title: Crosier

text: In the Roman Catholic Church, the crosier is always carried by the bishop with the crook turned away from himself; that is to say, facing toward the persons or objects he is facing, regardless of whether he is the Ordinary or not. The Sacred Congregation of Rites on 26 November 1919, stated in a reply to the following question,


title: Crosier

text: According to the 1983 book titled "The Broken Cross: The Hidden Hand In The Vatican", pope John XXIII and his successors starter to use a non-Christian croisier, whose cross had an horizontal curve arm.


title: Crosier

text: The crosiers carried by Eastern bishops, archimandrites, abbots and abbesses differ in design from the Western crosier. The Eastern crosier is shaped more like a crutch than a shepherd's staff.


title: Crosier

text: The "sudarium" or crosier mantle is still used in the Eastern churches, where it is usually made of a rich fabric such as brocade or velvet, and is usually embroidered with a cross or other religious symbol, trimmed with galoon around the edges and fringed at the bottom. The "sudarium" is normally a rectangular piece of fabric with a string sewn into the upper edge which is used to tie the "sudarium" to the crosier and which can be drawn together to form pleats. As the sudarium has grown more elaborate, bishops no longer hold it between their hand and the crosier, but place their hand under it as they grasp the crosier, so that it is visible.


title: Crosier

text: The Eastern crosier is found in two common forms. The older form is tau-shaped, with arms curving down, surmounted by a small cross. The other has a top composed of a pair of sculptured serpents or dragons with their heads curled back to face each other, with a small cross between them, representing the bishop's diligence in guarding his flock.


title: National Living Treasures Award (Philippines)

text: The National Living Treasures Award, alternatively known as the Gawad sa Manlilikha ng Bayan (GAMABA; ), is conferred to a person or group of artists recognized by the Government of the Philippines for their contributions to the country's intangible cultural heritage. A recipient of the award, a National Living Treasure or "Manlilikha ng Bayan" is "a Filipino citizen or group of Filipino citizens engaged in any traditional art uniquely Filipino, whose distinctive skills have reached such a high level of technical and artistic excellence and have been passed on to and widely practiced by the present generations in their community with the same degree of technical and artistic competence."


text: In 1988, the National Folk Artists Award was organized by the Rotary Club of Makati-Ayala. The distinctions were given by the organization until it was replaced by the GAMABA Law in 1992. The recipients of the National Folk Artists from 1988-1992 are not recognized by the government as the award was given by a private organization.


text: The National Living Treasures Award ("Gawad sa Manlilikha ng Bayan") was institutionalized in 1992 through Republic Act No. 7355. The National Commission for Culture and the Arts, which is the highest policy-making and coordinating body of the Philippines for culture and the arts, was tasked with the implementation and awarding. This is in line with UNESCO's criteria of Living National Treasures.


text: A traditional artist who possesses all the qualities of a "Manlilikha ng Bayan" candidate, but due to age or infirmity has left them incapable of teaching further their craft, may still be recognized if:


text: Other artistic expressions of traditional culture may be added, such as the case of the ethnomedicine category, which was added only in 2020.


text: As defined by UNESCO, the bearers of intangible cultural heritage are to be known internationally as Living Human Treasures. The Filipino counterparts of this title are the Gawad sa Manlilikha ng Bayan (GAMABA) awardees. There are currently sixteen declared GAMABA awardees, all of which have exemplified the highest standard in their respective field of expertise.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: Lake Jackson is a city in Brazoria County, Texas, United States, within the Greater Houston metropolitan area. As of the 2020 census, the city population was 28,177.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: In 1942 a portion of Lake Jackson was first developed as a company town for workers of the Dow Chemical Company; it developed 5,000 acres on the former Abner Jackson Plantation. An oxbow lake was also named after the planter, whose house was located at the lake. Minor ruins of the Lake Jackson Plantation can now be seen in a park at the site.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: The city was built in the early 1940s as a planned community, designed by Alden B. Dow of Midland, Michigan for workers in support of a new plant of the Dow Chemical Company, which his father owned. The City of Lake Jackson was incorporated March 14, 1944, and voted for home rule ten years later in 1954.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: The city of Lake Jackson is located in south-central Brazoria County, and is bordered to the east by the cities of Clute and Richwood, and to the southwest by the Brazos River. Texas State Highway 288, the Nolan Ryan Expressway, runs through the city, leading north to Angleton, the county seat, north to downtown Houston, and southeast to Freeport on the Gulf of Mexico.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, Lake Jackson has a total area of , of which is land and , or 7.11%, is water.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: As of the 2020 United States census, there were 28,177 people, 10,074 households, and 7,028 families residing in the city.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 26,849 people, 10,319 households, and 7,134 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 11,149 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 84.36% White, 5.10% African American, 0.52% Native American, 3.14% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 4.44% from other races, and 2.40% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 20.53% of the population.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: There were 9,588 households, out of which 42.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.7% were married couples living together, 8.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.4% were non-families. Twenty percent of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.74 and the average family size was 3.18.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.41% under the age of 18, 5.61% from 20 to 24, 12.51% from 25 to 34, 20.60% from 35 to 49, 20.10% from 50 to 64, and 12% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.06 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.3 males.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: The median income for a household in the city was $60,901, and the median income for a family was $69,053. Males had a median income of $60,143 versus $30,398 for females. The per capita income for the city was $25,877. About 5.4% of families and 6.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.5% of those under age 18 and 6.7% of those age 65 or over.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: The Dow Chemical Company and the Brazosport Independent School District are major employers of residents. Dow planned to develop this community in 1941 as a 5,000-acre residential area for workers at its Freeport plant. Lake Jackson is now home to other chemical and manufacturing facilities, along with many other types of businesses. In Lake Jackson's early days, Dow helped to create a booming economy. In 2014 it announced an expansion project that is estimated to bring nearly 2,000 employees to the area.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: The unemployment rate in Lake Jackson, TX, is 8.40%, with job growth of 2.40%. Future job growth over the next ten years is predicted to be 36.40%. The income per capita is $30,625, which includes all adults and children. The median household income is $68,391. The sales tax rate in Lake Jackson, TX, is 8.25%.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: Sales tax income represents a population of over 70,000 indicating the draw of the retail shopping from the area.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: The public schools in the city are operated by Brazosport Independent School District. Some parts of the city limits fall in the Angleton Independent School District and the Columbia-Brazoria Independent School District.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: Brazosport College is a public community college located in Lake Jackson, with the majority of the Lake Jackson city limits in the college's district. The Texas Legislature designated Brazosport ISD, Columbia-Brazoria ISD, and portions of Angleton ISD that by September 1, 1995 had not been annexed by Alvin Community College as in the Brazosport College zone.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: It was recently upgraded to offer a baccalaureate degree in certain technical fields. It is also distinguished for its professional music hall, The Clarion.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: In September 2020, brain-eating amoeba were detected in the Lake Jackson drinking water supply resulting in the death of a 6 year old boy. Eleven samples were taken around the city, and of those, three returned a preliminary positive results: the hose bib at the victim's home, a hydrant at a dead end street, and a storage tank at the city splash pad. This resulted in Brazosport Water Authority issuing a do not use order on tap water in late September 2020.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: Southern Brazoria County Transit provides bus service options for Lake Jackson, Clute, Freeport and Angleton.


title: Lake Jackson, Texas

text: Texas State Highway 332 extends from its west end SH 36 in Brazoria to its east end at Surfside Beach.


title: Polish grammar

text: The grammar of the Polish language is characterized by a high degree of inflection, and has relatively free word order, although the dominant arrangement is subject–verb–object (SVO). There are no articles, and there is frequent dropping of subject pronouns. Distinctive features include the different treatment of masculine personal nouns in the plural, and the complex grammar of numerals and quantifiers.


title: Polish grammar

text: Certain regular or common alternations apply across the Polish inflectional system, affecting the morphology of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and other parts of speech. Some of these result from the restricted distribution of the vowels "i" and "y", and from the voicing rules for consonants in clusters and at the end of words. Otherwise, the main changes are the following:


title: Polish grammar

text: Polish retains the Old Slavic system of cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. There are seven cases: nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , instrumental , locative , and vocative .


title: Polish grammar

text: It used to also have the dual number, but it vanished around the 15th century. It survived only in a few relicts:


title: Polish grammar

text: Note that for true nouns (not for adjectives), there are three cases that always have the same ending in the plural, regardless of gender or declension class: dative plural in "-om", instrumental plural in "-ami" or "-mi," and locative plural in "-ach" ; the only apparent exception being nouns that are in fact inflected as previously "dual nouns", ex. "rękoma" instrumental plural of "ręka" "hand".


title: Polish grammar

text: There are three main genders ("rodzaje"): masculine ("męski"), feminine ("żeński") and neuter ("nijaki"). Masculine nouns are further divided into personal ("męskoosobowy"), animate ("męskożywotny"), and inanimate ("męskorzeczowy") categories. Personal and animate nouns are distinguished from inanimate nouns in the accusative singular; for the latter the accusative is identical to the nominative. In the plural, the masculine personal nouns are distinguished from all others, which collapse into one non-masculine personal gender ("niemęskoosobowy").


title: Polish grammar

text: The following tables show this distinction using as examples the nouns "mężczyzna" 'man' (masc. personal), "pies" 'dog' (masc. animate), "stół" 'table' (masc. inanimate), "kobieta" 'woman' (feminine), "okno" 'window' (neuter). The following table presents examples of how a determiner "ten/ta/to" ("this") agrees with nouns of different genders in the nominative and the accusative, both singular and plural. Adjectives inflect similarly to this determiner.


title: Polish grammar

text: The numeral "dwa" ("two"), on the other hand, behaves differently, merging masculine non-personal with neuter, but not with feminine:


title: Polish grammar

text: The distinction between personal, animate and inanimate nouns within masculine nouns is largely semantic, although not always.


title: Polish grammar

text: Personal nouns are comprised by human nouns such as "mężczyzna" 'man' or "sędzia" 'male judge', personal names of men, as well as the noun "bóg" 'male god' and proper names of male gods (e.g. "Rod" "Rod", "Jowisz" "Jupiter").


