title: Shoji

text: By the mid-1600s, single-track ama-do had spread, and the ama-do might be placed on the outside of the engawa. The combination of architectural changes marked the end of the shoin style, and the beginning of the sukiya style.


title: Shoji

text: Unlike the Shiden and Shoin styles, the Sukiya system was, and still is, used in Japanese buildings of all classes. Simple shoji became fairly cheap (standardization has already been mentioned), so they were not restricted to the homes of the rich (see illustrations).


title: Shoji

text: Paper-and-wood construction is very liable to fire; densely-packed nagaya row houses were therefore also known as yakeya (, , burning houses). Fires were a major problem in Japanese cities well into the Meiji Period; homes (including their furniture and the standardized architectural modules, such as tatami and hiki-do and even floorboards) were made to be quickly packed up and carried away when fire threatened, leaving only the stripped pillars and roof, which could easily be pulled down by firefighters.


title: Shoji

text: Plate glass was introduced to Japan in the late 1800s. It was used in yukimi shoji (see above) and in paperless garasu-do (, Dutch loan-word "garasu", glass). Some early garasu-do were divided into panes by mullions, like contemporary western windows (see images).


title: Shoji

text: The float glass technique, which made large panes of picture-quality glass cheap, was developed in the 1950s in the UK. The process was made profitable in 1960, and in the early sixties plants were licensed throughout the world, including in Japan. Japan had developed substantial domestic float glass production by 1965. As 1960s float glass produced large single-pane picture windows in Western architecture, some influenced by the architecture of Japan, it also had an effect on Japanese architecture. Float glass was widely applied to traditional kōshi frames, without much change to the traditional structure or appearance.


title: Shoji

text: In modern Japan, it is fairly common to have garasu-do (all-glass sliding doors) on the outside of the engawa (veranda under the eaves), and translucent shoji on the inside, especially in cold climates. A layer of paper shoji behind a layer of glass helps to insulate the house. Ama-do are still used to protect the glass; for instance, glass doors and shoji may get two grooves each, and ama-do a single additional groove just outside the glass. Shoji are common in the washitsu of modern Japanese homes; they may also be used instead of curtains in Western-style rooms.


title: Shoji

text: The silhouettes cast through shoji, and visible on the darker side, are valued for their aesthetic effects. In his book on Japanese aesthetics and architecture, "In Praise of Shadows", Jun'ichirō Tanizaki comments on the role of shoji in the interaction of light and shadows. Shoji also filter the outside light. How light is brought inside a traditional building, and what kind of light, is considered an integral part of the livability and aesthetics of an interior space.


title: Shoji

text: The ability to slide the shoji aside, and take them out and put them in a closet, means that living space is more spacious, open, and more connected to the garden outside. It also means that rooms can be thrown together for special occasions, so that a small house can host large social gatherings. This attribute has been valued since at least Heian times.


title: Shoji

text: Paper shoji can be painted on. While paint blocks the light, shoji were sometimes used for signage (see images).


title: Shoji

text: Portability has encouraged the use of shoji on ceremonial occasions and in theater. A person being thrown through shoji is an action-movie cliché.


title: Andre Geim

text: Sir Andre Konstantin Geim (; born 21 October 1958; IPA1 pronunciation: ɑːndreɪ gaɪm) is a Russian-born Dutch-British physicist working in England in the School of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Manchester.


title: Andre Geim

text: Geim was awarded the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics jointly with Konstantin Novoselov for his work on graphene. He is Regius Professor of Physics and Royal Society Research Professor at the National Graphene Institute. Sir Andre Geim had also been awarded an Ig Nobel Prize earlier in 2000 for levitating a frog using its intrinsic magnetism. He is the only individual, as of 2021, to have received both Nobel and Ig Nobel prizes.


title: Andre Geim

text: Andre Geim was born to Konstantin Alekseyevich Geim and Nina Nikolayevna Bayer in Sochi, Russia, on 21 October 1958. Both his parents were engineers of German origin. His grandfather Nikolay N. Bayer (Mykola Baier in Ukrainian) was a notable public figure in Ukraine of the early 20th century, one of its first nature conservationists and the founder/first rector of Kaminiets-Podilskyi University.


title: Andre Geim

text: In 1965, the family moved to Nalchik, where he studied at a high school. After graduation, he applied to the Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. He took the entrance exams twice, but attributes his failure to qualify to discrimination on account of his German ethnicity. He then applied to the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT), where he was accepted.


title: Andre Geim

text: He said that at the time he would not have chosen to study solid-state physics, preferring particle physics or astrophysics, but is now happy with his choice. He received a diplom (MSc degree equivalent) from MIPT in 1982 and a Candidate of Sciences (PhD equivalent) degree in metal physics in 1987 from the Institute of Solid State Physics (ISSP) at the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) in Chernogolovka.


title: Andre Geim

text: After earning his PhD with Victor Petrashov, Geim worked as a research scientist at the Institute for Microelectronics Technology (IMT) at RAS, and from 1990 as a post-doctoral fellow at the universities of Nottingham (twice), Bath, and Copenhagen. He said that while at Nottingham he could spend his time on research rather than "swimming through Soviet treacle," and determined to leave the Soviet Union.


title: Andre Geim

text: He obtained his first tenured position in 1994, when he was appointed associate professor at Radboud University Nijmegen, where he worked on mesoscopic superconductivity. He later gained Dutch citizenship. One of his doctoral students at Nijmegen was Konstantin Novoselov, who went on to become his main research partner. However, Geim has said that he had an unpleasant time during his academic career in the Netherlands.


title: Andre Geim

text: He was offered professorships at Nijmegen and Eindhoven, but turned them down as he found the Dutch academic system too hierarchical and full of petty politicking. "This can be pretty unpleasant at times," he says. "It's not like the British system where every staff member is an equal quantity." On the other hand, Geim writes in his Nobel lecture that "the situation was a bit surreal because outside the university walls I received a warm-hearted welcome from everyone around, including Jan Kees and other academics." (Prof. Jan Kees Maan was the research boss of Geim during his time at Radboud University Nijmegen.)


title: Andre Geim

text: In 2001 he became a professor of physics at the University of Manchester, and was appointed director of the Manchester Centre for Mesoscience and Nanotechnology in 2002. Geim's wife and long-standing co-author, Irina Grigorieva, also moved to Manchester as a lecturer in 2001. The same year, they were joined by Novoselov who moved to Manchester from Nijmegen, which awarded him a PhD in 2004. Geim served as Langworthy Professor between 2007 and 2013, leaving this endowed professorship to Novoselov in 2012. Also, between 2007 and 2010 Geim was an EPSRC Senior Research Fellow before becoming one of Royal Society Research Professors.


title: Andre Geim

text: Geim holds many honorary professorships including those from Tsinghua University (China), Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (Russia), and Radboud University Nijmegen (Netherlands).


title: Andre Geim

text: Geim's achievements include the discovery of a simple method for isolating single atomic layers of graphite, known as graphene, in collaboration with researchers at the University of Manchester and IMT. The team published their findings in October 2004 in "Science".


title: Andre Geim

text: Graphene consists of one-atom-thick layers of carbon atoms arranged in two-dimensional hexagons, and is the thinnest material in the world, as well as one of the strongest and hardest. The material has many potential applications.


title: Andre Geim

text: Geim said one of the first applications of graphene could be in the development of flexible touchscreens, and that he has not patented the material because he would need a specific application and an industrial partner.


title: Andre Geim

text: Geim also developed a biomimetic adhesive which became known as gecko tape—so called because it works on the same principle as adhesion of gecko feet—research of which is still in the early stages. It is hoped that the development will eventually allow humans to scale ceilings, like Spider-Man.


title: Andre Geim

text: Geim's research in 1997 into the possible effects of magnetism on water scaling led to the famous discovery of direct diamagnetic levitation of water, and led to a frog being levitated. For this experiment, he and Michael Berry received the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize. "We were asked first whether we dared to accept this prize, and I take pride in our sense of humor and self-deprecation that we did".


title: Andre Geim

text: He said of the range of subjects he has studied: "Many people choose a subject for their PhD and then continue the same subject until they retire. I despise this approach. I have changed my subject five times before I got my first tenured position and that helped me to learn different subjects." "When one dares to try, rewards are not guaranteed but at least it is an adventure."


title: Andre Geim

text: Expanding the scope of his research adventures, Geim started studying low-dimensional water in 2012, after his Nobel-prize achievements. A part of this work was acknowledged by the 2018 International Creativity Prize for Water.


title: Andre Geim

text: In 2006 he appeared on the "Scientific American" 50. The Institute of Physics awarded him the 2007 Mott Medal and Prize "for his discovery of a new class of materials—free-standing two-dimensional crystals—in particular graphene". Geim was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2007. His certificate of election reads:


title: Andre Geim

text: He shared the 2008 EPS Europhysics Prize with Novoselov "for discovering and isolating a single free-standing atomic layer of carbon (graphene) and elucidating its remarkable electronic properties". In 2009 he received the Körber European Science Award. The US National Academy of Sciences honoured him with the 2010 John J. Carty Award for the Advancement of Science "for his experimental realisation and investigation of graphene, the two-dimensional form of carbon".


title: Andre Geim

text: He was awarded one of six Royal Society 2010 Anniversary Research Professorships. The Royal Society added its 2010 Hughes Medal "for his revolutionary discovery of graphene and elucidation of its remarkable properties". He was awarded honorary doctorates from Delft University of Technology, ETH Zürich, the University of Antwerp and the University of Manchester. In 2010, Geim was appointed as Knight Commander of the Order of the Netherlands Lion for his contribution to Dutch Science.


