title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: However, the kingdom continued to decline, under the attacks by South Indian states. The last Sinhala king to rule from Polonnaruva was Parākramabāhu III (1302–1310), who was actually a client king of the Pandyas and later had to retreat to Dambadeniya. After this, Sinhala kings were forced to retreat further to the south (to cities like Kurunagala and Gampola), mainly in search of security from South Indian states and from the expansive Tamil kingdom of Jaffna (a Hindu realm which now controlled the north-west of the island).


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: This instability also led to the decline of the discipline of the Sangha. Sinhala kings tried various measures to stem this decline, such as purging the sangha of undisciplined monks and introducing the post of "sangharaja" (chief of the sangha) under the Gampola kings. Regarding sectarian differences, these had mostly been worked out at this point in time, with the adoption of some Mahayana (as well as Hindu) deities and the rituals of the other sects into the Theravada orthodoxy. The cult of the tooth relic retained its importance for example. In spite of all the instability, Sri Lanka was seen by Buddhists in Southeast Asia as a new holy land, since it contained relics of the Buddha which were accessible, in contrast to India which had seen the disappearance of Buddhism and the Muslim invasions.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: This period of the Dambadeniya kings also saw a flowering of religious poetry, such as the "Kavsilumina", written by the king Parākramabāhu II in mahakavya style and the "Saddharma Ratnavaliya" (which retells stories of the Dhammapada commentary).


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: Veneration of Avalokiteśvara (Lokeshwara Natha) has continued to the present day in Sri Lanka, where he is called Nātha. In more recent times, some western-educated Theravādins have attempted to identify Nātha with Maitreya. However, traditions and basic iconography, including an image of Amitābha on his crown, identify Nātha as Avalokiteśvara.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: Kings of Sri Lanka were often described as bodhisattvas, starting at least as early as Sirisanghabodhi (r. 247–249), who was styled a "mahāsatta" ("great being", Sanskrit "mahāsattva"), an epithet used almost exclusively in Mahayana. Many other Sri Lankan kings from the 3rd until the 15th century were also described as bodhisattvas and their royal duties were sometimes clearly associated with the practice of the ten pāramitās. In some cases, they explicitly claimed to have received predictions of Buddhahood in past lives.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: During the beginning of the 16th century, Sri Lanka was fragmented into various small polities. The Portuguese Empire exploited this and established Colombo as a way to control the cinnamon trade. The Portuguese became drawn into various wars with these kingdoms. Between 1597 and 1658, a substantial part of the island came under Portuguese rule, though their control was rather tenuous and prone to rebellion. Only the kingdom of Kandy retained its independence.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: The Portuguese sought to introduce Catholicism to the island, and in their wars, with the Sinhalese, they often destroyed Buddhist monasteries or handed them over to Catholic orders. From the 16th century onward, Christian missionaries attempted to convert the local population to Christianity. Non-Christian religions were suppressed and persecuted, while Christians were given preferential treatment. Over time, a Christian minority developed on the island. This war-torn period weakened the Buddhist Sangha so much, that in 1592, Vimaladharmasuriya I of Kandy sought aid from Burma to ordain Buddhist monks, as there was hardly a single properly ordained monk left.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: From 1612 to 1658, the Dutch and the Portuguese fought over the island, and Kandy sided with the Dutch. The Dutch won and occupied most of the coastal sections of the island (Dutch Ceylon, 1640–1796), while the kingdom of Kandy retained the interior. The Dutch were less zealous than the Portuguese in their religious proselytizing though they still discriminated against non-Christians (as well as Catholics). Non-Protestant worship was also not allowed in some towns, and Buddhist temple properties that had been confiscated by the Portuguese were not returned.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: In the Kandyan kingdom of the interior, Buddhism remained the state religion. Kandyan rulers continued to patronize Buddhist institutions as the ancient Sinhala kings had done, and they remained in control of the tooth relic. Through much of the 18th century, however, the sangha was in a weakened state, with the ordination lineage broken. The Buddhist "priests" of the kingdom lacked the proper ordination rites (at least 5 fully ordained monks are required to fully ordain a new monk). These Buddhist religious figures who were not really proper monks ("bhikkhus"), but served a similar role to traditional monastics were called "ganinnanses." Kandyan kings did attempt to re-establish the ordination lineage through their religious links to Burmese Buddhism, but these were not very successful.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: The most successful attempt to revive the sangha was led by Weliwita Sri Saranankara Thero (1698–1778), who restored the higher ordination on the island by inviting monks from Thailand (thus founding the modern Siam Nikaya which survives to this day). With the support of the Kandyan king Kirti Sri Rajasinha, Weliwita also worked to establish the primacy of Buddhist ritual, and the modern form of the Festival of the Tooth Relic dates to this time. It was also during this period that Kirti Sri Rajasinha issued a decree stating that only those of the govigama caste could join the Siam Nikaya, and those non-govigama bhikkhus which did exist were exiled or prevented from participating in higher ordination.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: The reigns of Kirti Sri Rajasinha (1747–1782) and Rajadhi Rajasinha (1782–1798) also saw the restoration of many Buddhist temples that had been destroyed in previous wars as the building of new temples (particularly in and around Kandy, such as Malvatta, Gangarama and Degaldoruva).


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: In 1795–1796, the Dutch territories in Sri Lanka came under the control of the British East India Company. In 1815 a British army conquered a politically divided Kandy and deposed the Sinhalese king. The British retained Sri Lanka until 1948 (though it remained a dominion until 1972). The initial treaty of surrender, the Kandyan Convention, stated that the Buddhist religion would be protected and maintained.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: The first half of the 19th century saw the formation of a new monastic fraternity, the Amarapura Nikaya, by monks and would-be monks of non-govigama castes. They travelled to Burma in the first decade of the 19th century to bring back a new ordination which would not be restricted by caste. This new monastic order thrived in the littoral regions outside of Kandy and even made headways into Kandyan territory.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: While the British government had a preference for Christians, they were not openly hostile to Buddhism, due to their fear that religious controversies might provoke political unrest. During the first two decades of British rule, there was no official British support for Christian missionary societies. Left to their own resources, the efforts of these missionary organizations made their progress in converting the population slowly, though they did grow. Their activities were also very restricted in the Kandyan regions. From the beginning, the missions used education as a means of evangelisation. Education in these schools (which disparaged Buddhism) was a requirement for government office. Christian missionaries also wrote tracts in Sinhalese attacking Buddhism and promoting Christianity.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: After the 1830s, there was a period in which the British supported Christian missionary work much more actively. This was mainly due to the influence of pro-missionary politicians like Lord Glenelg and Governor Stewart Mackenzie (1837–41), as well as to the agitation of missionary agencies themselves. During this period, missionary organizations were the dominant influence in education, and it was believed that education should aim first and foremost to convert the local elites. Also during this time, the official association of the state with Buddhism was severed, in spite of a popular rebellion in 1848. However, the rebellion did cause the British government to become much more conservative in matters of religion and social change, and in the latter half of the 19th century it backed away from its support of missionary efforts they felt would anger the Sinhalese.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: In the second half of the 19th century, a national Buddhist revival movement began as a response to Christian missionaries and British colonial rule. This movement was empowered by the results of several public debates between Christian priests and Buddhist monks such as Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera and Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera. The big five public debates with Protestant missionaries were held in 1865 (the Baddegama and Waragoda debates), 1866 (Udanwita debate), 1871 (Gampola debate), and 1873 (Panadura debate). Topics of the debates included God, the Soul, the resurrection, Karma, Rebirth, Nirvana and the principle of dependent origination. One of these debates, the famed "Panadura debate" of 1873 was widely seen as a victory for Gunananda Thera.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: The British government, weary of religious conflict, largely attempted a policy of religious neutrality at this time. During this period, Buddhists formed societies (such as the Society for the Propagation of Buddhism) and centres of learning (Vidyodaya Pirivena and Vidyalankara Pirivena) to promote Buddhism and to print Buddhist literature. A new monastic fraternity was also formed, the Ramanna Nikaya (which split off from the Amarapura Nikaya), which stressed monastic discipline. Indeed, the revival movement was mainly led by these two Nikayas, and the Siam Nikaya in Kandy largely remained uninvolved. During this time the first Buddhist school in Sri Lanka, 'Jinalabdhi Vishodaka' was founded in 1869 and its founder was Sri Piyaratana Tissa Mahanayake Thero


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: In 1880 Henry Steel Olcott arrived in Sri Lanka with Madame Blavatsky of the Theosophical Society, causing much excitement on the island. He had been inspired when he read about the Panadura debate and had exchanged letters with Gunananda. After learning about Buddhism from monks such as Sumangala Thera, Olcott converted to the religion. Olcott and the Sinhalese Buddhist leaders established the Buddhist Theosophical Society in 1880, with the goal of establishing Buddhist schools (there were only three at the time, by 1940, there were 429 Buddhist schools on the island). He sponsored Buddhist colleges such as Ananda College in Colombo and the Dharmaraja College in Kandy. Olcott also collected the Buddhist scriptures which had been translated by Western Indologists and based on these, he composed a ‘Buddhist Catechism’ (1881), which promoted Buddhism as a 'scientific religion' and was used in Buddhist schools until the late 20th century.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: The Sri Lankan Theosophical society under Olcott also had its own publications to promote Buddhism; the Sinhalese newspaper, "Sarasavisandarasa", and its English counterpart, "The Buddhist". As a result of their efforts, Vesak became a public holiday, Buddhist registrars of marriage were allowed, and interest in Buddhism increased. Olcott was also part of the committee which designed the new Buddhist flag. The presence of a group of westerners who championed Buddhism also had an energizing effect on the sangha.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: Another important figure in the revival is Anagarika Dharmapala, initially an interpreter for Olcott, he then travelled around the world preaching Buddhism and associating with clerics, Theosophists, scholars, elites and other interested folks. In Sri Lanka, he preached Buddhism, gave speeches and led the establishment of numerous Buddhist schools, hospitals, seminaries and the Buddhist newspaper "Sinhala Bauddhaya" (in which he wrote a regular weekly column).