title: Polish grammar

text: Animate nouns are largely comprised by animals such as "pies" ("dog") or "pawian" ("baboon"), many members from other life domains, as well as a number of objects associated with human activity. On the morphological level however, such nouns are only partially similar to animate nouns, having their accusative identical to their genitive only in the singular.


title: Polish grammar

text: Contrary to fungi and bacteria, most plant names of masculine gender are inanimate, e.g. "żonkil" ("daffodil"), "hiacynt" ("hyacinth"), "dąb" ("oak"), "cis" ("yew tree"), which are all inanimate. The noun "goździk" ("carnation") is an exception as a masculine animate. Not all technological loanwords are animate either, e.g. inanimate "modem", "telefon" ("telephone, cellphone"), and "tranzystor" ("transistor"). "Robot" can be treated as animate or inanimate.


title: Polish grammar

text: It is common for personal masculine nouns to change gender to inanimate to create semantic neologisms, for example "edytor" ("editor", pl. "ci edytorzy") and "edytor (tekstu)" ("word processor software", pl. "te edytory").


title: Polish grammar

text: For non-living objects that represent humans (e.g. in games), personal masculine nouns usually change gender to animate; for example, the word "król" ("king"), which is masculine-personal when referring to a monarch (pl. "ci królowie"), becomes masculine-animate when referring to the playing card or the chess piece (pl. "te króle").


title: Polish grammar

text: There are also a few pairs of homographs that completely change their meaning depending on their gender. Examples are:


title: Polish grammar

text: Homographs that differ only by their gender can also occur in some Polish place names; for example, the town of Ostrów (Wielkopolski) is masculine, while the town of Ostrów (Mazowiecka) is feminine.


title: Polish grammar

text: A common deviation from the above patterns is that many masculine nouns have genitive singular in "-a" rather than "-u". This includes all personal and animate masculines (ending in a consonant). Also masculine animate nouns have accusative singular equal to the genitive singular (in "-a"). Masculine personal nouns also have accusative plural equal to genitive plural, and often have nominative plural in "-i".


title: Polish grammar

text: Adjectives agree with the noun they modify in terms of gender, number and case. They are declined according to the following pattern ("dumny" means "proud"):


title: Polish grammar

text: For a table showing the declension of Polish adjectival surnames, ending in "-ski/-ska" or "-cki/-cka", see Declension of adjectival surnames.


title: Polish grammar

text: Most short adjectives have a comparative form in "-szy" or "-iejszy", and a superlative obtained by prefixing "naj-" to the comparative.


title: Polish grammar

text: For adjectives that do not have these forms, the words ("more") and ("most") are used before the adjective to make comparative and superlative phrases.


title: Polish grammar

text: Adverbs are formed from adjectives with the ending "ie", or in some cases "-o". Comparatives of adverbs are formed (where they exist) with the ending "-iej". Superlatives have the prefix "naj-" as for adjectives.


title: Polish grammar

text: The personal pronouns of Polish (nominative forms) are "ja" ("I"), "ty" ("you", singular, familiar), ("he", or "it" corresponding to masculine nouns), ("she", or "it" corresponding to feminine nouns), ("it" corresponding to neuter nouns), ("we"), ("you", plural, familiar), ("they", corresponding to a masculine personal group – see Noun syntax above), ("they" in other cases; group where there are only girls/women).


title: Polish grammar

text: The polite second-person pronouns are the same as the nouns ("gentleman, Mr"), ("lady, Mrs") and their plurals . The mixed-sex plural is . All second-person pronouns are often capitalized for politeness, in letters etc.


title: Polish grammar

text: For the full declension of these pronouns, see "Pronouns" in the article on Polish morphology. Subject pronouns can be dropped if the meaning is clear and they are not emphasized. Sometimes there are alternative forms available for a given personal pronoun in a given case:


title: Polish grammar

text: The possessive adjectives (also used as possessive pronouns) derived from the personal pronouns are , , (m., n.)/"jej" (f.); , , . There is also a reflexive possessive . The polite second-person pronouns have possessives identical to the genitives of the corresponding nouns, although there is a possessive adjective corresponding to .


title: Polish grammar

text: The demonstrative pronoun, also used as a demonstrative adjective, is (feminine , neuter , masculine personal plural , other plural ). The prefix "tam-" can be added to emphasize a more distant referent ("that" as opposed to "this").


title: Polish grammar

text: Interrogative pronouns are ("who") and ("what"); these also provide the pronouns ("someone/something"), ("anyone/anything"), ("no one/nothing").


title: Polish grammar

text: The usual relative pronoun is (declined like an adjective). However, when the antecedent is also a pronoun, the relative pronoun used is or (as in "he who" and "that which"). The word also means "which" as an interrogative pronoun and adjective.


title: Polish grammar

text: The pronoun and adjective means "all". It is used most commonly in the plural ("wszyscy" means "everyone"), and in the neuter singular to mean "everything". The pronoun and adjective means "each, every", while means "no, none".


title: Polish grammar

text: For full information on the declension of the above pronouns, see "Pronouns" in the article on Polish morphology.


title: Polish grammar

text: When the referent of a pronoun is a person of unspecified sex, the masculine form of the pronoun is generally used. When the referent is a thing or idea that does not correspond to any specific noun, it is treated as neuter.


title: Polish grammar

text: Polish has a complex system of numerals and related quantifiers, with special rules for their inflection, for the case of the governed noun, and for verb agreement with the resulting noun phrase.


title: Polish grammar

text: The basic numerals are 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 30 , 40 , 50 , 60 , 70 , 80 , 90 , 100 , 200 , 300 , 400 , 500 , 600 , 700 , 800 , 900 .


title: Polish grammar

text: These numerals are inflected for case, and also to some extent for gender. For details of their inflection, see "Numbers and quantifiers" in the article on Polish morphology.


title: Polish grammar

text: Thousand is , treated as a noun (so 2000 is , etc.). Million is , billion (meaning a thousand million) is , a million million is , a thousand million million is , and so on ("i.e.", the long scale is used).


title: Polish grammar

text: When a numeral modifies a noun, the numeral takes the expected case, but the noun may not; also the gender and number of the resulting noun phrase may not correspond to that of the noun. The following rules apply:


title: Polish grammar

text: Polish also has a series of numerals called collective numerals , namely (for 2), (for 3), (for 4), (for 5), and so on. These are used with the following types of nouns:


title: Polish grammar

text: For the declension of collective numerals by case, see the morphology article section. They all follow the rule that when the numeral is nominative or accusative, the noun becomes genitive plural, and the resulting noun phrase is neuter singular. In this case the genitive noun is also used after the instrumental of the numeral.


title: Polish grammar

text: Certain quantifiers behave similarly to numerals. These include ("several"), ("a few") and ("much, many"), which behave like numbers above 5 in terms of the noun cases and verb forms taken. There are also indefinite numerals (and similar forms with "parę-"), meaning "several-teen", several tens and several hundred.


title: Polish grammar

text: Quantifiers that always take the genitive of nouns include ("much, many"), ("few, little"), ("more"), ("less") (also "most/least"), ("a bit"), ("plenty, a lot").


title: Polish grammar

text: The words and (meaning "both"), and their derived forms behave like . However the collective forms (in the nominative/vocative), when referring to a married couple or similar, take the nominative form of the noun rather than the genitive, and form a masculine plural noun phrase ("oboje rodzice byli", "both parents were", cf. ).


title: Polish grammar

text: Polish verbs have the grammatical category of aspect. Each verb is either "imperfective", meaning that it denotes continuous or habitual events, or "perfective", meaning that it denotes single completed events (in particular, perfective verbs have no present tense). Verbs often occur in imperfective and perfective pairs – for example, and both mean "to eat", but the first has imperfective aspect, the second perfective.


title: Polish grammar

text: Imperfective verbs have three tenses: present, past and future, the last being a compound tense (except in the case of "to be"). Perfective verbs have a past tense and a simple future tense, the latter formed on the same pattern as the present tense of imperfective verbs. Both types also have imperative and conditional forms. The dictionary form of a verb is the infinitive, which usually ends with "-ć" (occasionally with "-c"). The present-day past tense derives from the old Slavic "perfect" tense; several other old tenses (the aorist, imperfect) have been dropped.


title: Polish grammar

text: The present tense of imperfective verbs (and future tense of perfective verbs) has six forms, for the three persons and two numbers. For example, the present tense of is , , ; , , (meaning "(I) eat" etc. – subject pronouns may be dropped), while the future tense of the corresponding perfective verb is , etc. (meaning "(I) shall eat" etc.)


title: Polish grammar

text: The past tense agrees with the subject in gender as well as person and number. The basic past stem is in "-ł"; to this are added endings for gender and number, and then personal endings are further added for the first and second person forms. Thus, on the example of , the past tense forms are ("I was", masc/fem.), , ; ("we were" all gender mixes (except:)/a group of all fem.), , .


title: Polish grammar

text: The conditional is formed from the past tense, , and the personal ending (if any). For example: ("I would be", masc/fem.), , ; , , .


title: Polish grammar

text: The personal past tense suffixes, which are reduced forms of the present tense of , are clitics and can be detached from the verb to attach to another accented word earlier in the sentence, such as a question word (as in as an alternative to "whom did you see"), or (mostly in informal speech) an emphatic particle ("co żeście zrobili?" "what did you do"). The same applies to the conditional endings ("kiedy byście przyszli" as an alternative to "when would you come").


title: Polish grammar

text: If introduces the clause, either alone or forming one of the conjunctions , , , , , it forms the subjunctive mood


title: Polish grammar

text: and is not to be confused with the conditional clitic . For example, "He wants me to sing" might be , or . Such clauses may express "in order that", or be used with verbs meaning "want", "expect", etc.


