title: 1888–89 Football League

text: Richard Whittle marked his Preston debut with a goal in their 7–0 victory over Stoke to take their perfect start to five games. Their lead at the top was doubled to two points when Aston Villa suffered their first defeat of the season 0–2 at Everton. West Bromwich Albion moved up to second after beating Derby County 5–0 while Notts County secured their first ever point at the fourth attempt in a 3–3 draw with Blackburn Rovers yet remained at the foot of the table.


title: 1888–89 Football League

text: West Bromwich Albion visited Deepdale for the first ever league clash between teams occupying the top two positions at kick off. Albion trailed Preston by two points and required a six-goal victory to overtake the leaders on goal average but Preston stretched their perfect start to six games with a 3–0 victory. Aston Villa moved back into second place, three points behind Preston on the same day when they defeated Blackburn Rovers 6–1. Notts County became the last team to secure a victory when they defeated Everton 3–1 in what was their fifth game.


title: 1888–89 Football League

text: Accrington became the first team to gain a point against Preston when they held the league leaders to a 0–0 draw in what was their seventh game of the season. Aston Villa won 3–2 at Bolton to reduce Preston's lead to two points.


title: 1888–89 Football League

text: Preston North End extended their unbeaten start to the season to eight games when they defeated Wolverhampton Wanderers 5–2 at Deepdale with John Goodall scoring a hat-trick. Alex McKinnon earned the distinction of being the first player to score a league hat-trick for Everton in their 6–2 victory over Derby County who fell to the bottom of the league as a result of a sensational 6–1 victory for Notts County over Burnley. Blackburn Rovers also enjoyed a comprehensive 5–2 victory over Stoke to climb to sixth in the table.


title: 1888–89 Football League

text: Preston stretched their unbeaten start to the season to nine games when Jack Gordon and John Goodall both scored hat-tricks in a 7–0 victory at Notts County. This was Goodall's second hat-trick in consecutive games and took Preston three points clear of Aston Villa who were held 1–1 at Stoke. Blackburn Rovers also scored seven goals away from home at Burnley, who did manage a goal in reply.


title: 1888–89 Football League

text: When Aston Villa visited Preston North End on Saturday 10 November 1888 it was both teams tenth game of their twenty-two game programme and the second time that two teams had played a fixture while occupying the top two positions in the league. Villa went into the game trailing Preston by three points but a 1–1 draw maintained the status quo. Aston Villa were the only team to stop Preston North End winning every home game this season. The Villa also went on to win every home game except one which was against Preston.


title: 1888–89 Football League

text: Preston completed the first half of their program unbeaten when they won 3–0 at Stoke in the only fixture played that day. Ross, Thomson, Robertson scored for them. The result took Preston five points clear of second placed Aston Villa who held one game in hand.


title: 1888–89 Football League

text: Preston increased their lead to seven points with a 2–0 defeat of Accrington while Aston Villa were beaten 1–5 at Blackburn Rovers.


title: 1888–89 Football League

text: Blackburn Rovers completed a run of five straight victories when they won 2–0 at bottom club Derby to move into third place, eight points behind leaders Preston whose unbeaten start increased to thirteen games with a 5–2 victory at Bolton.


title: 1888–89 Football League

text: Bottom club Derby travelled to unbeaten league leaders Preston having not won in nine games, the last seven of which had all ended in defeat. Jock Inglis made his Preston debut and scored in their 5–0 victory


title: 1888–89 Football League

text: Preston North End were held to a draw for only the third time at the fifteenth attempt, 2–2 at Burnley. Their nearest challengers, Aston Villa were unable to make any impact into the seven-point deficit though as they too were held 1–1 at Accrington.


title: 1888–89 Football League

text: League leaders Preston travelled to West Bromwich Albion on Boxing Day winning 5–0 and, with Aston Villa not playing, they established a nine-point lead having played two games more.