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: After visiting India, he established the pan-Buddhist Maha Bodhi Society in 1891 whose goal was to revive Buddhism in India, and restore the ancient Buddhist shrines at Bodh Gaya, Sarnath and Kushinara. The society also sought to create a universal network of Buddhists around the world and unite the Buddhist world. Dharmapala also represented Theravada Buddhism as a world religion at the World's Parliament of Religions of 1893.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: A key element of the Buddhist revival was a strong nationalist anti-colonial stance mixed with a sense of Buddhist internationalism. In spite of its strong anti-Christian missionary stance, the Buddhist revival has been described as a "Protestant Buddhism" (but more commonly "Buddhist modernism") due to how similar the tactics, ideas and organizational forms were to modern Protestant Christianity.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: Another key element of the revival was a temperance movement (that also included Sri Lankan Christians), which established numerous temperance societies, similar to the Christian temperance societies. Many of the figures associated with the revival and with the temperance movement were also closely associated with the nationalist independence movement in the early 20th century. The most famous of which is Anagarika Dharmapala, but also includes the Senanayake brothers, mainly F. R. Senanayake, D. C. Senanayake and D. S. Senanayake as well as D. B. Jayatilaka.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: The associations of the Buddhist revival also contributed much to the publication of Buddhist literature, and the promotion of Buddhist scholarship. Revivalist Buddhist scholars include Sir D. B. Jayatilaka, F. R. Senanayake, Walisinghe Harischandra and W. A. de Silva. During the revival, journalism was a major arena for religious discussion and debate. English as well as Sinhala were used in this new journalism. The works of the novelists Piyadasa Sirisena and Martin Wickramasinghe are examples of the Buddhist nationalist-influenced literature of the 20th century.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: The Buddhist revival also resulted in the spreading of Buddhism in Western countries. Anagarika Dharmapala and Asoka Weeraratna pioneered the establishment of Buddhist Viharas in Europe. Anagarika Dharmapala founded the London Buddhist Vihara in 1926 while Asoka Weeraratna opened a new chapter for the spread of Buddhism in Germany and Europe by establishing the first Buddhist Vihara in Continental Europe, Dr. Paul Dahlke’s Das Buddhistische Haus in 1957. He also founded the German Dharmaduta Society. Monks from Sri Lanka were also sent to live in Germany to spread the Dhamma. Asoka also founded the influential meditation monastery Nissarana Vanaya.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: Since the Buddhist revival, Sri Lanka has also been an important centre of Buddhist scholarship in Western languages. One of the first western bhikkhus, the German Nyanatiloka Mahathera, studied in Sri Lanka, established the Island Hermitage there and ordained several western monks. Western monks who studied in the island hermitage such as Nanamoli Bhikkhu and Ven. Nyanaponika (who worked in the Buddhist Publication Society along with Bhikkhu Bodhi) were responsible for many important translations of the Pali Canon and other texts on Buddhism into English and German.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: In 1948 Sri Lanka was granted self-rule (though it remained a Dominion of the British Empire until 1972) in a peaceful transfer of power. The negotiations with the British were led by D.S. Senanayake, the first prime minister of Sri Lanka who strongly believed in achieving independence through legal and constitutional means.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: Senanayake's UNP and his opponents in the left-wing parties all promoted the idea of Sri Lanka as a secular state with a plural multi-racial society. This alienated some of the ethnic Sinhalese Buddhist nationalists who believed Buddhism should have the status of state religion (which it had historically enjoyed) and that Sinhala should be the sole national language (this was seen as an equally important element of Sinhalese Buddhist culture). These nationalists were influenced by the idea (first articulated by Anagarika Dharmapala) that Sri Lanka was the holy land of Buddhism (the "Island of Dhamma", "Dhammadipa") and that the Sinhalese were the noble protectors of Buddhism, while all other foreigners on the island were a corrupting and dangerous influence. The nationalists also saw the UNP elite as alienated from traditional Sinhalese culture. These Buddhist ethno-nationalists were consolidated under S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike's Freedom Party (SLFP), which defeated the UNP in 1956 on a nationalist and anti-Tamil platform.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: From the point of view of Buddhist monastics, the idea that Buddhist monks should be involved in politics was vigorously defended by the followers of Anagarika Dharmapala, and by monks such as Walpola Rahula, who wrote an influential book called "Bhiksuvage Urumaya" (The Heritage of the Bhikkhu) in 1946 defending the idea. Rahula draws from the Mahavamsa to argue that the Sinhala Buddhist monk had always been socio-politically engaged (in the past, this meant close ties with kings). He defends the politically engaged monk and argues that they are nobler and more righteous than the forest hermit. Some Buddhists did not adopt a nationalist politics and instead adopted Socialism, seeing capitalism as a Western corruption. This Buddhist Socialism was most strongly defended by D. C. Vijayavardhana, in a book titled Dhamma Vijaya (the Revolt in the Temple).


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: With the support of Buddhist nationalists, the SLFP introduced and eventually passed the divisive Sinhala Only Act, which made Sinhala the only official language of the nation. This alienated many minorities like the Sri Lankan Tamils in the process, who sought regional autonomy. Under Sirimavo Bandaranaike (the world's first female prime minister), the Freedom Party also nationalised most schools in the country that received government aid (a few Catholic schools were fully privatized to avoid this fate). This was particularly resisted by the Catholic minority who ran a widespread system of mission schools (which was considered by the Buddhist nationalists as part of the legacy of colonialism).


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: After these events, the support of the Buddhist sangha became indispensable for both the UNP and the Freedom Party (SLFP). They both adopted Buddhist symbolism at public functions and promoted Buddhist activities. The government also promoted the restoration of Buddhist archaeological sites, such as Anuradhapura.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: In 1972, a new constitution was adopted, supported by the Buddhist nationalists, which gave Buddhism a "foremost place" in the eyes of the state. The '72 constitution (as well as the current constitution which replaced it in '78) made it a duty of the state to "protect and foster Buddhism". Further repressive government policies against the Tamils lead to increasing separatist sentiment and radicalization, culminating with the formation of the Tamil Tigers. The tensions between Tamil separatists (who sometimes resorted to terrorist activities) and the Sinhalese (who in response became more authoritarian or resorted to mob violence) culminated in the Sri Lankan Civil War. The war lasted 25 years, from 1983 to the final defeat of the Tamil Tigers in 2009. The Tigers also attacked Buddhist monasteries and monks, including at famed sites such as Sri Mahabodhi in Anuradhapura (in 1984) and the Temple of the Tooth (in 1998). Sinhalese forces responded with similar attacks on Tamil religious sites (as well as on Christian and Muslim places of worship).


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: According to Peter Lehr, militant ultra-nationalist Buddhism has been on the rise in Sri Lanka since the 50s. According to Lehr, this is partially fueled by "the impression that Buddhism is under siege by a hostile non-Buddhist enemy," which has led many Sinhala Buddhists to see themselves as a minority under siege by external forces (historically, the main threat has been Indian Tamil invaders). The influences on this militancy include Anagarika Dharmapala, who had also spoken of Muslims as a dangerous "barbarous race", who wiped out Buddhism in India and had often preached against Christianity.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: This militant nationalism has been taken up by certain extremist figures, in spite of the fact that mainstream Buddhist teachings are unambiguous regarding the prohibition of monastic violence (which is punishable by expulsion from the monastic community) and promote non-violence as a virtue for laypersons to aspire to as well. Buddhist scholars generally see the doctrine of Theravada Buddhism as promoting loving-kindness in all circumstances, even in the face of oppression or terrorism.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: However, some Buddhist nationalists have promoted the use of violence in defense of Buddhism and the nation. In this, they could draw on old Buddhist traditions, such as those of the Sinhala kings found in the "Mahavamsa" who defended the island against Tamil invaders. One particular episode in the Mahavamsa involving the warrior king Dutugāmunu seems to allow for killing one's enemies as long as one is acting with the intention to defend the Buddhist religion.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: One of the most infamous acts of this extremist Buddhist nationalism was the assassination of Sri Lankan Prime Minister Solomon Bandaranaike by the Buddhist monk Talduwe Somarama (he was backed by another monk, Mapitigama Buddharakkitha) in 1959. The assassination was caused by Bandaranaike's attempts to compromise with the Tamils.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: More recent militant figures include Gangodawila Soma Thero and Inamaluwe Sri Sumangala Thero, both of whom regularly preached the idea that the nation was under siege by other religions, especially Muslims. The Jathika Hela Urumaya political party is a Buddhist nationalist political party partly founded and led by "war monks" such as Athuraliye Rathana Thero, who demanded, among other things, that the Tamil Tigers be wiped out, that peace negotiations with them be stopped, and that conversions from Buddhism be banned. Another militant Buddhist nationalist, Inamaluwe Sri Sumangala Thero, has stated that Muslims are "an inhumane/animal-like race of people."


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: The Bodu Bala Sena (‘Buddhist Power Force’), is another extremist Buddhist nationalist group in Sri Lanka who, in response to the killing of a Buddhist monk, organized anti-Muslim rallies that led to the anti-Muslim riots of 15–17 June 2014. One of the leading BBS monks, Galagoda Aththe Gnanasara, has given speeches inciting violence against Muslims and was even arrested and sentenced in 2018 for his issuing personal threats. The BBS also targets Sinhalese Buddhists who criticize them. One such figure is Watareka Vijitha Thera, the secretary general of the Jathika Bala Sena (National Power Force, JBS) which promotes peace and co-existence. Watareka Vijitha has been targeted by BBS, been called a traitor and has been physically assaulted. However, according to Lehr the majority of Sinhalese monks remain strictly apolitical and "also rather silent on all things political—which also includes the choice of not commenting on the activities of the politically active ones." Further anti-Muslim riots have recently rocked the island, in 2018 and 2019.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: From the 1950s onwards, a Sri Lankan Forest Tradition has been in development, focusing on renunciation, meditation and forest dwelling. In 1973, Carrithers' study of the movement reported over 150 hermitages with around 6,000 monks. Though most of the currently occupied forest monasteries were built after the 50s, the modern Sri Lankan Forest Monasticism movement goes back to the 19th century. Puvakdandave Paññānanda (1817–1887) was one of the first monks to establish forest hermitages that remain occupied today (Batuvita and Kirinda).


