title: History of ballet

text: Several well-known ballet methods are named after their originators. For example, two prevailing systems from Russia are known as the Vaganova method after Agrippina Vaganova, and the Legat Method, after Nikolai Legat. The Cecchetti method was invented by Italian dancer Enrico Cecchetti (1850–1928), and the Bournonville method, which was invented by August Bournonville (1805–1879), is employed chiefly in Bournonville's own country of Denmark.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Shulamith Bath Shmuel Ben Ari Firestone (born Feuerstein; January 7, 1945 – August 28, 2012) was a Canadian-American radical feminist writer and activist. Firestone was a central figure in the early development of radical feminism and second-wave feminism and a founding member of three radical-feminist groups: New York Radical Women, Redstockings, and New York Radical Feminists. Within these radical movements, Firestone became known as "the firebrand" and "the fireball" for the fervor and passion she expressed towards the cause. Firestone participated in activism such as speaking out at The National Conference for New Politics in Chicago. Also while a member of various feminist groups she participated in actions including picketing a Miss America Contest, organizing a mock funeral for womanhood known as "The Burial of Traditional Womanhood", protesting sexual harassment at Madison Square Garden, organizing abortion speak outs, and disrupting abortion legislation meetings.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: In 1970, Firestone authored "The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution". Published in September of that year, the book became an influential feminist text. "The Dialectic of Sex" and the ideas presented within it became important in both cyberfeminism and xenofeminism, as her ideas were a precursor for other subjects regarding technology and gender. In her writing career Firestone also helped write and edit a magazine called "Notes". Her final written text was "Airless Spaces" written in 1998, which consisted of short stories all relating to her experience with mental illness and schizophrenia.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: A documentary called "Shulie" was created depicting Firestone during her time as a student, and it outlined her journey to becoming a feminist figure and important author. The original documentary featuring Firestone was never released, but a recreation of it was. Firestone struggled with schizophrenia after her retirement from activism and suffered from the illness until her death in 2012.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Firestone was born Shulamith bath Shmuel ben Ari Feuerstein in Ottawa, Canada on January 7, 1945.Firestone was the second of six children and the first daughter of parents Kate Weiss, a German Jew who fled the Holocaust, and Sol Feuerstein, a Brooklyn salesman. Firestone's parents were Orthodox Jews but her funeral would later be held at the Episcopal St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: In April 1945, when Firestone was four months old, her father took part in the liberation of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in Germany.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: When she was a child, the family Anglicized their surname to Firestone and moved to St. Louis, Missouri. Her father had become Orthodox when he was a teenager and, according to Susan Faludi, he exercised tight control over his children, with the zeal of a convert. One of her sisters, Tirzah Firestone, told Faludi: "My father threw his rage at Shulie." She railed against the family's sexism; Firestone was expected to make her brother's bed, "because you're a girl", her father told her. Laya Firestone Seghi, another sister, remembers father and daughter threatening to kill one another.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Firestone's mother was described by her sister, Tirzah, as having a "passive view of femininity that was governed by what she regarded as "what Jewish women do."


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Firestone attended Telshe Yeshiva near Cleveland. She then attended Washington University in St. Louis and in 1967 earned a degree in painting from the School of the Art Institute of Chicago (SAIC). While in Chicago she started her first Women's Liberation group, Westside.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Firestone was considered a radical feminist because she believed that women are an oppressed sex-class and that women's liberation can only be achieved through the revolutionary overthrow of the world-patriarchal system. She drew upon the works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. but criticized them for their lack of class-independent analysis of women's downtrodden condition and thus expanded their analysis to women's subordination. In "The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution" she states, "Feminists have to question, not just all of "Western" culture, but the organization of culture itself, and further, even the organization of nature." One of her radical beliefs was that women's oppression directly sprung from women's capacity for and vulnerability during pregnancy and childbirth, that men were able to take advantage of. In "The Dialectic of Sex", she argues that we should invest in advanced technology in order to free women from childbirth. Her views on childbirth shocked other feminists. Her perspectives in "The Dialectic of Sex" can also be seen as a precursor to cyberfeminism. Furthermore, her actions as a part of various feminist groups were seen as radical because they addressed issues around women's lives that were not discussed, especially by women. Some of these topics include the female orgasm as well as forced abortion drives.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: In 1967, at 22, Firestone, along with nearly 2,000 other young activists, attended the National Conference for New Politics in Chicago, held from August 31 to September 1. Here, Firestone met Jo Freeman and the two bonded over their shared outrage in response to the dismissal of women's issues at the conference. The two women put forth a resolution that called for equitable marital and property laws and "complete control by women of their own bodies." The women were told their resolution was not important enough for a floor discussion. They eventually managed to have their statement added to the end of the agenda, but it was not discussed. The director, Willam F. Pepper, refused to recognize any of the women waiting to speak. When five women, including Firestone, ran to the podium to protest, Pepper patted Firestone on the head and said, "Cool down, little girl; we have more important things to talk about than women's problems." Shortly afterwards, Firestone and Freeman called a meeting that spawned the first Chicago women's liberation group. It was known as the Westside group because it met weekly in Freeman's apartment on Chicago's west side.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: After a few months Freeman started a newsletter, Voice of the Women's Liberation Movement. It circulated nationwide (and in a few foreign countries), giving the new movement its name. Many of the women in the Westside group went on to start other feminist organizations, including the Chicago Women's Liberation Union.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: In October 1967, after establishing the Westside group, Firestone moved to New York to flee a physically abusive boyfriend. In an unpublished work, Firestone recalls the abuse she had been subjected to, including being hit so hard one of her teeth was knocked out of place.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: After moving to New York, Firestone helped found the New York Radical Women, an early second-wave feminist radical feminist group, along with Robin Morgan, Carol Hanisch, and Pam Allen. The New York Radical women were the city's first women's liberation group. A manifesto was written for the group, called the New York Radical Women's Principles. In the manifesto the group of participants were defined by their shared rejection of history based purely on a male perspective. It addressed how women's history had been oppressed and anyone who believed in feminism should work together to fight against that oppression. Also clearly stated within the principles was the group's belief that violence was not the appropriate action to attempt and create change.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: The New York Radical Women's group instilled a psychology program that was considered radical. The program aimed to teach women to view themselves as more strong, independent and assertive. It was believed that by doing so women would not just be seen as subservient to men and it could combat the societal deprecation of women.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: When NYRW formed "consciousness raising groups", Firestone and Ellen Willis co-founded the radical feminist group Redstockings, named after the Blue Stockings Society, an 18th-century women's literary group. Redstocking members included Kathie Sarachild ("Sisterhood is Powerful") and Carol Hanisch ("the personal is political").


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: The group supported history being portrayed by female perspectives, and believed that female writers could help protest the patriarchy. The women of the Redstockings thought that consciousness raising was a way to reform history and it was their version of resistance. They chose to raise their own consciousness by studying the lives of women, and they focused on aspects such as their childhood, jobs, and motherhood. In their groups they discussed their own personal experiences, instead of just focusing on written material on a subject. The women also applied certain generalizations and theories to themselves and observed real feelings and experiences to further their understanding. It was-understood that consciousness raising actions could help address old ideas and present society with new ones. From mass awareness could come action on a larger scale. However, it was not in the interest of the group to make the Redstockings a service organization or large membership organization.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: In the Redstockings Manifesto, the group asserted the realities and primacy of women's historical and ongoing oppression, as well as the class nature of relationship between the sexes, as follows:


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Similar to the New York Radical Women group, the Redstockings group believed it necessary to revolutionize society on a psychological level. They did this by getting women to explore their own individuality in order to resist male dominance. It was understood that if power could be taken back by individuals, then the process would expand to also affect society.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Other actions taken by the group included putting out a journal, and protesting a Miss America contest to address the theme of women's appearance that was prevalent within society. The group threw out objects associated with pain that women suffer for the sake of "beauty" such as high heels and girdles. This action was important because it helped start the Women's Liberation Movement.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Firestone co-founded New York Radical Feminists (NYRF) in 1969 with Anne Koedt after they left the Redstockings