title: 1888–89 Football League

text: A 1–0 victory over Blackburn Rovers on 29 December took Preston North End into the new year still unbeaten with just four games remaining. Their first game of 1889 would be at home to Notts County in a game that would see them crowned champions of the inaugural league with three games to spare provided Aston Villa also lost at Burnley. Notts County arrived at Deepdale having failed to win in seven outings, the last five of which had all ended in defeat and rarely threatened as Preston ran out 4–1 winners. Aston Villa slumped to a 0–4 defeat at Burnley which saw Preston crowned champions. The Deepdale club remained unbeaten in their final three games to complete their league programme unbeaten.


title: Johnny Eck

text: John Eckhardt Jr, (August 27, 1911 – January 5, 1991), professionally billed as Johnny Eck, was an American freak show performer in sideshows and a film actor. Born without the lower half of his torso, Eck is best known today for his role in Tod Browning's 1932 cult classic film "Freaks" and his appearances as a bird creature in several Tarzan films. He was often billed as "The Amazing Half-Boy", "King of the Freaks" and "The Most Remarkable Man Alive".


title: Johnny Eck

text: Besides being a sideshow performer and actor, the multi-talented Eck was also an artist, musician, photographer, illusionist, penny arcade owner, Punch and Judy operator, and expert model-maker.


title: Johnny Eck

text: John Eckhardt Jr. was born on August 27, 1911, to Emilia (born 1876) and John Eckhardt, Sr. (born 1874) in Baltimore, Maryland, as a fraternal twin. His brother Robert Eckhardt was also a performer and he had an older sister named Caroline Laura Eckhardt. Eck was born with a truncated torso due to sacral agenesis. Though Eck would sometimes describe himself as "snapped off at the waist", he had unusable, underdeveloped legs and feet that he would hide under custom-made clothing. At birth, Eck weighed two pounds (0.9 kg) and was less than eight inches (20 cm) in length. He would eventually reach a height of eighteen inches (45 cm). Although Eck capitalized on the resemblance between himself and Robert, the twins were fraternal. Aside from the sacral agenesis, Eck was healthy.


title: Johnny Eck

text: Eck was walking on his hands before his brother was standing when he was a year old. Both of the Eckhardt twins could read by the age of four. The twins had an older sister named Caroline who educated Eck at home until he and his brother enrolled in public school at age seven. He recalled that larger students would "fight each other for the 'honor' or 'privilege' of lifting [him] up the stone steps" to school, and that school windows were blacked out to discourage throngs of curious onlookers from peering in at Eck during his studies. In spite of the scrutiny, Eck remained consistently upbeat about his birth defect. When asked if he wished he had legs, he quipped, "Why would I want those? Then I'd have pants to press." He challenged those who did have legs by asking, "What can you do that I can't do, except tread water?"


title: Johnny Eck

text: Emilia Eckhardt intended that Eck go into the ministry, and the young Eck was often called upon to perform impromptu sermons for guests. "I would climb atop of a small box and preach against drinking beer and damning sin and the devil," Eck recalled in an autobiographical fragment. These sermons quickly came to an end when Eck began passing around a saucer for donations. At an early age, Eck developed an interest in painting and woodworking, and would spend hours with his brother carving and painting elaborate, fully articulated circuses.


title: Johnny Eck

text: In late 1923, Eck and his brother attended a performance of stage magic at a local church by John McAslan. When McAslan asked for volunteers for his act, 12-year-old Eck bounded onto the stage on his hands to the surprise of the magician. McAslan convinced Eck to join the sideshow with him as manager; Eck agreed, but only if his brother was also employed. Robert was charged with looking after his brother by their mother. His parents signed a one-year contract, which Eck claimed the magician later changed to a ten-year contract by adding a zero. In 1924, Eck left McAslan and signed on with a carny named Captain John Sheesley.