title: Andre Geim

text: In 2011, Geim became a corresponding member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. He is Honorary Professor of Moscow Phys-Tech, Honorary Professor of the University of Nijmegen, Honorary Fellow of the Institute of Physics (HonFInstP), Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry (HonFRSC), Honorary Fellow of Singapore Institute of Physics, Honorary Professor of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Geim was furthermore made a Knight Bachelor in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to science. He was elected a foreign associate of the US National Academy of Sciences in May 2012. He was awarded the Copley Medal in 2013 and the Carbon Medal in 2016. Geim received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 2017. In addition to this he also won the 2018 Fray International Sustainability Award given to him by FLOGEN Star Outreach at SIPS 2018


title: Andre Geim

text: On 5 October 2010, Geim was awarded the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics jointly with Novoselov "for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene". Upon hearing of the award he said, "I'm fine, I slept well. I didn't expect the Nobel Prize this year", and that his plans for the day would not change. The lecture for the award took place on 8 December 2010 at Stockholm University. He said he hopes that graphene and other two-dimensional crystals will change everyday life as plastics did for humanity, although we need to wait for a few decades to see the results.


title: Andre Geim

text: Geim shared the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize in physics with Michael Berry for the frog experiment. He received it for using the magnetic properties of water scaling to levitate a small frog with magnets.


title: Andre Geim

text: Mark Miodownik said that his award shows that people can still win a Nobel by "mucking about in a lab". The award made him the first person to win, as an individual, both a Nobel Prize and an Ig Nobel Prize. On winning both a Nobel and Ig Nobel, he has stated that


title: Andre Geim

text: By 2022 his Ig Nobel for the magnetic levitation of a frog was reportedly part of the inspiration for China's lunar gravity research facility.


title: Andre Geim

text: Geim was one of 38 Nobel laureates who signed a declaration in 2010 issued by Scholars for Peace in the Middle East protesting an international initiative to boycott Israeli academics, institutions, and research centers.


title: Andre Geim

text: At the "Nobel Minds" symposium in December 2010, Geim said the Nobel Peace Prize committee's choice of Chinese dissident, the imprisoned Liu Xiaobo, as winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, was patronising, saying


title: Andre Geim

text: "Look at the people who give this Nobel prize. They are retired Norwegian politicians who have spent all their careers in a safe environment, in an oil-rich modern country. They try to extend their views of the world, how the world should work and how democracy works in another country. It's very, very patronising— they have not lived in these countries. In the past 10 years, China has developed not only economically, but even the strongest human rights supporter would agree also human rights have improved. Why do we need to distort this?"


title: Andre Geim

text: Geim has written several opinion pieces for "The Financial Times", examples of which can be found on his university webpage.


title: Andre Geim

text: In 2014, Geim's interview for "Desert Island Discs", a popular BBC radio programme, revealed details of his personal life and taste in music.


title: Andre Geim

text: A quote from Geim was deliberately doctored by the campaign group Vote Leave in the run-up to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum. An open letter about science, signed by 13 Conservative MPs including Boris Johnson, attempted to paint European science funding as unnecessarily bureaucratic and deliberately misrepresented Geim's views on Europe:


title: Andre Geim

text: As the Nobel Prize winner Andre Geim said: 'I can offer no nice words for the EU framework programmes <nowiki>[for research]</nowiki> which ... can be praised only by Europhobes for discrediting the whole idea of an effectively working Europe.'


title: Andre Geim

text: The ellipsis (...) present in the quotation from Geim's Nobel lecture removed the words "except for the European Research Council".


title: Andre Geim

text: Geim has a complex ancestry which is described in detail in his Nobel Prize autobiography. There, Geim stated that most of his family are ethnic Germans, his father descended from Volga Germans and his mother mostly an ethnic German as well. Both his father and paternal grandfather had spent many years of their lives as prisoners in Siberia in Stalin's Gulags, and "some of the family had been prisoners in German concentration camps". He also states that he "suffered from anti-Semitism in Russia because my name sounds Jewish".


title: Andre Geim

text: Geim summarises his identity as follows. "To the best of my knowledge, the only Jew in the family was my great-grandmother, with the rest on both sides being German. Having lived and worked in several European countries, I consider myself European and do not believe that any further taxonomy is necessary, especially in such a fluid world as the world of science."


title: The O.C. (season 2)

text: The second season of "The O.C." commenced airing in the United States on November 4, 2004, concluded on May 19, 2005, and consisted of 24 episodes. It aired Thursdays at 8:00 p.m. ET in the US on FOX, a terrestrial television network. In addition to the regular 24 episodes, two special episodes aired before the season premiere. "The O.C.: Obsess Completely" documented the show's influence on popular culture in its first year. The following week, "Welcome to The O.C.: A Day in the Life," provided a behind-the-scenes look at the show.


title: The O.C. (season 2)

text: The season was released on DVD as a seven-disc boxed set under the title "The O.C.: The Complete Second Season" on August 23, 2005, by Warner Bros. Home Video. On September 7, 2008, the season became available to purchase for registered users of the US iTunes Store. In the United Kingdom the season premiered January 11, 2005 on Channel 4. In Canada the season aired on CTV Television Network and in Australia it was broadcast by Network Ten.


title: The O.C. (season 2)

text: Ryan, Marissa, Summer, and Seth enter their Junior year, but have serious tension between them all that has been building all summer. Kirsten and Julie navigates new water as mother and daughter, while Julie's crime filled past comes back to haunt her. Ryan's older ex-con brother Trey gives Newport a try.


title: The O.C. (season 2)

text: The season was produced by Warner Bros. Television and Wonderland Sound and Vision. The executive producers were series creator Josh Schwartz, McG and Bob DeLaurentis. Stephanie Savage and Allan Heinberg served as co-executive producers, with Loucas George credited as producer. The staff writers were Schwartz, Savage, Heinberg, John Stephens, J.J. Philbin and Mike Kelley. The regular directors throughout the season were Michael Lange, Ian Toynton, Michael Fresco and Tony Wharmby.


title: The O.C. (season 2)

text: The second season had star billing for nine major roles. Peter Gallagher as Sandy Cohen, Kelly Rowan as Kirsten Cohen, Ben McKenzie as Ryan Atwood, Mischa Barton as Marissa Cooper, Adam Brody as Seth Cohen, Melinda Clarke as recently married Julie Cooper-Nichol and Rachel Bilson as Summer Roberts all returned to the main cast. Tate Donovan also initially reprised his role as Jimmy Cooper, but was written out of the series in the seventh episode. However Donovan returned with Jimmy as a guest star in the season finale. Alan Dale, as newly wed Caleb Nichol, joined the main cast, having previously been a recurring role. Former main cast member Chris Carmack, who portrayed Luke Ward, only guest starred in the first episode.


title: The O.C. (season 2)

text: Nicholas Gonzalez (as D.J.), Michael Cassidy (as Zach Stevens), Shannon Lucio (as Lindsay Gardner) and Olivia Wilde (as Alex Kelly) all took up recurring roles in the show as love interests of existing characters, Marissa, Summer, Ryan and Seth, who are all single now.


title: The O.C. (season 2)

text: Actors returning as guest stars included Amanda Righetti (as Hailey Nichol), Michael Nouri (as Dr. Neil Roberts), Navi Rawat (as Theresa Diaz), Brian McNamara (as Carson Ward), Kim Oja (as Taryn Baker) and Linda Lavin (as The Nana). Ryan's brother Trey Atwood also returned, but Logan Marshall-Green replaced Bradley Stryker in portraying him. Other guest stars in new recurring roles included Billy Campbell, as magazine editor Carter Buckley, Kim Delaney, as Sandy's ex-fiancée Rebecca Bloom, Johnny Messner, as Julie's ex-boyfriend Lance Baldwin, Kathleen York, as mother of Caleb's illegitimate child Renee Wheeler, Nikki Griffin as party girl and drug addict Jess Sathers and Marguerite Moreau, as Reed Carlson the Vice President of a graphic novel company, and Max Burkholder as a child in airport, with a toy similar to Captain Oats, in "The Rainy Day Women"


title: The O.C. (season 2)

text: The second season was widely received as inferior to the first, but it has been noted that this may be slightly unfair.


title: The O.C. (season 2)

text: The show moved to "ultra-competitive Thursday" nights which Schwartz described as a "real vote of confidence [from] the network", but many attributed placing "The O.C." against the likes of "Survivor", "Joey" and "Will & Grace" as part of "The O.C."'s decline in popularity. The move improved FOX's performance at the new time slot, but lost the show viewers. The season premiere attracted 8.6 million viewers, but average viewing figures decreased thirty percent from the previous season to 7 million.


title: The O.C. (season 2)

text: For the second season the show was nominated for five Teen Choice Awards winning four of them, including best drama. It was also nominated for the Favorite Television Drama People's Choice Award. Kelly Rowan won a PRISM Award for Performance in a Drama Series Episode, with Peter Gallagher also getting nominated. Additionally the season finale was nominated for the TV Drama Series Episode award. The introduction of bisexual character Alex, was praised as "an especially charismatic new presence", with the show was praised for its handling of her lesbian relationship with Marissa. However Mischa Barton was criticized for her acting skills in portraying Marissa, alongside other noted flaws including "flavorless plots," and "flat new characters who failed to grab the audience's interest". IGN faulted the move to quickly rekindle the Ryan and Marissa relationship and "abruptly write off Alex and Lindsay, after [making] them a pretty big part of the show" but commended a "compelling story centering on Ryan's brother Trey coming to town, leading to a very dramatic season finale" Tate Donovan, who played Jimmy, credited a drop in ratings to "the show moving away from the family dynamic to focus more on the kids".


title: The O.C. (season 2)

text: The DVD release of season two was released by Warner Bros. in the US on August 23, 2005, after it had completed broadcast on television. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material including a gag reel, audio commentary and a fashion featurette.


title: 2015 in video games

text: The year 2015 saw releases of numerous video games as well as a follow-up to Nintendo's portable 3DS console, the New Nintendo 3DS. Top-rated games originally released in 2015 included "", "", "Bloodborne", " Undertale", and "Fallout 4". Sales of video games in 2015 reached $61 billion, according to analysis firm SuperData, an 8% increase from 2014. Of this, the largest sector was in computer game sales and subscription services, accounting for $32 billion. Mobile games revenues were at $25.1 billion, a 10% increase from 2014. Digital sales on consoles made up the remaining $4 billion.