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Firestone participated in many protests and political actions regarding feminist issues, and she even organized the first abortion speak out. The speak out was held in March 1969 at Judson Memorial Church and consisted of twelve women of whom Firestone had convinced to share their personal accounts with the issue. The feminist groups that Firestone had helped found also participated in protests and street performances during their existence. Some actions included disrupting abortion law hearings and collecting at establishments that prohibited the attendance of women without male accompaniment. The women also participated in the "Burial of Traditional Womanhood" that took place at the Arlington National Cemetery 1968, in which a funeral was held for a dummy dressed to resemble the common housewife. Further actions were the releasing of mice in Madison Square Garden during a bridal fair, or the ogling of men on Wall Street to draw attention to sexual harassment.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: With others from New York Radical Feminists, Firestone created and edited a feminist periodical, "Notes", producing "Notes from the First Year" (June 1968), "Notes from the Second Year" (1970), and, with Anne Koedt as editor while Firestone was on leave, "Notes from the Third Year" (1971). Firestone utilized "Notes" as a form of radical, feminist propaganda that enlightened and educated female readers. The notes included topics such as the vaginal orgasm and The Personal is Political, which created discussion for radical feminism.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Firestone also published The Women's Rights Movement in the US: A New View in 1968. The essay focused on Firestone's belief that the movement had the ability to become revolutionary. In her essay, Firestone asserts that the women's rights movement has always been radical. She discusses 19th century suffragist, using examples of women taking on the church, white male power, and the "traditional" family structure. Her essay counters the minimization of women's struggles and the oppression they fought.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: "The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution" (1970) became a classic text of second-wave feminism. This was Firestone's first book and was published when she was just 25. In the book, Firestone sought to develop a materialist view of history based on sex. Also notable within the book is the ideal society Firestone creates, one void of the oppression of women. "The Dialectic of Sex" was perceived to be a Utopian manifesto dedicated to exploring some to the contradictions present in the United States at the time to an extreme. The book was met with both applause and outrage and it even made the best sellers list.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Firestone synthesized the ideas of Sigmund Freud, Wilhelm Reich, Karl Marx, Frederick Engels, and Simone de Beauvoir into a radical feminist theory of politics. She also acknowledged the influence of Lincoln H. and Alice T. Day's "Too Many Americans" (1964) and the 1968 best-seller "The Population Bomb" by Paul R. Ehrlich.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Within her book, Firestone asserts that modern society could not achieve true sex equality until women's biological traits are separated from their identity. "The Dialectic of Sex" was largely influenced by the existing views of Simone de Beauvoir. Firestone supported the belief that the women were limited by their capacity for pregnancy. She also connected the ideas in her book to de Beauvoir's view that motherhood oppressed women, and women became victims in a patriarchal based society. Firestone believed in the importance of recognizing and creating awareness for the history and predecessors of the feminist movement, so she dedicated her book to Simone de Beauvoir. She also makes the claim that Freud and Marx had ignored what she called the "sex class", the domination of women given their biological differences. Gender inequality stems from the patriarchal societal structures imposed upon women because of their bodies, she argued, particularly the physical, social, and psychological disadvantages caused by pregnancy, childbirth, and child-rearing. She expanded on Marx's views of class to argue for the existence of the sex-class syste, which she believed was created due to biological distinctions associated with reproduction. Just as Marx connected class differences to divisions in labour, Firestone associated the differences in the classes of sex to be caused by the sexual division of labor, both within and outside of reproduction. Unlike the adherents of cultural feminism of her time, Firestone didn't believe that women could be liberated through asserting their innate biological superiority. Firestone also insists that to be human is to outgrow nature, saying: "we can no longer justify the maintenance of a discriminatory sex class system on the grounds of its origin in Nature.", and "The abolition of the sex class requires that women take control of the means of reproduction", like the Marxist view that the proletariat must seize the means of production.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: She regarded pregnancy and childbirth as "barbaric" (a friend of hers compared labor to "shitting a pumpkin") and the nuclear family as a key source of women's oppression. Contraception, in vitro fertilization and other medical advances meant that sex would one day be separated from pregnancy and child-rearing, and women could be free. However, Firestone hoped to take reproduction one step further and completely separate it from the female body. She urged the emergence of a new type of artificial reproduction, referred to as the "bottled baby," through which women could be freed of the hindrance of childbirth, just as men are. Although in vitro is the closest option we have to such a phenomenon, we have not yet reached Firestone's end goal.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Firestone also criticized the dynamic that exists between heterosexual parenting and child development. She argued that children are hindered in their abilities to develop because of their education, predetermined positions in the social hierarchy, and "lesser importance" in comparison to the adult figures in their lives. Parents controlled these aspects of their children's lives. This, in turn, has increased maternal expectations and obligations, which is something Firestone desired for society to outgrow. This dependency on maternal figures makes the child(ren) more susceptible to physical abuse and deprives them of the opportunity to work towards being economically independent and possess or feed into sexual urges. It was her vision to solve these problems by eliminating families for the raising of children, and instead have children raised by a collective. Specifically Firestone wanted to eliminate what was coined nuclear families, which were household that consisted of a husband, wife, and their child(ren). She believed that these families were a form of social organization and created inequality within a family as the children were considered subordinates to their parents.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: By the time "The Dialectic of Sex" was published in 1970, Firestone had largely ceased to be politically active. She withdrew from politics in the early seventies, moved to Saint Marks Place, and worked as a painter. In the late eighties, she became mentally ill.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: In 1998 she published "Airless Spaces," a collection of fictional short stories based on her experiences being hospitalized for schizophrenia. Inspired by personal experience, this work highlights the lives and struggles of various characters in New York City battling with mental illness and poverty. Each narrative in the book addresses the difficulties of mental disorder, as well as the feelings of "shame, humiliation, fear, loneliness, and anxiety" that accompany it. There is a consistent presence of instability in the lives of each character in regards to economic and social status, along with mental state. "Airless Spaces" is said to be a reflection of the marginalization Firestone experienced resulting from her radical feminist ideals and lifestyle, as well as the hardships of individuals to escape from the dehumanizing aspects of the mental health field.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: In May 1974, Firestone was called home to St. Louis following the news of her brother Daniel's death. She was told he died in a car crash, but later came to know the true cause of death, a gunshot wound to the chest. Her brother's apparent suicide shook the family's Jewish Orthodox beliefs and sent Shulamith Firestone into a battle with mental illness. Firestone refused to attend her brother's funeral and stated, "Whether murder or suicide, afterlife or no, [his death] contributed to my own growing madness." Following her brother's death, her parents, Sol and Kate Firestone, planned to emigrate to Israel, prompting an argument that ultimately resulted in Shulamith's disavowal of her parents. She stated in a certified letter that she had "dissolved her tie of blood."


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: In 1987, Shulamith's sister Tirzah stated, "it was when our father died that Shulie went into psychosis. She lost that ballast he somehow provided."


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Firestone's condition was officially diagnosed as paranoid schizophrenia, following which she was repeatedly hospitalized at Beth Israel Medical Center. Dr. Margaret Fraser, her psychiatrist, stated that she suffered from a particularly severe form of Capgras syndrome, which caused her to believe that the people in her life "were hiding behind masks of faces."


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Eventually, friends and acquaintances, under the guidance of Fraser, her psychiatrist, began a community effort to watch over and care for Firestone as her mental health deteriorated. When Fraser moved and her confidante Lourdes Cintron fell ill, the community of women disbanded, leaving Firestone to her psychosis and death.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: On August 28, 2012, Firestone was found dead in her New York apartment by the building's owner. Alerted by neighbors, who had smelt the foul odor of her decomposing corpse from her apartment, her superintendent peered in through a window from the fire escape and saw her body on the floor. Her landlord, Bob Perl, said she had probably been dead about a week. According to her sister, Laya Firestone Seghi, she died of natural causes, but because of her family's staunchly Orthodox views, an official autopsy was never done to confirm or deny the theory that starvation was the cause of her death. According to reports, she lived in a reclusive fashion and had been in ill physical and mental health.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: In a commemorative essay by Susan Faludi published several months after Firestone's death, "The New Yorker" magazine further detailed the circumstances of her demise, citing her decades-long struggle with schizophrenia—along with speculation of self-induced starvation—as probable contributing factors. A memorial service was arranged in her memory.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: "The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution" is still used in many women's studies programs. Its recommendations, such as raising children in a gender neutral fashion, mirror the ideals Firestone set out to achieve. Many of the main ideas within the book are still prominent in the feminist debate on the use of technology advancements in reproduction. The work of Shulamith Firestone is considered an origin to the combination of science and technology with critical thinking from a feminist lens. Her ideas are still shared and discussed including her belief of the necessity for more women to pursue careers in engineering and science. Firestone's views can also be found in scientific advancements such as the production of artificial sperm and eggs and how their production may lead to the elimination of differences between the sexes.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: "The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution" also has a legacy in the branch of feminism known as cyberfeminism. Firestone anticipated what is now known today as "cyborgian femnism". Her book was a precursor to contemporary activities by cyberfeminists. Specifically it was Firestone's argument that women needed technology in order to free themselves from the obligation of reproducing. Firestone was an important theoretician who connected gender inequities to the view of women as purely child bearers, and she pushed for the increase in technology to abolish gender oppression. The ideas that Shulamith presented about technology differed to those of many other writers during her time, as she introduced technology as a tool to help ignite a feminist revolution, rather than act as a form of male violence. Firestone's work helped to spread a discourse on the general ideals of cyberfeminism. Shulamith Firestone also became a predecessor to Donna Haraway, and her cyberfeminist texts. Both of their works have similar views and aspirations, as they both address biology and are attempting to eliminate it through the use of technology. The two women envisioned a future in which individuals are more androgynous and the views of the female body are reconstructed. Similarly the works also connect how these changes affect or would affect labor roles. Shulamith's book created an understanding for gender transformation, and these themes are still a basis of cyberfeminist writing presently.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: Themes in "The Dialectic of Sex" have ties in xenofeminism as well. Firestone's desire to free women from the burden of reproduction and eliminate the use of sex organs to define an individual's identity has connections to the ambition of xenofeminists to create a society in which all individuals are not assigned traits based on their supposed sex. Helen Hester, one of the members who helped write "The Xenofeminism Manifesto", related her contributions to the ideas on feminism and technology presented by Firestone. She even credited Shulamith as one of the key theorists who contributed to the xenofeminism discourse.


title: Shulamith Firestone

text: During her studies at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago Firestone was the subject of a student documentary film. In the film, she is asked questions about her views on education, art, relationships, religion, and politics. She is also shown working on her painting and photography, presenting her artwork for critique by professors, and working part-time at a post office. Never released, the film was rediscovered in the 1990s by experimental filmmaker Elisabeth Subrin, who did a frame-by-frame reshoot of the original documentary. It was released in 1997 as "Shulie" winning two awards, including the 1998 Los Angeles Film Critics Association award. The film depicts Firestone as a young student and her journey into becoming one of the most notable second-wave feminists and feminist authors of the 20th century. In 1998, the film was honored with the Independent/Experimental Film and Video Award by the Los Angeles Film-Critics Association, receiving acknowledgement alongside films like "Saving Private Ryan", "A Bug's Life", and "Rushmore". Two years later, the documentary received the "Experimental Award" from the New England Film and Video Festival. The documentary was praised by "The New Yorker" for its use of dialectical thought (a concept featured in Firestone's work) in the production of a film set decades prior to its filming.


title: Gen V

text: Gen V (also known as The Boys: Gen V) is an upcoming American superhero streaming television series, developed by Michele Fazekas and Tara Butters, serving as a spin-off of "The Boys" by Eric Kripke, and based on "The Boys" comic book story arc "We Gotta Go Now" by Garth Ennis and Darick Robertson. The series, set concurrently with the fourth season of "The Boys", is expected to premiere on Amazon Prime Video in 2023.


title: Gen V

text: Young adult Supes are tested in "The Hunger Games"-style challenges at the Godolkin University School of Crimefighting, run by Vought International.