title: Polish grammar

text: The future tense of other imperfective verbs is formed using the future of together with the infinitive, or the past form (inflected for gender and number, but without any personal suffixes), of the verb in question. For example, the future of ("do, make") has such forms as , . The choice between infinitive and past form is usually a free one, but with modals governing another infinitive, the past form is used: (not ) "he will have to leave".


title: Polish grammar

text: The second personal singular imperative is formed from the present tense by dropping the ending (e.g. : 2/3S present , imperative ), sometimes adding "-ij" or "-aj". Add "-my" and "-cie" for the 1P and 2P forms. To make third-person imperative sentences (including with the polite second-person pronouns etc.) the particle is used at the start of the sentence (or at least before the verb), with the verb in the future tense (if or perfective) or present tense (otherwise). There is a tendency to prefer imperfective verbs in imperative sentences for politeness; negative imperatives quite rarely use perfectives.


title: Polish grammar

text: Polish uses prepositions, which form phrases by preceding a noun or noun phrase. Different prepositions take different cases (all cases are possible except nominative and vocative); some prepositions can take different cases depending on meaning.


title: Polish grammar

text: The prepositions "z" and "w" are pronounced together with the following word, obeying the usual rules for consonant cluster voicing (so "with you" is pronounced ). Before some consonant clusters, particularly clusters beginning with a sibilant (in the case of "z") or with "f/w" (in the case of "w"), the prepositions take the form and (e.g. "in Wrocław"). These forms are also used before the first-person singular pronouns in "mn-"; several other prepositions also have longer forms before these pronouns ("przeze mnie, pode mną" etc.), and these phrases are pronounced as single words, with the stress on the penultimate syllable (the "-e").


title: Polish grammar

text: Common Polish conjunctions include (and less commonly ) meaning "and", and meaning "or", meaning "but", meaning "but" chiefly in phrases of the type "not "x" but "y"", (or more formally sometimes ) meaning "that", meaning "if" (also , where is the conditional particle), meaning "whether" (also an interrogative particle), or meaning "when", , and meaning "so, therefore", meaning "because", meaning "although", and meaning "in order to/that" (can be followed by an infinitive phrase, or by a sentence in the past tense; in the latter case the of the conjunction is in fact the conditional particle and takes personal endings as appropriate).


title: Polish grammar

text: In written Polish, subordinate clauses are normally set off with commas. Commas are not normally used before conjunctions meaning "and" or "or".


title: Polish grammar

text: Basic word order in Polish is SVO; however, as it is a synthetic language, it is possible to move words around in the sentence. For example, ("Alice has a cat") is the standard order, but it is also possible to use other orders to give a different emphasis (for example, , with emphasis on ("has"), used as a response to an assertion of the opposite); general word order controls theme and rheme information structure with theme coming first.


title: Polish grammar

text: Certain words, however, behave as clitics: they rarely or never begin a clause, but are used after another stressed word, and tend to appear early in the clause. Examples of these are the weak pronouns , etc., the reflexive pronoun , and the personal past tense endings and conditional endings described under Verbs above.


title: Polish grammar

text: Polish is a pro-drop language; subject pronouns are frequently dropped. For example: (literally "has a cat") may mean "he/she/it has a cat". It is also possible to drop the object or even sometimes verb, if they are obvious from context. For example, ("has") or ("has not") may be used as an affirmative or negative answer to a question "does... have...?".


title: Polish grammar

text: Note the interrogative particle , which is used to start a yes/no question, much like the French "est-ce que". The particle is not obligatory, and sometimes rising intonation is the only signal of the interrogative character of the sentence.


title: Polish grammar

text: Negation is achieved by placing directly before the verb, or other word or phrase being negated (in some cases "nie-" is prefixed to the negated word, equivalent to English "un-" or "non-"). If a sentence contains a negative element such as ("never"), ("no-one"), etc., the verb is negated with as well (and several such negative elements can be combined, as in , "no-one ever does anything", literally "no-one never doesn't do nothing").


title: Polish grammar

text: The equivalent of the English "there is" etc. is the appropriate part of the verb ("to be"), e.g. ("there is..."), ("there are..."), ("there was..."), etc., with a noun phrase in the nominative. The negative form is always singular (and neuter where applicable), takes the noun phrase in the genitive, and uses rather than in the present tense: ("there isn't a cat", also "the cat isn't there"), etc. (as usual, the word order is not fixed).


title: Polish grammar

text: Where two concepts are equated, the particle is often used instead of a part of , with the nouns expressing the concepts in the nominative case (although verb infinitives can also be used here: "to exist is to suffer"). There are also sentences where appears to be the subject of , but the complement is in the nominative and the verb agrees with the complement: ("this/it is..."), , , etc.


title: Polish grammar

text: Like most Slavic languages, with the exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian, Polish uses no definite or indefinite articles. A noun such as may mean either "the cat" or "a cat".


title: Polish grammar

text: Polish does not regularly place nouns together to form compound noun expressions. Equivalents to such expressions are formed using noun-derived adjectives (as in , "orange juice", where is an adjective derived from "orange"), or using prepositional phrases or (equivalently) a noun in the genitive or other case.


title: Polish grammar

text: A group of nouns connected by a word for "and" is treated as plural. It is masculine personal plural if it contains any male person (in fact, if it contains any person and any masculine noun).


title: Polish grammar

text: Adjectives generally precede the noun they modify, although in some fixed expressions and official names and phrases they can follow the noun (as in "Polish language"; also "good day, hello").


title: Polish grammar

text: Attributive adjectives agree in gender, number and case with the noun they modify. Predicate adjectives agree with the relevant noun in gender and number, and are in the nominative case, unless the subject is unspecified (as in some infinitive phrases), in which case the adjective takes the (masculine/neuter) instrumental form (for example, , "to be wise", although the nominative is used if the logical subject is specified). The instrumental is also used for adjectival complements of some other verbs, as in ("make him wise").


title: Polish grammar

text: With pronouns such as ("something") (but not "someone"), if the pronoun is nominative or accusative, the adjective takes the genitive form ("coś dobrego" "something good").


title: Polish grammar

text: Compound adjectives can be formed by replacing the ending of the first adjective with "-o", as in ("formal (and) legal").


title: Bakewell tart

text: A Bakewell tart is an English confection consisting of a shortcrust pastry shell beneath layers of jam, frangipane, and a topping of flaked almonds. It is a variant of the Bakewell pudding, closely associated with the town of Bakewell in Derbyshire.


title: Bakewell tart

text: The Bakewell tart developed as a variant of the Bakewell pudding in the 20th century. Although the terms "Bakewell tart" and "Bakewell pudding" have been used interchangeably, each name refers to a specific dessert recipe. The tart is closely associated with the town of Bakewell in Derbyshire.


title: Bakewell tart

text: A Cherry Bakewell, also known as a Bakewell cake, is a version of the tart where the frangipane is covered with a top layer of almond-flavoured fondant and a single half glacé cherry.


title: Bakewell tart

text: In Gloucester, a similar tart was made using ground rice, raspberry jam and almond essence. In May 2013, council leader Paul James discovered a recipe for "Gloucester tart" in a Gloucester history book. Subsequently, Gloucester museums revived the recipe, serving complimentary Gloucester tarts to museum patrons.


title: AES instruction set

text: An Advanced Encryption Standard instruction set is now integrated into many processors. The purpose of the instruction set is to improve the speed and security of applications performing encryption and decryption using Advanced Encryption Standard (AES).


title: AES instruction set

text: They are often implemented as instructions implementing a single round of AES along with a special version for the last round which has a slightly different method.


title: AES instruction set

text: The side channel attack surface of AES is reduced when implemented in an instruction set, compared to when AES is implemented in software only.


title: AES instruction set

text: AES-NI (or the Intel Advanced Encryption Standard New Instructions; AES-NI) was the first major implementation. AES-NI is an extension to the x86 instruction set architecture for microprocessors from Intel and AMD proposed by Intel in March 2008.


title: AES instruction set

text: AES support with unprivileged processor instructions is also available in the latest SPARC processors (T3, T4, T5, M5, and forward) and in latest ARM processors. The SPARC T4 processor, introduced in 2011, has user-level instructions implementing AES rounds. These instructions are in addition to higher level encryption commands. The ARMv8-A processor architecture, announced in 2011, including the ARM Cortex-A53 and A57 (but not previous v7 processors like the Cortex A5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 15 ) also have user-level instructions which implement AES rounds.


title: AES instruction set

text: VIA x86 CPUs, AMD Geode, and Marvell Kirkwood (ARM, mv_cesa in Linux) use driver-based accelerated AES handling instead. (See Crypto API (Linux).)


title: AES instruction set

text: Programming information is available in "ARM Architecture Reference Manual ARMv8, for ARMv8-A architecture profile (Section A2.3 "The Armv8 Cryptographic Extension")".


title: AES instruction set

text: Whilst the RISC-V architecture doesn't include AES-specific instructions, a number of RISC-V chips include integrated AES co-processors. Examples include:


title: AES instruction set

text: Since the Power ISA v.2.07, the instructions codice_1 and codice_2 implement one round of AES directly.


title: AES instruction set

text: IBM z9 or later mainframe processors support AES as single-opcode (KM, KMC) AES ECB/CBC instructions via IBM's CryptoExpress hardware. These single-instruction AES versions are therefore easier to use than Intel NI ones, but may not be extended to implement other algorithms based on AES round functions (such as the Whirlpool and Grøstl hash functions).


title: AES instruction set

text: In "AES-NI Performance Analyzed", Patrick Schmid and Achim Roos found "impressive results from a handful of applications already optimized to take advantage of Intel's AES-NI capability". A performance analysis using the Crypto++ security library showed an increase in throughput from approximately 28.0 cycles per byte to 3.5 cycles per byte with AES/GCM versus a Pentium 4 with no acceleration.


title: AES instruction set

text: Much security and cryptography software supports the AES instruction set, including the following notable core infrastructure:


title: AES instruction set

text: A fringe use of the AES instruction set involves using it on block ciphers with a similarly-structured S-box, using affine isomorphism to convert between the two. SM4 and Camellia have been accelerated using AES-NI.