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: Some key figures in the 20th century include Kadavadduve Jinavaṃsa, Vaturuvila Ñāṇananda, and Kukulnape Devarakkhita. These forest monks sought to reform the sangha by returning to the forest life and strictly following the Vinaya (ancient monastic rule). Jinavamsa along with Matara Sri Ñāṇārāma founded the Śrī Kalyāṇī Yogāśrama Sansthā, an association of forest meditation hermitages such as Nissarana Vanaya and Nā Uyana Aranya. This movement also produced excellent scholar philosophers, such as Kaṭukurunde Ñāṇananda.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: A few years after the arrival of Mahinda, Bhikkhuni Sanghamitta, who is also believed to be the daughter of Emperor Ashoka came to Sri Lanka. She started the first nun's order in Sri Lanka, but this order of nuns died out in Sri Lanka in the 11th century.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: Many women have been ordained in Sri Lanka since 1996. In 1996 through the efforts of Sakyadhita, an International Buddhist Women Association, Theravada bhikkhuni order was revived when 11 Sri Lankan women received full ordination in Sarnath, India, in a procedure held by Ven. Dodangoda Revata Mahāthera and the late Ven. Mapalagama Vipulasāra Mahāthera of the Mahābodhi Society in India with assistance from monks and nuns of Korean Chogyo order.


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: The different sects of the Sri Lankan (Sinhala) Buddhist sangha are referred to as Nikayas. There are currently two main Nikayas on the island:


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: Besides the monastic fraternities, there are various Buddhist institutions and organizations in Sri Lanka. Some of these include:


title: Buddhism in Sri Lanka

text: Buddhism in Sri Lanka is predominantly practised by the Sinhalese people, however the 2012 Sri Lanka Census revealed a Buddhist population of 22,254 amongst the Sri Lankan Tamil population, including eleven monks, accounting to roughly 8% of all Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka.


title: Working holiday visa

text: A working holiday visa is a residence permit allowing travellers to undertake employment (and sometimes study) in the country issuing the visa to supplement their travel funds. For many young people, holding a working holiday visa enables them to experience living in a foreign country without undergoing the usual costly expenses of finding work sponsorship in advance or going on expensive university exchange programmes.


title: Working holiday visa

text: Most working holiday visas are offered under reciprocal agreements between certain countries to encourage travel and cultural exchange between their citizens.


title: Working holiday visa

text: Working Holiday Visa Subclass 417: Belgium, Canada, Republic of Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Republic of China, Republic of Ireland, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Taiwan, United Kingdom United Kingdom and Northern Ireland.


title: Working holiday visa

text: There are "rounds of invitations" sent out on a regular basis, as long as there are spots available. If candidates receive an invitation to apply, they have 10 days ONLY to accept or decline it.


title: Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan

text: A 24-episode anime adaptation produced by Studio Deen was broadcast in Japan from July to December 2010. A 24-episode second season, titled "Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan - Demon Capital", was broadcast from July to December 2011.


title: Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan

text: In North America, Viz Media licensed the series for English-language release of the manga and anime adaptations. It was streamed on Viz Anime in 2010, while the twenty-five volumes of the manga were released from February 2011 to February 2015.


title: Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan

text: Rikuo Nura is 3/4 human and 1/4 "yōkai", in which he has a human form in the day but transforms into his "yōkai" form at night. He lives in a house full of "yōkai" along with his "yōkai" grandfather. Trying to escape his fate, he does good deeds in order to avoid becoming a "yōkai", despite his grandfather's wish that Rikuo succeed him as the Third Head of the Nura Clan. Rikuo is different because he helps humans. He eventually comes to terms with his "yōkai" blood and decides to take up the position of the Third Head of the Nura Clan. Multiple factions aim to stop him or usurp his position, and he must gather friends and allies, a new Hyakki Yakō under his banner of "Fear".


title: Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan

text: "Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan" is written and illustrated by Hiroshi Shiibashi. A first one-shot chapter was published in Shueisha's "Weekly Shōnen Jump" on July 30, 2007. The manga was serialized in the same magazine from March 10, 2008, to June 25, 2012. The series' final story arc ran for three in the seasonally published "Jump Next!", from August 11 to December 28, 2012. Shueisha collected its 210 individual chapters in twenty-five "tankōbon" volumes, released from August 4, 2008, to March 4, 2013. The covers of each volume make a continuing picture of all the characters.


title: Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan

text: The manga was licensed for English release by Viz Media, who published the series chapter wise in its manga anthology "Weekly Shonen Jump Alpha" since the magazine's launch on January 30, 2012, and in bound volumes since February 1, 2011. As of February 3, 2015, all 25 English-language volumes have been released. The first volume was translated by localization company AltJapan Co., Ltd.


title: Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan

text: The anime series, produced by Studio Deen, aired from July 6 to December 21, 2010. It is licensed for North America by Viz Media under the name "Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan." New episodes, subtitled in English, were made available for streaming on their website several hours after they aired in Japan. The opening themes are "Fast Forward" and "Sunshine" performed by Monkey Majik and the ending themes are "Sparky☆Start" and "Symphonic Dream" performed by Katate Size (Aya Hirano, Yui Horie and Ai Maeda). The anime was released on eight DVDs.


title: Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan

text: The second season, , aired in Japan from July 5 to December 20, 2011. It was made available for streaming with English subtitles the next day. Two additional 23-minute OVAs were subsequently released in December 4, 2012 and March 4, 2013 after "Demon Capital" finished. They were bundled with the limited edition releases of volumes 24 and 25 of the manga.


title: Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan

text: The English dub of the series was posted for streaming on Viz Media's online network, Neon Alley, which starting on October 2, 2012. Viz Media later released the series on DVD/Blu-ray on March 10, 2014. Originally it was going to be released on January 28, 2014.


title: Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan

text: A character data book titled was released on July 2, 2010. At 264 pages, it contains information on all the major factions in the series, as well as on Shiibashi and his assistants.


title: Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan

text: A light novel adaptation written by Satoshi Oosaki with art by Hiroshi Shiibashi was published by J-Books in December 2009. It features the stories of Nurarihyon and Yohime's wedding ceremony and a strange encounter between Zen and Kuromaru, as well as an original tale centering on the "yōkai" who live in Ukiyoe Town.


title: Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan

text: A video game called was announced as developed by Arc System Works and published by Konami. It was released in November 2011 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360.


title: Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan

text: The first tankōbon ranked 9th on Tohan manga charts, the third ranked 5th, the fourth ranked 10th, the fifth ranked 9th, and the sixth ranked 8th, and each volume starting from the third sold over 100,000 copies.


title: Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan

text: "Weekly Shōnen Jump" allows its readers to vote on their favorite manga, giving out the Gold Future Cup award each year to the most popular manga one-shot it publishes. In 2007, the "Nura: Rise of the Yokai Clan" one-shot ranked 1st in the Gold Future Cup.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: The National Portrait Gallery (NPG) is an art gallery in London housing a collection of portraits of historically important and famous British people. It was arguably the first national public gallery dedicated to portraits in the world when it opened in 1856. The gallery moved in 1896 to its current site at St Martin's Place, off Trafalgar Square, and adjoining the National Gallery. It has been expanded twice since then. The National Portrait Gallery also has regional outposts at Beningbrough Hall in Yorkshire and Montacute House in Somerset. It is unconnected to the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh, with which its remit overlaps. The gallery is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: The gallery houses portraits of historically important and famous British people, selected on the basis of the significance of the sitter, not that of the artist. The collection includes photographs and caricatures as well as paintings, drawings and sculpture. One of its best-known images is the Chandos portrait, the most famous portrait of William Shakespeare although there is some uncertainty about whether the painting actually is of the playwright.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: Not all of the portraits are exceptional artistically, although there are self-portraits by William Hogarth, Sir Joshua Reynolds and other British artists of note. Some, such as the group portrait of the participants in the Somerset House Conference of 1604, are important historical documents in their own right. Often, the curiosity value is greater than the artistic worth of a work, as in the case of the anamorphic portrait of Edward VI by William Scrots, Patrick Branwell Brontë's painting of his sisters Charlotte, Emily and Anne, or a sculpture of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert in medieval costume. Portraits of living figures were allowed from 1969. In addition to its permanent galleries of historical portraits, the National Portrait Gallery exhibits a rapidly changing selection of contemporary work, stages exhibitions of portrait art by individual artists and hosts the annual BP Portrait Prize competition.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: The three people largely responsible for the founding of the National Portrait Gallery are commemorated with busts over the main entrance. At centre is Philip Henry Stanhope, 4th Earl Stanhope, with his supporters on either side, Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay (to Stanhope's left) and Thomas Carlyle (to Stanhope's right). It was Stanhope who, in 1846 as a Member of Parliament (MP), first proposed the idea of a National Portrait Gallery. It was not until his third attempt, in 1856, this time from the House of Lords, that the proposal was accepted. With Queen Victoria's approval, the House of Commons set aside a sum of £2000 to establish the gallery. As well as Stanhope and Macaulay, the founder Trustees included Benjamin Disraeli and Lord Ellesmere. It was the latter who donated the Chandos portrait to the nation as the gallery's first portrait. Carlyle became a trustee after the death of Ellesmere in 1857.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: For the first 40 years, the gallery was housed in various locations in London. The first 13 years were spent at 29 Great George Street, Westminster. There, the collection increased in size from 57 to 208 items, and the number of visitors from 5,300 to 34,500. In 1869, the collection moved to Exhibition Road and buildings managed by the Royal Horticultural Society. Following a fire in those buildings, the collection was moved in 1885, this time to the Bethnal Green Museum. This location was ultimately unsuitable due to its distance from the West End, condensation and lack of waterproofing. Following calls for a new location to be found, the government accepted an offer of funds from the philanthropist William Henry Alexander. Alexander donated £60,000 followed by another £20,000, and also chose the architect, Ewan Christian. The government provided the new site, St Martin's Place, adjacent to the National Gallery, and £16,000. The buildings, faced in Portland stone, were constructed by Shillitoe & Son. Both the architect, Ewan Christian, and the gallery's first director, George Scharf, died shortly before the new building was completed. The gallery opened at its new location on 4 April 1896. The site has since been expanded twice. The first extension, in 1933, was funded by Lord Duveen, and resulted in the wing by architect Sir Richard Allison on a site previously occupied by St George's Barracks running along Orange Street.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: In February 1909, a murder–suicide took place in a gallery known as the "Arctic Room". In an apparently planned attack, John Tempest Dawson, aged 70, shot his 58 year–old wife, Nannie Caskie; Dawson shot her from behind with a revolver, then shot himself in the mouth, dying instantly. His wife died in hospital several hours later. Both were American nationals who had lived in Hove for around 10 years. Evidence at the inquest suggested that Dawson, a wealthy and well–travelled man, was suffering from a persecutory delusion. The incident came to public attention in 2010 when the Gallery's archive was put on-line as this included a personal account of the event by James Donald Milner, then the Assistant Director of the Gallery.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: The collections of the National Portrait Gallery were stored at Mentmore Towers in Buckinghamshire during the Second World War, along with pieces from the Royal Collection and paintings from Speaker's House in the Palace of Westminster.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: The second extension was funded by Sir Christopher Ondaatje and a £12m Heritage Lottery Fund grant, and was designed by London-based architects Edward Jones and Jeremy Dixon. The Ondaatje Wing opened in 2000 and occupies a narrow space of land between the two 19th-century buildings of the National Gallery and the National Portrait Gallery, and is notable for its immense, two-storey escalator that takes visitors to the earliest part of the collection, the Tudor portraits.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: In January 2008, the Gallery received its largest single donation to date, a £5m gift from U.S. billionaire Randy Lerner.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: In January 2012, Catherine, Princess of Wales announced the National Portrait Gallery as one of her official patronages. Her portrait was unveiled in January 2013. The gallery holds nearly 20 portraits of Harriet Martineau and her brother James Martineau, whose great-nephew Francis Martineau Lupton was the Duchess's great-great-grandfather.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: Bodelwyddan Castle's partnership with the National Portrait Gallery came to an end in 2017 after its funding was cut by Denbighshire County Council.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: In June 2017 it was announced that the NPG has been awarded funding of £9.4 million from the Heritage Lottery Fund towards its major transformation programme "Inspiring People", the Gallery's biggest ever development. The Gallery had already raised over £7m of its £35.5m target. The building works were scheduled to start in 2020.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: In October 2019, a group of semi-naked environmental campaigners were drenched in fake oil, in the Ondaatje Wing main hall, as part of a protest against BP's sponsorship of a collection of pieces in the gallery. The protest performance piece, which was entitled Crude Truth, involve a clothed protester reciting a monologue in which they called upon arts organisations to sever ties with companies "funding extinction". Three activists covered in black liquid lay down for about five minutes on a plastic sheet before standing up again, wiping themselves down with towels, and cleaning up after themselves. The action, which was applauded by onlookers, passed uninterrupted.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: A major programme of refurbishment with the project name of "Inspiring People" will lead to the gallery's closure from 2020 to 2023. Some galleries will close by late May 2020, with full closure by July 2020. There are a number of planned exhibitions and collaborations around the UK to display parts of the collection while the gallery is closed. These will include exhibitions starting at the York Art Gallery in 2021, the Holburne Museum, Bath (Tudor portraits, 2022), and museums in Liverpool, Newcastle, Coventry and Edinburgh, which will later tour to other venues. Other partners include the National Trust, the National Maritime Museum and the National Gallery. In London, the shops and restaurants will close, but the Heinz Archive and Library will remain open. Another programme, called "Coming Home", loans portraits of individual people to museums in their home towns. Exhibitions will also travel to Japan, Australia and the United States.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: The "Inspiring People" project "comprises a comprehensive redisplay of the Collection from the Tudors to now, combined with a complete refurbishment of the building, the creation of new public spaces, a more welcoming visitor entrance and public forecourt, and a new state of the art Learning Centre". The East Wing will return to being gallery space, with its own new street entrance.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: In addition to the busts of the three founders of the gallery over the entrance, the exterior of two of the original 1896 buildings are decorated with stone block busts of eminent portrait artists, biographical writers and historians. These busts, sculpted by Frederick R. Thomas, depict James Granger, William Faithorne, Edmund Lodge, Thomas Fuller, The Earl of Clarendon, Horace Walpole, Hans Holbein the Younger, Sir Anthony van Dyck, Sir Peter Lely, Sir Godfrey Kneller, Louis François Roubiliac, William Hogarth, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Sir Thomas Lawrence and Sir Francis Chantrey.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: The National Portrait Gallery is an executive non-departmental public body of the UK Government, sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: The National Portrait Gallery's total income in 2007–2008 amounted to £16,610,000, the majority of which came from government grant-in-aid (£7,038,000) and donations (£4,117,000). As of 31 March 2008, its net assets amounted to £69,251,000. In 2008, the NPG had 218 full-time equivalent employees. It is an exempt charity under English law.