title: Gen V

text: On September 20, 2020, a spin-off of "The Boys" was announced, with Craig Rosenberg writing and executive producing the series with Eric Kripke, Seth Rogen, Evan Goldberg, James Weaver, Neal H. Moritz, Pavun Shetty, Michaela Starr, Garth Ennis, Darick Robertson, Sarah Carbiener, Erica Rosbe, Aisha Porter-Christie, Judalina Neira, and Zak Schwartz. On September 27, 2021, Amazon gave the order for the series and Michele Fazekas and Tara Butters were set as showrunners and executive producers of the series. On October 2, 2020, Kripke stated the "Hunger Games"-inspired series would focus on the G-Men team mentioned in the first season of "The Boys", originally created as a parody of Marvel Comics' X-Men for the fourth volume of Ennis' and Robertson's comic book series: "We Gotta Go Now", from which the series is "loosely inspired".


title: Gen V

text: On March 11, 2021, Lizze Broadway and Jaz Sinclair were cast in the series. On March 19, Shane Paul McGhie, Aimee Carrero, and Maddie Phillips were cast in the series. On April 15, 2021, Reina Hardesty was cast in the series. On March 10, 2022, Carrero and McGhie exited the series. A few days later, Chance Perdomo joined the main cast in a recasting, replacing McGhie. On April 25, 2022, Hardesty left the series. On May 9, 2022, London Thor was cast to replace Hardesty. Derek Luh, Asa Germann, and Shelley Conn also joined the cast as series regulars. Two days later, Patrick Schwarzenegger, Sean Patrick Thomas, and Marco Pigossi were cast in recurring capacities, Thomas reprising his role from "". In November 2022, Clancy Brown joined the cast in an undisclosed role. In December 2022, Jessie T. Usher, Colby Minifie, and P. J. Byrne were confirmed to be reprising their roles from "The Boys", in guest appearances, as Reggie Franklin / A-Train, Ashley Barrett, and Adam Bourke, respectively.


title: Gen V

text: Filming began at the University of Toronto Mississauga campus in May 2022 and the Claireville Conservation Area, Brampton in July, intended for an October wrap, under the working title of "The Boys Presents: Varsity". In July 2022, it was announced that the series would officially be titled "Gen V". In September 2022 members of the cast announced on social media that production has wrapped.


title: 8.8 cm KwK 36

text: The 8.8 cm KwK 36 () was an tank gun used by the German Army during World War II. This was the primary armament of the PzKpfw VI Tiger I tank. It was developed and built by Krupp.


title: 8.8 cm KwK 36

text: The KwK 36 was derived from the 8.8 cm FlaK 36 anti-aircraft gun by adapting/modifying it to the limited space available in tank turrets. Parts of the KwK 36 were built to practically the same design as the and guns already used in German tanks. The breech ring was square in section and on a side. The breech block was of vertical falling wedge type and operated semi-automatically, meaning that after firing the empty cartridge case was automatically ejected, while the breech cocked itself and remained open, ready to receive the next round.


title: 8.8 cm KwK 36

text: The "L/56" in the designation is descriptor of barrel length; the ratio of the length of the barrel in proportion to the width of the bore. The designation "L/56" means the barrel is 56 times 88 mm - about . The longer the tube is in relation to its bore, the higher the muzzle velocity it can generate on fixed charge. A longer gun barrel allows the expanding gas from the shell's charge to act on the projectile longer than a short barrel, imparting it more velocity and force. For the Tiger II's 8.8 cm KwK 43 L/71, barrel length is generating a higher velocity.


title: 8.8 cm KwK 36

text: The KwK 36 was very accurate and high-powered, and its high muzzle velocity produced a very flat trajectory. This allowed its gunners a higher margin of error in estimating range.


title: 8.8 cm KwK 36

text: In British firing trials during the war, a British gunner scored five successive hits from at a target. Another five rounds were fired at targets moving at , and, although smoke obscured the gunners' observation, three hits were scored after directions given by the commander. The sighting system resulted in excellent firing accuracy for the 8.8 cm KwK 36 gun on the Tiger I.


title: 8.8 cm KwK 36

text: The gun's performance was highly dependent on distance to target and type of ammunition loaded. For kinetic penetration, the speed of the projectile upon impact is crucial, and the cumulative effect of air resistance decreases the velocity of the shell as the distance to the target increases. The accuracy achieved during controlled test firing to determine the pattern of dispersion gives a greater accuracy than the variation expected during practice firing on a range due to differences between guns, ammunition and gunners; both at precisely known distances.


title: 8.8 cm KwK 36

text: Due to errors in estimating the range and many other factors, the probability of a first shot hit under battlefield conditions was much lower than at the firing range. Observing the tracer from the first round in battle, the average, calm gunner might achieve the firing range accuracy shown in the second column with the second round fired at the same target.


title: 8.8 cm KwK 36

text: This gun used the same size 88 x 571R mm cartridge, with the exception of being electrically primed compared to the percussion primed cases employed by the Flak 18/36/37.


The 2008 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania was part of the 2008 United States presidential election, which took place on November 4, 2008, throughout all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Voters chose 21 representatives, or electors to the Electoral College, who voted for president and vice president.


title: 2008 United States presidential election in Pennsylvania

text: Pennsylvania was won by Democratic nominee Barack Obama by a 10.32% margin of victory. Prior to the election, all 17 news organizations considered this a state Obama would win, or otherwise considered as a safe blue state. Although the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania had voted for the Democratic presidential nominee in every election since 1992, the margins of victory had become smaller over the past elections, as was highlighted in 2004 when John Kerry won the Keystone State by a slim margin of 2.50%. Since George W. Bush came relatively close to winning the state in 2004 and because Barack Obama lost the Democratic primary to Hillary Rodham Clinton by nearly 10% in April 2008, many analysts believed that Republican John McCain had a decent shot at winning Pennsylvania in the general election. Nevertheless, Pennsylvania remained blue and gave Obama 54.47% of the vote to McCain's 44.15%, a margin of 10.32%. Normally a close state, 2008 marked the first and only time since 1972 that Pennsylvania was decided by a double-digit margin and was the strongest Democratic showing in the state since 1964. However, Obama became the first ever Democrat to win the White House without carrying Fayette or Greene Counties, as well as the first to do so without carrying Beaver, Washington, or Westmoreland Counties since Woodrow Wilson in 1916, the first to do so without carrying Armstrong or Clinton Counties since John F. Kennedy in 1960, and the first to do so without carrying Forest, Indiana or Warren Counties since Jimmy Carter in 1976. As of 2022, this remains the last presidential election in which Pennsylvania did not weigh in as the most conservative state in the Northeast, as the state voted to the left of New Hampshire. It is also the last time Pennsylvania voted to the left of Minnesota.


text: The Democratic primary was held on April 22. Voters also chose the Pennsylvania Democratic Party's candidates for various state and local offices.


text: The Democratic primary was open to registered Democrats only. Polls opened at 7am and closed at 8pm. Senators Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton were the only candidates on the ballot for President of the United States. The primary was considered to be a "must win" for Clinton, who defeated Obama, but by a smaller margin than hoped for.


text: Hillary Clinton won the primary by 9.28%, a wider margin than expected than recent polls suggested, but smaller than most January and February polls. Despite her victory, she gained only nine delegates on Obama. In particular superdelegates were not swinging in her direction after her win; the Clintons had been trying to secure the support of Congressman Jason Altmire but he remained uncommitted after she won his district by 31% during the primary.


text: The Pennsylvania Democratic Party sent 187 delegates to the 2008 Democratic National Convention. Of those delegates, 158 were pledged, and 29 were unpledged. All of the 158 pledged delegates were allocated (pledged) to vote for a particular candidate at the National Convention according to the results of the Pennsylvania Presidential Primary. The 29 unpledged delegates were popularly called "superdelegates" because their vote represented their personal decisions, whereas the regular delegates' votes represented the collective decision of many voters. The superdelegates were free to vote for any candidate at the National Convention and were selected by the Pennsylvania Democratic Party's officials.


text: The 158 pledged delegates were further divided into 103 district delegates and 55 statewide delegates. The 103 district delegates were divided among Pennsylvania's 19 Congressional Districts and were allocated to the presidential candidates based on the primary results in each district. The 55 statewide delegates were divided into 35 at-large delegates and 20 party leaders and elected officials (abbreviated PLEOs). They were allocated to the presidential candidates based on the preference of the delegates at the State Committee meeting on June 7.


text: Of the 29 unpledged delegates, 26 were selected in advance and 3 were selected at the State Committee meeting. The delegates selected in advance were 13 Democratic National Committee members, the 11 Democratic U.S. Representatives from Pennsylvania, Democratic U.S. Senator Bob Casey, Jr., and Democratic Governor Ed Rendell.


text: The primary was the first time since 1976 that Pennsylvania played a major role in a presidential nomination.


text: As the race continued to Pennsylvania, Indiana, and North Carolina, many observers had concluded that Clinton had little chance to overcome Obama's lead in pledged delegates.


text: Former President Bill Clinton highlighted the importance of the state for the Clinton campaign saying on March 11 at an event in Western Pennsylvania that "If she wins a big, big victory in Pennsylvania, I think it'll give her a real big boost going into the next primaries ... I think she's got to win a big victory in Pennsylvania. I think if she does, she can be nominated, but it's up to you." This was a repetition of his tactic before March 4, warning supporters that his wife might not be able to continue if she did not win Ohio and Texas. Hillary Clinton emphasized that Pennsylvania was something of a home state for her, as her father came from Scranton, Pennsylvania, she and her brothers were christened there and had vacationed near there each summer, and her brothers still maintained the family cottage near there.


text: On March 18, 2008 Barack Obama chose Philadelphia as the site to deliver his much-anticipated "A More Perfect Union" speech dealing with the race and the controversy surrounding his pastor, Rev. Jeremiah Wright.


text: Obama started a 6-day "Road to Change" bus tour across Pennsylvania, with stops in Pittsburgh, Johnstown, Altoona, State College, Harrisburg


text: On March 28, Obama started the bus tour with a rally in Pittsburgh's Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall. Obama was introduced and endorsed by Senator Bob Casey, Jr., who had indicated earlier that he would remain neutral in the democratic primary.