title: Little, Brown and Company

text: Little, Brown and Company is an American publishing company founded in 1837 by Charles Coffin Little and James Brown in Boston. For close to two centuries it has published fiction and nonfiction by American authors. Early lists featured Emily Dickinson's poetry and "Bartlett's Familiar Quotations". Since 2006 Little, Brown and Company is a division of the Hachette Book Group.


title: Little, Brown and Company

text: Little, Brown and Company had its roots in the book selling trade. It was founded in 1837 in Boston by Charles Little and James Brown. They formed the partnership "for the purpose of Publishing, Importing, and Selling Books". It can trace its roots before that to 1784 to a bookshop owned by Ebenezer Battelle on Marlborough Street. They published works of Benjamin Franklin and George Washington and they were specialized in legal publishing and importing titles. For many years, it was the most extensive law publisher in the United States, and also the largest importer of standard English law and miscellaneous works, introducing American buyers to the "Encyclopædia Britannica", the dictionaries of William Smith, and many other standard works. In the early years Little and Brown published the "Works of Daniel Webster", George Bancroft's "History of the United States", William H. Prescott's "Ferdinand and Isabella", Jones Very's first book of poetry (edited by Ralph Waldo Emerson), "Letters of John Adams" and works by James Russell Lowell and Francis Parkman. Little, Brown and Company was the American publisher for Edward Gibbon's "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire".


title: Little, Brown and Company

text: The firm was the original publisher of "United States Statutes at Large" beginning in 1845, under authority granted by a joint resolution of Congress. In 1874, Congress transferred the authority to publish the "Statutes at Large" to the Government Printing Office, which has been responsible for producing the set since that time. still recognizes their edition of the laws and treaties of the United States are competent evidence of the several public and private Acts of Congress, treaties, and international agreements other than treaties of the United States.


title: Little, Brown and Company

text: In 1853, Little, Brown began publishing the works of British poets from Chaucer to Wordsworth. Ninety-six volumes were published in the series in five years.


title: Little, Brown and Company

text: In 1859, John Bartlett became a partner in the firm. He held the rights to his "Familiar Quotations", and Little, Brown published the 15th edition of the work in 1980, 125 years after its first publication. John Murray Brown, James Brown's son, took over when Augustus Flagg retired in 1884. In the 1890s, Little, Brown expanded into general publishing, including fiction. In 1896, it published "Quo Vadis". In 1898, Little, Brown purchased a list of titles from the Roberts Brothers firm. 19th century employees included Charles Carroll Soule.


title: Little, Brown and Company

text: John Murray Brown died in 1908 and James W. McIntyre became managing partner. When McIntyre died in 1913, Little, Brown incorporated. In 1925, Little, Brown entered into an agreement to publish all Atlantic Monthly books. This arrangement lasted until 1985. During this time the joint Atlantic Monthly Press/Little Brown imprint published "All Quiet on the Western Front", Herge's "The Adventures of Tintin", James Truslow Adams's "The Adams Family", Charles Nordhoff and James Norman Hall's "Mutiny on the Bounty" and its sequels, James Hilton's "Goodbye, Mr. Chips", Walter D. Edmonds's "Drums Along the Mohawk", William Least Heat-Moon's "Blue Highways", Tracy Kidder's "The Soul of a New Machine", and J. D. Salinger's "The Catcher in the Rye".


title: Little, Brown and Company

text: Salinger later terminated his contract with the publishing house sometime in the 1970s, though his novel was still published by Little, Brown.


title: Little, Brown and Company

text: Other prominent figures published by Little, Brown in the 20th and early 21st centuries have included Nagaru Tanigawa, Donald Barthelme, Louisa M. Alcott, Catherine Drinker Bowen, Bernie Brillstein, Thornton Burgess, Hortense Calisher, Bruce Catton, A. J. Cronin, Peter De Vries, J. Frank Dobie, C. S. Forester, John Fowles, Malcolm Gladwell, Pete Hamill, Cynthia Harrod-Eagles, Lillian Hellman, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., Henry Kissinger, Elizabeth Kostova, Norman Mailer, William Manchester, Nelson Mandela, John P. Marquand, Masters and Johnson, Stephenie Meyer, Rick Moody, Ogden Nash, Edwin O'Connor, Erich Maria Remarque, Alice Sebold, David Sedaris, George Stephanopoulos, Gwyn Thomas, Gore Vidal, David Foster Wallace, Evelyn Waugh, P. G. Wodehouse, James Patterson and Herman Wouk. Little, Brown also published the photography of Ansel Adams.


title: Little, Brown and Company

text: The company was purchased by Time Inc. in 1968. Little, Brown acquired the medical publisher College Hill Press in 1986. Little, Brown was made part of the Time Warner Book Group when Time merged with Warner Communications to form Time Warner in 1989. All editing staff moved from Boston to Time Warner Book Group offices in New York City by 2001.


title: Little, Brown and Company

text: Little, Brown expanded into the UK in 1992 when TWBG bought MacDonald & Co from Maxwell Communications, taking on its Abacus (upmarket paperback) and Orbit (science fiction) lists, and authors including Iain Banks. Feminist publisher Virago Press followed in 1996. Also in 1996, Wolters Kluwer acquired Little, Brown's legal and medical publishing division and incorporated it into its Aspen and Lippincott-Raven imprints.


title: Little, Brown and Company

text: In 2006, the Time Warner Book Group was sold to French publisher Hachette Livre. Following this, the Little, Brown imprint is used by Hachette Livre's U.S. publishing company, Hachette Book Group USA.


title: Little, Brown and Company

text: In 2011, Little, Brown launched an imprint devoted to suspense publishing: Mulholland Books. In February 2013, Reagan Arthur was selected to be publisher of Little, Brown, while closing her five-year-old imprint, Reagan Arthur Books.


title: Little, Brown and Company

text: In October 2017, Little, Brown started an unnamed imprint devoted to health, lifestyle, psychology, and science with the appointment of Tracy Behar as the imprint's vice president, publisher, and editor-in-chief. The imprint Little, Brown Spark launched in fall 2018.


title: Little, Brown and Company

text: In February 2020, Hachette Book Group acquired 1,000 titles for young readers from Disney Book Group for Little, Brown Books for Young Readers.


title: UEFA Euro 2008 squads

text: The following is a list of squads for each nation competing at UEFA Euro 2008 in Austria and Switzerland. The tournament started on 7 June and the final took place in Vienna on 29 June 2008.


title: UEFA Euro 2008 squads

text: Each national team had to submit a squad of 23 players, three of whom had to be goalkeepers, by 28 May 2008. If a player was injured severely enough to prevent his participation in the tournament before his team's first match, he could be replaced by another player.


title: UEFA Euro 2008 squads

text: All caps, goals, ages, and clubs of players are correct as of 7 June 2008, the first day of the tournament.


title: UEFA Euro 2008 squads

text: Jakub Błaszczykowski injured a hamstring on 5 June and was replaced by Łukasz Piszczek. Tomasz Kuszczak injured his back on 6 June and was replaced by Wojciech Kowalewski.


title: UEFA Euro 2008 squads

text: Fabio Cannavaro was ruled out of the Italian squad on 2 June after he was injured in training; he was replaced by Alessandro Gamberini.


title: UEFA Euro 2008 squads

text: Ryan Babel was ruled out of the Dutch squad on 31 May after he was injured in training; he was replaced by Khalid Boulahrouz.


title: Recovery of an MMO Junkie

text: In June 2018, Comico ended the manga due to Kokuyō's failing health. Prior to this, "Recovery of an MMO Junkie" had been on a hiatus since 2015.


title: Recovery of an MMO Junkie

text: Moriko Morioka is a 30-year-old successful career woman who decides to quit her taxing corporate job and become an elite NEET and find a more fulfilling life. She joins an online MMORPG "Fruits de Mer" and creates a male character named Hayashi as her avatar. In the game, Hayashi meets another character Lily, a high-level player who helps him learn the game. Hayashi and Lily become close friends and he joins her guild, "@HomeParty". Meanwhile, in the real world, Moriko has a chance encounter with a handsome elite company employee, Yuta Sakurai, who may have ties with her online life.


title: Recovery of an MMO Junkie

text: "Recovery of an MMO Junkie" is written and illustrated by Rin Kokuyō and was serialized on the Comico app from October 2013 to June 2015. Two volumes were published.


title: Recovery of an MMO Junkie

text: An anime television series adaptation by Signal.MD was announced by Comico. The series began streaming on the Japanese streaming service GyaO on October 6, 2017, and then beginning its TV broadcast October 9, 2017 on Tokyo MX and other stations. The opening theme song is by Megumi Nakajima, while the ending theme song is by Yūka Aisaka. Crunchyroll simulcasted the series, while Funimation began streaming a SimulDub on October 30, 2017. The series ran for 10 episodes with an OVA released alongside the Blu-ray box. Crunchyroll streamed the OVA on December 15, 2017.


title: Jockstrap (band)

text: Jockstrap are an English musical duo consisting of Georgia Ellery and Taylor Skye, who met at London's Guildhall School of Music & Drama in 2016. The duo's music combines Ellery's often half-whispered vocals and string arrangements with Skye's electronic production.


title: Jockstrap (band)

text: Jockstrap released their first EP, "Love Is the Key to the City", in 2018. After signing to Warp Records in early 2020, they released "Wicked City" in June 2020.


title: Jockstrap (band)

text: The band signed to Rough Trade Records in 2021 and have so far put out three singles under the label, namely "50/50", "Concrete Over Water", and "Glasgow", and a debut studio album, "I Love You Jennifer B", released on September 9, 2022. Upon its release, the album gained critical acclaim.