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: On 14 July 2009, the National Portrait Gallery sent a demand letter alleging breach of copyright against an editor-user of Wikipedia, who downloaded thousands of high-resolution reproductions of public domain paintings from the NPG website, and placed them on Wikipedia's sister media repository site, Wikimedia Commons. The Gallery's position was that it held copyright in the digital images uploaded to Wikimedia Commons, and that it had made a significant financial investment in creating these digital reproductions. Whereas single-file low resolution images were already available on its website, the images added to Wikimedia Commons were re-integrated from separate files after the user "found a way to get around their software and download high-resolution images without permission."


title: National Portrait Gallery, London

text: In 2012, the Gallery licensed 53,000 low-resolution images under a Creative Commons licence, making them available free of charge for non-commercial use. A further 87,000 high-resolution images are available for academic use under the Gallery's own licence that invites donations in return; previously, the Gallery charged for high-resolution images.


title: Iterative method

text: In computational mathematics, an iterative method is a mathematical procedure that uses an initial value to generate a sequence of improving approximate solutions for a class of problems, in which the "n"-th approximation is derived from the previous ones. A specific implementation of an iterative method, including the termination criteria, is an algorithm of the iterative method. An iterative method is called convergent if the corresponding sequence converges for given initial approximations. A mathematically rigorous convergence analysis of an iterative method is usually performed; however, heuristic-based iterative methods are also common.


title: Iterative method

text: In contrast, direct methods attempt to solve the problem by a finite sequence of operations. In the absence of rounding errors, direct methods would deliver an exact solution (for example, solving a linear system of equations formula_1 by Gaussian elimination). Iterative methods are often the only choice for nonlinear equations. However, iterative methods are often useful even for linear problems involving many variables (sometimes on the order of millions), where direct methods would be prohibitively expensive (and in some cases impossible) even with the best available computing power.


title: Iterative method

text: If an equation can be put into the form "f"("x") = "x", and a solution x is an attractive fixed point of the function "f", then one may begin with a point "x" in the basin of attraction of x, and let "x" = "f"("x") for "n" ≥ 1, and the sequence {"x"} will converge to the solution x. Here "x" is the "n"th approximation or iteration of "x" and "x" is the next or "n" + 1 iteration of "x". Alternately, superscripts in parentheses are often used in numerical methods, so as not to interfere with subscripts with other meanings. (For example, "x" = "f"("x").) If the function "f" is continuously differentiable, a sufficient condition for convergence is that the spectral radius of the derivative is strictly bounded by one in a neighborhood of the fixed point. If this condition holds at the fixed point, then a sufficiently small neighborhood (basin of attraction) must exist.


title: Iterative method

text: In the case of a system of linear equations, the two main classes of iterative methods are the stationary iterative methods, and the more general Krylov subspace methods.


title: Iterative method

text: Stationary iterative methods solve a linear system with an operator approximating the original one; and based on a measurement of the error in the result (the residual), form a "correction equation" for which this process is repeated. While these methods are simple to derive, implement, and analyze, convergence is only guaranteed for a limited class of matrices.


title: Iterative method

text: An iterative method with a given iteration matrix formula_8 is called "convergent" if the following holds


title: Iterative method

text: An important theorem states that for a given iterative method and its iteration matrix formula_8 it is convergent if and only if its spectral radius formula_11 is smaller than unity, that is,


title: Iterative method

text: where formula_20 is only the diagonal part of formula_13, and formula_22 is the strict lower triangular part of formula_13.


title: Iterative method

text: Krylov subspace methods work by forming a basis of the sequence of successive matrix powers times the initial residual (the Krylov sequence).


title: Iterative method

text: The approximations to the solution are then formed by minimizing the residual over the subspace formed.


title: Iterative method

text: The prototypical method in this class is the conjugate gradient method (CG) which assumes that the system matrix formula_13 is symmetric positive-definite.


title: Iterative method

text: For symmetric (and possibly indefinite) formula_13 one works with the minimal residual method (MINRES).


title: Iterative method

text: In the case of non-symmetric matrices, methods such as the generalized minimal residual method (GMRES) and the biconjugate gradient method (BiCG) have been derived.


title: Iterative method

text: Since these methods form a basis, it is evident that the method converges in "N" iterations, where "N" is the system size. However, in the presence of rounding errors this statement does not hold; moreover, in practice "N" can be very large, and the iterative process reaches sufficient accuracy already far earlier. The analysis of these methods is hard, depending on a complicated function of the spectrum of the operator.


title: Iterative method

text: The approximating operator that appears in stationary iterative methods can also be incorporated in Krylov subspace methods such as GMRES (alternatively, preconditioned Krylov methods can be considered as accelerations of stationary iterative methods), where they become transformations of the original operator to a presumably better conditioned one. The construction of preconditioners is a large research area.


title: Iterative method

text: Jamshīd al-Kāshī used iterative methods to calculate the sine of 1° and in "The Treatise of Chord and Sine" to high precision.


title: Iterative method

text: An early iterative method for solving a linear system appeared in a letter of Gauss to a student of his. He proposed solving a 4-by-4 system of equations by repeatedly solving the component in which the residual was the largest .


title: Iterative method

text: The theory of stationary iterative methods was solidly established with the work of D.M. Young starting in the 1950s. The conjugate gradient method was also invented in the 1950s, with independent developments by Cornelius Lanczos, Magnus Hestenes and Eduard Stiefel, but its nature and applicability were misunderstood at the time. Only in the 1970s was it realized that conjugacy based methods work very well for partial differential equations, especially the elliptic type.


title: Dennis Day

text: Dennis Day (born Owen Patrick Eugene McNulty; May 21, 1916 – June 22, 1988) was an American actor, comedian, and singer. He was of Irish descent.


title: Dennis Day

text: Day was born and raised in the Throggs Neck section of the Bronx, New York City, the second of five children born to Irish immigrants Patrick McNulty and Mary (née Grady) McNulty. His father was a factory electric power engineer. Day graduated from the Cathedral Preparatory School and Seminary and attended Manhattan College in the Bronx, where he sang in the glee club.