text: Casey traveled to Florida over the Easter holiday, where he said rain forced him to stay inside and think about the election. Obama's ability to "transcend" the racial divide and his ability to engage younger voters proved decisive to his decision. According to sources, Casey's four daughters lobbied their dad to endorse Obama.


text: On March 29, the Obama bus tour stopped at the Pleasant Valley Recreation Center in Altoona, where he famously bowled a 37. Both Obama and Senator Casey (who rolled a score of 71) lost to local homemaker Roxanne Hart, who rolled a score of 82. On April Fool's Day, Senator Clinton jokingly challenged Obama to a "bowl-off," with the winner taking all the delegates.


text: On April 11, 2008, "Huffington Post" blogger Mayhill Fowler, a self-admitted Barack Obama supporter, reported that during an April 6 "closed press" fundraising event in San Francisco, California, Obama recounted the obstacles facing his campaign in the Pennsylvania primary as it pertained to rural, white voters. Fowler wrote that during the speech, Obama said the following:


text: You go into these small towns in Pennsylvania and, like a lot of small towns in the Midwest, the jobs have been gone now for 25 years and nothing's replaced them ... And they fell through the Clinton Administration, and the Bush Administration, and each successive administration has said that somehow these communities are gonna regenerate and they have not. And it's not surprising then they get bitter, they cling to guns or religion or antipathy to people who aren't like them or anti-immigrant sentiment or anti-trade sentiment as a way to explain their frustrations.


text: Fowler later posted a three-minute 30 second audio snippet confirming the accuracy of the remark. Senators Clinton and John McCain both issued statements condemning the remarks. Obama later defended his comments, but conceded: "I didn't say it as well as I should have." However, he also added: "I said something that everybody knows is true." Obama had addressed similar themes of guns, religion, and economics in 2004 during an interview with Charlie Rose.


text: On the last Friday before the primary, Senator Obama spoke on Independence Mall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to a crowd of more than 35,000, the largest audience yet drawn by either candidate during the campaign. The crowd was nearly twice what had been projected and spilled over into nearby streets. The next day, Obama conducted a whistle stop train tour from Philadelphia to Harrisburg, drawing a crowd of 6,000 at a stop in Wynnewood and 3,000 at a stop in Paoli. On Monday, Sen. Obama held the final events of his Pennsylvania campaign in Scranton, McKeesport and at the University of Pittsburgh's Petersen Events Center.


text: The Saturday before the primary, Senator Clinton spoke in 5 Pennsylvania cities, including West Chester and York, Pennsylvania. More than 300 people showed up at the West Chester firehouse to hear the New York Senator speak. At the Wilson high gymnasium in West Lawn, Pennsylvania, Clinton told several hundred more supporters: "The job of a leader is to bring people together to solve problems . . . to understand that sometimes we have to fight to get the political will and the votes to make that happen". On Monday, April 21, Senator Clinton along with husband Bill Clinton spoke to a crowd of 6,000 in Downtown Pittsburgh. Other events were held Monday in Scranton, Harrisburg, and Philadelphia. Both candidates refused to participate in the political custom of street money.


text: Public opinion polling from early January 2007 through mid-February 2008 consistently gave Hillary Clinton a double digit lead over Barack Obama. By the beginning of April, polls of Pennsylvanians showed Obama trailing Clinton by an average of 5 points. According to 2 polls taken one day before the primary, Hillary Clinton was leading Barack Obama by 49%–42% and 51%–41%. Other polls showed Clinton leading by an average of about 6%.


text: Some superdelegates also announced their preferred candidates before the primary. As of April 30, 16 superdelegates had announced support for Senator Clinton and 5 had announced support for Senator Obama.


text: The Republican primary was also held on April 22 and voters also chose the Pennsylvania Republican Party's candidates for various state and local offices.


text: Polls opened at 7:00 am and closed at 8:00 pm. John McCain was the winner. He had already been declared the presumptive Republican Presidential nominee, having secured enough delegate votes in earlier primary contests to win the nomination at the 2008 Republican National Convention.


text: Unlike on the Democratic side, little campaigning took place as John McCain had already clinched the nomination. Outsider candidate Ron Paul made several stops in the state, including his birthplace of Pittsburgh.


text: Some media sources noted that Ron Paul and Mike Huckabee combined took in around 220,000 votes (about 27% of the vote), despite McCain's status as presumptive nominee and the statistical irrelevance of Pennsylvania, as a possible sign of continuing social conservative or libertarian unease with McCain's nomination and have speculated about whether these results could potentially affect McCain in the November general election. Although some strategists disputed this theory, pointing to low turnout among McCain supporters and arguing that primary results would not necessarily influence the November election.


text: There were 16 news organizations who made state-by-state predictions of the election. Here are their last predictions before election day:


text: Both McCain and Obama led in various state polls taken from February until the end of April, when Obama took a steady, moderate lead in the state polling. Obama's lead was temporarily reduced to within margins of error and ties when Governor Sarah Palin of Alaska was announced as McCain's running mate in late August, but when the financial crisis of 2008 became a more potent election issue near the end of September, Obama then took a double-digit lead in the state polls, causing many analysts to no longer consider Pennsylvania a swing state in 2008. Nevertheless, John McCain campaigned heavily in the state near Election Day and some polls showed Obama's lead narrowing down to single digits. McCain hoped that Pennsylvania might be the swing state that ensured him a narrow victory. However, the economic crisis weighed heavily on the minds of voters across the country and in Pennsylvania it was no different where many voters blamed the Republicans for the collapse, ultimately helping Obama who ended up carrying Pennsylvania by a strong margin of 10.32%.


text: Obama spent almost $42 million, while McCain spent almost $30 million. The Obama campaign visited the state 16 times. The McCain campaign visited here 31 times.


text: McCain did win more counties than Obama, but the counties carried by Obama were by far the most populated of the state, including Philadelphia, Allegheny and Lehigh counties, home to the state's three largest cities: Philadelphia, Pittsburgh and Allentown respectively.


text: Obama did extremely well throughout eastern Pennsylvania. He won more than 80% of voters in the city of Philadelphia, and two of its suburban counties gave him 3-to-2 margins (the other suburban counties also voted for Obama). Democratic margins from Philadelphia and its suburbs were more than enough to ensure Obama's victory even if he had lost all the rest of the state. North of Philadelphia, the heavily industrialized, pro-union counties characterized by cities such as Scranton (birthplace of Obama's running mate, Joe Biden), Wilkes-Barre and Allentown strongly backed Obama as well. African-American and Latino voters, as well as younger college-age voters, in Monroe County and even in very Republican Pike and Wayne counties gave Obama a much greater share of the vote than Kerry received in 2004. He also managed to win two traditionally Republican counties in the eastern part of the state, Dauphin (home to the state capital, Harrisburg) and Berks (home to Reading); the last Democrat to carry these counties was Lyndon Johnson in 1964. In addition, Obama remained competitive in the two most Republican counties in the eastern region: Lancaster (which gave George W. Bush his largest margin of victory in the entire state) and York. While John Kerry lost Lancaster by 32%, Obama lost the county by only 12%, a substantial improvement.


text: John McCain, however, did best in Southwestern Pennsylvania (around Pittsburgh), a part of Appalachia and the central, rural "T". Central Pennsylvania is a Republican stronghold; John McCain won the vast majority of its counties, often by substantial margins. However, Southwestern Pennsylvania, until recently, was the most Democratic region of the state (except for Philadelphia). Historically, when a Democrat carries Pennsylvania, the entire lower-left corner of the state from Pittsburgh to Johnstown is coated blue. The heavily unionized, Appalachian counties in and around Pittsburgh strongly voted against Ronald Reagan in 1984; in that election the only other county in the state to vote Democratic was Philadelphia. In 2008, however, the Republicans won every single county in Southwestern Pennsylvania except for Allegheny County, home to Pittsburgh (which voted Democratic by 15%). It was one of the few regions in which Obama did worse than John Kerry. This largely mirrored Obama's struggles throughout Appalachia throughout the course of the Democratic primary, when voters in this region strongly backed Hillary Clinton.


text: The 2008 election confirmed Pennsylvania's status as a Democratic-leaning state. As Kerry showed in 2004, under most circumstances a Democrat can lose everywhere else in the state and still run up enough of a margin in Philadelphia and Pittsburgh to win. Pennsylvania would not vote for a Republican candidate until the 2016 Presidential election, when Donald Trump narrowly carried the state.


text: During the same election at the state level, Democrats picked up two seats in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives but Republicans picked up one seat in the Pennsylvania Senate. Democrats also picked up a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in Pennsylvania's 3rd Congressional District as Democrat Kathy Dahlkemper defeated 7-term incumbent Republican Phil English by a 2.48% margin of victory. Dahlkemper received 51.24% of the vote while English took in 48.76%.


text: , this is the last election in which Carbon County, Elk County, Cambria County, and Berks County voted for the Democratic candidate.


text: Although Barack Obama won Pennsylvania, John McCain carried 10 of the commonwealth's 19 congressional districts, including four districts held by Democrats. One district, PA-03, was extremely close, however, with McCain only winning by 17 votes. Obama won 9 districts, including two districts held by Republicans.


text: Technically the voters of Pennsylvania cast their ballots for electors: representatives to the Electoral College. Pennsylvania is allocated 21 electors because it has 19 congressional districts and 2 senators. All candidates who appear on the ballot or qualify to receive write-in votes must submit a list of 21 electors, who pledge to vote for their candidate and his or her running mate. Whoever wins the majority of votes in the state is awarded all 21 electoral votes. Their chosen electors then vote for president and vice president. Although electors are pledged to their candidate and running mate, they are not obligated to vote for them. An elector who votes for someone other than his or her candidate is known as a faithless elector.


text: The electors of each state and the District of Columbia met on December 15, 2008, to cast their votes for president and vice president. The Electoral College itself never meets as one body. Instead the electors from each state and the District of Columbia met in their respective capitols.


