corps however persisted and funded its own development and testing of the M1150 Assault Breacher Vehicle. As of 2009 it is still used by the Army National Guard and US Army Reserve. In 2018 the US Army began to phase out the M728 from service with the Army Reserves and National Guard replacing them with the M1150 and is to be completely withdrawn from US service by 2024.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: The 8 M728s formerly in service with the Singapore Army were retired in 2016, having been replaced by the Leopard 2-based AEV 3 Kodiak armoured engineer vehicle (AEV).<ref name="armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade">armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/</ref>


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: One of its goals was the development of a new combat engineer vehicle, the CZ-10/25E Alacran, based on the M60A1 hull and converted from former M60A3 Patton MBTs with upgrades to the engine. It has an external appearance similar to the M728 CEV, but without the 165mm demolition gun, being replaced by a special backhoe. It also has a frontmounted dozer blade and is armed with a machine gun. An initial batch of 38 vehicles have been produced in close liaison with Engineers at the Army Logistics Command.


title: M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle

text: As of 2015 they continue in service with the armies of a few other countries including Morocco and Saudi Arabia.


title: Elliot Handler

text: Elliot Handler (April 9, 1916 – July 21, 2011) was an American inventor, businessman, and co-founder of Mattel. With his wife, Ruth Handler, he developed some of the biggest-selling toys in American history, including Barbie, Chatty Cathy, Creepy Crawlers, and Hot Wheels.


title: Elliot Handler

text: Handler was born to a Jewish family in Chicago, Illinois, on April 9, 1916, and grew up in Denver, Colorado. He studied industrial design at the Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, California. In 1929, he met his future wife Ruth Mosko at a B'nai B'rith dance for teenagers. They later married and had two children: a daughter, Barbara, who was the namesake of Barbie dolls; and a son, Kenneth (who died of a brain tumor in 1994) who was the namesake of Ken dolls. While a struggling art student and designer of light fixtures, Handler partnered with Harold Matson to design a realistic-looking miniature piano that received roughly 300,000 orders; however, they mispriced the product and lost a dime on each one produced.


title: Elliot Handler

text: Mattel received its name from business partners Harold "Matt" Matson and Elliot Handler in 1945. Elliot's wife, Ruth, took Matson's role when the Handlers bought his share in the late 1940s.


title: Elliot Handler

text: Handler holds credit for developing the first talking doll Chatty Cathy, using a pull string talking mechanism, revolutionizing the toy industry. Mattel continued to develop a number of talking toys, including Chatty Baby, Tiny Chatty Baby, and Charmin' Chatty. Toys were made for cartoon favorites such as Bugs Bunny and Porky Pig, and for television characters such as Herman Munster and Mr. Ed.


title: Elliot Handler

text: When Handler's daughter Barbara married Allan Segal, they created Allan, Ken's friend. The 1965 talking doll Baby Cheryl was named after the Handlers' first grandchild, and the Todd doll in the Barbie line was named for their grandson.


title: Elliot Handler

text: Handler was primarily responsible for two additional Mattel product lines. In 1966, Mattel introduced smaller dolls called Liddle Kiddles. Handler claimed he wanted them to resemble little children in neighborhoods across America. They were sculpted by doll artist Martha Armstrong-Hand. Kiddles were a great success and continued to be produced in different versions until the early 1970s. Another product line was Hot Wheels, introduced in 1968, which gave rise to 10,000 different models.


title: Elliot Handler

text: First called Mattel Creations, the company has become the largest toy maker in the world in terms of revenue. In April 2008, Mattel honored Handler with a 90th birthday party at its headquarters in El Segundo, California. Guests included his daughter Barbara Segal, the namesake of the Barbie doll.


title: Elliot Handler

text: Handler died of heart failure at home in Century City, a district of Los Angeles, California, at age 95 on July 21, 2011. Ruth Handler, Elliot's wife, died in 2002.


title: Bully (2011 film)

text: Bully (originally titled The Bully Project) is a 2011 American documentary drama film directed and co-produced by Lee Hirsch and co-produced and written by Cynthia Lowen along with producers Cindy Waitt and Sarah Foudy. The film follows the lives of five students who face bullying on a daily basis in U.S. schools and premiered at the 2011 Tribeca Film Festival. It was also screened at the Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival and the LA Film Festival.


title: Bully (2011 film)

text: "Bully" had its global premiere at Italy's Ischia Film Festival on July 17, 2011. "Bully" was acquired by The Weinstein Company immediately after its premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival. The film was released in United States theaters on March 30, 2012.


title: Bully (2011 film)

text: On the official website, the filmmakers are promoting "Bully" as an important advocacy tool against bullying and in facilitating an anti-bullying movement. Contrary to the filmmaker's goals, the film suffered from a lack of accessibility in theatres due to controversy surrounding its MPAA rating and from an extended downtime between theatre and home release. The film was released on Blu-ray and DVD on February 12, 2013 only with the PG-13 rated version.


title: Bully (2011 film)

text: The documentary follows students from public schools in Georgia, Iowa, Texas, Mississippi and Oklahoma during the 2009–10 school year; it also follows the students' families. The film's particular focus is on the deaths of Tyler Long, who was diagnosed with Asperger’s Syndrome, and Ty Smalley, both victims of bullying who committed suicide. The film describes in great detail how the average American student cannot defend himself or herself against ridicule.


title: Bully (2011 film)

text: This documentary is about five teenagers and the varieties of bullying or harassment that they went through. The film jumps back and forth between the teens to describe their lives. The film starts off by telling the story of Tyler Long and how he died. Tyler’s father speaks about his son’s social issues and how he knew early on that Tyler might become a victim of bullying. Mr. Long mentions that kids took his clothes when he showered, forcing him to leave naked. They shoved him into lockers and demoralized him verbally as well. These actions are said to have led Tyler to commit suicide in 2009, at the age of 17, when his father found him hanging in his closet with a note on the bed.