title: Johnny Eck

text: Eck was billed as a single-o (solo sideshow act), though he traveled with Robert and used Robert's normality to emphasize his own abnormal physique. His performance included sleight-of-hand and acrobatic feats including his famous one-armed handstand. Eck often performed in a tuxedo jacket while perched upon a tasseled stool. Eck performed for Ringling Brothers, Barnum and Bailey and others.


title: Johnny Eck

text: Eck went to the Canadian Exposition in the summer of 1931. Eck was performing in Montreal when he was approached by a MGM Studios talent scout to be cast for his first feature film as the "Half-Boy" in Tod Browning's 1932 film "Freaks".


title: Johnny Eck

text: Eck got along quite well with Tod Browning and was often at his side while on set. Eck would later say that "Browning wanted me to stay as close to him as possible. He told me whenever I have an empty seat or chair, you are to sit alongside me while we shoot." Although he sometimes tried to socialize, he didn't feel comfortable mingling with his castmates, whom he described as a "happy, noisy crowd" and "childish, silly and in a world all their own." At one point he complained that they had gone "Hollywood" because of the film, "wear[ing] sunglasses and acting funny." When Pete Robinson had difficulty lying on a blanket in one scene, Eck made the comment that if he had legs, he would have lain on a fakir's bed of nails. Olga Baclanova would reminisce fondly of her costar (whom she described as "handsome"), "When we finished the picture, he came and gave me a present. He had made a circus ring made from matches. He said he had made it in my honor."


title: Johnny Eck

text: Eck claimed that Browning wished to do a follow-up picture with him and Robert where he would play a mad scientist's creation. However, Browning's career was irretrievably hurt by "Freaks", and he no longer had the clout with studios to do many of the projects he wished to do. Eck was also disappointed by how much of his part had been trimmed from the film in the nearly thirty minutes that were cut by censors.


title: Johnny Eck

text: After "Freaks", Eck was featured as a bird creature or "Gooney Bird" in three Tarzan movies: "Tarzan the Ape Man" (1932), "Tarzan Escapes" (1936) and "Tarzan's Secret Treasure" (1941). In order to create the bird costume used by Eck for the Tarzan films, footage which was filmed during the production of "Freaks" in 1931, a full body cast was taken of him. When the Eckhardt home was facing foreclosure due to the oncoming Great Depression, Eck performed for the Ripley's Believe It or Not! Odditorium at the 1933 Chicago World's Fair. It was there that Eck was billed as "the Most Remarkable Man Alive".


title: Johnny Eck

text: In 1937, Eck and Robert were recruited by the illusionist and hypnotist Rajah Raboid, for his "Miracles of 1937" show. In it they performed a magic feat that amazed audiences. Raboid performed the traditional sawing-a-man-in-half illusion, except with an unexpected twist. At first Robert would pretend to be a member of the audience and heckle the illusionist during his routine, resulting in Robert being called on stage to be sawed in half himself. During the illusion, Robert would then be switched with his twin brother Eck, who played the top half of his body, and a dwarf who played the bottom half, concealed in specially-built pant legs. After seeming to have been sawn off, the legs would suddenly get up and start running away, prompting Eck to jump off the table and start chasing them around the stage, screaming, "Come back!" "I want my legs back!" Sometimes he even chased the legs into the audience. The subsequent reaction was amazing – people would scream and sometimes even flee the theater in terror. As Eck described it, "The men were more frightened than the women – the women couldn't move because the men were walking across their laps, headed for the exit." The act provided the perfect jolt by frightening people at first but then caused just as much laughter and applause. The illusion would end with stage hands plucking up Eck and setting him atop "his" legs and then twirling him off-stage to be replaced by his twin Robert, who would then loudly threaten to sue Raboid and storm out of the theater. Their act was so popular that they played to packed audiences up and down the East Coast.