title: Dennis Day

text: In 1939, Gene McNulty, as Day was then known, sang on network radio with bandleader Larry Clinton. The Clinton broadcasts were aimed at the collegiate audience, and were often broadcast from a college campus. The 23-year-old McNulty won an audience poll as a favorite vocalist.


title: Dennis Day

text: Day appeared for the first time on Jack Benny's radio show on October 8, 1939, taking the place of another tenor, Kenny Baker. He remained associated with Benny's radio and television programs until Benny's death in 1974. He was introduced (with actress Verna Felton playing his overbearing mother) as a young (19-year-old), naive boy singer – a character he kept through his whole career.


title: Dennis Day

text: Mary Livingstone, Benny's wife, brought the singer to Benny's attention after hearing Day on the radio during a visit to New York. She took a recording of Day's singing to Benny, who then went to New York to audition Day. The audition resulted in Day's role on the Benny program.


title: Dennis Day

text: Besides singing, Day was a mimic. On the Benny program, Day performed impressions of various celebrities of the era, including Ronald Colman, Jimmy Durante, and James Stewart.


title: Dennis Day

text: From 1944 through 1946, he served in the United States Navy as a lieutenant. While in service, he was temporarily replaced on the Benny radio program by fellow tenor Larry Stevens. On his return to civilian life, he continued to work with Benny while also starring on his own NBC show, "A Day in the Life of Dennis Day" (1946–1951). On Benny's show, Day's having two programs in comparison to Benny's one was the subject of numerous jokes and gags, usually revolving around Day rubbing Benny's, and sometimes other cast members' and guest stars' noses, in that fact (e.g., "Dennis, why do you have two horns on your bicycle?" "Why shouldn't I? I've got two shows!"). His last radio series was a comedy and variety show that aired on NBC's Sunday-afternoon schedule during the 1954–55 season.


title: Dennis Day

text: When Day got his own radio sitcom, he continued to play essentially the same character that he originated on Benny's program. For this series, though, Day lived in the fictional town of Weaverville. He stayed at a boarding house run by Clara Anderson, played by Bea Benaderet. Her henpecked husband, Herbert Anderson, was voiced by Dink Trout. Day was engaged to their daughter Mildred, played by Barbara Eiler. His character worked at Willoughby's Drug Store, where his boss was Mr. Willoughby. The show was sponsored by Colgate-Palmolive. Verne Smith was the announcer, while music was provided by Bud Dant and his orchestra. The format of the show began with a song by Day, followed by the first half of the plot, a second song by Day in the middle of the episode, the rest of the plot, and then a third song by Day to finish the episode. Episodes can be heard regularly on the Sirius XM Radio Classics Channel.


title: Dennis Day

text: An attempt was made to adapt "A Day in the Life of Dennis Day" as an NBC filmed series (Sam Berman's caricature of Dennis was used in the opening and closing titles), produced by Jerry Fairbanks for Dennis' sponsor, Colgate-Palmolive, featuring the original radio cast, but got no farther than an unaired 1949 pilot episode. In late 1950, a sample kinescope was produced by Colgate and their ad agency showcasing Dennis as host of a projected "live" comedy/variety series ("The Dennis Day Show") for CBS, but that, too, went unsold. He continued to appear as a regular cast member when "The Jack Benny Program" became a TV series, staying with the show until it ended in 1965.


title: Dennis Day

text: Eventually, his own TV series, "The Dennis Day Show" (or "The RCA Victor Show"), was first telecast on NBC on February 8, 1952, and then in the 1953–1954 season. On this show, Day played a less-fictionalized version of himself, using his natural voice and behaving as an adult who was considerably more mature than his Benny character.


title: Dennis Day

text: Between 1952 and 1978, Day made numerous TV appearances as a singer and actor (such as NBC's "The Gisele MacKenzie Show", ABC's "The Bing Crosby Show" and "Alfred Hitchcock Presents") and voice for animation.


title: Dennis Day

text: In 1957, Day played himself in episode seven, season two of the briefly aired (1957–1958) situation comedy called "Date with the Angels" in which, on the way to a recording studio, Day's car breaks down in front of Vicki Angel's (Betty White) home. While waiting for the automobile service to arrive, he does a few imitations (including Elvis), sings a song, and does a duet with Vicki. The episode, which began in Sardi's restaurant, included brief appearances of Liberace and Hugh O'Brian. While numerous stars appeared in the series without credit, all three (Day, Liberace, O'Brian) guest stars appear in the credits on that episode.


title: Dennis Day

text: During the final season of "The Jack Benny Program" (1964–65), Day was nearly 49 years old, although Benny was still delivering such lines as "That crazy kid drives me nuts ..."


title: Dennis Day

text: His last televised work with Benny was in 1970, when they appeared in a public-service announcement together to promote savings and loans. This was shortly after the whole cast and crew of "The Jack Benny Show" had joined for "Jack Benny's Twentieth Anniversary Special".


title: Dennis Day

text: He starred as railroad employee Jason Barnes in the 1962 "Death Valley Days" TV episode "Way Station".


title: Dennis Day

text: In 1972, he co-starred with June Allyson and Judy Canova in the first national tour of the Broadway musical "No, No, Nanette".


title: Dennis Day

text: In 1976, Day was the voice of the Preacherin the Rankin-Bass production "Frosty's Winter Wonderland" and again worked with them in 1978, when he voiced Fred in "The Stingiest Man in Town", which was their animated version of Charles Dickens' novel "A Christmas Carol".


title: Dennis Day

text: He also appeared in "Date with the Angels" – season one, episode 13, as himself; it aired on Friday at 9:30 pm, October 25, 1957, on ABC. Some records show it was episode 19, titled "Star Struck".


title: Dennis Day

text: Although his career was mainly radio- and TV-based, Day also appeared in a few films. These included "Buck Benny Rides Again" (1940) opposite Jack Benny, "Sleepy Lagoon" (1943), "Music in Manhattan" (1944), "I'll Get By" (1950), "Golden Girl" (1951), "The Girl Next Door" (1953), and "Won Ton Ton, the Dog Who Saved Hollywood" (1976) as a singing telegraph man. For the soundtrack of "My Wild Irish Rose" (1947), a biopic about Chauncey Olcott, Day provided the singing voice to the acting of Dennis Morgan. Day also provided the voices of Johnny Appleseed, Johnny's Angel, and the Old Settler in the "Johnny Appleseed" segment in Walt Disney's "Melody Time" (1948).


title: Dennis Day

text: In 1948, Day married Peggy Almquist; the marriage lasted until his death in 1988. The couple had 10 children. His brother Jim McNulty, two years younger, was married to actress and singer Ann Blyth.


title: Dennis Day

text: A Republican, Day was supportive of Dwight Eisenhower's campaign during the 1952 presidential election and Barry Goldwater in the 1964 United States presidential election.


title: Dennis Day

text: Day died on June 22, 1988, of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (commonly known as Lou Gehrig's disease), in Los Angeles, California. His star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame is at 6646 Hollywood Boulevard. He is interred in Culver City's Holy Cross Cemetery.


title: Barefoot Gen (1983 film)

text: "Barefoot Gen" was dubbed by Streamline Pictures in 1995, despite the fact that it was released in the United States on June 13, 1992 and on July 3, 1992 in San Jose, California.


title: Barefoot Gen (1983 film)

text: Gen Nakaoka and his family live in Hiroshima during the final days of World War II. The family struggles through food shortages and constant air raid warnings. Gen's mother, Kimie, is pregnant and suffering from malnutrition, and his sister Eiko helps Kimie in her housework. Gen and his brother Shinji help their father, Daikichi, in the family's wheat field and try to find food for Kimie. Daikichi and Kimie realize the war is not going well, though they wonder why Hiroshima has been spared from the air raids which devastated other Japanese cities.


title: Barefoot Gen (1983 film)

text: One day, Gen and a friend arrive at school just as a lone B-29 aircraft flies overhead. It releases an atomic bomb which destroys almost the entire city. Gen's friend is killed in the blast while he is buried under rubble by the resulting shockwave. Gen finds Kimie in the ruined city and they try to rescue their family, who are buried alive under their burning collapsed house. However, they are unsuccessful and Daikichi urges his son to take care of Kimie and the baby. Daikichi, Eiko and Shinji burn to death as Gen and his mother watch helplessly. Kimie briefly suffers a mental breakdown, commenting that her family is burning like a campfire. With help from a neighbor, the two find a safe location where Kimie goes into labor. Kimie gives birth to a baby girl, Tomoko. "Black rain" soon falls on the ruined city, the result of the bomb that sent radioactive material and debris into the atmosphere.


title: Barefoot Gen (1983 film)

text: Gen spends the next few days searching for food for his family. He discovers that soldiers are distributing rice, but arrives to find them collecting corpses before burning them in mass graves. He meets a soldier who is shivering from being cold, despite the heat and he defecates and vomits blood. Gen takes him to a make-shift hospital where the soldier then dies. The doctor has no clue what caused the soldier's death. He later finds a ration storehouse containing rice, most of which has already been seared by the blast. He finds a few bags of intact rice and takes them to his mother to eat along with some fresh vegetables. Kimie points out a few bald spots on her son's head, who recollects the memory of the soldier dying from the unknown illness.


title: Barefoot Gen (1983 film)

text: In a voice over, the narrator mentions that the US government gave Japan an ultimatum: surrender or another bomb will be dropped. When Japan refuses to surrender, the United States detonates the second atomic bomb over the city of Nagasaki, which suffers the same outcome as Hiroshima.


title: Barefoot Gen (1983 film)

text: On August 16, Gen and Kimie dig up the remains of their family members from their former home. They learn from a nearby family that Japan has surrendered to the Allies, ending the war, but their prayers of peace came too late. They later take refuge in a makeshift shack where they try to live on what little rice they have. A small boy, Ryuta, tries to steal their rice, but Gen catches him and is shocked at Ryuta's resemblance to Shinji. Gen and Kimie take Ryuta in after learning that Ryuta was orphaned by the bomb.


title: Barefoot Gen (1983 film)

text: The next day, Gen and Ryuta look for food as Tomoko is suffering from malnutrition. A man gives them a job tending to his ill-tempered brother Seiji, another bomb survivor, for 10 yen a day, but the boys grow tired of the mistreatment, slap Seiji several times, and quit. Seiji begs them to come back, explaining to them that he is grateful that the boys treated him like more than a rotting corpse. Gen tells Ryuta to tell his mother where they are, and he spends the night with the man, which inspires him to paint once again. The man's brother pays them 100 yen and the boys head out to find milk for Tomoko. When they return home, they find that Tomoko is already dead.