text: The following were the members of the Electoral College from the state. All 20 were pledged to Barack Obama and Joe Biden:


title: Jagadam

text: Jagadam () is a 2007 Indian Telugu-language action film written and directed by Sukumar. The film stars Ram, Isha Sahani, Pradeep Rawat, and Prakash Raj. The film was produced by Aditya Babu. The film was released on 16 March 2007. Though the film failed at Box Office, Over the years, the film eventually gained cult following for its concept, screenplay & direction and it is regarded as one of the best films of Sukumar.


title: Jagadam

text: Seenu enjoys fights since his childhood. He appreciates violence and wants to be like Manikyam, a goonda, as everyone, including his teacher, is afraid of him. When all the boys wanted to become engineers, doctors, lawyers, and other professions, Seenu wanted to become a goonda. Though he behaves like a ruffian, he learns that one should have the support of a politician or big dada. With the help of Laddu, an associate of Manikyam, Seenu meets the latter and joins his gang. At this juncture, Seenu falls in love with Subbalakshmi. As she pleads with Seenu to help her friend's father, Seenu agrees to settle a land deal, but the land was under illegal occupation of Manikyam's gang member. As he promised to settle the deal, Seenu opposes Manikyam. This makes Seenu a hero, and he starts doing settlements on his own. Once, he agrees to help an industrialist, whose quarry was occupied by Yadav, with Manikyam's support. As things go out of control, Seenu decides to kill Yadav but could not. However, Seenu's young brother, who also likes fighting scenes, takes a gun and shoots Yadav. Seenu appeals to the police commissioner to mediate with Manikyam, but his men kill Seenu's brother. This irks Seenu, who thrashes Manikyam but spares him. He realizes that violence is not the way to go. When Manikyam attacks him, he kills him in self-defense. The film ends on a happy note with Seenu leaving all the dadagiri and leading a normal life.


title: Jagadam

text: The film received mixed reviews. "Sify" gave the film three stars out of five, calling "Jagadam" a "not a plot driven film." While praising the film for its cinematography and music, the reviewer criticized its weak script and lackluster characters. "Rediff.com", however, appreciated Sukamar's screenplay and direction. "Idlebrain.com", while commending Sukumar for taking up a different theme, criticized the film for a slow-paced second half and a weak climax.


title: Long Island Nets

text: The Long Island Nets are an American professional basketball team in the NBA G League based in Uniondale, New York, and are affiliated with the Brooklyn Nets. The team plays its home games at the Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum in Nassau County, New York. The Nets became the twelfth Development League team to be owned by an NBA team when it was announced in 2015.


title: Long Island Nets

text: In June 2015, the Brooklyn Nets announced their intentions to purchase a D-League affiliate. The team announced on November 5, 2015, that they reached an agreement for their new D-League team, called the Long Island Nets, to play in a renovated Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum, which was the home of the Nets during their ABA years. However, due to renovations, the new team played in their parent team's home, Barclays Center, for their first season.


title: Long Island Nets

text: On March 24, 2016, the Nets hired Alton Byrd as the vice president of business operations. On April 15, 2016, Ronald Nored was hired as the team's head coach and on August 23, 2016, Ryan Gomes and Pat Rafferty were announced as assistant coaches. On November 12, 2016, the Nets won their first game after defeating the Canton Charge 120–118.


title: Ceará Sporting Club

text: Ceará Sporting Club, or Ceará, as they are usually called, is a Brazilian football team from the city of Fortaleza, capital city of the Brazilian state of Ceará, founded on June 2, 1914, by Luís Esteves and Pedro Freire. Ceará is one of the most traditionally successful clubs in the Northeast region of Brazil alongside Bahia, Santa Cruz, Sport, Náutico, Vitória and their city rivals Fortaleza.


title: Ceará Sporting Club

text: On June 2, 1914, the club was founded as Rio Branco Football Club by Luiz Esteves Junior and Pedro Freire. Later, some of their friends also joined: Gilberto Gurgel, Walter Barroso, Raimundo Justa, Newton Rôla, Bolívar Purcell, Aluísio Mamede, Orlando Olsen, José Elias Romcy, Isaías Façanha de Andrade, Raimundo Padilha, Rolando Emílio, Meton Alencar Pinto, Gotardo Morais, Artur de Albuquerque, Cincinato Costa, Carlos Calmon and Eurico Medeiros. As Rio Branco Football Club, the team colors were white and lilac. In 1915, on their first birthday, the club changed its name to Ceará Sporting Club.


title: Ceará Sporting Club

text: In 1941, Ceará won the Campeonato Cearense, the same year of the inauguration of Presidente Vargas stadium. From 1961 to 1963, the club was three times consecutive state champion. In 1969, Ceará won the Northeast Cup.


title: Ceará Sporting Club

text: In 1970, ended the seven-year titleless state championship period. In 1971, Ceará was the last placed team in Campeonato Brasileiro Série A first edition. From 1975 to 1978, the club was four times in a row state champion.


title: Ceará Sporting Club

text: In 1985, Ceará finished 7th in the Brazilian League. This is the best league position of a team from Ceará State in the Brazilian Championships. In 1994, the club finished Brazilian Cup runners-up, beaten by Grêmio in the final. In 1995, Ceará participated in the Copa CONMEBOL, the club's first international championship, becoming the only club of Ceará State to play an international tournament. In 1996, the team administrator was Forró bands businessman Emanuel Gurgel. The team changed its home shirt color to all black. Because of this, the team was nicknamed "Urubu do Nordeste" (Northeast Vulture). From 1996 to 1999, the club was state champion four times in a row .


title: Ceará Sporting Club

text: In 2002, Ceará won the state championship, for the first time in three years. In 2005, Ceará reached the Copa do Brasil semifinals. The club was defeated by Fluminense. In 2006, the club won the state championship after 4 years without winning the competit


title: Ceará Sporting Club

text: In 2010, after a 17-year absence, Ceará was promoted back to the Brazilian League, after finishing third in the 2009 Campeonato Brasileiro Série B. They finished in 12th position, achieving a place in the 2011 Copa Sudamericana.


title: Ceará Sporting Club

text: In 2011, Ceará reached the 2011 Copa do Brasil semi-finals. Ceará ended Ronaldinho's Flamengo's unbeaten streak in the previous round winning the away game, and drew the home game, eliminating the Rio de Janeiro team in a notorious upset. Ceará, however, was defeated by Coritiba in the semi-finals.


title: Ceará Sporting Club

text: Ceará's home venue is Estádio Carlos de Alencar Pinto, capacity 3,000, but the team also plays at Castelão Stadium which has a capacity of 60,326, and at Presidente Vargas Stadium, which has a 22,228 capacity.


title: Ceará Sporting Club

text: Ceará's greatest rival is Fortaleza. It is the biggest derby in Fortaleza city. It has been played 574 times, with Ceará winning 193 times, Fortaleza winning 176 times and 205 draws.


title: Ceará Sporting Club

text: Ceará's second biggest rival is Ferroviário, the third biggest club of Fortaleza city. This derby has been played 297 times, with 138 wins for Ceará, 69 wins for Ferroviário and 90 draws.


title: Ceará Sporting Club

text: The team mascot, an old man known as "Vovô" ("Grandpa") dressing Ceará uniform was designed by Cearense cartoonist Mino for the "Ceará: Paixão Total" Project ("Ceará: Full Passion" Project).


title: Ceará Sporting Club

text: The team mascot appeared in late 1919, when Meton de Alencar Pinto, former president of Ceará SC, coached young players of America Football Club, a small club from the city, in the Porangabussu training center. Meton, who used to call the kids as "my grandsons", asked them to "go easy on grandpa". Afterwards, the nickname started to apply to the team of Ceará as well, helped by the seniority of the club; Ceará Sporting Club was the first football team founded in the state.


title: Ceará Sporting Club

text: The fourth logo is the current team logo, and was adopted in 2003. The logo is a restylized version of the previous logo created by Adman Orlando Mota. This logo introduced the white stars and the foundation date.


title: SUSE Linux

text: SUSE Linux ( , ) is a computer operating system developed by SUSE. It is built on top of the free and open source Linux kernel and is distributed with system and application software from other open source projects. SUSE Linux is of German origin, its name being an acronym of "Software und System-Entwicklung" (software and systems development), and it was mainly developed in Europe. The first version appeared in early 1994, making SUSE one of the oldest existing commercial distributions. It is known for its YaST configuration tool.


title: SUSE Linux

text: Novell bought the SUSE (then "SuSE") brands and trademarks in 2003. Novell, one of the founding members of the Open Invention Network, decided to make the community an important part of their development process by opening widely the distribution development to outside contributors in 2005, creating the openSUSE distribution and the openSUSE Project. Novell employed more than 500 developers working on SUSE in 2004. On 27 April 2011, Novell (and SUSE) were acquired by The Attachmate Group, which made SUSE an independent business unit. Later, in October 2014, the entire Attachmate Group, including SUSE, was acquired by the British firm Micro Focus International. SUSE continues to operate as an independent business unit. On 2 July 2018, it was announced that Micro Focus would sell SUSE to Blitz 18-679 GmbH, a subsidiary of EQT Partners, for $2.535 billion. The acquisition was completed on March 18, 2019.


title: SUSE Linux

text: The developing "Gesellschaft für Software und System Entwicklung mbH" (Lit. Company for Software and System Development) was founded on 2 September 1992 in Nuremberg, Germany, by Roland Dyroff, Thomas Fehr, Burchard Steinbild, and Hubert Mantel. Three of the founders were still mathematics students at a university; Fehr had already graduated and was working as a software engineer.


title: SUSE Linux

text: The original idea was that the company would develop software and function as an advisory UNIX group. According to Mantel, the group decided to distribute Linux, offering support.


title: SUSE Linux

text: Their name at founding was "S.u.S.E."" (Software und System-Entwicklung" "Software and systems development"); however, the full name has never been used. "S.u.S.E." was shortened to "SuSE" in October 1998 and restylized to "SUSE" in 2003.