title: Johnny Eck

text: In addition to film, sideshow and stage, Eck was also pursuing other interests in this period. He and his brother were musicians, having their own twelve-piece orchestra in Baltimore. Eck conducted while Robert played the piano. Eck continued his love of drawing and painting, early on choosing such subjects as pretty girls, ships and himself. He was also a race car enthusiast and the driver of his own custom-built race car that was street-legal in Baltimore, the "Johnny Eck Special". In 1938, Eck climbed the Washington Monument on his hands.


title: Johnny Eck

text: When sideshows lost popular appeal, the Eckhardt brothers returned to their red brick rowhouse at 622 North Milton Avenue, in the East-side, working-class section of Baltimore. This was the same house that the family had lived in since 1906, and is where the Eckhardt brothers resided for the rest of their lives. In Baltimore they bought and ran a penny arcade until a business tax forced them out of business. In the 1950s, the brothers bought and ran a used children's train ride in a local park; Eck acting as conductor. Eck also became a screen painter, having learned the craft from William Oktavec, a grocer and local folk artist who invented the art form in 1913. Eck is interviewed about the craft in the 1989 documentary film "The Screen Painters". Eck would sit on the steps of his porch with his Chihuahua, Major, telling stories about his life. He and his brother often performed Punch and Judy shows for the children who would come to visit. However, the Eckhardts' neighborhood was increasingly becoming less safe because of drugs and crime.


title: Johnny Eck

text: The 1980s brought more visitors as the video release of "Freaks" attracted a new generation of fans, some of whom Eck wasn't entirely comfortable with, telling a friend, "You'd be surprised to see these 'avid' fans. I say they are crazy." But he also expressed dismay at his own circumstances. Despite having a notable career that had spanned back to the 1920s, Eck had very little to show materially for his successes – which he attributed to being taken advantage of over the years by unscrupulous managers, "sharp crooks", and even "best friends." Describing the situation of fans dropping by his rowhouse on Milton, Eck wrote to a close friend in 1985, "I am so embarrassed – I would love to be financially able to entertain these wonderful people in a refined way – a tiny sandwich, cold Cola or something..."


title: Johnny Eck

text: In January 1987, the then 76-year-old Eckhardt brothers were robbed in an ordeal that lasted several hours. One of the two thieves mocked and sat on Eck while the other took his belongings. Thereafter, Eck went into seclusion and the brothers no longer invited visitors into their home. Eck would go on to say, "If I want to see freaks, all I have to do is look out the window."


title: Johnny Eck

text: On January 5, 1991, Eck had a heart attack in his sleep, dying at age 79 at the home where he was born. Robert died on February 25, 1995, aged 83. They are buried under one headstone in Green Mount Cemetery, Baltimore.


title: Johnny Eck

text: A Hollywood feature film on the life of Johnny Eck has been pursued since the 1990s by Leonardo DiCaprio. A screenplay has been written by Caroline Thompson, the scriptwriter of "Edward Scissorhands". Production will be by Pelagius Films and Joseph Fries will produce while Leonardo DiCaprio and Joseph Rappa executive produce the film. Production notes include James Franco as a possible replacement to play the Eckhardt twins.


title: Zane Holtz

text: Zane-Ray Brodie Holtz (born January 18, 1987) is a Canadian actor and model. He is best known for playing Richie Gecko on the El Rey Network television series "" (2014–2016) and K.O. Kelly on The CW series "Riverdale" and "Katy Keene" (2020).