title: Barefoot Gen (1983 film)

text: A few weeks later, Gen and Ryuta see wheat beginning to grow despite having heard that grass would not grow. With renewed optimism, Gen, his mother, and Ryuta set a paper boat lantern down the river. They then watch and pray as the boat gently sails into the sunset.


title: Barefoot Gen (1983 film)

text: "Barefoot Gen" was released in Japan on 21 July 1983 where it was distributed by Herald Enterprises. It was released in the United States on 13 June 1992, and dubbed by Streamline Pictures in 1995.


title: Barefoot Gen (1983 film)

text: The film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 75% approval rating based on 8 reviews with an average rating of 7,25/10.


title: Sanctus

text: The Sanctus (, "Holy") is a hymn in Christian liturgy. It may also be called the epinikios hymnos (, "Hymn of Victory") when referring to the Greek rendition.


title: Sanctus

text: In Western Christianity, the "Sanctus" forms part of the Ordinary and is sung (or said) as the final words of the Preface of the Eucharistic Prayer of remembrance, consecration, and praise. The preface, which alters according to the season, usually concludes with words describing the praise of the worshippers joining with the angels, who are pictured as praising God with the words of the "Sanctus".


title: Sanctus

text: In the Byzantine Rite and general Eastern Orthodox Christianity, the "Sanctus" is offered as a response by the choir during the Holy Anaphora.


title: Sanctus

text: "Tersanctus" ("Thrice Holy") is another, rarer name for the Sanctus. The same name is sometimes used for the "Trisagion".


title: Sanctus

text: <br>"Hágios, hágios, hágios, Kýrios Sabaṓth; plḗrēs ho ouranós kaí hē gê tês dóxēs sou, hōsanná en toîs hupsístois. Eulogēménos ho erkhómenos en onómati Kyríou. Hōsanná (ho) en toîs hupsístois."


title: Sanctus

text: In the Roman Rite, the "Sanctus" also forms part of the solemn hymn of praise "Te Deum laudamus", but with the addition of a reference to the "majesty" of the Lord's glory in the "Pleni sunt" verse (the phrase "pleni sunt caeli et terra gloria tua" becomes "pleni sunt caeli et terra maiestatis gloriae tuae"). The "Benedictus" is not included in the "Te Deum", and the Sanctus is therefore included as part of that hymn as follows:


title: Sanctus

text: The Sanctus appears thus in the 1549 Book of Common Prayer (and as set to music by John Merbecke in 1550):


title: Sanctus

text: Later Anglican prayer books following the ritualist and liturgical movements of the twentieth century, restored the Benedictus to this form, yielding:<poem>


title: Sanctus

text: The following English version was used by most Lutherans in North America until 1978 when the ICET version was adopted in the "Lutheran Book of Worship". This traditional version has continued to be used in the Divine Service of the Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod:


title: Sanctus

text: In 1973 the International Consultation on English Texts (ICET) produced an ecumenical version that at that time was adopted by Catholics, Anglicans, Lutherans, Methodists and others:


title: Sanctus

text: The "Sanctus" became part of the Roman Eucharistic Prayer only in the first half of the fifth century; all in all, this was a fairly late period, inasmuch as by then the text of the Roman Canon had become fixed and was regarded as a text possessing great authority.


title: Sanctus

text: There exist two fundamental types of Sanctus: the Alexandrian and the Antiochene. The Sanctus of the Roman Eucharist derives from the Antiochene liturgy and has two parts: (a) the Sanctus true and proper, consisting of the acclamation from Isaiah 6:3; and (b) the "Benedictus", a christological acclamation taken from Matthew 21:9. The Sanctus has been given a christological interpretation and a trinitarian interpretation, and this in both the East and the West. These differing interpretations may be due to the presence, in the text of the Sanctus, of a theological section, namely, the acclamation from Isaiah 6:3, and a christological part, namely the acclamation from Matthew 21:9.


title: Sanctus

text: The text of the Sanctus passed from Jewish use to Christian use at a very early time, since it cited in the Apocalypse of John and in the letter of Clement to the Corinthians.


title: Sanctus

text: the Sanctus consisted of only the first part, the citation of Isaiah 6:3, and lacked the "Benedictus"; this was the earliest form taken by the Sanctus in the Eucharist. This early state can be seen in the testimonies of Eusebius of Caesarea, the "Mystagogical Catecheses" of Cyril of Jerusalem, and, above all, the "Ritual" used in the Church of Theodore of Mopsuestia. In the latter, too, that is, in the archaic stage of the Syrian liturgy, the "Benedictus" was unknown, and the Sanctus consisted solely of the acclamation from Isaiah 6:3.


title: Sanctus

text: The first part of the Sanctus, the adaptation from , describes the prophet Isaiah's vision of the throne of God surrounded by six-winged, ministering seraphim. A similar representation is found in . In Jewish liturgy, the verse from Isaiah is uttered by the congregation during Kedusha, a prayer said during the leader's repetition of the Amidah (18 Benedictions):


title: Sanctus

text: The text of the second part, beginning with the word "Benedictus" (Latin for "Blessed") is taken from , describes Jesus' Entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday, which is in turn based on the first half of Psalm 118:26. In its present liturgical context "it points to the expected presence of the Lord in the eucharistic gifts". Within Anglicanism, the 1552 Book of Common Prayer omitted it and, though it is now permitted, "the choice whether or not to use the "Benedictus" is still for some a matter of Eucharistic theology and churchmanship".


title: Sanctus

text: The Sanctus appears in the Sacramentary of Serapion of Thmuis (the saint died in 360), but may go as far back to Christian liturgy in North Africa in the year 200.


title: Sanctus

text: The present form of the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, the primary liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Church, reads (when in Greek) the following text:


title: Sanctus

text: <poem>Ἅγιος, ἅγιος, ἅγιος Κύριος Σαβαώθ· πλήρης ὁ οὐρανὸς καὶ ἡ γῆ τῆς δόξης σου, ὡσαννὰ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις. Εὐλογημένος ὁ ἐρχόμενος ἐν ὀνόματι Κυρίου. Ὡσαννὰ ὁ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις.


title: Sanctus

text: "Hágios, hágios, hágios Kýrios Sabaṓth; plḗrēs ho ouranós kaí hē gê tês dóxēs sou, hōsanná en toîs hupsístois. Eulogēménos ho erkhómenos en onómati Kyríou. Hōsanná ho en toîs hupsístois."</poem>


title: Sanctus

text: The Liturgy of Saint Basil of the Eastern Orthodox Church has the same form of the Sanctus as the Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom, with its two variants of the Hosanna phrase.


title: Sanctus

text: In older Greek liturgical manuscripts, various forms of the hymn are attested; the ones that will follow below, belong to the ones edited by Swainson in his 1884 book "The Greek liturgies". Among these forms, there are variations of the hymn being composed of practically only the Old testament part. Others include:<br>


title: Sanctus

text: In the Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom, one of them excludes not only the article , but also the article «τῆς»:


title: Sanctus

text: <poem>Ἅγιος, ἅγιος, ἅγιος, Κύριος Σαβαώθ· πλήρης ὁ οὐρανὸς καὶ ἡ γῆ δόξης σου. Ὡσαννὰ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις· εὐλογημένος ὁ ἐρχόμενος ἐν ὀνόματι Κυρίου· ὡσαννὰ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις.


title: Sanctus

text: "Hágios, hágios, hágios, Kýrios Sabaṓth; plḗrēs ho ouranós kaí hē gê dóxēs sou. Hōsanná en toîs hupsístois; eulogēménos ho erkhómenos en onómati Kyríou; hōsanná en toîs hupsístois."


title: Sanctus

text: <poem>Ἅγιος, ἅγιος, ἅγιος, Κύριε σαβαώθ· πλήρης ὁ οὐρανὸς καὶ ἡ γῆ τῆς δόξης σου· ὡσαννὰ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις. Eὐλογημένος ὁ ἐρχόμενος ἐν ὀνόματι Κυρίου· ὡσαννὰ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις.


title: Sanctus

text: "Hágios, hágios, hágios, Kýrie sabaṓth. Plḗrēs ho ouranós kaí hē gê tês dóxēs sou; hōsanná en toîs hupsístois. Eulogēménos ho erkhómenos en onómati Kyríou; hōsanná en toîs hupsístois."


title: Sanctus

text: This text not only omits the article that is used in the Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom, but also has "Kyrie" (vocative case) where the Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom has "Kyrios" (nominative).


title: Sanctus

text: In current use, the Liturgy of Saint James may use the nominative rather than the vocative case of ; the article is also not present in this form at the concluding "Hosanna".


title: Sanctus

text: Moreover, a different variant of the Liturgy of Saint James is found in the margin of a manuscript that gives only the three words in the body: "In the margin, much abbreviated, may be discerned the following: This produces the text:


title: Sanctus

text: <poem>Ἅγιος, ἅγιος, ἅγιος, Κύριος σαβαώθ, πλήρης ὁ οὐρανὸς καὶ ἡ γῆ τῆς δόξης σου· ὡσαννὰ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις. Εὐλογημένος ὁ ἐλθὼν καὶ ἐρχόμενος ἐν ὀνόματι Κυρίου· ὡσαννὰ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις.


title: Sanctus

text: "Hágios, hágios, hágios, Kýrios Sabaṓth, plḗrēs ho ouranós kaí hē gê tês dóxēs sou; hōsanná en toîs hupsístois. Eulogēménos ho elthṓn kaí erkhómenos en onómati Kyríou; hōsanná en toîs hupsístois."