title: Lee Da-in (actress, born 1992)

text: Lee is the daughter of actress Kyeon Mi-ri. Her father, Lee Hong-heon, adopted her and her sister, Lee Yu-bi, after marrying Kyeon in 1998.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Texas declared its secession from the Union on February 1, 1861, and joined the Confederate States on March 2, 1861, after it had replaced its governor, Sam Houston, who had refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy. As with those of other states, the Declaration of Secession was not recognized by the US government at Washington, DC. Some Texan military units fought in the Civil War east of the Mississippi River, but Texas was more useful for supplying soldiers and horses for the Confederate Army. Texas' supply role lasted until mid-1863, when Union gunboats started to control the Mississippi River, which prevented large transfers of men, horses, or cattle. Some cotton was sold in Mexico, but most of the crop became useless because of the Union's naval blockade of Galveston, Houston, and other ports.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: In the early winter of 1860, Texan counties sent delegates to a special convention to debate the merits of secession. The convention adopted an "Ordinance of Secession" by a vote of 166 to 8, which was ratified by a popular referendum on February 23.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: From the Ordinance of Secession, which was considered a legal document, Texas also issued a declaration of causes spelling out the rationale for declaring secession. The document specifies several reasons for secession, including its solidarity with its "sister slave-holding States," the U.S. government's inability to prevent Indian attacks, slave-stealing raids, and other border-crossing acts of banditry. It accuses northern politicians and abolitionists of committing a variety of outrages upon Texans. The bulk of the document offers justifications for slavery saying that remaining a part of the United States would jeopardize the security of the two. The declaration includes this extract praising slavery, in which the Union itself is referred to as the "confederacy":


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: At this time, African Americans comprised around 30 percent of the state's population, and they were overwhelmingly enslaved. According to one Texan, keeping them enslaved was the primary goal of the state in joining the Confederacy:


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Following the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, public opinion among free citizens in the cotton states of the Lower South (South Carolina through Texas) swung in favor of secession. By February 1861, the other six states of the sub-region had separately passed ordinances of secession. However, events in Texas were delayed, largely due to the resistance of Southern Unionist governor, Sam Houston. Unlike the other "cotton states"' chief executives, who took the initiative in secessionist efforts, Houston refused to call the Texas Legislature into special session to consider the question, relenting only when it became apparent citizens were prepared to act without him.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: In early December 1860, before South Carolina even seceded, a group of State officials published via newspaper a call for a statewide election of convention delegates on January 8, 1861. This election was highly irregular, even for the standards of the day. It often relied on voice vote at public meetings, although "viva voce" (voice) voting for popular elections had been used since at least March 1846, less than three months after statehood. Unionists were often discouraged from attending or chose not to participate. This resulted in lopsided representation of secessionists delegates.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: The election call had stipulated for the delegates to assemble in convention on January 28. Houston called the Legislature into session, hoping that the elected body would declare the unauthorized convention illegal. Though he expressed reservations about the election of Abraham Lincoln, he urged the State of Texas to reject secession, citing the horrors of war and a probable defeat of the South. The convention removed Houston from the governorship, then promoted the Lieutenant Governor, Edward Clark.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: With gubernatorial forces routed, the Secession Convention convened on January 28 and, in the first order of business, voted to back the legislature 140–28 in that an ordinance of secession, if adopted, be submitted for statewide consideration. The following day, convention president Oran Milo Roberts introduced a resolution suggesting Texas leave the Union.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: The ordinance was read on the floor the next day, citing the failures of the federal government to protect the lives and property of Texas citizens and accusing the Northern states of using the same as a weapon to "strike down the interests and prosperity" of the Southern people.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: After the grievances were listed, the ordinance repealed the one of July 4, 1845, in which Texas approved annexation by the United States and the Constitution of the United States, and revoked all powers of, obligations to, and allegiance to, the U.S. federal government and the U.S. Constitution.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: In the interests of historical significance and posterity, the ordinance was written to take effect on March 2, the date of Texas Declaration of Independence (and, coincidentally, Houston's birthday).


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: On February 1, members of the Legislature, and a huge crowd of private citizens, packed the House galleries and balcony to watch the final vote on the question of secession. Seventy "yea" votes were recorded before there was a single "nay." One of the negative votes is enshrined in Texas history books. James Webb Throckmorton, from Collin County in North Texas, in response to the roar of hisses and boos and catcalls which greeted his decision, retorted, "When the rabble hiss, well may patriots tremble." Appreciating his style, the crowd afforded him a grudging round of applause (like many Texans who initially opposed secession, Throckmorton accepted the result and served his state, rising to the rank of brigadier-general in the Confederate army).


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: The final tally for secession was 166–7. Other than in South Carolina, where the vote was unanimous, this was the highest percentage of any other state of the Lower South. On February 7, the Legislature ordered a referendum to be held on the ordinance under the direction of the convention. The decision was further affirmed on February 23 when a statewide referendum resulted in Texas voters approving the measure, 46,129 to 14,697.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: The last order of business was to appoint a delegation to represent Texas in Montgomery, Alabama, where their counterparts from the other six seceding states were meeting to form a new Confederacy. On March 4, the convention assembled again to formally declare Texas out of the Union and to approve the "Constitution of the Confederate States of America", which had been drawn up by its "Provisional Congress" (as it turned out, Texas had already been admitted into the fold on March 1).


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: In March, George Williamson, the Louisianan state commissioner, addressed the Texan secession convention, where he called upon Texas and the slave states of the U.S. to declare secession from the Union in order to continue the institution of slavery:


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Governor Sam Houston accepted secession but asserted that the convention had no power to link the state with the new Southern Confederacy. Instead, he urged that Texas revert to its former status as an independent republic and stay neutral. Houston took his seat on March 16, the date state officials were scheduled to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy. He remained silent as his name was called out three times and, after failing to respond, the office of governor was declared vacant and Houston was deposed from office.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: After Texas passed its Ordinance of Secession, the state government appointed four men as "Commissioners of Public Safety" to negotiate with the federal government for the safe transfer of military installations and bases in Texas to the Confederates. Along with land baron Samuel A. Maverick and Thomas J. Devine, Dr. Philip N. Luckett met with U.S. Army General David E. Twiggs on February 8, 1861, to arrange the surrender of the federal property in San Antonio, including the military stores being housed in the old Alamo mission.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: As a result of the negotiations, Twiggs delivered his entire command and its associated Army property (10,000 rifled muskets) to the Confederacy, an act that brought cries of treason from Unionists throughout the state. Almost immediately, Twiggs was dismissed from the U.S. Army by President Buchanan for "treachery to the flag of his country." Shortly afterwards, he accepted a commission as general in the Confederate Army but was so upset by being branded a traitor that he wrote a letter to Buchanan stating the intention to call upon him for a "personal interview" (then a common euphemism to fight a duel). Future Confederate general Robert E. Lee, then still a colonel in the U.S. Army, was in San Antonio at the time and when he heard the news of the surrender to Texas authorities, responded, "Has it come so soon as this?"


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Despite the prevailing view of the vast majority of the state's politicians and the delegates to the Secession Convention, there were a significant number of Texans who opposed secession. The referendum on the issue indicated that some 25% of the (predominantly white) males eligible to vote favored remaining in the Union at the time the question was originally considered.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: The largest concentration of anti-secession sentiment was among the German Texan population in the Texas Hill Country, and in some of the counties of North Texas. In the latter region, most of the residents were originally from states of the Upper South. Some of the leaders initially opposed to secession accepted the Confederate cause once the matter was decided, some withdrew from public life, others left the state, and a few even joined the Union army. Confederate conscription laws forced most men of military age into the Confederate army, regardless of their sentiment. However, at least 2,000 Texans joined the Union ranks.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Many Unionists were executed. Conscription into the Confederate Army was unacceptable to many Unionists and some attempted to flee from Texas. Capt. James Duff, Confederate provost marshal for the Hill Country, executed two Unionists, prompting flight. In August 1862, Confederate soldiers under Lt. Colin D. McRae tracked down a band of German Texans headed out of state and attacked their camp in a bend of the Nueces River. After a pitched battle that resulted in the deaths of two Confederates and the wounding of McRae and eighteen of his men, the Unionists were routed. Approximately 19 Unionists were killed in the fighting. After the battle 9 to 11 of the wounded Unionists were murdered with shots to the head in what became known as the Nueces massacre. Another nine Unionists were pursued and executed in the following weeks. Future Republican congressman Edward Degener was the father of two men who were murdered in the massacre. The German population around Austin County, led by Paul Machemehl, was successful in reaching Mexico.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: In October 1862, approximately 150 settlers in and around Cooke County on the Red River were arrested by the 11th Texas Cavalry Regiment led by Colonel William C. Young on the orders of Colonel James Bourland, Confederate Provost Marshal for northern Texas. A court was convened in Gainesville to try them for allegedly plotting to seize the arsenals at Sherman and Gainesville and to kill their Confederate neighbors, seize their property, and to cooperate with Union army forces poised to invade northern Texas from Arkansas and/or Indian Territory. Several of the settlers were hanged in what is now downtown Gainesville during the first week of October. Nineteen additional men were found guilty and hanged before the end of the month. A total of about forty Unionists were hanged in Gainesville, two were shot while trying to escape, and two more were hanged elsewhere after being turned over to a military tribunal. Under the primitive conditions on the Texas frontier during the Civil War, evidence against the accused was questionable, and the legal proceedings were highly imperfect. A granite monument in a small park marks the spot where the hangings took place.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: The Confederacy's conscription act proved controversial, not only in Texas but all across the South. Despite the referendum result, some opponents argued that the war was being fought by poor people on behalf of a few wealthy slave owners. The Act exempted from the draft men who owned fifteen or more slaves. Draft resistance was widespread especially among Texans of German or Mexican descent; many of the latter went to Mexico. Potential draftees went into hiding, Confederate officials hunted them down, and many were shot or captured and forced into the army.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Sam Houston was the premier Southern Unionist in Texas. While he argued for slave property rights and deplored the election of the Lincoln Administration, he considered secession unconstitutional and thought secession at that moment in time was a "rash action" that was certain to lead to a conflict favoring the industrial and populated North. He predicted: "Let me tell you what is coming. After the sacrifice of countless millions of treasure and hundreds of thousands of lives, you may win Southern independence if God be not against you, but I doubt it. I tell you that, while I believe with you in the doctrine of states rights, the North is determined to preserve this Union. They are not a fiery, impulsive people as you are, for they live in colder climates. But when they begin to move in a given direction, they move with the steady momentum and perseverance of a mighty avalanche; and what I fear is, they will overwhelm the South."