title: Raymond Blanc

text: Raymond Blanc OBE (born 19 November 1949) is a French chef. Blanc is the chef patron at Le Manoir aux Quat' Saisons, a hotel-restaurant in Great Milton, Oxfordshire, England. The restaurant has two Michelin stars and scored 9/10 in the "Good Food Guide". He is entirely self-taught, but has himself taught or employed other chefs including Heston Blumenthal, John Burton-Race, Michael Caines, Paul Liebrandt, and Marco Pierre White.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: Blanc was born near Besançon, the capital of the Franche-Comté region in eastern France, between Burgundy and the Jura mountains. He grew up in Saône, a village just east of there.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: While his two sisters were taught to cook by the influential Maman Blanc, his father taught Blanc and his two brothers to work in the kitchen garden. His father gave him a colander and foraging map for his 10th birthday, and what he collected his mother taught him to cook.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: Training as a waiter, Blanc worked at the Michelin-starred "Le Palais de la Bière" in Besançon. In 1972 he was fired for upsetting the head chef (Blanc had offered him advice on how to cook); however, the manager knew of a job in England.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: Not speaking English well enough to survive without a notepad, he was dispatched to "The Rose Revived" in Newbridge, Oxfordshire, arriving three days after landing at Dover in his Renault 5 Gordini. Blanc married the owner's daughter Jenny, and the couple had two sons.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: Before striking out on his own in 1977, Blanc worked for a time under chef patron André Chavagnon, who had opened a French restaurant, La Sorbonne, in Oxford High Street in 1966.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: In 1977, the Blancs opened "Les Quat' Saisons" in a row of modern shops in Summertown, Oxford: "We mortgaged the house, owed 18 further people, and opened in a corridor between a lingerie shop and Oxfam". An overnight success, he won "Egon Ronay Guide Restaurant of the Year", two Michelin stars and a host of other distinctions.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: In 1981, Blanc opened La Maison Blanc, a chain of boulangeries and pâtisseries that also contain cafès. There were 14 branches of Maison Blanc across the country, including several in London and one in Oxford. Maison Blanc cakes were also available nationwide in Waitrose supermarkets. The chain was closed in 2017 by its owners, Kout Food Group.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: In 1983, Blanc purchased a manor-house in the Oxfordshire village of Great Milton where he opened "Le Manoir aux Quat' Saisons", a country house hotel and double Michelin starred restaurant. Awarded five AA stars and with a score of 19/20 from respected French guide Gault Millau, Le Manoir describes itself as "one of the ultimate gastronomic destinations in the country".


title: Raymond Blanc

text: Blanc opened Le Petit Blanc, the first of a chain of smaller restaurants, in Oxford in June 1996. Blanc's stated aim with these was to bring the French philosophy of "good food being central to good living" to the United Kingdom. His desire was to create and serve food that can be enjoyed by everyone – "from the time-conscious business person to those looking for a welcoming family restaurant".


title: Raymond Blanc

text: Blanc suffered two mini strokes when he was 42, believed to have been brought on by stress and overwork.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: In June 2003, after nearly losing the chain to his ex-wife Jenny as part of his divorce settlement, the four Le Petit Blanc Brasseries (now known as Brasserie Blanc) in Birmingham (which closed in 2008), Cheltenham, Manchester and Oxford became part of the Loch Fyne Restaurant Group portfolio. Blanc maintains a share in the business, and continues to be involved creating new menus, developing the chef and kitchen teams and participating in the promotion of the restaurants. Since 1996, Raymond has opened the following branches of Brasserie Blanc:


title: Raymond Blanc

text: In March 2013, Raymond Blanc made the news with Mayor of London Boris Johnson, to publicise a scheme to get young people into the food and hospitality industry. Blanc took on twenty-one apprentices across the Brasserie Blanc Restaurants.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: Blanc is one of the patrons of the Children's Food Festival, which was held on the Northmoor Trust Estate in south Oxfordshire in June 2009.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: In 2014 he presented with Kate Humble "Kew on a Plate", a 4-part television series, demonstrating the garden growth and preparation of several vegetable dishes.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: Blanc has made numerous appearances on many major television stations, during prime time viewing, in the UK. These include his own series "Food & Drink" in 1987, "Take Six Cooks" in 1986 and "Masterchef" in 1990, 1991, 1992, 1995 and 1998, as well as "The Restaurant", a BBC 2 series hosted by Blanc where nine couples competed to win their own restaurant.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: On 13 January 2007, he appeared on "Saturday Kitchen". In the Omelette Challenge, he finished last because he took the longest to cook an omelette. However, he was nudged up a few places by James Martin, right above Ken Hom, as Blanc produced a black truffle out of his pocket and garnished the finished omelette with truffle shavings.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: In summer 2007, a BBC promotion for his new reality TV programme "The Restaurant" was shown on UK television. (The show is known to BBC America viewers in the US as "Last Restaurant Standing"). The promo showed a group of well-dressed diners in a slow-motion food fight, to a Gonzales backing track. The show was part of BBC Two's autumn season in 2007 and returned, with minor changes to the format, in 2008. In 2009, "The Restaurant" returned to BBC Two in a low-budget format. This season was much criticised for the poor standard of contestants, for neglecting the successful elements of previous series, and for Blanc choosing as the winner a team without any discernible culinary ability outside of making cocktails.