title: Sanctus

text: This version adds "he who came and" before "he who comes"; in this it resembles the Liturgy of Saint James in the tradition of the Syriac Orthodox Church:


title: Sanctus

text: <poem>Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty; heaven and earth are full of His glories. Hosanna in the highest. Blessed is He Who came and will come in the Name of the Lord. Hosanna in the highest.</poem>


title: Sanctus

text: The Syriac Orthodox Church also has what it calls the "Liturgy of Saint Dionysius", in which the Hosanna phrase appears only at the end:


title: Sanctus

text: <poem>Holy Holy Holy, Lord of Sabbaoth, Heaven and Earth are full of Thy Glory. Blessed is He that cometh in the Lord's Name; Hosanna in the highest.</poem>


title: Sanctus

text: Holy, Holy, Holy Lord is the Lord God of hosts, for heaven and earth are full of his praises, and of the nature of his being, and for the excellency of his glorious splendor. Hosanna in the heights. Hosanna to the son of David. Blessed is he who came and will come in the name of the Lord. Hosanna in the heights.</poem>


title: Sanctus

text: The Coptic version of the Liturgy of Saint Basil also gives a short text of what it calls the "Hymn of the Seraphim":


title: Sanctus

text: The priest's introductions, following the rubrics that set what should be done by whom with each passage, uniformly call the hymn the , i.e. "the hymn of victory". On the other hand, it used to be that, as Swainson notes about an attested variant form wherein only is being quoted:


title: Sanctus

text: In the margin, much abbreviated, may be discerned the following: '. Chrysostom frequently refers to this: sometimes as '; sometimes as '; sometimes as the '. The knowledge of it as a whole was confined to the faithful.


title: Sanctus

text: The Sanctus has been set to numerous plainchant melodies, many of which are given in the Roman Missal, and many more composers have set it to polyphonic music, both in single settings and as part of cyclic mass settings.


title: Sanctus

text: Parts of the Hymn have also been used in modern music, notably "Prism of Life" by Enigma (album Le Roi Est Mort, Vive Le Roi!)


title: Sanctus

text: In the Tridentine Mass the priest joins his hands while saying the word "Sanctus" and then, bowing, continues to recite the whole of the Sanctus in a lower voice, while a small bell is rung; then, on reaching the words "Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini", he stands erect again and makes the Sign of the Cross. He then continues immediately with the Canon of the Mass, while the choir, if there is one, sings the Sanctus. In the pre-1962 form, the choir pauses for the Consecration and continues with the "Benedictus" part afterwards. As a result of this division, the Sanctus has sometimes been spoken of as "Sanctus and Benedictus". However, in line with Pope John XXIII's revision of the rubrics of the liturgy, the splitting of the Sanctus, when sung to Gregorian chant (though not if sung polyphonically) was forbidden and is thus not allowed in celebrations of the 1962 Tridentine Mass as authorized by Pope Benedict XVI's "Summorum Pontificum".


title: Sanctus

text: In the Mass revised in line with the Second Vatican Council, the Sanctus may, of course, not be split, since the whole of the eucharistic prayer is sung or spoken aloud, and the only ceremony prescribed for the priest during the Sanctus is to join his hands. He and the people sing or recite together the whole of the Sanctus, before the priest continues the Eucharistic Prayer.


title: Kharosthi

text: The Kharoṣṭhī script, also spelled Kharoshthi (Kharosthi: ), was an ancient Indo-Iranian script used by various Aryan peoples in north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely around present-day northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. It was used in Central Asia as well. An abugida, it was introduced at least by the middle of the 3rd century BCE, possibly during the 4th century BCE, and remained in use until it died out in its homeland around the 3rd century CE.


title: Kharosthi

text: It was also in use in Bactria, the Kushan Empire, Sogdia, and along the Silk Road. There is some evidence it may have survived until the 7th century in Khotan and Niya, both cities in East Turkestan.


title: Kharosthi

text: Each syllable includes the short /a/ sound by default, with other vowels being indicated by diacritic marks. Recent epigraphic evidence has shown that the order of letters in the Kharosthi script follows what has become known as the Arapacana alphabet. As preserved in Sanskrit documents, the alphabet runs:


title: Kharosthi

text: Kharosthi includes only one standalone vowel which is used for initial vowels in words. Other initial vowels use the a character modified by diacritics. Using epigraphic evidence, Salomon has established that the vowel order is /a e i o u/, akin to Semitic scripts, rather than the usual vowel order for Indic scripts /a i u e o/. Also, there is no differentiation between long and short vowels in Kharosthi. Both are marked using the same vowel markers.


title: Kharosthi

text: The alphabet was used in Gandharan Buddhism as a mnemonic for remembering a series of verses on the nature of phenomena. In Tantric Buddhism, the list was incorporated into ritual practices and later became enshrined in mantras.


title: Kharosthi

text: Kharosthi included a set of numerals that are reminiscent of Roman numerals. The system is based on an additive and a multiplicative principle, but does not have the subtractive feature used in the Roman numeral system.


title: Kharosthi

text: The numerals, like the letters, are written from right to left. There is no zero and no separate signs for the digits 5–9. Numbers in Kharosthi use an additive system.


title: Kharosthi

text: The script was earlier also known as "Indo-Bactrian", "Kabul script" and "Arian-Pali". Scholars are not in agreement as to whether the Kharosthi script evolved gradually, or was the deliberate work of a single inventor. An analysis of the script forms shows a clear dependency on the Aramaic alphabet but with extensive modifications.


title: Kharosthi

text: Kharosthi seems to be derived from a form of Aramaic used in administrative work during the reign of Darius the Great, rather than the monumental cuneiform used for public inscriptions. The name Kharosthi may derive from the Hebrew "kharosheth", a Semitic word for writing, or from Old Iranian "*xšaθra-pištra", which means "royal writing".


title: Kharosthi

text: One model is that the Aramaic script arrived with the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley in 500 BCE and evolved over the next 200+ years to reach its final form by the 3rd century BCE where it appears in some of the Edicts of Ashoka. However, no intermediate forms have yet been found to confirm this evolutionary model, and rock and coin inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE onward show a unified and standard form. An inscription in Aramaic dating back to the 4th century BCE was found in Sirkap, testifying to the presence of the Aramaic script in present-day Pakistan. According to Sir John Marshall, this seems to confirm that Kharoshthi was later developed from Aramaic.


title: Kharosthi

text: The study of the Kharosthi script was recently invigorated by the discovery of the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, a set of birch bark manuscripts written in Kharosthi, discovered near the Afghan city of Hadda just west of the Khyber Pass in Pakistan. The manuscripts were donated to the British Library in 1994. The entire set of British Library manuscripts are dated to the 1st century CE, although other collections from different institutions contain Kharosthi manuscripts from 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE, making them the oldest Buddhist manuscripts yet discovered.


title: Kharosthi

text: While the derived Brahmi scripts remained in use for centuries, Kharosthi seems to have been abandoned after the 2nd-3rd Century AD. Because of the substantial differences between the Semitic-derived Kharosthi script and its successors, knowledge of Kharosthi may have declined rapidly once the script was supplanted by Brahmi-derived scripts, until its re-discovery by Western scholars in the 19th Century.


title: Kharosthi

text: The Kharosthi script was deciphered separately almost concomitantly by James Prinsep (in 1835, published in the "Journal of the Asiatic society of Bengal", India) and by Carl Ludwig Grotefend (in 1836, published in "Blatter fur Munzkunde", Germany), with Grotenfend "evidently not aware" of Prinsep's article, followed by Christian Lassen (1838). They all used the bilingual coins of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (obverse in Greek, reverse in Pali, using the Kharosthi script). This in turn led to the reading of the Edicts of Ashoka, some of which were written in the Kharosthi script (the Major Rock Edicts at Mansehra and Shahbazgarhi).


title: Tube Alloys

text: Tube Alloys was the research and development programme authorised by the United Kingdom, with participation from Canada, to develop nuclear weapons during the Second World War. Starting before the Manhattan Project in the United States, the British efforts were kept classified, and as such had to be referred to by code even within the highest circles of government.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The possibility of nuclear weapons was acknowledged early in the war. At the University of Birmingham, Rudolf Peierls and Otto Robert Frisch co-wrote a memorandum explaining that a small mass of pure uranium-235 could be used to produce a chain reaction in a bomb with the power of thousands of tons of TNT. This led to the formation of the MAUD Committee, which called for an all-out effort to develop nuclear weapons. Wallace Akers, who oversaw the project, chose the deliberately misleading code name "Tube Alloys". His Tube Alloys Directorate was part of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The Tube Alloys programme in Britain and Canada was the first nuclear weapons project. Due to the high costs, and the fact that Britain was fighting a war within bombing range of its enemies, Tube Alloys was ultimately subsumed into the Manhattan Project by the Quebec Agreement with the United States, under which the two nations agreed to share nuclear weapons technology, and to refrain from using it against each other, or against other countries without mutual consent; but the United States did not provide complete details of the results of the Manhattan Project to the United Kingdom. The Soviet Union gained valuable information through its atomic spies, who had infiltrated both the British and American projects.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The United States terminated co-operation after the war ended with the Atomic Energy Act of 1946. This prompted the United Kingdom to relaunch its own project, High Explosive Research. Production facilities were established and British scientists continued their work under the auspices of an independent British programme. Finally, in 1952, Britain performed a nuclear test under codename "Operation Hurricane". In 1958, in the wake of the Sputnik crisis and the British demonstration of a two-stage thermonuclear bomb, the United Kingdom and the United States signed US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement, which resulted in a resumption of Britain's nuclear Special Relationship with the United States.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The neutron was discovered by James Chadwick at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in February 1932. In April 1932, his Cavendish colleagues John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton split lithium atoms with accelerated protons. Enrico Fermi and his team in Rome conducted experiments involving the bombardment of elements by slow neutrons, which produced heavier elements and isotopes. Then, in December 1938, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann at Hahn's laboratory in Berlin-Dahlem bombarded uranium with slowed neutrons, and discovered that barium had been produced, and therefore that the uranium atomic nucleus had been split. Hahn wrote to his colleague Lise Meitner, who, with her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, developed a theoretical justification which they published in "Nature" in 1939. This phenomenon was a new type of nuclear disintegration, and was more powerful than any seen before. Frisch and Meitner calculated that the energy released by each disintegration was approximately 200,000,000 electron volts. By analogy with the division of biological cells, they named the process "fission".


title: Tube Alloys

text: This was followed up by a group of scientists at the Collège de France in Paris: Frédéric Joliot-Curie, Hans von Halban, Lew Kowarski, and Francis Perrin. In February 1939, the Paris Group showed that when fission occurs in uranium, two or three extra neutrons are given off. This important observation suggested a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction might be possible. The term "atomic bomb" was already familiar to the British public through the writings of H. G. Wells, in his 1913 novel "The World Set Free". It was immediately apparent to many scientists that, in theory at least, an extremely powerful explosive could be created, although most still considered an atomic bomb was an impossibility. Perrin defined a critical mass of uranium to be the smallest amount that could sustain a chain reaction. The neutrons used to cause fission in uranium are considered slow neutrons, but when neutrons are released during a fission reaction they are released as fast neutrons which have much more speed and energy. Thus, in order to create a sustained chain reaction, there existed a need for a neutron moderator to contain and slow the fast neutrons until they reached a usable energy level. The Collège de France found that both water and graphite could be used as acceptable moderators.