title: 2015 in video games

text: In the United States, the Entertainment Software Association (ESA) and the NPD Group estimated total video game market revenues at $23.5 billion, a 5% increase from 2014. Of this, the total software market was $16.5 billion, with the NPD Group estimating retail sales subset at $13.1 billion. The ESA reported that there were 2,457 companies in the United States involved in developing or publishing video games that directly supported 65,678 workers (37,122 in developing, 28,556 in publishing) with about another 154,000 indirectly supporting the industry, such as through contracting or video game journalism. The total contribution to the US's gross national product from the industry was $11.7 billion.


title: 2015 in video games

text: In the United Kingdom, the total video game market was valued at nearly 4.2 billion, according to figures from Ukie and "MCV". The largest segments were in digital software (£1.2 billion) and mobile games (£664 million), while sales of consoles dropped to £689 million.


title: 2015 in video games

text: The following were 2015's top ten highest-grossing video games in terms of worldwide revenue (including physical sales, digital purchases, subscriptions, microtransactions, free-to-play and pay-to-play) across all platforms (including mobile, PC and console platforms). Three of the top ten highest-grossing games are published or owned by Tencent, including the top-grossing title "League of Legends".


title: 2015 in video games

text: Series with new installments in 2015 include "Anno", "Assassin's Creed", "", "Battlefield", "Call of Duty", "Disgaea", "Dirt", "Fallout", "Fatal Frame", "Five Nights at Freddy's, Forza Motorsport", "Guitar Hero", "Halo", "Heroes of Might and Magic", "Hotline Miami", "Just Cause", "King's Quest", "Kirby", "Magicka", "Mario Party", "Mario vs. Donkey Kong", "Mario & Luigi", "Metal Gear", "Minecraft", "Mortal Kombat", "Need for Speed", "OlliOlli", "Resident Evil", "Rock Band", "StarCraft", "", "Tales", "The Witcher", "Tomb Raider", "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six", "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater", "Total War," "Toy Soldiers", "Xenoblade Chronicles", "Yakuza" and "Yoshi".


title: 2015 in video games

text: In addition, 2015 saw the introduction of several new properties, including "Bloodborne", "Dying Light", "Evolve", "Life Is Strange", "Ori", "Rocket League", "Splatoon", "Undertale", and "Until Dawn".


title: Political union

text: A political union is a type of political entity which is composed of, or created from, smaller polities, or the process which achieves this. These smaller polities are usually called federated states and federal territories in a federal government; and prefectures, regions, or provinces in the case of a centralised government. This form of government may be voluntary and mutual and is described as "unionism" by its constituent members and proponents. In other cases, it may arise from political unification, characterised by coercion and conquest. The unification of separate states which, in the past, had together constituted a single entity, is known as "reunification". Unlike a personal union or real union, the individual constituent entities may have devolution of powers but are subordinate to a central government or coordinated in some sort of organization. In a federalised system, the constituent entities usually have internal autonomy, for example in the setup of police departments, and share power with the federal government, for whom external sovereignty, military forces, and foreign affairs are usually reserved. The union is recognised internationally as a single political entity. A political union may also be called a legislative union or state union.


title: Political union

text: In an incorporating union a new state is created, the former states being entirely dissolved into the new state (although some aspects may be preserved; see below).


title: Political union

text: Nevertheless, a full incorporating union may preserve the laws and institutions of the former states, as happened in the creating of the United Kingdom. This may be simply a matter of practice or to comply with a guarantee given in the terms of the union. These guarantees may be to ensure the success of a proposed union, or in the least to prevent continuing resistance, as occurred in the union of Brittany and France in 1532 (Union of Brittany and France), a guarantee was given as to the continuance of laws and of the Estates of Brittany (a guarantee revoked in 1789 at the French Revolution). The assurance that institutions are preserved in a union of states can also occur as states realize that whilst a power imbalance exists (such as between the economic conditions of Scotland and England prior to the Acts of Union 1707), it is not so great that it precludes the ability of concessions to be made. The Treaty of Union for creating the unified Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 contained a guarantee of the continuance of the civil laws and the existing courts in Scotland (a continuing guarantee), which was significant for both parties. The Scottish, despite economic troubles during the Seven Ill Years preceding the union, still had remaining negotiating power.


title: Political union

text: This marks a delineation of states that are able to ensure preservation of interests, there has to be some mutually beneficial reasoning behind the formal or informal preservation of interests. In the Union creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801, no such guarantee was given for the laws and courts of the Kingdom of Ireland, though they were continued as a matter of practice. The informal recognition of such interests represents the different circumstances of the two Unions, the small base of institutional power in Ireland at the time (those who were the beneficiaries of the Protestant Ascendancy) had faced a revolution in the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and as a result there was an institutional drive toward unification, limiting the Irish negotiating power. However, informal guarantees were given to preclude the possibility of further Irish unrest in the period following the French Revolution of 1789 and the 1798 rebellion. These types of informal arrangements are more susceptible to changes; for example, Tyrol was guaranteed that its Freischütz companies would not be posted to fight outside Tyrol without their consent, a guarantee later revoked by the Austrian state. However, this case can be contrasted with the continued existence of the Scottish Parliament and a separate body of Scottish law distinct from English law.


title: Political union

text: In an incorporating annexation a state or states is united to and dissolved in an existing state, whose legal existence continues.


title: Political union

text: Federal annexation occurs when a unitary state becomes a federated unit of another existing state, the former continuing its legal existence. The new federated state thus ceases to be a state in international law but retains its legal existence in domestic law, subsidiary to the federal authority.


title: Political union

text: The unification of Italy involved a mixture of unions. The kingdom consolidated around the Kingdom of Sardinia, with which several states voluntarily united to form the Kingdom of Italy. Others polities, such as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Papal States, were conquered and annexed. Formally, the union in each territory was sanctioned by a popular referendum where people were formally asked if they agreed to have as their new ruler Vittorio Emanuele II of Sardinia and his legitimate heirs.


title: Political union

text: The unification of Germany began in earnest when the Kingdom of Prussia annexed numerous petty states in 1866.


title: Political union

text: In addition to regional movements, supranational and continental unions that promote progressive integration between its members started appearing in the second half of the 20th century. Some of these organization were inspired, to some extent, by the European Union. Examples of such unions include the ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum, and the Pacific Islands Forum.


title: Political union

text: The political position of the United Kingdom is often discussed; and former states like Serbia and Montenegro (2003–2006), the Soviet Union (1922–1991) and the United Arab Republic (1958–1961).


title: Political union

text: Lord Durham was widely regarded as one of the most important thinkers in the history of the British Empire's constitutional evolution. He articulated the difference between a full legislative union and a federation. In his 1839 "Report", in discussing the proposed union of Upper and Lower Canada, he says:


title: Political union

text: Two kinds of union have been proposed – federal and legislative. By the first, the separate legislature of each province would be preserved in its present form and retain almost all its present attributes of internal legislation, the federal legislature exercising no power save in those matters which may have been expressly ceded to it by the constituent provinces. A legislative union would imply a complete incorporation of the provinces included in it under one legislature, exercising universal and sole legislative authority over all of them in exactly the same manner as the Parliament legislates alone for the whole of the British Isles.


title: Political union

text: However, unification is not merely voluntary. To meet this requirement, we need to have a balance of power between the two or more states, which can create an equal monetary, economic, social and cultural environment. We need also to take in account that those states eligible to unify must agree to a transition from anarchy, where there is no sovereignty above the state level, to hierarchy.


title: Political union

text: States can decide to enter a voluntary union as a solution for existing problems and to face possible threats, such as environmental threats for instance. The task of triggering a political crisis and to get the attention of the citizens toward the unification's necessity is in the hands of the elites. Despite it being quite rare, in some cases it works (see Switzerland and the United States unification), while in most of the cases it turns to be a failure or leads to a forced unification (Italy, URSS) where the unified states are deeply unequal.


title: Political union

text: From a realist perspective, small states can unify in order to face strong states or to conquer weak ones. One of the reasons to seek unification to a stronger state besides a common threat can be a situation of negligence or ignorance on behalf of the weak state which is, to simplify it, desperate and almost derelict.


title: Political union

text: According to a 1975 study by University of Rochester political scientist William Riker, unions were motivated by security threats.


title: Political union

text: According to Ryan Griffiths, all instances of mutually willful unification from 1816 onwards were between states that spoke the same languages.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Germany's electrical grid is part of the Synchronous grid of Continental Europe. In 2020, due to COVID-19 conditions and strong winds, Germany produced 484 TW⋅h of electricity of which over 50% was from renewable energy sources, 24% from coal, and 12% from natural gas. This is the first year renewables represented more than 50% of the total electricity production and a major change from 2018, when a full 38% was from coal, only 40% was from renewable energy sources, and 8% was from natural gas.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Germany's installed capacity for electric generation increased from 121 gigawatts (GW) in 2000 to 218 GW in 2019, an 80% increase, while electricity generation increased only 5% in the same period.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Even though renewables production increased significantly between 1991 and 2017, fossil power production remained at more or less constant levels. In the same period, nuclear power production decreased due to the phase-out plan, and much of the increase in renewables filled the gap left behind by closing nuclear power plants. However 2019 and 2020 saw significant reductions in electricity generation from fossil fuel, from 252 TW⋅h in 2018 to 181 TW⋅h in 2020. The German government decided to phase-out nuclear power by end of 2022, however this has been delayed until April 2023 due to supply disruption caused by the war in Ukraine, meaning that future growth in renewables will be needed to fill the gap again. Germany also plans to phase out coal by 2038 or earlier.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: German electricity prices in 2020 were 31.47 euro cents per kW⋅h for residential customers (an increase of 126% since 2000), and 17.8 euro cents per kW⋅h for non-residential customers (21.8 with taxes).