title: Raymond Blanc

text: Blanc has two sons, Olivier and Sebastien. Blanc lives in Oxford with long-term partner Natalia Traxel. In 2008 he received an honorary OBE.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: "Obsessed" is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her twelfth studio album, "Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel" (2009). The song was written and produced by Carey, Tricky Stewart and The-Dream, and was released as the album's lead single on June 16, 2009, by Island Records. The song draws musical influences from contemporary R&B and hip hop, and is built around a thumping bassline. Additionally, the song is accentuated by hand claps, while Carey's voice is processed with Auto-Tune. Lyrically, the song describes Carey's dilemma regarding constant claims of a prior relationship from rapper Eminem, although he is not specifically mentioned.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: "Obsessed" was well received by music critics who highlighted it as a stand-out track from "Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel". Many reviewers complimented its clever lyrics and strong beat, while others criticized the song's usage of Auto-Tune on Carey's vocals. At the time of the song's release, "Obsessed" was the center of controversy, as critics and the media suggested Carey was aiming it at Eminem, who had negatively referenced her several times in his songs. Eminem released a song called "The Warning" in response.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: "Obsessed" peaked at number seven on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming Carey's 27th top-ten hit on the chart. In terms of total top-ten chart entries among all artists in the chart's history, Carey tied for fifth place after the song's peak, with Janet Jackson and Elton John. Internationally, the song was not released throughout parts of Europe, as Island Records decided to give priority to the album's second single, Carey's cover of Foreigner's hit "I Want to Know What Love Is". "Obsessed" peaked within the top-ten in France and Italy; and in the top 20 in Australia, Belgium, Canada and Japan.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: The accompanying music video for "Obsessed" was directed by Brett Ratner, who Carey has previously worked with on many of her videos. Throughout the video, Carey plays both herself and the character of the male stalker, dressed in a bellhop uniform, as well as a gray hoodie and sweatpants. Two videos were filmed for "Obsessed", one for the original version and one for the remixed version, which features rapper Gucci Mane. The video was shot predominantly at the Plaza Hotel and on the streets of New York City. After several photographs of Carey dressed as the stalker were leaked, tabloids immediately compared Carey's costume to Eminem's usual attire. Carey performed the song live on the fourth season of "America's Got Talent", "Today", and throughout her Angels Advocate Tour (2009–10). Both the song and video contain references to the 2004 film "Mean Girls", starring Lindsay Lohan.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: In 2008, Carey had suddenly cancelled a concert tour supporting her eleventh studio album, "E=MC²". There was heavy speculation in the media that Carey had become pregnant, and had abandoned the plans for a tour as a result. The singer had later admitted that she was pregnant during that time period, and had suffered a miscarriage, leading to the cancellation of the tour.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: Carey then opted to record a new album, that would be released during the summer of 2009. During the later stages of the project, Carey released the title, "Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel", that would serve as the singer's twelfth studio album. She explained how plans for a ballad to be released were put on hold, because a new song she had written "needed to be heard". On June 9, 2009, she wrote on her official Twitter account: "Seriously, this is one of my favorite songs ever. I love the whole album. I'm completely immersed in it. I can't wait for you to hear it", and announced its title as "Obsessed". Later that week, The-Dream, who co-wrote the song with Carey, claimed that the song was definitely aimed at someone in particular, and that it would upset them greatly. The song was transmitted digitally to radio stations on June 16, 2009, for immediate airplay and made its debut on Chicago radio station B96 at 2:00 pm. An official remix of the song, featuring rapper Gucci Mane, premiered on the same day.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: The single cover artwork for "Obsessed" features Carey leaning against a dirty concrete wall. She is shown wearing black underwear and a matching sheer top, with a black bra visible through the shirt. Carey's hair is featured in a long and wet style, cascading over her shoulders and right breast. The word "Obsessed" is written in large white letters over Carey's body. An anonymous writer for MTV described it as "wet and raunchy", while writing, "As you can see here the star has chosen a sexy shot to launch material from her next album. Mariah is shown busting out of a revealing black top and wearing black underwear."