title: SUSE Linux

text: The official logo and current mascot of the distribution is a veiled chameleon officially named GEEKO (a portmanteau of "gecko" and "geek"). As with the company's name, the GEEKO logo has evolved to reflect company name changes.


title: SUSE Linux

text: The company started as a service provider, regularly releasing software packages that included Softlanding Linux System (SLS, now defunct) and Slackware and printing UNIX and Linux manuals, and offering technical assistance.


title: SUSE Linux

text: These third-party products SUSE initially used had those characteristics and were managed by SUSE in different fashions:


title: SUSE Linux

text: To build its own Linux distribution, S.u.S.E. used SLS in 1992 and jurix in 1996 as starting point. This was created by Florian La Roche, who joined the S.u.S.E. team. He began to develop YaST, the installer and configuration tool that would become the central point of the distribution.


title: SUSE Linux

text: In 1996, the first distribution under the name S.u.S.E. Linux was published as S.u.S.E. Linux 4.2, a reference to the answer to "The Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe and Everything" from the "Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy". YaST's first version number, 0.42, was a similar reference.


title: SUSE Linux

text: Over time, SuSE Linux incorporated many aspects of Red Hat Linux, such as its RPM Package Manager and its file structure.


title: SUSE Linux

text: S.u.S.E. became the largest Linux distributor in Germany. In 1997, SuSE, LLC was established under the direction of president and managing partner James Gray in Oakland, California, which enabled the company to develop Linux markets in the Americas and Asia. While Red Hat was ubiquitous in the United States, SuSE Linux continued to grow in Germany as well as in Nordic countries such as Finland and Sweden. In October 1998, the name was changed officially to, SuSE (without dots). Linus Torvalds, the creator of the Linux kernel, used it fairly often. SuSE entered the UK in 1999.


title: SUSE Linux

text: On 4 November 2003, Novell announced it would acquire SuSE Linux AG for $210 million. The acquisition was finalized in January 2004.


title: SUSE Linux

text: In a move to reach its business audience more effectively, SuSE introduced the SUSE Linux Enterprise Server in 2001, and a few months before Novell's purchase, changed the company name to "SUSE Linux". "SUSE" is now a name, not an acronym.


title: SUSE Linux

text: According to J. Philips, Novell's corporate technology strategist for the Asia Pacific region, Novell would not "in the medium term" alter the way in which SUSE was developed. At Novell's annual BrainShare conference in 2004, for the first time, all of their computers were run with SUSE Linux and it was announced that the proprietary SUSE administration program YaST2 would be released under the GPL license.


title: SUSE Linux

text: On 4 August 2005, Novell announced that the SUSE Professional series would become more open, with the launch of the openSUSE Project community. The software always had been open source, but openSUSE opened the development process, allowing developers and users to test and develop it. Previously, all development work had been accomplished in-house by SUSE. Version 10.0 was the first version that offered public beta testing.


title: SUSE Linux

text: SUSE Linux 10.0 included both open source and proprietary applications and retail boxed-set editions. As part of the change, YaST Online Update server access became free for all SUSE Linux users, and also for the first time, the GNOME desktop was upgraded to equal status with the traditional KDE.


title: SUSE Linux

text: In November 2005, SUSE founder Hubert Mantel announced his resignation from the company. He stated that Novell's acquisition had changed SUSE beyond his expectations and that he did not believe it was the same company that he had founded 13 years earlier. The resignation apparently stemmed from a dispute over the implementation of Ximian products in the GNOME-based default desktop environment for the Linux distribution.


title: SUSE Linux

text: On 3 November 2006 (renewed 25 July 2011), Novell signed an agreement with Microsoft covering improvement of SUSE's ability to interoperate with Microsoft Windows, cross-promotion/marketing of both products and patent cross-licensing. The agreement is considered controversial by some in the Free Software community.


title: SUSE Linux

text: On 22 November 2010, Novell announced that it had agreed to acquisition by The Attachmate Group for $2.2 billion. The Attachmate Group plans to operate Novell as two units with SUSE becoming a stand-alone business, and it anticipates no change to the relationship between the SUSE business and the openSUSE project as a result of this transaction.


title: SUSE Linux

text: The U.S. Department of Justice announced that in order to proceed with the first phase of their acquisition of certain patents and patent applications from Novell Inc., CPTN Holdings LLC and its owners would have to alter their original agreements to address the department's antitrust concerns. The department said that, as originally proposed, the deal would jeopardize the ability of open source software, such as Linux, to continue to innovate and compete in the development and distribution of server, desktop, and mobile operating systems as well as middleware and virtualization products.


title: SUSE Linux

text: The acquisition was completed on 27 April 2011. Subsequently, on 23 July 2011 The Attachmate Group launched a new website for the SUSE business.


title: SUSE Linux

text: On 20 November 2014, the Attachmate Group merged with Micro Focus to form the Micro Focus Group. SUSE is operated as a separate business unit with a dedicated product portfolio.


title: SUSE Linux

text: On 2 July 2018, it was announced that Micro Focus would sell its SUSE business segment to EQT Partners for $2.535 billion. The acquisition was completed on March 18, 2019.


title: SUSE Linux

text: SUSE Linux is available under two brands, openSUSE and SUSE Linux Enterprise. openSUSE is a free, community distribution driven by the openSUSE Project. It includes some of the latest "bleeding edge" Linux technologies and is designed for home users and enthusiasts. SUSE Linux Enterprise is Suse's tested and certified open-source solution for major enterprises.


title: SUSE Linux

text: openSUSE is a freely available, community project that releases versions on a comparatively frequent basis, and generally uses the latest versions of the various open source projects that it includes.


title: SUSE Linux

text: SUSE Linux Enterprise is SUSE's commercial edition, which SUSE releases much less frequently, enabling it to offer support more effectively for enterprise and production deployments. It is certified for a wide variety of enterprise applications and offers a number of special enterprise features including, High Availability and Point of Sale extensions. SUSE historically uses a heavily tested subset of packages from openSUSE Linux as the basis for SUSE Linux Enterprise. Starting with openSUSE 15, SUSE made its "Leap" variant directly upgradable to SUSE Linux Enterprise.


title: SUSE Linux

text: SUSE offers SUSE Linux Enterprise Server and SUSE Linux Enterprise Desktop. Each focuses on packages that fit its specific purpose. For example, SUSE Linux Enterprise Desktop does not include the Apache Web Server, and SUSE Linux Enterprise Server does not include Xgl/Compiz.


title: SUSE Linux

text: In contrast, openSUSE does not have separate distributions for server, desktop, and tablets. Rather, its repositories contain the needed software, and use installation patterns to accomplish the same.


title: SUSE Linux

text: openSUSE is driven by the openSUSE Project community and sponsored by SUSE, to develop and maintain SUSE Linux components. It is the equivalent of the historic "SuSE Linux Professional". After their acquisition of SUSE Linux, Novell (now SUSE) decided to make the community central to their development process.


title: SUSE Linux

text: It has a theoretical development cycle of 8 months and a lifetime (duration of the critical updates) of 18 months from the date of release. It is fully and freely available for immediate download.


title: SUSE Linux

text: openSUSE was the sixth most popular Linux distribution for 2013 and the fourth most popular for 2014, according to DistroWatch.


title: SUSE Linux

text: SUSE develops multiple products for its "enterprise" business line. These business products target corporate environments, with a higher life cycle (10 years, extendable to 13), a longer development cycle (6 to 18 months), a guarantee of stability at the potential expense of development speed, technical support, and certification by independent hardware and software vendors. SUSE Linux Enterprise products are only available for sale (updates fees).


title: SUSE Linux

text: SUSE Linux Enterprise has fewer packages than the openSUSE distribution. Most of the differences are desktop applications that are more suited to consumers than to business. The enterprise products are:


title: SUSE Linux

text: When installed using a Linux kernel, Novell Open Enterprise Server (OES) uses SUSE Linux Enterprise Server as a platform. This product is also known as OES-Linux.


title: SUSE Linux

text: SUSE Linux Enterprise was included with VMware's vSphere licensing, up until June 25, 2014 for 'free', as noted on SUSE Partners website


title: SUSE Linux

text: SUSE's SUSE Studio product was a web interface (built using Ruby on Rails) to openSUSE's KIWI and the Open Build Service tools. It allowed users to put together a custom Linux distribution graphically and to generate output including a large variety of Virtual Machine and Disk Images. SUSE Studio merged with Open Build Service and the resulting project was renamed to SUSE Studio Express in September 2017.


title: Sexual anhedonia

text: Sexual anhedonia, also known as pleasure dissociative orgasmic disorder, is a condition in which an individual cannot feel pleasure (see anhedonia) from an orgasm. It is thought to be a variant of hypoactive sexual desire disorder.


title: Sexual anhedonia

text: Normally, a human being is able to feel pleasure from an orgasm. Upon reaching a climax, chemicals are released in the brain and motor signals are activated that will cause quick cycles of muscle contraction in the corresponding areas of both males and females. Sometimes, these signals can cause other involuntary muscle contractions such as body movements and vocalization. Finally, during orgasm, upward neural signals go to the cerebral cortex and feelings of intense pleasure are experienced. People who have this disorder are aware of reaching an orgasm, as they can feel the physical effects of it, but they experience very limited or no sort of pleasure.


title: Sexual anhedonia

text: It is thought that people with sexual anhedonia have a dysfunction in the release of the chemical dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, the brain's primary reward center. This part of the brain is thought to play a role in pleasurable activities, including laughter, addiction, and music. Additionally, it is thought that depression, drug addiction, high levels of prolactin, low testosterone, and uses of certain medications might play a role in inhibiting dopamine. A spinal cord injury or chronic fatigue syndrome might also occasionally cause this disorder. Age may also be a cause of this disorder. Other causes are infectious diseases like influenza and cancer.


title: Sexual anhedonia

text: A sudden-onset sexual anhedonia can also be a symptom of sensory neuropathy, which is most commonly the result of pyridoxine toxicity (e.g., from large doses of vitamin B6 supplements).


title: Sexual anhedonia

text: In this case, the sexual dysfunction promptly resolves spontaneously once the B6 supplementation is stopped.


title: Sexual anhedonia

text: Increased serum prolactin (PRL) concentration in patients brains from psychiatric medicine can also affect sexuality.


title: Sexual anhedonia

text: Psychiatric medicine is known to cause the brain to form more dopamine receptors for the dopamine blocking effect. The normal amount of dopamine released during sex is insufficient to stimulate the larger number of dopamine receptors.


title: Sexual anhedonia

text: Several treatment methods have been devised to help patients cope. Exploration of psychological factors is one method, which includes exploring past trauma, abuse, and prohibitions in the cultural and religious history of the person. Sex therapy might also be used as a way of helping to realign and examine his or her expectations of an orgasm. Contributing medical causes must also be ruled out and medications might have to be switched when appropriate. Additionally, blood testing might help determine levels of hormones and other things in the bloodstream that might inhibit pleasure. This condition can also be treated with drugs that increase dopamine, such as oxytocin, along with other drugs. In general, it is recommended that a combination of psychological and physiological treatments should be used to treat the disorder.


title: Sexual anhedonia

text: Other drugs which may be helpful in the treatment of this condition include dopamine agonists, oxytocin, phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors, and alpha-2 receptor blockers like yohimbine.