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Houston rejected the actions of the Texas Secession Convention, believing it had overstepped its authority in becoming a member state of the newly formed Confederacy. He refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy and was deposed from office. In a speech he wrote, but did not deliver, he said:


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: After his ouster from the governor's office, Houston maintained a low public profile until his death in July 1863. Before he died, Houston wrote a friend in June 1861: "There comes a time a man's section is his country...I stand with mine. I was a conservative citizen of the United States...I am now a conservative citizen of the Southern Confederacy."


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Over 70,000 Texans served in the Confederate army and Texas regiments fought in every major battle throughout the war. Some men were veterans of the Mexican–American War; a few had served in the earlier Texas Revolution. The state furnished the Confederacy with 45 regiments of cavalry, 23 regiments of infantry, 12 battalions of cavalry, 4 battalions of infantry, 5 regiments of heavy artillery, and 30 batteries of light artillery. The state maintained at its own expense some additional troops that were for home defense. These included 5 regiments and 4 battalions of cavalry, and 4 regiments and one battalion of infantry. In 1862 the Confederate Congress in Richmond, Virginia, passed a conscription law that ordered all men from 18 to 45 years of age to be placed into military service except ministers, state, city, county officers, and certain slave owners; all persons holding 20 slaves or more were exempt from Confederate conscription under the "Twenty Negro Law".


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: When the first companies of Texas soldiers reached Richmond, Virginia, Confederate President Jefferson Davis greeted them with the words: "Texans! The troops of other states have their reputations to gain, but the sons of the defenders of the Alamo have theirs to maintain. I am assured that you will be faithful to the trust."


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: "The Texas Brigade" (also known as "Hood's Brigade") was a unit composed of the 1st, 4th and 5th Texas Infantry Regiments augmented at times by the 18th Georgia Infantry and Hampton's (South Carolina) Legion until they were permanently teamed with the 3rd Arkansas Infantry. Often serving as "shock troops" of General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, the Texas Brigade was "always favorites" of General Lee and on more than one occasion Lee praised their fighting qualities, remarking that none had brought greater honor to their native state than "my Texans." Hood's men suffered severe casualties in a number of fights, most notably at the Battle of Antietam, where they faced off with Wisconsin's Iron Brigade, and at Gettysburg, where they assaulted Houck's Ridge and then Little Round Top.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: "Walker's Greyhound Division" was a division composed of four brigades with Texan units; the only division in the Confederate States Army that maintained its single-state composition throughout the war. Formed in 1862, under command of Major General John George Walker it fought in the Western Theater and the Trans-Mississippi Department, and was considered an elite backbone of the army. Detached from the division in 1863, the 4th brigade fought at the Battle of Arkansas Post, where it became isolated and was forced to surrender. A new 4th brigade was added to the division in 1865.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Among the most famous mounted units were Terry's Texas Rangers, a militia of former rangers and frontiersmen, many of whom later became peacekeepers in the Old West; and the 33rd Texas Cavalry Regiment of Colonel Santos Benavides, which guarded the Confederate cotton trade lines from Texas into northern Mexico.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Over 2,000 Texas men joined the Union Army. Notable among them was future Texas governor Edmund J. Davis who initially commanded the Union Army's 1st Texas Cavalry Regiment and rose to the rank of brigadier general.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Texas's relatively large German population around Austin County led by Paul Machemehl tried to remain neutral in the war but eventually left Confederate Texas for Mexico. East Texas gave the most support to secession, and the only east Texas counties in which significant numbers of people opposed secession were Angelina County, Fannin County, and Lamar County, although these counties supplied many men to Texas regiments, including the 9th Texas Infantry Regiment; the 1st Partisan Rangers; 3rd, 4th, 9th, 27th, and 29th Texas Cavalry Regiments; and the 9th Texas Field Battery.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: In 1862, Abraham Lincoln named a former United States Congressman, Andrew J. Hamilton, as the Military Governor of Texas. Hamilton held the title throughout the War. During the early stages of Reconstruction Hamilton was named as the first provisional civilian governor. For a time thereafter, active-duty U.S. Army officers served as military governors of Texas.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Years into the war, one Confederate soldier from Texas gave his reasons for fighting for the Confederacy, stating that "we are fighting for our property", while in his view Union soldiers were fighting for the "flimsy and abstract idea that a negro is equal to an Anglo".


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Texas did not experience many significant battles. However, the Union mounted several attempts to capture the "Trans-Mississippi" regions of Texas and Louisiana from 1862 until the war's end. With ports to the east captured or under blockade, Texas in particular became a blockade-running haven.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Under the Anaconda Plan, the Union Navy blockaded the principal seaport, Galveston and the entire Gulf and Southern borders, for four years, and federal troops occupied the city for three months in late 1862. Confederate troops under Gen. John B. Magruder recaptured the city on January 1, 1863, and it remained in Confederate hands until the end of the war. A few days later the Confederate raider CSS "Alabama" attacked and sank the USS "Hatteras" in a naval engagement off the coast of Galveston.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Civilian Blockade Runners largely evaded the Union blockades, bandits, and Union-sympathetic Mexicans in order to smuggle cotton out of The Port of Bagdad, Mexico at a premium in exchange for goods on European and black markets, as Texas offered an unparalleled and significant opportunity to export Southern cotton out of the Confederacy. President Lincoln referred to the strategic importance of this economic movement through the Rio Grande to the Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton in 1863 stating, "no local object is now more desirable." The Rio Grande Expedition, led by General Nathaniel P. Banks, was then sent forth to secure the ports near Brownsville and pushed 100 miles in-land, in order to impede the flow of cotton and deny freedom of movement.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: A few other cities also fell to Union troops at times during the war, including Port Lavaca, Indianola, and Brownsville. Federal attempts to seize control of Laredo, Corpus Christi, and Sabine Pass failed. By the end of the war no territory but Brazos Island and El Paso was in Union hands. The California Column occupied the region around El Paso from 1862 to the end of the war.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: The most notable military battle in Texas during the war happened on September 8, 1863. At the Second Battle of Sabine Pass, a small garrison of 46 Confederates from the mostly-Irish Davis Guards under Lt. Richard W. Dowling, 1st Texas Heavy Artillery, defeated a much larger Union force from New Orleans under Gen. William B. Franklin. Skilled gunnery by Dowling's troops disabled the lead ships in Franklin's flotilla, prompting the remainder—4,000 men on 27 ships—to retreat back to New Orleans. This victory against such overwhelming odds resulted in the Confederate Congress passing a special resolution of recognition, and the only contemporary military decoration of the South, the Davis Guards Medal. CSA President Jefferson Davis stated, "Sabine Pass will stand, perhaps for all time, as the greatest military victory in the history of the world."


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: In 1864, many Texas forces, including a division under Camille de Polignac, a French prince and Confederate general, moved into Northwestern Louisiana to stall Union Maj. Gen. Nathaniel Banks' Red River Campaign, which was intended to advance into Texas from its eastern border. Confederate forces halted the expedition at the Battle of Mansfield, just east of the Texas border.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Union forces from Brazos Island launched the Brazos Santiago Expedition, leading to the last battle of the Civil War, the Battle of Palmito Ranch, fought in Texas on May 12, 1865, well after Robert E. Lee's surrender on April 9, 1865, at Old Appomattox Court House, Virginia.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: In the spring of 1865, Texas contained over 60,000 soldiers of the Army of the Trans-Mississippi under General Edmund Kirby Smith. As garrison troops far removed from the main theaters of the war, morale had deteriorated to the point of frequent desertion and thievery. News of the surrender of Lee and other Confederate generals east of the Mississippi finally reached Texas around April 20. Local Confederate authorities had mixed opinions on their future course of action. Most senior military leaders vowed to press on with the war, including commanding general Kirby Smith. Many soldiers, however, greeted frequent speeches whose theme was "fight on, boys" with derision, or simply failed to attend them.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: The month of May brought increasing rates of desertion. News of Joseph E. Johnston's and Richard Taylor's surrenders confirmed that Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas were now essentially alone to continue the Confederate cause. On May 14, troops in Galveston briefly mutinied, but were persuaded to remain under arms. However, morale continued to sink. Generals John B. Magruder and Kirby Smith (who had already corresponded with Union Maj. Gen. John Pope regarding surrender terms on May 9) no longer sought to rally their demoralized troops, but rather began discussing the distribution of Confederate government property. Magruder pleaded that the rapid disbanding of the army would prevent depredations by disgruntled soldiers against the civilian population.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: The haste to disband the army, combined with the pressing need to protect Confederate property from Union confiscation, created general mayhem. Soldiers began openly pillaging the Galveston quartermasters stores on May 21. Over the next few days, a mob demanded that a government warehouse be opened to them, and soldiers detained and plundered a train. Several hundred civilians sacked the blockade runner "Lark" when it docked on May 24, and troops sent to pacify the crowd soon joined in the plunder. On May 23, residents in Houston sacked the ordnance building and the clothing bureau. Riots continued in the city until May 26. Both government and private stores were raided extensively in Tyler, Marshall, Huntsville, Gonzales, Hempstead, La Grange, and Brownsville. In Navasota, a powder explosion cost eight lives and flattened twenty buildings. In Austin, the State Treasury was raided and $17,000 in gold was stolen. By May 27, half of the original Confederate forces in Texas had deserted or been disbanded, and formal order had disappeared into lawlessness in many areas of Texas.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: The formal remnants of Kirby Smith's army had finally disintegrated by the end of May. Upon his arrival in Houston from Shreveport, the general called a court of inquiry to investigate the "causes and manner of the disbandment of the troops in the District of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona." The May 30 findings laid the blame primarily on the civilian population. Kirby Smith addressed his few remaining soldiers and condemned those that had fled for not struggling to the last and leaving him "a commander without an army– a General without troops." On June 2, he formally surrendered what was left of the Army of the "Trans-Mississippi".