title: Tube Alloys

text: Early in 1940, the Paris Group decided on theoretical grounds that heavy water would be an ideal moderator for how they intended to use it. They asked the French Minister of Armaments to obtain as much heavy water as possible from the only source, the large Norsk Hydro hydroelectric station at Vemork in Norway. The French then discovered Germany had already offered to purchase the entire stock of Norwegian heavy water, indicating that Germany might also be researching an atomic bomb. The French told the Norwegian government of the possible military significance of heavy water. Norway gave the entire stock of to a "Deuxième Bureau" agent, who secretly brought it to France just before Germany invaded Norway in April 1940. On 19 June 1940, following the German invasion of France, it was shipped to England by the Earl of Suffolk and Major Ardale Vautier Golding aboard the steamer . The heavy water, valued at £22,000, was initially kept at HM Prison Wormwood Scrubs, and was later secretly stored in the library at Windsor Castle. The Paris Group moved to Cambridge, with the exception of Joliot-Curie, who remained in France and became active in the French Resistance.


title: Tube Alloys

text: In Britain, a number of scientists considered whether an atomic bomb was practical. At the University of Liverpool, Chadwick and the Polish refugee scientist Joseph Rotblat tackled the problem, but their calculations were inconclusive. At Cambridge, Nobel Prize in Physics laureates George Paget Thomson and William Lawrence Bragg wanted the government to take urgent action to acquire uranium ore. The main source of this was the Belgian Congo, and they were worried that it could fall into German hands. Unsure as to how to go about this, they spoke to Sir William Spens, the master of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. In April 1939, he approached Sir Kenneth Pickthorn, the local Member of Parliament, who took their concerns to the Secretary of the Committee for Imperial Defence, Major General Hastings Ismay. Ismay in turn asked Sir Henry Tizard for an opinion. Like many scientists, Tizard was sceptical of the likelihood of an atomic bomb being developed, reckoning the odds of success at 100,000 to 1.


title: Tube Alloys

text: Even at such long odds, the danger was sufficiently great to be taken seriously. Lord Chartfield, Minister for Coordination of Defence, checked with the Treasury and Foreign Office, and found that the Belgian Congo uranium was owned by the "Union Minière du Haut Katanga" company, whose British vice president, Lord Stonehaven, arranged a meeting with the president of the company, Edgar Sengier. Since "Union Minière" management were friendly towards Britain, it was not considered worthwhile to acquire the uranium immediately, but Tizard's Committee on the Scientific Survey of Air Defence was directed to continue the research into the feasibility of atomic bombs. Thomson, at Imperial College London, and Mark Oliphant, an Australian physicist at the University of Birmingham, were each tasked with carrying out a series of experiments on uranium. By February 1940, Thomson's team had failed to create a chain reaction in natural uranium, and he had decided it was not worth pursuing.


title: Tube Alloys

text: At Birmingham, Oliphant's team had reached a different conclusion. Oliphant had delegated the task to two German refugee scientists, Rudolf Peierls and Otto Frisch, who could not work on Oliphant's radar project because they were enemy aliens and therefore lacked the necessary security clearance. Francis Perrin had calculated the critical mass of uranium to be about . He reckoned that if a neutron reflector were placed around it, this might be reduced to . Peierls attempted to simplify the problem by using the fast neutrons produced by fission, thus omitting consideration of moderator. He too calculated the critical mass of a sphere of uranium in a theoretical paper written in 1939 to be "of the order of tons".


title: Tube Alloys

text: Peierls knew the importance of the size of the critical mass that would allow a chain reaction to take place and its practical significance. In the interior of a critical mass sphere, neutrons are spontaneously produced by the fissionable material. A very small portion of these neutrons are colliding with other nuclei, while a larger portion of the neutrons are escaping through the surface of the sphere. Peierls calculated the equilibrium of the system, where the number of neutrons being produced equalled the number escaping.


title: Tube Alloys

text: Niels Bohr had theorised that the rare uranium-235 isotope, which makes up only about 0.7% of natural uranium, was primarily responsible for fission with fast neutrons, although this was not yet universally accepted. Frisch and Peierls were thus able to revise their initial estimate of critical mass needed for nuclear fission in uranium to be substantially less than previously assumed. They estimated a metallic sphere of uranium-235 with a radius of could suffice. This amount represented approximately of uranium-235. These results led to the Frisch–Peierls memorandum, which was the initial step in the development of the nuclear arms programme in Britain. This marked the beginning of an aggressive approach towards uranium enrichment and the development of an atomic bomb. They now began to investigate processes by which they could successfully separate the uranium isotope.


title: Tube Alloys

text: Oliphant took their findings to Tizard in his capacity as the chairman of the Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Warfare (CSSAW). He in turn passed them to Thomson, to whom the CSSAW had delegated responsibility for uranium research. After discussions between Cockcroft, Oliphant and Thomson, CSSAW created the MAUD Committee to investigate further.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The MAUD Committee was founded in June 1940. The committee was originally a part of the Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Defence, but later gained independence with the Ministry of Aircraft Production. The committee was initially named after its chairman, Thomson, but quickly exchanged this for a more unassuming name, the MAUD Committee. The name MAUD came to be in an unusual way. Shortly after Germany invaded Denmark, Bohr had sent a telegram to Frisch. The telegram ended with a strange line: "Tell Cockcroft and Maud Ray Kent". At first it was thought to be code regarding radium or other vital atomic-weapons-related information, hidden in an anagram. One suggestion was to replace the y with an i, producing "radium taken". When Bohr returned to England in 1943, it was discovered that the message was addressed to Bohr's housekeeper Maud Ray and Cockcroft. Maud Ray was from Kent. Thus the committee was named The MAUD Committee, the capitalisation representing a codename and not an acronym. Meetings were normally held in the offices of the Royal Society in London. In addition to Thomson, its original members were Chadwick, Cockcroft, Oliphant and Philip Moon, Patrick Blackett, Charles Ellis and Norman Haworth.


title: Tube Alloys

text: Four universities provided the locations where the experiments were taking place. The laboratory at the University of Birmingham was responsible for all the theoretical work, such as what size of critical mass was needed for an explosion. It was run by Peierls, with the help of fellow German refugee scientist Klaus Fuchs. The laboratories at the University of Liverpool and the University of Oxford experimented with different types of isotope separation. Chadwick's group at Liverpool dealt with thermal diffusion, which worked based on the principle that different isotopes of uranium diffuse at different speeds because of the equipartition theorem. Franz Simon's group at Oxford investigated the gaseous diffusion of isotopes. This method works on the principle that at differing pressures uranium 235 would diffuse through a barrier faster than uranium 238. Eventually, the most promising method of separation was found to be gaseous diffusion. Egon Bretscher and Norman Feather's group at Cambridge investigated whether another element, now called plutonium, could be used as an explosive compound. Because of the French scientists, Oxford also obtained the world's only supply of heavy water, which helped them theorise how uranium could be used for power.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The research from the MAUD committee was compiled in two reports, commonly known as the MAUD reports in July 1941. The first report, "Use of Uranium for a Bomb", discussed the feasibility of creating a super-bomb from uranium, which they now thought to be possible. The second, "Use of Uranium as a Source of Power" discussed the idea of using uranium as a source of power, not just a bomb. The MAUD Committee and report helped bring about the British nuclear programme, the Tube Alloys Project. Not only did it help start a nuclear project in Britain, it helped jump-start the American project. Without the help of the MAUD Committee the American programme, the Manhattan Project, would have started months behind. Instead they were able to begin thinking about how to create a bomb, not whether it was possible. Historian Margaret Gowing noted that "events that change a time scale by only a few months can nevertheless change history."


title: Tube Alloys

text: The MAUD reports were reviewed by the Defence Services Panel of the Scientific Advisory Committee. This was chaired by Lord Hankey, with its other members being Sir Edward Appleton, Sir Henry Dale, Alfred Egerton, Archibald Hill and Edward Mellanby. The panel held seven meetings in September 1941, and submitted its report to the Lord President of the Council, Sir John Anderson. At this point, it was feared that German scientists were attempting to provide their country with an atomic bomb, and thus Britain needed to finish theirs first. The report ultimately stated that if there were even a sliver of a chance that the bomb effort could produce a weapon with such power, then every effort should be made to make sure Britain did not fall behind. It recommended that while a pilot separation plant be built in Britain, the production facility should be built in Canada. The Defence Services Panel submitted its report on 24 September 1941, but by this time the final decision had already been taken. Lord Cherwell had taken the matter to the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, who became the first national leader to approve a nuclear weapons programme on 30 August 1941. The Chiefs of Staff Committee supported the decision.


title: Tube Alloys

text: A directorate of Tube Alloys was established as part of Appleton's Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and Wallace Akers, the research director of Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), was chosen as its head. Anderson and Akers came up with the name Tube Alloys. It was deliberately chosen to be meaningless, "with a specious air of probability about it". An advisory committee known as the Tube Alloys Consultative Council was created to oversee its work, chaired by Anderson, with its other members being Lord Hankey, Lord Cherwell, Sir Edward Appleton and Sir Henry Dale. This handled policy matters. To deal with technical issues, a Technical Committee was created with Akers as chairman, and Chadwick, Simon, Halban, Peierls, and a senior ICI official Ronald Slade as its original members, with Michael Perrin as its secretary. It was later joined by Charles Galton Darwin, Cockcroft, Oliphant and Feather.


title: Tube Alloys

text: The biggest problem faced by the MAUD Committee was to find a way to separate the 0.7% of uranium-235 from the 99.3% of uranium-238. This is difficult because the two types of uranium are chemically identical. Separation (uranium enrichment) would have to be achieved at a large scale. At Cambridge, Eric Rideal and his team investigated using a gas centrifuge. Frisch chose to perform gaseous thermal diffusion using Clusius tubes because it seemed the simplest method. Frisch's calculations showed there would need to be 100,000 Clusius tubes to extract the desired separation amount. Peierls turned to Franz Simon, who preferred to find a method more suitable for mass production.