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: The Firearm Owners' Protection Act (FOPA) of 1986 is a United States federal law that revised many provisions of the Gun Control Act of 1968.


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: Under the Gun Control Act of 1968, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF) was given wide latitude on the enforcement of regulations pertaining to holders of Federal Firearms Licenses (FFL) (which enable an individual or a company to engage in a business pertaining to the manufacture or importation of firearms and ammunition, or the interstate and intrastate sale of firearms). Allegations of abuse by ATF inspectors after passage of the act arose from the National Rifle Association (NRA) and some FFL licensees. In particular, advocates claimed that ATF was repeatedly inspecting FFL holders for the apparent purpose of harassment intended to drive the FFL holders out of business (as the FFL holders would constantly be having to tend to ATF inspections instead of to customers).


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: A February 1982 report by the Senate subcommittee that studied the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution concluded:


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: The report also said that 75 percent of ATF prosecutions "were aimed at ordinary citizens who had neither criminal intent nor knowledge, but were enticed by agents into unknowing technical violations." It suggested that reform of federal firearms law such as proposed in S. 1030 "would be largely self-enforcing" and "would enhance vital protection of constitutional and civil liberties of those Americans who choose to exercise their Second Amendment right to keep and bear arms."


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: The Firearm Owners Protection Act of 1986 (FOPA) addressed the abuses noted in the 1982 Senate Judiciary Subcommittee report. Among the reforms were the reopening of interstate sales of long guns on a limited basis, legalization of ammunition shipments through the U.S. Postal Service, removal of the requirement for record keeping on sales of non-armor-piercing ammunition, and federal protection of transportation of firearms through states where possession of those firearms would otherwise be illegal.


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: The Act also contained a provision that banned the sale to civilians of machine guns manufactured after the date of enactment, restricting sales of these weapons to the military and law enforcement. Thus, in the ensuing years, the limited supply of these arms available to civilians has caused an enormous increase in their price, with most costing in excess of $10,000. Regarding these fully-automatic firearms owned by private citizens in the U.S., political scientist Earl Kruschke said "approximately 175,000 automatic firearms have been licensed by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (the federal agency responsible for administration of the law) and evidence suggests that none of these weapons has ever been used to commit a violent crime."


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: The Act mandated that ATF compliance inspections can be done no more than once per year. An exception exists if multiple record-keeping violations are recorded in an inspection, in which case the ATF may do a follow-up inspection.


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: The bill was endorsed by the NRA. It was opposed by police organizations, including the Federal Law Enforcement Officers Association, Police Foundation, International Association of Chiefs of Police, Fraternal Order of Police, National Troopers Coalition, Police Executive Research Forum, National Sheriffs' Association, National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Executives, International Union of Police Associations, National Association of Police Organizations and the New York City Police Commissioner.


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: As debate for FOPA was in its final stages in the House before moving on to the Senate, Rep. William J. Hughes (D-N.J.) proposed several amendments including House Amendment 777 to H.R. 4332, which modified the act to ban the civilian ownership of new machine guns, specifically to amend to add subsection (o):


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: (o)(1) Except as provided in paragraph (2), it shall be unlawful for any person to transfer or possess a machinegun.


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: (A) a transfer to or by, or possession by or under the authority of, the United States or any department or agency thereof or a State, or a department, agency, or political subdivision thereof; or


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: (B) any lawful transfer or lawful possession of a machinegun that was lawfully possessed before the date this subsection takes effect.


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: On April 10, 1986, House Amendment 777 passed the House by voice vote. Despite some controversy over whether the amendment should have been given a recorded vote, the bill as a whole passed the House and the Senate, and was signed on May 19, 1986 by President Ronald Reagan to become Public Law 99-308, the Firearms Owners' Protection Act.


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: The ATF, as a representative of the U.S. and with authority from the National Firearms Act, can authorize the transfer of a machine gun to an unlicensed civilian. An unlicensed individual may acquire machine guns, with ATF approval. The transferor must file an ATF application, which must be completed by both parties to the transfer:


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: If ATF denies an application, it must refund the tax. Gun owners must keep approved applications as evidence of registration of the firearms and make them available for inspection by ATF officers.


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: One of the law's provisions (codified in section 926A of title 18 of the U.S. Code) was that persons traveling from one place to another have a defense for any state firearms offense in a state that has strict gun control laws if the traveler is just passing through (short stops for food and gasoline), provided that the individual is not otherwise prohibited from possession of a firearm, the firearms and ammunition are not readily accessible, that the firearms are unloaded and, in the case of a vehicle without a compartment separate from the driver's compartment, the firearms are located in a locked container other than the glove compartment or console.


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: The Act also forbade the U.S. Government agency from keeping a registry directly linking non-National Firearms Act firearms to their owners, the specific language of this law (Federal Law 18 U.S.C. 926) being:


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: No such rule or regulation prescribed [by the Attorney General] after the date of the enactment of the Firearms Owners Protection Act may require that records required to be maintained under this chapter or any portion of the contents of such records, be recorded at or transferred to a facility owned, managed, or controlled by the United States or any State or any political subdivision thereof, nor that any system of registration of firearms, firearms owners, or firearms transactions or disposition be established. Nothing in this section expands or restricts the Secretary's authority to inquire into the disposition of any firearm in the course of a criminal investigation.


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: Nevertheless, at one point the ATF's National Tracing Center (NTC) contained hundreds of millions of firearm tracing and registration records, and consisted of several databases; but as of May 2016, many of these databases have been deleted to fall inline with record deletion requirements, per the Government Accountability Office (GAO).


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: The older Gun Control Act of 1968 prohibits firearms ownership in the U.S. by certain categories of individuals thought to pose a threat to public safety. However, this list differed between the House and the Senate versions of the bill, and led to confusion. The list was later augmented, modified, and clarified in the Firearm Owners Protection Act of 1986. The 1986 list is:


title: Firearm Owners Protection Act

text: In 2001, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit (consisting of Texas, Louisiana and Mississippi) ruled that the "Lautenberg Amendment", 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(8)(C)(ii) (which extended the original FOPA restrictions on firearm ownership to persons under a court order in connection with domestic violence) did not violate the Second Amendment, and did not violate the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment as applied to the defendant, in "United States v. Emerson".


title: Nankana Sahib

text: Nankana Sahib () is a city and capital of Nankana Sahib District in the Punjab province of Pakistan. It is named after the first Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak, who was born in the city and first began preaching here. Nankana Sahib is the most important religious site for the Sikh religion. It is located about west of Lahore and about east of Faisalabad. According to the census of 2017 the city has a population of 79,540 inhabitants. Until 2005, it was a part of the Sheikhupura District.


title: Nankana Sahib

text: The township was founded by Rai Bhoi, a Hindu and thus was known as Rai-Bhoi-Di-Talwandi. His great-grand son Rai Bular Bhatti, renamed it as 'Nankana Sahib' after the birth of Guru Nanak. The Gurdwara Nankana Sahib, originally constructed in around 1600 CE was renovated in 1819–20 CE by Gian-Punjab Maharaja Ranjit Singh The Sikh Conference of Panjab, Jammu and Kashmir, Peshawar, Kangra and Hazara.


title: Nankana Sahib

text: During the Akali movement, on 20 February 1921, Narain Das, the Udasi mahant (clergy) of the gurdwara at Nankana Sahib, ordered his men to fire on Akali protesters, leading to the Nankana massacre. The firing was widely condemned, and an agitation was launched until the control of this historic Janam Asthan Gurdwara was restored to the Sikhs. Again in the 1930s and 1940s the Sikhs added more buildings and more architectural design.


title: Nankana Sahib

text: Nankana Sahib and it surroundings were formerly a tehsil of Sheikhupura District. In May 2005, the provincial government raised the status of Nankana Sahib to a district as a way of promoting development in the area. The present status is District Nankana Sahib has three tehsils: Nankana Sahib, Shah Kot, and Sangla Hill. Before December 2008, District Nankana Sahib also included Safdarabad Tehsil.


title: Nankana Sahib

text: There are plans to construct a university as well as hospitals and health care facilities by the district government with mutual interest of local communities and family of Rai Bular.


title: Nankana Sahib

text: In 2007, the Pakistan government announced a plan to set up a university on Sikh religion and culture at Nankana Sahib, the birthplace of Guru Nanak. Chairman of Pakistan's Evacuee Trust Property Board (ETPB), Gen (R) Zulfikar Ali Khan, said that "The international Guru Nanak University planned at Nankana Sahib would have the best architecture, curricula and research centre on Sikh religion and culture".


title: Nankana Sahib

text: In 2019 after prolonged efforts of the Sikh community the historical Gurudwara on Nankana sahib was given direct access to pilgrims via the Kartarpur corridor project. The first batch of Sikh pilgrims arrived in Pakistan on 12 November, the historical occasion of the 550th gurupurab (birth anniversary) of Guru Nanak, the founding guru of Sikhism.