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Federal troops didn't arrive in Texas to restore order until June 19, 1865, when Union Maj. Gen. Gordon Granger and 2,000 Union soldiers arrived on Galveston Island to take possession of the state and enforce the new freedoms of former slaves. The Texas holiday Juneteenth commemorates this date. The Stars and Stripes were not raised over Austin until June 25.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: President Andrew Johnson appointed Union General Andrew J. Hamilton, a prominent politician before the war, as the provisional governor on June 17. He granted amnesty to ex-Confederates if they promised to support the Union in the future, appointing some to office. On March 30, 1870, the United States Congress permitted Texas' representatives to take their seat in Congress, although Texas did not meet all the formal requirements for readmission.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: A number of notable leaders were associated with Texas during the Civil War. John Bell Hood gained fame as the commander of the Texas Brigade in the Army of Northern Virginia and played a prominent role as an army commander late in the war. "Sul" Ross was a significant leader in a number of "Trans-Mississippi" Confederate armies. Felix Huston Robertson was the only native Texan Confederate general. Capt. T. J. Goree was one of Lt. General James Longstreet's most trusted aides. John H. Reagan was an influential member of Jefferson Davis's cabinet. Col. Santos Benavides was a Confederate colonel during the American Civil War. Benavides was the highest-ranking Tejano soldier to serve in the Confederate military.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: The office of Governor of Texas was in flux throughout the war, with several men in power at various times. Sam Houston was governor when Texas seceded from the United States, but refused to declare any loyalty to the new Confederacy. He was replaced by Lieutenant Governor Edward Clark. Clark filled the rest of Houston's term in 1861, and narrowly lost re-election by just 124 votes to Francis Lubbock. During his tenure, Lubbock supported Confederate conscription, working to draft all able-bodied men, including resident aliens, into the Confederate army. When Lubbock's term ended in 1863, he joined the military. Ardent secessionist Pendleton Murrah replaced him in office. Even after Robert E. Lee surrendered in 1865, Murrah encouraged Texans to continue the revolution, and he and several supporters fled to Mexico.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Although one of the original members of the Confederate States of America, much of Texas was not settled until after the Civil War. However, Confederate Heroes Day is an official state holiday, and the month of April is recognized by the Texas Senate as Confederate History Month. Although not an official holiday, April 26 is, among Southern historical organizations within the state, often observed as "Confederate Memorial Day." On the south lawn of the state capital in Austin is a Confederate monument, and several other memorials to individual Texas Confederate military units are nearby. In addition, most Texas county courthouse grounds feature a Confederate memorial.


title: Texas in the American Civil War

text: Texas' largest city, Houston, featured a monument to the Confederacy at its oldest city park, Sam Houston Park, titled "Spirit of the Confederacy". It was sculpted in bronze by Louis Amateis in 1908. However, Houston mayor Sylvester Turner announced on June 11, 2020, that it will be removed. It was relocated to the Houston Museum of African American Culture on June 17, 2020.


title: Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera

text: , along with La Isleta, is a premodern overseas possession known as a . It is administered by the Spanish central government and has a population consisting only of a small number of Spanish military personnel.


title: Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera

text: is located southeast of Ceuta. It was a natural island in the Alboran Sea until 1934, when a huge thunderstorm washed large quantities of sand into the short channel between the island and the African continent. The channel was turned into a tombolo and the island became a peninsula, connected to the Moroccan coast by an long sandy isthmus, which is the world's shortest single land-border segment. With a length of northwest-southeast and a width of up to , it covers about 1.9 ha (4¾ acres).


title: Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera

text: Portugal and Spain passed an agreement in 1496 in which they effectively established their zones of influence on the North African coast. As a result, Spain could occupy territory only east of . This restriction ended with the Iberian Union of Portugal and Spain under Philip II after the 1578 Battle of Alcácer Quibir, when Spain started to take direct actions in Morocco, as in the occupation of Larache.


title: Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera

text: In 1508, Spain launched a successful expedition under the command of Pedro Navarro to take the " located near Badis, held by pirates who were constantly attacking and looting the coast of Southern Spain.


title: Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera

text: In 1522, Spain lost the ' to a Moroccan Berber attack that resulted in the deaths of the whole Spanish garrison. Ali Abu Hassun, the new Wattasid ruler of Morocco in 1554, then gave the ' to Ottoman troops who had assisted him in gaining the throne.


title: Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera

text: The Ottomans used it as a base for corsairs operating in the region of the Strait of Gibraltar. The Sa'di sultan Abdallah al-Ghalib was alarmed by this activity, fearing that the Ottomans might use the town of "Badis" as a base from which to undertake the conquest of Morocco. In 1564, he forced the Moroccans to evacuate the town and the "", which he handed over to the Spaniards. The Moroccan population retired to the kasbah of Senada.


title: Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera

text: In 2012, the territory was assaulted by a group of Moroccan activists belonging to the Committee for the Liberation of Ceuta and Melilla, whose leader was Yahya Yahya.


title: Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera

text: The territory is reached primarily by helicopter via a helipad located on the upper sections. A landing area is located on the south end near the land entrance to .


title: Sharpshooter

text: A sharpshooter is one who is highly proficient at firing firearms or other projectile weapons accurately. Military units composed of sharpshooters were important factors in 19th-century combat. Along with "marksman" and "expert", "sharpshooter" is one of the three marksmanship badges awarded by the United States Army and the United States Marine Corps. The United States Navy and the United States Coast Guard use a ribbon with an attached "S" device to note a sharpshooter qualification.


title: Sharpshooter

text: Some of the earliest mentions of rifling and sharpshooting units in the United States originate in the time following the American Revolutionary War and during the War of 1812. The US army abolished rifle units following the war in 1783, but they were later revived under General Anthony Wayne and used in the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. The unit was again disbanded in 1796 following the conclusion of the Northwest Indian War. However, over the next decade, tensions between and US and British would continue to escalate eventually culminating into the Chesapeake–Leopard affair in 1807. As a result of the incident, the US passed legislation increasing the size of the US Army to allow for the establishment of the Regiment of Riflemen in 1808. As opposed to the standard line infantry equipped with muskets and bright blue and white uniforms, this new regiment focused on specialist light infantry tactics and uniforms were tactically colored in black and green to blend in with surroundings. The unit was equipped with the first American manufactured rifle, the Harpers Ferry Model 1803. Prior to entering the War of 1812, the unit would seem some of its first combat in the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811 as part of the preceding Tecumseh's War, though they had fought in this battle using smoothbore mustkets. By 1813, the unit had found its way to Canada where they launched a series of raids. In February, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Benjamin Forsyth, the regiment led one such successful raid on a British grenadier unit, with one member of the defeated unit later remarking that he had, "Never experienced such sharpshooting."


title: Sharpshooter

text: Another use of units of marksmen was during the Napoleonic Wars in the British Army. While most troops at that time used inaccurate smoothbore muskets, the British "Green Jackets" (named for their distinctive green uniforms) used the famous Baker rifle. Through the combination of a leather wad and tight grooves on the inside of the barrel (rifling), this weapon was far more accurate, though slower to load. These Riflemen were the elite of the British Army, and served at the forefront of any engagement, most often in skirmish formation, scouting out and delaying the enemy. Another term; "sharp shooter", was in use in British newspapers as early as 1801. In the "Edinburgh Advertiser", 23 June 1801, can be found the following quote in a piece about the North British Militia; "This Regiment has several Field Pieces, and two companies of Sharp Shooters, which are very necessary in the modern "Stile of War"." The term appears even earlier, around 1781, in Continental Europe, translated from the German Scharfschütze.


title: Sharpshooter

text: During the American Civil War, sharpshooters saw limited action, as tacticians sought to avoid the heavy casualties inflicted through normal tactics, which involved close ranks of men at close ranges. The sharpshooters used by both sides in the Civil War were less used as snipers, and more as skirmishers and scouts. These elite troops were well equipped and trained, and placed at the front of any column to first engage the enemy. Their battlefield role could be misunderstood, too. At the Battle of Mine Run, one sharpshooter company was ordered to conduct a bayonet charge, even though they were equipped with rifles that were unable to take bayonets.


title: Sharpshooter

text: Notable sharpshooter units of the Civil War included the 1st and 2nd United States Volunteer Sharpshooter Regiment (USVSR), composed of companies provided by numerous (primarily eastern) Union states. The U.S.V.S.R. were organized by Colonel Hiram Berdan, a self-made millionaire who was reputed to be the best rifle marksman in the nation at that time. There were also battalion size sharp shooter units including the Ohio Battalion Sharp Shooters, The First New York Battalion Sharp Shooters and the First Maine Battalion Sharp Shooters. Both the 1st and 2nd Company Massachusetts Sharpshooters saw extensive combat during the conflict. They were armed with heavy, custom target rifles and Sharps rifles during their service.


title: Sharpshooter

text: There was also an all-Native American company of sharpshooters in the Army of the Potomac. These men, primarily Odawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi from northern Michigan, comprised the members of Company K of the 1st Regiment Michigan Volunteer Sharpshooters.


title: Sharpshooter

text: In the Western Theater were the well known 66th Illinois Veteran Volunteer Infantry Regiment (Western Sharpshooters), originally known as "Birge's Western Sharpshooters" and later the "Western Sharpshooters-14th Missouri Volunteers". The regiment was raised by MG John C. Fremont at St. Louis' Benton Barracks as the Western Theater counterpart to Berdan's sharpshooters. Members were recruited from most of the Western states, predominantly Ohio, Michigan, Illinois and Missouri. Competitive induction required candidates to place ten shots in a three-inch circle at 200 yards. They were initially armed with half-stock Plains Rifles built and procured by St. Louis custom gunmaker Horace (H.E.) Dimick.