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: German households and small businesses pay the highest electricity price in Europe for many years in a row now.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: These Taxes, levies and surcharges have tripled since 2000 [from 5.19 to 16.49 Euro Cents]. These include levies for financing investment in renewable energy (22.1%) and for other kinds of taxes (e.g. GST 19%). Grid charges account for almost 25%, and only the remaining 22% are used to actually generate the electricity.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: With 73,041.74 GWh of exported electricity, Germany is the second largest exporter of electricity after France, representing about 10% of electricity exports worldwide. Germany has grid interconnections with neighboring countries representing 10% of domestic capacity.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Germany produced power per person in 2008 equal to the EU-15 average (EU-15: 7,409 kW⋅h/person) and 77% of the OECD average (8,991 kW⋅h/person).


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: On 8 May 2016 renewables supplied 87.6% of Germany's national electricity consumption, albeit under extremely favourable weather conditions.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: According to the IEA the gross production of electricity was 631TW⋅h in 2008 which gave the seventh position among the world top producers in 2010. The top seven countries produced 59% of electricity in 2008. The top producers were the United States (21.5%), China (17.1%), Japan (5.3%), Russia (5.1%), India (4.1%), Canada (3.2%) and Germany (3.1%).


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: In 2020, Germany generated electricity from the following sources: 27% wind, 24% coal, 12% nuclear, 12% natural gas, 10% solar, 9.3% biomass, 3.7% hydroelectricity.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: In 2008, power from coal supplied 291TW⋅h or 46% of Germany's overall production of 631TW⋅h, but this dropped to 118TW⋅h (24%) in 2020. In 2010 Germany was still one of the world's largest consumers of coal at 4th place behind China (2,733TW⋅h), USA (2,133TW⋅h) and India (569TW⋅h). By 2019 it had fallen to 8th, behind smaller countries such as South Korea and South Africa.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Germany has shut all hardcoal mines by the end of 2018, but still has large open pit mines for lignite in the Western and Eastern parts of the country.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: In January 2019 the German Commission on Growth, Structural Change and Employment initiates Germany's plans to entirely phase out and shut down the 84 remaining coal-fired plants on its territory by 2038.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Germany has defined a firm active phase-out policy of nuclear power. Eight nuclear power plants were permanently shut down after the Fukushima accident. All nuclear power plants are to be phased out by the end of 2022. According to BMU this is an opportunity for future generations.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Siemens is the only significant nuclear constructor in Germany and the nuclear share was 3% of their business in 2000. In 2006 large international bribes by Siemens in the energy and telecommunication business were revealed. The case was investigated, for example, in Nigeria, the United States, Greece and South Korea.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: The installed nuclear power capacity in Germany was 20GW in 2008 and 21GW in 2004. The production of nuclear power was 148TW⋅h in 2008 (sixth top by 5.4% of world total) and 167TW⋅h in 2004 (fourth top by 6.1% of world total).


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: In 2009, nuclear power production saw a 19% reduction compared to 2004, and its share had declined smoothly over time from 27% to 23%. The share of renewable electricity increased, substituting for nuclear power.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Germany had the world's largest photovoltaic installed capacity until 2014, and as of 2016, it is third with 40 GW.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: It is also the world's third country by installed wind power capacity, at 50 GW, and second for offshore wind, with over 4 GW.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Chancellor Angela Merkel, along with a vast majority of her compatriots, believes, "As the first big industrialized nation, we can achieve such a transformation toward efficient and renewable energies, with all the opportunities that brings for exports, developing new technologies and jobs".


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: The share of renewable electricity rose from just 3.4% of gross electricity consumption in 1990 to exceed 10% by 2005, 20% by 2011 and 30% by 2015, reaching 36.2% of consumption by year end 2017.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: As with most countries, the transition to renewable energy in the transport and heating and cooling sectors has been considerably slower.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: More than 23,000 wind turbines and 1.4 million solar PV systems are distributed all over the country.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: According to official figures, around 370,000 people were employed in the renewable energy sector in 2010, particularly in small and medium-sized companies. This is an increase of around 8% compared to 2009 (around 339,500 jobs), and well over twice the number of jobs in 2004 (160,500). About two-thirds of these jobs are attributed to the Renewable Energy Sources Act.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Germany's federal government is working to increase renewable energy commercialization, with a particular focus on offshore wind farms.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: A major challenge is the development of sufficient network capacities for transmitting the power generated in the North Sea to the large industrial consumers in southern parts of the country.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Germany's energy transition, the "Energiewende", designates a significant change in energy policy from 2011.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: The term encompasses a reorientation of policy from demand to supply and a shift from centralized to distributed generation (for example, producing heat and power in very small cogeneration units), which should replace overproduction and avoidable energy consumption with energy-saving measures and increased efficiency. At the end of 2020, Germany had 2.3 GW⋅h of home battery storage, often in conjunction with solar panels.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Grid owners included, in 2008, RWE, EnBW, Vattenfall and E.ON. According to the European Commission the electricity producers should not own the electricity grid to ensure open competition. The European Commission accused E.ON of the misuse of markets in February 2008. Consequently, E.ON sold its share of the network. As of July 2016 the four German TSOs are:


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: In Germany, there also exists a single-phase AC grid operated at 16.7Hz to supply power to rail transport, see list of installations for 15 kV AC railway electrification in Germany, Austria and Switzerland.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: There are some special features in the transmission network of Germany. Also they have no direct influence on operation, they are remarkable under technical viewpoints.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Many powerlines in Baden-Württemberg, which were built by Energie-Versorgung-Schwaben (EVS, now part of EnBW) are equipped with a communication cable, which hangs like a garland on the ground conductor. Some of these lines have also a second communication cable hanging on an auxiliary wire, which is usually fixed on the pinnacle of the pylon below the ground conductor.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Such devices are usually installed on lines with voltages of 110 kV and more, but there existed also a 20 kV-line near Eberdingen, which had a communication cable fixed like a garland on a conductor rope.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Although communication cables fixed like a garland where replaced in the last decades by free-hanging communication cables many of these devices are still in use.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: If a downlink of the communication cable from the suspension level to the ground is necessary, which is for example the case at amplifier stations, lines built by former Energie-Versorgung-Schwaben (EVS) use therefore a cable in the centre of the tower strung by a pond instead of a cable fixed at the tower structure. This construction type can be found as well on lines using garland-type communication cables as on lines using freely span communication cables.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Elbe Crossing 1 is a group of masts providing an overhead crossing of a 220 kV three-phase alternating current electric powerline across the River Elbe. Constructed between 1959 and 1962 as part of the line from Stade to Hamburg north, it consists of four masts. Each of the two portal masts is a guyed mast in height with a crossbeam at a height of . One of these masts stands on the Schleswig-Holstein bank of the Elbe and the other on the Lower Saxony bank. Two identical carrying masts in height, each weighing , ensure the necessary passage height of over the Elbe. One stands on the island of Lühesand, the other in the Buhnenfeld on the Schleswig-Holstein side.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Because of the swampy terrain, each mast's foundation is built on pilings driven into the ground. The Lühesand portal mast rests on 41 pilings and the one on the Buhnenfeld on 57. In contrast to the usual construction of such lattice-steel transmission towers, the direction of the line passes diagonally over the square ground cross section of the pylon, resulting in savings in material. The two crossbeams for the admission of the six conductor cables are at a height of and . The mast on the Buhnenfeld bears at a height of a radar facility belonging to the Water and Navigation Office of the Port of Hamburg. Each portal mast has stairs and gangways for maintenance of flight safety beacons, and has a hoist for heavy loads.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: Elbe Crossing 2 is a group of transmission towers providing overhead lines for four 380 kV three-phase alternating current (AC) circuits across the German river Elbe. It was constructed between 1976 and 1978 to supplement Elbe Crossing 1, and consists of four towers:


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: The enormous height of the two carrying pylons ensures that the passage height requirement of over the Elbe demanded by German authorities is met. The height requirement ensures that large ships are able to enter Hamburg's deep-water port.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: A 302 metres tall chimney of Scholven Power Station at Gelsenkirchen, which is used by four units of these thermal power station is equipped with three booms carrying the conductors of a 220 kV-circuit leaving one of these units.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: From 1977 to 2010 a 74.84 metres high strainer of powerline Oberzier-Niedersechtem was equipped with a public observation deck in a height of 27 metres, which was accessible by a staircase. After too much vandalism occurred, which endangered also the integrity of the pylon, this observation deck was removed.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: As in many other countries, power companies in Germany use radio relay links for data transmissions. In most cases the antennas used therefore are installed on lattice towers, but at some sites concrete towers are used for this purpose.


title: Electricity sector in Germany

text: The 87 metres tall radio relay tower on Goose Neck mountain (German: Gänsehals) near Bell is the only of these towers equipped with a public observation deck. It is situated in a height of 24 metres and accessible by a staircase.


title: Lake Placid (film series)

text: Lake Placid is an American series of monster horror/comedy films created by David E. Kelley. Produced and distributed by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment, the series began with "Lake Placid" (1999) directed by Steve Miner, and was followed by five television sequels, "Lake Placid 2" (2007) directed by David Flores, "Lake Placid 3" (2010) directed by Griff Furst, "" (2012) directed by Don Michael Paul, "Lake Placid vs. Anaconda" (2015) directed by A.B. Stone and being a crossover with the "Anaconda" series, and "" (2018) directed by Darrell Roodt. Each installment revolves around the presence of giant, 30-foot-long man-eating crocodiles in the fictional location of Black Lake, Maine, and the efforts of various groups to capture or destroy the creatures. All of the films (except for "Legacy") reference members of the fictitious "Bickerman" family.