title: Nankana Sahib

text: Punjabi is the most widely spoken in Nankana Sahib District, and the district with the highest proportion of Punjabi speakers in the Punjab province.


title: Vauxhall

text: Vauxhall ( ) is a district in South West London, part of the London Borough of Lambeth, England. Vauxhall was part of Surrey until 1889 when the County of London was created. Named after a medieval manor, "Fox Hall", it became well known for the Vauxhall Pleasure Gardens.


title: Vauxhall

text: From the Victorian period until the mid-20th century, Vauxhall was a mixed industrial and residential area, of predominantly manual workers' homes, many demolished and replaced by Lambeth Council with social housing after the Second World War, and business premises, including large railway, gas, and water works. These industries contrasted with the mostly residential neighbouring districts of Kennington and Pimlico. As in neighbouring Battersea and Nine Elms, riverside redevelopment has converted most former industrial sites into residential properties and new office space.


title: Vauxhall

text: Vauxhall is south of Charing Cross and southwest of the actual centre of London at Frazier Street near Lambeth North tube station. Vauxhall is adjacent to the River Thames, on the opposite side of the river to Pimlico. To the north is the district of Lambeth and to the northeast is the district of Kennington. South Lambeth, Stockwell, and the Patmore Estate are to the south of Vauxhall. Many of the roads of Vauxhall converge at an area known as Vauxhall Cross, where both Vauxhall station on the South West Main Line and the bus station are located. To the northeast of Vauxhall Cross is the Vauxhall Pleasure Gardens and to the southeast is the large Vauxhall Park.


title: Vauxhall

text: Vauxhall is located within the London Borough of Lambeth. It is within and also has given its name to the Vauxhall parliamentary constituency, represented by Florence Eshalomi since the General Election in 2019.


title: Vauxhall

text: The subdistrict of Oval is located within the eastern part of Vauxhall Parliamentary constituency, but the Lambeth Council electoral ward for Vauxhall is named Oval. The ward has historically been a marginal ward, meaning candidates from either the Liberal Democrats or Labour are elected. As of the 2018 local elections, the ward is represented by three Labour Party councillors.


title: Vauxhall

text: Since the 2014 Council Elections, Labour has held and won all 24 council seats in the Vauxhall constituency, doing the same in 2018. However, in the 2019 EU Elections, the Liberal Democrats won every ward in the constituency.


title: Vauxhall

text: The toponymy of Vauxhall is generally accepted to have originated in the late 13th century, from the name of Falkes de Breauté, the head of King John's mercenaries, who owned a large house in the area, which was referred to as Faulke's Hall, later Foxhall, and eventually Vauxhall. Samuel Pepys mentions "Fox Hall" in his diary on 23 June 1665: "...I took boat and to Fox Hall, where we spent two or three hours talking of several matters very soberly and contentfully to me, which, with the ayre and pleasure of the garden, was a great refreshment to me, and, ‘methinks, that which we ought to joy ourselves in." The area only became generally known by the name Vauxhall when the Vauxhall Pleasure Gardens opened as a public attraction and movement across the Thames was facilitated by the opening of Westminster Bridge in the 1740s.


title: Vauxhall

text: Competing theories are given as to why the Russian word for a central railway station is ("vokzal"), which coincides with the canonical 19th-century transliteration of "Vauxhall". It has long been suggested that a Russian delegation visited the area to inspect the construction of the London & South Western Railway (L&SWR) in 1840, and mistook the name of the station for the generic name of the building type—a "vaux hall", as it were. This was further embellished into a story that Tsar Nicholas I of Russia, visiting London in 1844, was taken to see the trains at Vauxhall and made the same mistake. Alternatively, the locality of the L&SWR's original railway terminus, Nine Elms Station, was shown boldly and simply as "Vauxhall" in the 1841 "Bradshaw" timetable.


title: Vauxhall

text: Both these explanations can probably be dismissed, since the first public railway in Russia had already been built by 1837. This line ran from Saint Petersburg via Tsarskoye Selo to Pavlovsk Palace, where extensive pleasure gardens had earlier been established. In 1838, a music and entertainment pavilion was constructed at the railway terminus. This pavilion was called the "Vokzal" in homage to the Vauxhall Pleasure Gardens in London. The name soon came to be applied to the station itself, which was the gateway that most visitors used to enter the gardens. It later came to mean any substantial railway station building (a different Russian word, станция ("stantsiya"), is used for minor stations).


title: Vauxhall

text: The word "voksal" (воксал) had been known in the Russian language with the meaning of "amusement park" long before the 1840s and may be found, e.g. in the poetry of Aleksandr Pushkin: ("To Natalie" (1813): "At fêtes or in "voksals", /I've been flitting like a gentle Zephyrus" []) According to Vasmer, the word is first attested in the "Saint Petersburg Vedomosti" for 1777 in the form фоксал, which may reflect the earlier English spelling of Fox Hall/Faukeshall. Englishman Michael Maddox established a Vauxhall Gardens in the Saint Petersburg suburbs (Pavlovsk) in 1783, with pleasure gardens, a small theatre/concert hall, and places for refreshment. Archdeacon William Coxe describes the place as a "sort of Vauxhall" in that year, in his "Travels into Russia".


title: Vauxhall

text: No mention of Vauxhall is made in the 1086 "Domesday Book". The area originally formed part of the extensive manor of South Lambeth, which was held by the family of de Redvers, feudal barons of Plympton in Devon and Lords of the Isle of Wight. Falkes de Breauté acquired South Lambeth in 1216 when he married Margaret FitzGerold, widow of Baldwin de Redvers (son and heir apparent of William de Redvers, 5th Earl of Devon (d.1217)) and mother of Baldwin de Redvers, 6th Earl of Devon (1217-1245). Falkes de Breauté's lands reverted to the de Redvers family after his death in 1226. In 1293, South Lambeth and the manor of "la Sale Faukes" passed, probably by trickery, to King Edward I, who purchased several de Redvers lands (including the Lordship of the Isle of Wight) from Isabel de Forz, 8th Countess of Devon (1237-1293), sister and heiress of Baldwin de Redvers, 7th Earl of Devon (1236-1262), shortly before her death. In 1317 King Edward II granted the manor of Vauxhall, Surrey, to Sir Roger d'Amory for his "good services" at the Battle of Bannockburn.


title: Vauxhall

text: From various accounts, three local roads – the South Lambeth Road, Clapham Road (previously Merton Road), and Wandsworth Road (previously Kingston Road) – were ancient and well-known routes to and from London.


title: Vauxhall

text: Vauxhall was the south western terminus of the Civil War defences of London, thrown up by Londoners in 1642 to defend against Royalist incursions. A landmark fort was located at the present site of the Elephant and Castle public house (currently a Starbucks)


title: Vauxhall

text: The land was flat and parts were marshy and poorly drained by ditches, and only started to be developed with the draining of Lambeth Marsh in the mid-18th century, but remained a village. Prior to this, it provided market garden produce for the nearby City of London. Vauxhall Bridge and Vauxhall Bridge Road were opened in 1816. By 1860, the village had been subsumed by the town of Lambeth. Many of Vauxhall's streets were destroyed during the construction of the railway to London Waterloo via the Nine Elms to Waterloo Viaduct, by German bombing in World War II or ravaged through poor city planning.


title: Vauxhall

text: The explosion in London property prices during the late 1990s and early 2000s has led to a boom in riverside construction, such as the large St George Wharf development by Vauxhall Bridge. This area is continuing to be redeveloped with several newbuilds under construction.


title: Vauxhall

text: Several gentrified areas have developed, and areas of terraced townhouses on streets such as Fentiman Road and Heyford Avenue have higher property values in the private market; however, by far the most common type of housing stock in Vauxhall is flats, both conversions and purpose-built blocks. Vauxhall is also a popular residential area for members of parliament and civil servants due to its proximity to the Houses of Parliament and Whitehall; Kennington is within the area wired for the Commons' Division bell. Some 18th- and 19th-century properties also survive – most famously Bonnington Square, a community that emerged from the 1970s–1980s squat scene in London and remains as mostly housing co-operatives today.


title: Vauxhall

text: Vauxhall is a very ethnically diverse area, with about 40% of residents originating from a non-white ethnic group. There is a significant Portuguese community, some with a connection to Madeira; many Portuguese restaurants and bars are located in South Lambeth Road and the surrounding area. There is also a Muslim community, with almost 6% of residents declaring themselves as Muslim in the 2001 census.


title: Vauxhall

text: Much of the area in Vauxhall contains light industry, offices, and government buildings. Many companies and organisations were attracted in the past by Vauxhall's central location and comparatively cheap rent compared to Westminster on the other side of the river. In recent years, Vauxhall's riverside has undergone major redevelopment with the construction of a number of modern residential and office blocks, most notably the distinctive SIS Building at Vauxhall Cross. Also, a number of new commercial businesses have moved into the area.


title: Vauxhall

text: Vauxhall is home to a number of gay bars and nightclubs, such as Fire, The Eagle, and the Royal Vauxhall Tavern. The aforementioned Royal Vauxhall Tavern dates back to at least the late 19th century, and was for many years a traditional English music hall and cabaret venue. In recent years, the building has come under constant threat of buyout and demolition from property developers, as it stands alone on a prime piece of grassland adjacent to Vauxhall railway station. However, the pub was bought in 2004 by sympathetic owners who have announced, "business as usual".


title: Vauxhall

text: Vauxhall was originally the home of the more underground gay clubs with the arrival of Crash in the 1990s. Over the years, more clubs and gay businesses have followed Crash's lead by opening up in the railway arches underneath the main line out of Waterloo station. One of the most notable venues to open in the area is Fire night club, which is located on Parry Street and currently occupies ten of the arches aforementioned. Fire was the scene of a drugs raid by the Metropolitan Police Service on 28 April 2007 where nine people were arrested. The tactics used in the raid (namely photographing all the persons leaving the venue) were strongly criticised by the gay press at the time.