title: Sharpshooter

text: These "Dimick Rifles" (as they were known in the unit) were modified for military use by the installation of the Lawrence Patent Sight, and fired a special "Swiss-chasseur" minie ball selected by Horice Dimick for its ballistic accuracy. They were the only Federal unit completely armed with "sporting rifles". Beginning in the autumn of 1863 soldiers of the regiment began to reequip themselves with the new 16 shot, lever action Henry Repeating Rifle giving them a significant advantage in firepower over their opponents. Over 250 of the Western Sharpshooters purchased Henrys out of their own pocket, at an average price of forty dollars (over three months pay for a Private). Illinois Governor Richard Yates provided Henrys for some members of the 64th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment or "Yates Sharpshooters" and other soldiers of the unit appear to have similarly equipped themselves with Henry Rifles in 1864.


title: Sharpshooter

text: On the Confederate side, sharpshooter units functioned as light infantry. Their duties included skirmishing and reconnaissance. Robert E. Rodes, colonel of the 5th Alabama Infantry Regiment, and later a major general, was a leader in the development of sharpshooter units. The Confederate States Army made more widespread use of sharpshooters than Federal forces, often having semi-permanent detachments at the regimental level and battalions of various size attached to larger formations. Dedicated sharpshooter units included the 1st Georgia Sharpshooter Battalion and three more from that state, the 9th (Pindall's) Battalion Missouri Sharpshooters as well as the sharpshooter battalions of the Army of Northern Virginia.


title: Sharpshooter

text: Confederate sharpshooters were often less well equipped than their Union counterparts, commonly using the muzzleloading Enfield Rifled Musket or (the more uncommon) hexagonal bore British Whitworth rifles, rather than the breechloading Berdan Sharps rifles used by the Union Army. These marksmen accompanied regular infantrymen and were usually tasked with eliminating Union artillery crews. However, the exceptional long-range accuracy of the Whitworth rifle allowed the eponymous Whitworth Sharpshooters to score several high-profile kills, including the infamous deaths of Brigadier General William Lytle at Chickamauga and Major General John Sedgwick at the Spotsylvania.


title: Sharpshooter

text: In his memoirs, Confederate soldier Louis Leon detailed his service as a sharpshooter in the Fifty-Third North Carolina Regiment during the Civil War. As a sharpshooter, he volunteered as a skirmisher, served on picket duty, and engaged in considerable shooting practice. Of his company's original twelve sharpshooters, only he and one other were still alive after Gettysburg. As related by the regiment's commanding officer, Col. James Morehead, in a rare one-on-one encounter Pvt. Leon killed a Union sharpshooter, whom the Confederates identified as a "Canadian Indian".


title: Lagerstroemia speciosa

text: Lagerstroemia speciosa (giant crepe-myrtle, Queen's crepe-myrtle, banabá plant, or pride of India) is a species of "Lagerstroemia" native to tropical southern Asia. It is a deciduous tree with bright pink to light purple flowers.


title: Lagerstroemia speciosa

text: The genus "Lagerstroemia" was first described by Carl Linnaeus. The name "Lagerstroemia" recognizes Magnus von Lagerstroem, a Swedish naturalist who provided specimens from the East for Linnaeus.


title: Lagerstroemia speciosa

text: It is a small to medium-sized tree growing to tall, with smooth, flaky bark. The leaves are deciduous, oval to elliptic, long and broad, with an acute apex. The flowers are produced in erect panicles long, each flower with six white to purple petals long. The flowers in this plant blooms only once in a year at the peak of summer.


title: Lagerstroemia speciosa

text: It is grown in South East Asia, India, Bangladesh and the Philippines. It is also widely cultivated as an ornamental plant in tropical and subtropical areas. The leaves of the banabá and other parts are used widely in the Philippines, Taiwan, and Japan as a tea preparation. Banabá herb is one of the 69 herbal plants promoted by the Philippine Department of Health (DOH). In Vietnam the plant's young leaves are consumed as vegetables, and its old leaves and mature fruit are used in traditional medicine for reducing glucose in blood.


title: Lagerstroemia speciosa

text: Chemical compounds that have been isolated from the extract include corosolic acid, lager-stroemin, flosin B, and reginin A.


title: Lagerstroemia speciosa

text: Pride of India or "Tāmhan" in Marathi is recognised as the state flower of the state of Maharashtra in India.


title: Lagerstroemia speciosa

text: In Theravada Buddhism, this plant is said to have been used as the tree for achieved enlightenment, or Bodhi by the eleventh Buddha ("Paduma – පදුම"), and the twelfth Buddha (Naarada – නාරද). The plant is known as මුරුත (Murutha) in Sinhala and Mahaasona – මහාසොණ in Sanskrit.


title: John Chard

text: Colonel John Rouse Merriott Chard (21 December 1847 – 1 November 1897) was a British Army officer who received the Victoria Cross, the highest military decoration for valour "in the face of the enemy" that can be awarded to members of the British armed forces. He earned the decoration for his role in the defence of Rorke's Drift in January 1879 where he assumed command of the outpost and a small garrison of 139 soldiers and successfully repulsed an assault by some 3,000 to 4,000 Zulu warriors. The battle was recreated in the film "Zulu" in which Chard was portrayed by Stanley Baker.


title: John Chard

text: Born near Plymouth, Chard attended the Royal Military Academy in Woolwich and was commissioned into the Royal Engineers in July 1868. He was involved with the construction of fortifications in the Bermuda Garrison (three years) and at Malta (two years) before he was deployed to southern Africa at the start of the Anglo-Zulu War. At the end of the war he returned to a hero's welcome in England and was invited to an audience with Queen Victoria. After a series of overseas postings he took up his final position in Perth, Scotland. He retired from the army as a colonel in 1897 after he was diagnosed with terminal cancer and died at his brother's home in Somerset later that year.


title: John Chard

text: Chard was born at Boxhill near Plymouth on 21 December 1847 to William Wheaton Chard and his wife Jane Brimacombe. He had two brothers and four sisters. His elder brother William Wheaton Chard served with the Royal Fusiliers, rising to the rank of colonel, and his younger brother Charles Edward Chard became rector of a parish church in Hatch Beauchamp, Somerset. He was educated at Cheltenham Grammar School and Plymouth New Grammar School, and after a period of private tuition he enrolled at the Royal Military Academy in Woolwich.


title: John Chard

text: On 14 July 1868 Chard received a commission as a lieutenant in the Royal Engineers and continued his training at Chatham for the next two years. He was posted to Bermuda, along with Lieutenant HP Knacker, in 1870 to construct fortifications at the Naval Dockyard near Hamilton and returned to England four years later for his father's funeral. He was then sent to Malta to assist with the improvement of the island's sea defences. He returned to England in 1876 where he was based at Aldershot and Chatham, and was assigned to the 5th Company Royal Engineers.


title: John Chard

text: On 2 December 1878, the 5th Company Royal Engineers were sent to the Colony of Natal in response to a request from Lord Chelmsford, commander of the British forces in southern Africa, for an additional unit of engineers to assist with preparations for the invasion of the Zulu Kingdom. After their arrival on 5 January, Chard was dispatched with a small group of sappers to repair and maintain the ponts at one of the few crossings of the Buffalo River which ran along the border of Natal and the Zulu Kingdom. A short distance downstream was Rorke's Drift, an isolated mission station used as a staging post for the British invasion force. It consisted of two thatched bungalows about apart—the western building was used as a hospital, and the eastern building had been converted into a storehouse. Garrisoned at the Drift were Chelmsford's quartermaster general, Major Henry Spalding, a company of the 2nd Battalion 24th Regiment of Foot commanded by Lieutenant Gonville Bromhead, and a large company of the 3rd Natal Native Contingent (NNC).


title: John Chard

text: Chard's group arrived on 19 January and set up camp near the crossing. On the morning of 22 January, he received an order that his sappers were required at Isandlwana to the east, where Chelmsford had set up an advanced camp for his main invasion column which had marched into Zulu territory two weeks before. However, when he arrived Chard was informed that only his men were required and that he should return to Rorke's Drift. While at Isandlwana, Chard had witnessed a Zulu army approaching the camp in the distance and upon his return to the Drift at about 1 pm, he informed Spalding of the situation. Spalding decided to depart the Drift to hurry British reinforcements en route from Helpmekaar, but before he left, he checked a copy of the Army List which confirmed that Chard was senior to Bromhead. Therefore, Chard, a "notoriously relaxed" man with no combat experience, was unexpectedly placed in command of the small garrison.


title: John Chard

text: Unconcerned by the presence of the Zulus nearby, Chard returned to his tent by the river crossing, but he was soon after disturbed by two NNC officers on horseback who informed him that the camp at Isandlwana had been overwhelmed and annihilated by the Zulus. Returning to the station, Chard found Bromhead and Assistant Commissary James Dalton had already instructed the troops to use mealie bags to construct a defensive perimeter between the storehouse and hospital. Chard consented and by 4 pm the hastily constructed perimeter was complete. Soon afterwards, the Zulu "impi", which contained some 3,000–4,000 men, was sighted advancing on their position. This caused the NNC troops to panic and desert the station, reducing the number of defenders from around 350 to approximately 140 (including 30 sick and wounded). Chard immediately ordered an additional barricade of biscuit boxes to be built across the inner perimeter to provide a smaller fall-back area should the Zulus overwhelm a part of the thinly manned perimeter.


title: John Chard

text: The first waves of Zulu assault were repulsed by British volley fire, but the attackers pushed on relentlessly, particularly along a vulnerable section of the British perimeter by the hospital which became the centre of fierce hand-to-hand combat. With British casualties mounting, Chard ordered his troops to withdraw behind the biscuit boxes, which left the western half of the station in Zulu hands, including the hospital, which was subsequently set alight by the attackers. Once inside, Chard ordered the construction of a redoubt made from a tall pyramid of mealie bags to provide shelter to the wounded and form the last line of defence. The Zulus continued to attack in intermittent waves during the night, but they were illuminated by the burning thatch, which enabled the defenders to spot their advances. By 5 am, the exhausted Zulus had abandoned the attack, and British reinforcements arrived later that morning. Chard counted 351 dead Zulus scattered around the perimeter. The British suffered 17 killed and 10 wounded.