title: Lake Placid (film series)

text: During the production of the original film, Stan Winston Studios were hired to produce the 30 feet long animatronic crocodile, which was covered in a water-resistant urethane skin and functioned underwater using waterproofed hydraulics. In 2014, following the re-release of the original film on Blu-ray, Daily Dead interviewed director Steve Miner about the production of the film. According to Miner: "The first thing I did when I got on board "Lake Placid" was send the script over to Stan. Stan went ahead and began building the main 18-20 foot croc out of pocket even before we had locked down our financing or anything like that. He may have spent close to a million dollars on him- it may not have been that much, but it was close. And that’s such a testament to Stan- I kept telling him that I didn’t even know if we were going to be making the darned movie, but he just kept moving ahead. What I didn’t know when I took on "Lake Placid" was that it had already been turned down by all the studios so when it came time to put the movie together, it was a little more challenging than I originally thought it was going to be. That’s when I brought in Mike Medavoy and he really got this movie done for us. We started making the rounds again and eventually Fox ended up picking up the movie the second time. Mike then brought these French investors over to Stan’s shop to see the crocodile in action and Stan finished that thing up just in the nick of time. It ended up working out so perfectly though because Stan had the croc working perfectly where his jaws would open and close, his eyes and head were able to move around and he could move the other parts and shake him like he was attacking something. That’s what ended up impressing the investors and it’s because of Stan that we were able to finance "Lake Placid". Had it not been for him or for Mike, we wouldn’t be talking about it now".


title: Lake Placid (film series)

text: A group attempts to destroy a giant, 30-foot-long man-eating crocodile, which terrorizes Black Lake, Maine.


title: Lake Placid (film series)

text: In the sequel to the feature film, man-eating crocodiles return to the lake as two males and one aggressive female crocodile, which is protecting her nest, wreak havoc on the locals.


title: Lake Placid (film series)

text: A game warden moves his family to Lake Placid, once the site of deadly crocodile attacks. Locals assure him the crocs are gone, but his mischievous young son finds a few baby crocs and begins feeding them. They quickly grow into very big adults and start attacking the game warden's family and nearby town.


title: Lake Placid (film series)

text: Reba the poacher is back, now an EPA agent. Black Lake is turned into a crocodile sanctuary surrounded by an electric fence. When the fence gets left open one night, a high-school field trip bus unknowingly enters the park. It's up to Reba and the sheriff to save the kids from becoming crocodile chow.


title: Lake Placid (film series)

text: In Black Lake, Maine, an accident allows the two giant species, crocodiles and anacondas, to be regenerated and they escape towards Clear Lake. Now, Reba teams up with Tully to find his daughter Bethany and a group of sorority girls in a deadly match between the two creatures.


title: Lake Placid (film series)

text: A group of young explorers discover a secret area hidden from all maps and GPS devices. When they reach the center of the lake, they discover an abandoned facility that houses one of the largest and deadliest apex-predators known to man. Rather than a sequel, "Legacy" is considered to be a stand-alone film, not connected to the previous films and the only film in the series to not feature or reference the Bickerman family, declaring it a reboot.


title: Lake Placid (film series)

text: "Lake Placid: Croc Drop" is an interactive game produced in 1999 to promote the film "Lake Placid" from the same year.


title: Lake Placid (film series)

text: "Lake Placid 2: Croc Alley" is an interactive game produced in 2007 to promote the film "Lake Placid 2" from the same year.


title: Madurai Airport

text: Madurai Airport is a customs airport serving Madurai and its adjoining districts in Tamil Nadu, India. It is the 36th busiest airport in India, both in terms of passengers handled and aircraft movement. The airport is located near State Highway 37, about south of the city centre. It was established in 1957.


title: Madurai Airport

text: Madurai airfield was first used by the Royal Air Force in World War II in 1942. The first passenger flight was a Fokker Friendship aircraft on the Madras – Madurai – Trivandrum – Madurai – Madras route in 1956.


title: Madurai Airport

text: It was identified as one of 35 non-metro airports for modernisation, and thus the new integrated terminal building was inaugurated on 12 September 2010.


title: Madurai Airport

text: The airport was notified as customs airport. The notification, issued on 31 December 2011, came into effect from 1 January 2012. Two chartered flights from Malaysia landed at the airport on 25 August 2012, making them the first international aircraft to land in the city. The first commercial international flight began on 20 September 2012 by SpiceJet commencing its maiden service to Colombo.


title: Madurai Airport

text: To boost exports from Madurai and its surrounding districts, the Department of Revenue under the Union Ministry of Finance issued a notification dated 28 May 2013 permitting the airport to handle cargo. The cargo terminal became operational from 15 December 2017.


title: Madurai Airport

text: The airport has two adjacent terminals, the old terminal and the new integrated terminal. Currently, the integrated terminal is used for both international and domestic purposes. The old terminal had been converted to a Cargo Terminal from 28 November 2017. Due to exponential growth of the airport in the recent years, building separate domestic and international terminals are in the plans.


title: Madurai Airport

text: As a part of modernising 35 non-metro airports, AAI constructed a new, state-of-the-art, integrated passenger terminal adjacent to the old terminal. The new terminal building was inaugurated on 12 September 2010. A total of of land is under acquisition for the expansion of the runway to to accommodate large jet aircraft. This terminal with an area of can handle a passenger capacity of 250 each on arrival and departure. The airport parking area has the capacity to park 375 cars and 10 buses. Some of the features of the new terminal include:


title: Madurai Airport

text: The new terminal has two lounges: a VIP lounge managed by AAI and a Commercial Important Persons (CIP) lounge managed by Tamil Nadu Chamber of Commerce and Industry (TNCC-Madurai).


title: Madurai Airport

text: Considering the growing cargo potential in Madurai Airport, AAI has decided to alter the old terminal into a full-fledged cargo complex. To start with, the Union finance ministry issued customs notification dated 28 May 2013 to handle cargo at Madurai Airport. Works were going on a fast pace to start cargo lifting in the end of March 2014. A cold storage facility is being established for perishable cargo which is expected to dominate the export from this region. The International Cargo Terminal was inaugurated by Shri. Guruprasad Mohapatra I.A.S, Chairman of Airport Authority of India on 28 November 2017. International Cargo Service started on 15 December 2017 with 300 kg of Flowers including famous Madurai Malli (Jasmine). The first consignment was lifted by Spicejet to Dubai.


title: Madurai Airport

text: The main runway is with a PCN 92 R/B/W/T (Rigid), 8 F/A/W/T (Flexible) fit for B737-900 series. ILS Cat-I is available for main runway 09/27.


title: Madurai Airport

text: The master plan includes a cargo complex along with two additional terminal buildings, expansion of runway and other facilities. The authority wants additional land for the same along with an air traffic control tower and other facilities to cater to the increasing passenger movement.


title: Madurai Airport

text: Airports Authority of India (AAI) is considering to provide a new terminal building for Madurai Airport in view of increased passenger traffic.


title: Madurai Airport

text: AAI Regional Executive Director said that performance of the airport on all fronts was good, especially the 35% growth in passenger movement reported in the last one year (2016-2017). The feasibility of expanding the terminal building is being studied. If that is not possible, new building will be constructed, which is already in the airport master plan.


title: Madurai Airport

text: The number of international passengers handled at the airport would decide on having a separate terminal or an integrated terminal. At present, the airport could handle 250 passengers each at arrival and departure halls. To cater the immediate requirement, 7 new aprons are being added to the airport.


title: Madurai Airport

text: AAI had asked around 610 acres of land in Madurai to take up runway extension work. The state government has promised that land will be acquired and handed over on time. In response to that, the district administration has proposed to acquire 610 acres to expand Madurai Airport. The proposed site, including 100 acres of poromboke (non-fertile) land, would pave way for extending the runway to 12,500 ft enabling the airport to handle overseas services.


title: Madurai Airport

text: A team comprising the Airports Authority of India, Highways Department, and Madurai Corporation officials had identified the site on the eastern side of the airport that would intersect the Ring Road over 5 km. As per the plan, the Ring Road would be disconnected at Mandela Junction and diverted via Perungudi and Avaniyapuram to connect the Tuticorin Road.


title: Madurai Airport

text: The AAI had also proposed to have a new technical building with a control tower. It had also planned to construct seven new aprons at Madurai Airport.


title: Madurai Airport

text: On 9 December 1971, an Avro-748 (VT-DXG Manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd), operating Trivandrum - Madurai - Thiruchirapalli - Madras route, crashed in to Meghamalai Hills near Chinnamanur while descending into Madurai when it flew into high terrain about 50 mi (80 km) from the airport, killing all four crew members and 17 out of 27 passengers. The accident occurred in reduced visibility during daylight hours.


title: C corporation

text: A C corporation, under United States federal income tax law, is any corporation that is taxed separately from its owners. A C corporation is distinguished from an S corporation, which generally is not taxed separately. Many companies, including most major corporations, are treated as C corporations for U.S. federal income tax purposes. C corporations and S corporations both enjoy limited liability, but only C corporations are subject to corporate income taxation.


title: C corporation

text: Generally, all for-profit corporations are automatically classified as a C corporation unless the corporation elects the option to treat the corporation as a flow-through entity known as an S corporation. An S corporation is not itself subject to income tax; rather, shareholders of the S corporation are subject to tax on their pro rata shares of income based on their shareholdings. To qualify to make the S corporation election, the corporation's shares must be held by resident or citizen individuals or certain qualifying trusts. A corporation may qualify as a C corporation without regard to any limit on the number of shareholders, foreign or domestic.


title: C corporation

text: In the United States, corporations are formed under laws of a state or the District of Columbia. Procedures vary widely by state. Some states allow formation of corporations through electronic filing on the state's web site. All states require payment of a fee (often under USD200) upon incorporation. Corporations are issued a "certificate of incorporation" by most states upon formation. Most state corporate laws require that the basic governing instrument be either the certificate of incorporation or formal articles of incorporation. Many corporations also adopt additional governing rules known as bylaws. Most state laws require at least one director and at least two officers, all of whom may be the same person. Generally, there are no residency requirements for officers or directors, however, foreign aliens have to form corporations via registered agents in many states as an obligation.


title: C corporation

text: Corporations are required to issue financial statements in the United States. Financial statements may be presented on any comprehensive basis, including an income tax basis. There is no requirement for appointment of auditors, unless the corporation is publicly traded and thus subject to the requirements of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act.


title: C corporation

text: Any distribution from the earnings and profits of a C corporation is treated as a dividend for U.S. income tax purposes. "Earnings and profits" is a tax law concept similar to the financial accounting concept of retained earnings. Exceptions apply to treat certain distributions as made in exchange for stock rather than as dividends. Such exceptions include distributions in complete termination of a shareholder's interest and distributions in liquidation of the corporation.


title: C corporation

text: The corporate tax rate is a flat 21% starting January 1, 2018 after the passage of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, on December 20, 2017.


title: C corporation

text: Up through 2017, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) imposed tax based on the following schedule for "most corporations", except "qualified personal service corporations" and certain other cases:


title: C corporation

text: Look into Federal Income Tax Rates for specified tax brackets. The company bracket depends on your taxable income and filing status.


title: No Fly List

text: The No Fly List maintained by the United States federal government's Terrorist Screening Center (TSC) is one of several lists included in algorithmic rulesets used by government agencies and airlines to decide who to allow to board airline flights. The TSC's No Fly List is a list of people who are prohibited from boarding commercial aircraft for travel within, into, or out of the United States. This list has also been used to divert aircraft away from U.S. airspace that do not have start- or end-point destinations within the United States. The number of people on the list rises and falls according to threat and intelligence reporting. There were 16,000 names on the list in 2011, in 2012, and in 2013.


title: No Fly List

text: The list—along with the Secondary Security Screening Selection, which tags would-be passengers for extra inspection—was created after the September 11 attacks of 2001. The No Fly List, the Selectee List, and the Terrorist Watch List were created by George W. Bush's administration and have continued through the administrations of Barack Obama, Donald Trump and Joe Biden. Former U.S. Senate Intelligence Committee chair Dianne Feinstein said in May 2010: "The no-fly list itself is one of our best lines of defense." However, the list has been criticized on civil liberties and due process grounds, due in part to its potential for ethnic, religious, economic, political, or racial profiling and discrimination. It has raised concerns about privacy and government secrecy and has been criticized as prone to false positives.


title: No Fly List

text: The No Fly List is different from the Terrorist Watch List, a much longer list of people said to be suspected of some involvement with terrorism. As of June 2016, the Terrorist Watch List is estimated to contain over 2,484,442 records, consisting of 1,877,133 individual identities.


title: No Fly List

text: Before the attacks of September 11, 2001, the U.S. federal government had a list of 16 people deemed "no transport" because they "presented a specific known or suspected threat to aviation." The list grew in the immediate aftermath of the September 11 attacks, reaching more than 400 names by November 2001, when responsibility for keeping it was transferred to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). In mid-December 2001, two lists were created: the "No Fly List" of 594 people to be denied air transport, and the "Selectee" list of 365 people who were to be more carefully searched at airports. By 2002, the two lists combined contained over a thousand names, and by April 2005 contained about names. For the first two and a half years of the program, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Transportation Security Administration (TSA) denied that the program existed.


title: No Fly List

text: In 2004, then-U.S. Senator Edward Kennedy was denied boarding a flight because his name was similar to an alias found on the No Fly List. Laura K. Donohue would later write in "The Cost of Counterterrorism: Power, Politics, and Liberty" that "antiwar activists, such as Jan Adams and Rebecca Gordan, and political opponents of the Bush administration, such as Senator Edward Kennedy and civil rights attorney David Cole, found themselves included." In June 2016, Timothy Healy, the former director of the FBI Terrorist Screening Center, disputed the claim that Kennedy had ever appeared on the list, saying that another person with a similar name—who had accidentally tried to bring ammunition on to a plane—was placed on an airline's watch list and Kennedy was mistakenly detained by the airline, not based on the No Fly List. In October 2006, CBS News' "60 Minutes" reported on the program after it obtained a March 2006 copy of the list containing names.


title: No Fly List

text: Many individuals were "caught in the system" as a result of sharing the exact or similar name of another person on the list; TSA officials said that, as of November 2005, people in 2005 had complained that their names were matched to a name on the list via the name matching software used by airlines. In January 2006, the FBI and ACLU settled a federal lawsuit, "Gordon v. FBI", brought by Gordon and Adams under the Freedom of Information Act in order to obtain information about how names were added to the list. Under the settlement, the government paid $200,000 in the plaintiffs' attorneys' fees. A separate suit was brought as a class action "filed by people caught in the name game." In response, "TSA created an ombudsman process, whereby individuals now can download and print out a Passenger Identity Verification Form and mail it, along with certain notarized documents, to the TSA 'so the agency can differentiate the individual from others who may be on the list.'"


title: No Fly List

text: In April 2007, the U.S. federal government's "terrorist watch list" administered by the Terrorist Screening Center (which is managed principally by the FBI) contained records. A year later, the ACLU estimated the list to have grown to over names and to be continually expanding. However, according to Homeland Security secretary Michael Chertoff, in October 2008 the No Fly List contained only names, with an additional "selectees" who "represent a less specific security threat and receive extra scrutiny, but are allowed to fly."


title: No Fly List

text: As of 2011, the list contained about 10,000 names. In 2012, the list more than doubled in size, to about 21,000 names. In August 2013, a leak revealed that more than 47,000 people were on the list. In 2016, California Senator Dianne Feinstein disclosed that 81,000 people were on the No Fly List.


title: No Fly List

text: There is a huge, secretive US anti-terrorism database for Canada specifically, "Tuscan" (Tipoff US/Canada), revealed by Canada's access to information system. The database is used by both the US and Canada, and applies to all borders, not just airports. It is believed to contain information on about 680,000 people thought to be linked with terrorism. The list was created in 1997 as a consular aid. It was repurposed and expanded after 9/11, and again in 2016. The names in Tuscan come from the US Terrorist Identities Datamart Environment (Tide), which is vetted by the FBI's Terrorist Screening Center and populates various US traveller databases, Canada's Tuscan and the Australian equivalent, "Tactics".


title: No Fly List

text: In a 2010 report, the Government Accountability Office noted that "Membership in a terrorist organization does not prohibit a person from possessing firearms or explosives under current federal law," and individuals on the No Fly List are not barred from purchasing guns. According to GAO data, between 2004 and 2010, people on terrorism watch lists—including the No Fly List as well as other separate lists—attempted to buy guns and explosives more than 1,400 times, and succeeded 1,321 times (more than 90% of cases).


title: No Fly List

text: Senator Frank Lautenberg of New Jersey repeatedly introduced legislation to bar individuals on the terror watch lists (such as the No Fly List) from buying firearms or explosives, but these efforts have not succeeded. Senator Dianne Feinstein of California revived the legislation after the November 2015 Paris attacks and President Barack Obama has called for such legislation to be approved.


title: No Fly List

text: Republicans in Congress such as Senate Homeland Security Committee chair Ron Johnson and former Speaker of the House Paul Ryan oppose this measure, citing due process concerns and efficacy, respectively. Republicans have blocked attempts by Democrats to attach these provisions to Republican-backed measures.


title: No Fly List

text: The American Civil Liberties Union has voiced opposition to barring weapons sales to individuals listed on the current form of the No Fly List, stating that: "There is no constitutional bar to reasonable regulation of guns, and the No Fly List could serve as one tool for it, but only with major reform." Specifically, the ACLU's position is that the government's current redress process—the procedure by which listed individuals can petition for removal from the list—does not meet the requirements of the Constitution's Due Process Clause because the process does not "provide meaningful notice of the reasons our clients are blacklisted, the basis for those reasons, and a hearing before a neutral decision-maker."


title: No Fly List

text: In December 2015, Feinstein's amendment to bar individuals on the terror watch list from purchasing firearms failed in the Senate on a 45-54 vote. Senate Majority Whip John Cornyn of Texas put forth a competing proposal to "give the attorney general the power to impose a 72-hour delay for individuals on the terror watch list seeking to purchase a gun and it could become a permanent ban if a judge determines there is probable cause during that time window." The measure, too, failed, on a 55-45 vote (60 votes were required to proceed). The votes on both the Feinstein measure and the Cornyn measure were largely along party lines.


title: No Fly List

text: With the aim of preventing individuals on the No Fly List from flying in commercial airliners, U.S. airports require all passengers to show valid picture ID (e.g. a passport or driver's license) along with their boarding pass before entering the boarding terminal. At this checkpoint, the name on the ID is matched to that on the boarding pass, but is not recorded. In order to be effective, this practice must assume that 1) the ticket was bought under the passenger's real name (at which point the name was recorded and checked against the No Fly List), 2) the boarding pass shown is real, and 3) the ID shown is real. However, the rise of print-at-home boarding passes, which can be easily forged, allows a potential attacker to buy a ticket under someone else's name, to go into the boarding terminal using a real ID and a fake boarding pass, and then to fly on the ticket that has someone else's name on it. Additionally, a 2007 investigation showed that obviously false IDs could be used when claiming a boarding pass and entering the departures terminal, so a person on the No Fly List can simply travel under a different name.


title: No Fly List

text: A "false positive" occurs when a passenger who is not on the No Fly List has a name that matches or is similar to a name on the list. False positive passengers will not be allowed to board a flight unless they can differentiate themselves from the actual person on the list, usually by presenting ID showing their middle name or date of birth. In some cases, false positive passengers have been denied boarding or have missed flights because they could not easily prove that they were not the person on the No Fly List.


title: No Fly List

text: The DHS Traveler Redress Inquiry Program (TRIP) is a procedure for travelers who are delayed or denied boarding of an aircraft, consistently receive excess scrutiny at security checkpoints, or are denied entry to the U.S. because they are believed to be or are told that they are on a government watch list. The traveler must complete an online application at the Department of Homeland Security website, print and sign the application, and then submit it with copies of several identifying documents. After reviewing their records, DHS notifies the traveler that if any corrections of data about them were warranted, they will be made.


title: No Fly List

text: Travelers who apply for redress through TRIP are assigned a record identifier called a "Redress Control Number". Airline reservations systems allow passengers who have a Redress Control Number to enter it when making their reservation.


title: No Fly List

text: DHS TRIP may make it easier for an airline to confirm a traveler's identity. False-positive travelers, whose names match or are similar to the names of persons on the No Fly List, will continue to match that name even after using DHS TRIP, so it will not restore a traveler's ability to use Internet or curbside check-in or to use an automated kiosk. It does usually help the airline identify the traveler as not being the actual person on the No Fly List, after an airline agent has reviewed their identity documents at check-in.


title: No Fly List

text: However, DHS TRIP has not been very helpful to travelers who accidentally end up on the No Fly List, as their efforts to clear their names are often futile to the extent that they are not told why they are on the list.


title: No Fly List

text: On April 6, 2004, the American Civil Liberties Union "filed a nationwide class-action challenge to the government's No Fly List", in which they charge that "many innocent travelers who pose no security risk whatsoever are discovering that their government considers them terrorists – and find that they have no way to find out why they are on the list, and no way to clear their names." The case was settled in 2006, when "the federal government agreed to pay $ in attorneys' fees to the ACLU of Northern California" and to "[make] public, for the first time, hundreds of records about the government's secret 'no fly' list used to screen airline passengers after September 11, 2001." On August 5, 2010, the ACLU filed a lawsuit on behalf of 14 plaintiffs challenging their placement on the No Fly List. and on June 24, 2014, U.S. District Judge Anna J. Brown ruled in favor of the plaintiffs saying that air travel is a "sacred" liberty protected by the U.S. Constitution and ordered the government to change its system for challenging inclusion.


title: No Fly List

text: A Malaysian academic has been the first to successfully bring a suit involving the No Fly List to trial. On August 18, 2008, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco issued a ruling on behalf of Rahinah Ibrahim, who was a Stanford University graduate student when she was arrested at the San Francisco-Oakland International Airport in 2005, overturning a lower court decision and allowing her case against inclusion in the No Fly List to proceed through the court system. A public trial began on December 2, 2013 in San Francisco in the courtroom of U.S. District Judge William Alsup. After the government revealed that Ibrahim had ended up on the list because of human error by the FBI, Alsup ruled on January 14, 2014 "that Ibrahim did have the right to sue and ordered the government to tell Ibrahim whether she is still on the list." Ibrahim was represented by the San Jose-based law firm of McManis Faulkner. Ibrahim was awarded $400,000 in court costs; in January 2019 the Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that she was entitled to the "vast majority" of the millions of dollars in costs her lawyers were requesting, and ordered Alsup to rule on whether the government had acted in bad faith.


title: No Fly List

text: Gulet Mohamed, a U.S. citizen from Virginia, was placed on the no-fly list as a teenager in 2011 while he was visiting family in Kuwait. Because he was on the no-fly list, he was unable to return to the U.S. before his visa expired. He was taken into custody in Kuwait for overstaying his visa, where he alleges that he "was repeatedly beaten and tortured by his interrogators". Kuwaiti authorities tried to deport him to the U.S., but the airline denied him boarding, presumably because he was on the U.S. No Fly List, and he was returned to prison. While he was imprisoned in Kuwait, a lawsuit was filed on his behalf in the Eastern District of Virginia by the Council on American–Islamic Relations. After the lawsuit was filed, he was allowed to return to the U.S.; the U.S. government then moved to dismiss the lawsuit as moot. On May 28, 2013, the 4th Circuit Court of Appeals rejected the government's motion to dismiss Mohamed's lawsuit. On January 22, 2014, Judge Anthony J. Trenga denied most of another government motion to dismiss the lawsuit, allowing the case to proceed toward trial.


title: No Fly List

text: The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has long criticized the No Fly List and similar lists because of the lack of notification to persons included on such lists. The ACLU's stance is that the government has not provided a constitutionally adequate means of allowing individuals to challenge their inclusion on the list and that "constitutional rights are at stake when the government stigmatizes Americans as suspected terrorists and bans them from international travel."


title: No Fly List

text: Among the complaints about the No Fly List is the use of credit reports in calculating the risk score. In response to the controversy, Transportation Security Administration (TSA) officials said in 2005 that they would not use credit scores to determine passengers' risk score and that they would comply with all rights guaranteed by the First and Fourth amendments to the United States Constitution.


title: No Fly List

text: In the midst of this controversy, the Government Accountability Office of the U.S. Congress produced a report critical of the CAPPS II system. It characterized the proposal as incomplete and seriously behind schedule, and noted that the TSA had failed to address "developmental, operational, and privacy issues identified by Congress". On July 14, 2004, TSA officials announced that CAPPS II was being pulled from consideration without proceeding to full testing. Critics have alleged that the TSA has merely chosen to start with a less controversial entry point that they are calling the "Registered Traveler" program. TSA has also begun testing of another program called "Secure Flight", which is supposed to solve some of the problems of CAPPS I while avoiding the privacy issues of CAPPS II.


title: No Fly List

text: In January 2009, Marcus Holmes conservatively estimated the total cost of the program to be $536 million since 9/11, with a reasonable estimation range that approaches $1 billion, and he questioned whether the benefits of the list outweigh the costs.


title: No Fly List

text: Canada's federal government has created its own no fly list as part of a program called Passenger Protect. The Canadian list incorporates data from domestic and foreign intelligence sources, including the U.S. No Fly List. It contains between 500 and 2,000 names.


title: No Fly List

text: In addition, Canada's access to information system revealed that the US "Tuscan" (Tipoff US/Canada) database is provided to every Canadian border guard and immigration officer; they have the power to detain, interrogate, arrest and deny entry to anyone listed on it. Unlike the no-fly list, which only applies to airports, Tuscan is used for every Canadian land and sea border, and visa and immigration application.


title: Hackney, London

text: Hackney is a district in East London, England, forming around two-thirds of the area of the modern London Borough of Hackney, to which it gives its name. It is 4 miles (6.4 km) northeast of Charing Cross and includes part of the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park. Historically it was within the county of Middlesex.


title: Hackney, London

text: In the past it was also referred to as "Hackney Proper" to distinguish it from the village which subsequently developed in the vicinity of Mare Street, the term "Hackney Proper" being applied to the wider district.


title: Hackney, London

text: Hackney is a large district, whose long established boundaries encompass the sub-districts of Homerton, Dalston (including Kingsland and Shacklewell), De Beauvoir Town, Upper and Lower Clapton, Stamford Hill, Hackney Central, Hackney Wick, South Hackney and West Hackney.


title: Hackney, London

text: Hackney was an administrative unit with consistent boundaries from the early Middle Ages to the creation of the larger modern borough in 1965. It was based for many centuries on the Ancient Parish of Hackney, the largest in Middlesex.


title: Hackney, London

text: Hackney was a sub-Manor of the Manor of Stepney, and the ancient parish of Hackney was an early daughter parish of Stepney, though the date the Hackney parish was established is not known. Hackney's church is first recorded around 1275 and Hackney may have been an independent parish by that time. The parish would have been based on the boundaries of the sub-manor of Hackney at the time it was created. Any boundary changes to the manor after around 1180 would not be reflected in changes to the parish boundaries as, across England, they became fixed at around that time, so that boundaries could no longer be changed at all, despite changes to manorial landholdings – though there were examples of sub-division in some parishes. The manorial system in England had largely broken down in England by 1400, with manors fragmenting and their role being much reduced.


title: Hackney, London

text: Parishes in Middlesex were grouped into Hundreds, with Hackney part of Ossulstone Hundred. Rapid population growth around London saw the Hundred split into several 'Divisions' during the 1600s, with Hackney part of the Tower Division (aka Tower Hamlets). The Tower Division was noteworthy in that the men of the area owed military service to the Tower of London, as they had done before the creation of the Division.


title: Hackney, London

text: The ancient parishes provided a framework for both civil (administrative) and ecclesiastical (church) functions, but during the nineteenth century, there was a divergence into distinct civil and ecclesiastical parish systems. In London, the ecclesiastical parishes sub-divided to better serve the needs of a growing population, while the civil parishes continued to be based on the same ancient parish areas.


title: Hackney, London

text: The Metropolis Management Act 1855 merged the civil parishes of Hackney and Stoke Newington under a new Hackney District. This proved unpopular, especially in more affluent Stoke Newington, and after four unsuccessful attempts, the two parishes regained their independence when they were separated by mutual consent under the Metropolis Management (Plumstead and Hackney) Act of 1893.


title: Hackney, London

text: The London Government Act 1899 converted the parishes into Metropolitan Boroughs based on the same boundaries, sometimes with minor rationalisations. Neighbouring Stoke Newington was smaller than the desired size for the new boroughs, and there were proposals to re-merge Stoke Newington and Hackney, or to detach the northern part of Hackney and join it with Stoke Newington. These proposals were rejected due to the experience of "“intolerable and interminable feuds”" between the districts when they were previously ""forced together"", and because the First Lord of the Treasury, Arthur Balfour recognised that there was ""great ill-feeling and mutual ill-will... between the inhabitants of the two districts"".


title: Hackney, London

text: In 1965, Hackney merged with Shoreditch and Stoke Newington to form the new London Borough of Hackney.


title: Hackney, London

text: Prior to 1994, a small part of Victoria Park was in Hackney, but a minor boundary alteration was made so that the whole park came under the control of Tower Hamlets.


title: Hackney, London

text: The name is Old English, but the meaning is not certain. It seems clear however that the ‘ey’ element refers to an island or a raised or otherwise dry area in marshland. The term 'island' in this context can also mean land situated between two streams.


title: Hackney, London

text: The 'island' may have been beside the Lea or perhaps near the confluence of the Hackney Brook and Pigwell Brook in the Hackney Central area.


title: Hackney, London

text: The Oxford Dictionary of English Place Names examined various interpretations of the place name and favoured the interpretation that Hackney means ‘Haka’s island’, with Haka being a notable local person


title: Hackney, London

text: Hackney is a mostly low-lying area in proximity to two rivers, the Lea and the Hackney Brook. This would have made the area attractive for pastoral and arable agriculture, meaning most of the area is likely to have been deforested at an early date. There is archaeological evidence for settlement and agriculture as far back as the Stone Age.


title: Hackney, London

text: There will have been a network of probably minor, local roads in Hackney before the Romans conquered southern Britain after 43AD, but the area's proximity to the provincial capital, Londinium, meant that it was soon crossed by two large long-distance routes. The first was Ermine Street (modern A10) which emerged from Bishopsgate and headed north to Lincoln and York. The second was a route which branched off Ermine Street just outside Bishopsgate and headed SW-NE across Hackney, across the Dalston, Hackney Central and Lower Clapton areas to cross to the Lea on its way to Great Dunmow in Essex.


title: Hackney, London

text: This crossing appears to have crossed the Lea 168 metres south of the Bridge at Mandeville Street near Millfields Road (sometimes known as Pond Lane Bridge).


title: Hackney, London

text: Three Roman sarcophagus burials have been found, two of stone and one of marble. These, particularly the marble example indicate a high-status settlement of some sort. The stone examples had a coin hoard found nearby.


title: Hackney, London

text: The area around Millfields Park, Lower Clapton is sometimes described as the site of a battle in which Aescwine, having rebelled against Octa, King of Kent, defeats him in battle and became the (reputed) first King of Essex. The ford over the Lea neighbouring Leyton is referred to in the (much later) accounts of the battle. Historical records describing this period are extremely sparse, so the historicity of the battle and even Aescwine himself is disputed.


title: Hackney, London

text: Hackney was part of the territory of the Middle Saxons, a people who seem to have formed a province of the East Saxons, albeit not part of their core territory. The area was a part of the huge manor of Stepney, an area owned by the Bishop of London, and its great size and proximity to the City means it may have been part of the grant of land made when the Diocese of London (The East Saxon Diocese), was re-established in 604 AD.


title: Hackney, London

text: Later, the Middle and East Saxon area would become subject to various other Kingdoms, culminating in Wessex as it led to a long process to unite England as it rolled back the partial Viking conquest of the country. A coin of Egbert of Wessex was found on Stamford Hill.


title: Hackney, London

text: The Kings of Wessex divided their kingdom into shires, with Hackney becoming part of the shire of Middlesex, an area named after the Middle Saxons.


title: Hackney, London

text: After their victory at Hastings, the Normans needed to secure London. To this end, they burned Southwark, crossed the river upstream and harried much of Middlesex and Hertfordshire. The Manor of Stepney was less badly hit than much of the rest of Middlesex, though the area along Ermine Street (the A10), in Hackney, is believed to have been badly affected.


title: Hackney, London

text: The Domesday Book of 1086 covered England at manorial level, so Hackney is only assessed as part of Manor of Stepney, of which it was a sub-manor.


title: Hackney, London

text: The landscape at this time was largely agricultural, Domesday returns for Middlesex indicate that it was around 30% wooded (much of it wood-pasture), about double the English average. Hackney would have had a lower proportion than the county as a whole, consisting of mostly lower land, close to rivers that made it more attractive for farming. The proportion of woodland in England decreased sharply between the Conquest and the Black Death due to the pressure of a rapidly increasing population, and the same pressures would have been experienced here.


title: Hackney, London

text: From the Tudor period onwards, the various settlements in Hackney grew as wealthy Londoners moved to what they saw as a pleasant rural alternative to living in London; but which was, nonetheless close to the capital - in some ways it was comparable to a modern commuter town.


title: Hackney, London

text: A number of royal courtiers lived in Homerton, while Henry VIII had a palace at Brooke House, Upper Clapton, where Queen Mary took the Oath of Supremacy. Sutton House, the oldest surviving residential building in the district was built in 1535.


title: Hackney, London

text: The main ‘Hackney Village’ grew much larger than the others, in 1605 having as many houses as Dalston, Newington (i.e. West Hackney), Kingsland and Shacklewell combined.


title: Hackney, London

text: In the 1770s Hackney became home to one of the largest and most celebrated plant nurseries in England, Loddiges Paradise Field Nursery, founded by German born Joachim Conrad Loddiges (1738-1826) and continued by his son George Loddiges (1786-1846), and known as The Hackney Botanic Nursery Garden. With its range of heated glasshouses the nursery was famed for displaying newly discovered plants from around the globe including the Americas, the Caribbean, Australia and the far East.


title: Hackney, London

text: The growth of the East End of London was stimulated by the building of Regent's Canal between 1812 and 1816, with construction work on a new town at De Beauvoir beginning in 1823 and continuing through the 1830s. The arrival of the railways, around 1850, accelerated the spread of London and the expansion of the existing nuclei so that Hackney was almost entirely built up by 1870.


title: Hackney, London

text: In 1907, the Fifth Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party held at the Brotherhood Church on the east side of Southgate Road. The conference was held in the UK after being banned in other countries.


title: Hackney, London

text: Attendees included Lenin, Stalin, Maxim Gorky, Rosa Luxemburg and Leon Trotsky. The congress debated strategy for a communist revolution in Russia and strengthened the position of Lenin's Bolshevik and debated strategy for a communist revolution in Russia.


title: Hackney, London

text: The first bomb of the first air raid on London, fell on 16 Alkham Road, West Hackney in May 1915 by the German Army airship LZ 38. No one was seriously hurt at that address but the raid killed seven people elsewhere, including four children, causing great anger among the public. East London was at particular risk at this time, due to the Kaiser's order, later rescinded, that the raiders limit their attacks to targets east of the Tower of London.


title: Hackney, London

text: Hackney raised two front-line infantry battalions for the London Regiment during the conflict: the "1/10th (City of London) Battalion (Hackney)" and the and "2/10th (City of London) Battalion (Hackney)". The battalions had their own cap badge, depicting Hackney's emblem, St Augustine's Tower, together with the borough's motto "Justitia Turris Nostra", Latin for "Justice is our tower".


title: Hackney, London

text: The 1/10th was assigned to the 162nd (East Midland) Brigade in the 54th (East Anglian) Infantry Division, seeing service at Gallipoli and the Middle East, finishing the war in Beirut. The 2/10th was assigned to the 175th (2/3rd London) Brigade, in the 58th (2/1st London) Division, fighting on the western front and finishing the war in the Peruwelz area of Belgium. A third Hackney battalion, the 3/10th was based in the UK and used as a training unit, providing reinforcements to the two frontline battalions.


title: Hackney, London

text: Hackney was badly affected by wartime bombing that left the area with 749 civilian war dead, with many more of its citizens injured or left homeless. Many other Hackney residents were also killed on active service around the world. The number of devices hitting Hackney was upwards of 613 high explosive bombs, 16 parachute mines, 37 V-1 'doodlebugs', 10 V-2 rockets and many thousands of 1 kg incendiary devices.


title: Hackney, London

text: Notable buildings destroyed by bombing included Tudor-era Brooke House in Upper Clapton and West Hackney church.


title: Hackney, London

text: The post-war period saw extensive re-building, and the area became increasingly multi-cultural in character. During the 1930s, 1940s and 1960s the area's large Jewish and other minority populations made it a target for provocative rallies by Oswald Mosley and the far-right organisations he founded. These were actively opposed by many local people, together with organisations such as the 43 Group and this led to a number of violent confrontations, notably in the Ridley Road area of Dalston.


title: Hackney, London

text: Hackney was one of the host areas when London staged the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games, with three venues falling within its part of the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park:


title: Hackney, London

text: Hackney's solution to affordable housing has been able to put more affordable housing on the market by making use of inclusionary practices. This district built a significant number of affordable units and subsidised them with market-rate units. In Hackney about half of the new units are affordable. In an effort to avoid displacing current residents, construction was completed in phases.


title: Hackney, London

text: The outline of Hackney's traditional boundary resembles a right-angled triangle with the right-angle in the SW and the Lower Lea Valley, running NW-SE forming the hypotenuse. The western boundary is based on the N-S axis of the Roman A10, though the sub-district of De Beauvoir Town lies beyond it, as do small areas of Dalston and Stamford Hill.


title: Hackney, London

text: The district's southern boundary follows the Regents Canal-Hertford Union Canal in part, and for the remainder marches a little to the north of it, with Victoria Park also forming part of the southern boundary.


title: Hackney, London

text: The highest points around Stamford Hill and Clapton Common are over 30m AOD, with the lowest areas being along the River Lea. The Hackney Brook was the largest natural internal watercourse, entering Hackney in the NW, at the foot of the southern foot of Stamford Hill and exiting in the south-east, however, this watercourse was fully culverted in the 19th century.


title: Hackney, London

text: The boundaries of Hackney take in the sub-districts of Homerton, Dalston (including Kingsland and Shacklewell), De Beauvoir Town, Upper and Lower Clapton, Stamford Hill, Hackney Central, Hackney Wick, South Hackney and West Hackney.


title: Hackney, London

text: The Lea and Hackney Marshes are underlain by alluvium soils, and the higher ground between Homerton and Stamford Hill is formed on a widening bed of London Clay. Brickearth deposits are within tongues of clay extending beneath Clapton Common, Stamford Hill and Stoke Newington High Street. The centre and southwestern districts lie on river terrace deposits of Taplow Gravel. The area around Victoria Park and Well Street Common lies on flood plain gravel.