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: In 2001, Carey decided to venture into the film industry with her debut acting role, "Glitter". It was a critical and commercial failure, which led to Carey's $100 million recording contract being bought out by Virgin Records, who paid her $49 million to part ways. Carey also had personal life conflicts and erratic behavior in public appearances, leading to the singer being hospitalized. During this period in Carey's personal life, American rapper Eminem claimed to date Carey for six months. After this Eminem referred to Carey in several of his songs in a negative light, feeling angered by her disowning their alleged relationship. The back-and-forth through songs continued with "Clown" on Carey's album "Charmbracelet", her 2001 interview tapes being faked as voice recordings being played at Eminem's Anger Management Tour. After playing the excerpt, Eminem would pretend to be sick before launching into his song "Puke".


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: On May 15, 2009, Eminem released his sixth studio album, "Relapse", which included a song titled "Bagpipes from Baghdad" in which he addresses Mariah's denial that their relationship ever happened. In the lyrics Eminem expresses that he's not done talking about the subject: "I want another crack at ya" and "Nick Cannon better back the fuck up. I'm not playing, I want her back, you punk." After the song's release, Cannon went on his website, defending Carey and expressing his disgust at his comments. Following Cannon's comments, Eminem responded sarcastically. He clarified that the song was actually "wishing the couple the best", and that it was a misunderstanding. In an interview with BBC Radio, Eminem clarified that although contained a "harsh" line, he meant well. He later commented that he respected Cannon for his response, and that he expected him to stand up for his wife.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: After Carey premiered "Obsessed" on June 16, 2009, the media frenzied and began speculating the song was targeting at Eminem, due to its lyrics and overall message. Following the song's accompanying music video, which featured Carey playing a role that resembled the rapper, critics considered it Carey's response to Eminem's "Bagpipes from Baghdad". Soon after both the song and video's release, the rapper released another song, titled "The Warning" on July 30, 2009, which he claimed to be a retaliation. The song's lyrics allude to his supposed relationship with the singer, the music video for "Obsessed", and pictures and proof he claims to have of the couple. The song begins "Only reason I dissed you in the first place is because you denied seeing me. Now I'm pissed off", before describing Carey's impersonation of him in her video, "Oh gee, is that supposed to be me in the video with the goatee?/ Wow Mariah, didn't expect ya to go balls out." Eminem continues describing a near-sexual encounter with the singer, threatening to release voice-mails and pictures he still has in his possession. Additionally, the song features a female's voice, unknown whether or not Carey's, where she calls herself Mary Poppins, as well as several intervals of her laughter. In the aftermath of the releases, Cannon was questioned regarding the inspiration of "Obsessed", and whether it was ever directed at Eminem:


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: She's Mariah Carey. She's not beefin', she's a vegetarian. People keep saying ['Obsessed'] was directed at certain people. To be completely honest, she did the record 'cause she's a huge fan of this movie "Mean Girls", and there's a line in the movie where one of the girls is like, 'Why are you so obsessed with me?' She says that at the beginning of the song, and that's where the concept came from. But, you know, art imitates life.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: "Obsessed" draws influences from the R&B and hip hop music genres. The song is built around a "thumping bass line", and features a "distorted wordless vocal hook" as its instrumentation. Additionally, the song is accentuated by hand claps, while Carey's voice is set with auto-tune. Joey Guerra of the "Houston Chronicle" described the song's production as "an auto-tune orgy of come-hither vocals and cutesy Mariah-isms." According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony/ATV Music Publishing, "Obsessed" is set in common time with a tempo of 84 beats per minute. It is composed in the key of C minor, with Carey's vocal range spanning from the low-note of B to the high-note of C. Written and produced by Carey, The-Dream and Tricky Stewart, the song follows in the chord progression of Bm–Am–Gmaj. Lyrically, the song describes the protagonists dilemma regarding a stalker, and finds her asking him regarding his obsession.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: After the song's release, critics heavily compared its lyrics to Eminem, and suggested Carey alluded to him and his 'obsession' with her. "Obsessed" never mentions the rapper's name, although reviewers felt it to be very obvious. The song begins with "I was like, 'Why are you so obsessed with me?'", before the music begins. This line references the 2004 film Mean Girls. As the first verse begins, Carey describes the tracks' subjects constant lies: "All up in the blogs sayin' we met at a bar / When I don't even, know who you are / Sayin' you up in my house sayin' you up in my car / When you in L.A. and I'm at Jermaine's". Additionally, the song suggests the stalker is under the influence of drugs: It must be the weed, it must be the E / 'Cause you be poppin', heard you get it poppin'." During the chorus, Carey confronts her stalker, asking: Why are you so obsessed with me / Boy I wanna know / Lying that your sexing with me / When everybody knows/ It's clear that you're upset with me / Oh, Oh, Oh, finally found a girl that you couldn't impress / last man on the earth still couldn't get this." During the song's second verse, critics complimented Carey's lyrics, highlighting phrases such as: You're a mom & pop, I'm a corporation / I'm the press conference, you're a conversation", "suggesting the rapper isn't a worthy suitor".


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: "Obsessed" received critical acclaim from music critics. While most reviewers complimented the song's lyrics and production, some criticized Carey for her usage of intentional auto-tune. Daniel Kreps from "Rolling Stone" stated that "the biting mid-tempo track is already more musically and lyrically engrossing than "E=MC²"'s singles." "The A.V. Club"s Michaelangelo Matos complimented the song's clever lyrics, and called it a "wicked diss of an unnamed Eminem for spreading rumors about their involvement." Though criticizing "Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel" for being full of mid-tempo numbers, James Reed from "The Boston Globe" felt "Obsessed" "stood out of the goo", due to its witty lyrics and strong beat production. Monica Herrera of "Billboard" gave the song a positive review, describing it as a "gem of a diss record that coasts, even over its sputtering moans and synth jabs." Additionally, Herrera complimented Carey's lyrics, calling them "bity and funny". "Entertainment Weekly"s Leah Greenblatt described the track as a "brash synth kiss-off", while Alex Macpherson from "The Guardian" called it "jaunty" and "wisecracking". On "Obsessed", Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine felt the "attitude is sexy", while Jon Caramanica from "The New York Times" felt the song was a stand-out track from the album, which he felt was "dated". He described that although the entire album was produced by Carey, The-Dream and Tricky Stewart, which he described as "masters of compensation, helping elevate mediocre singers — like The-Dream himself or Rihanna, on 'Umbrella' — to something sublime", "Obsessed" sounded "Dr. Dre-esque, and felt it was a notable exception from the rest of "Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel".


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: "Los Angeles Times"s Ann Powers described it as an "aggressive track", while Lauren Carter of the "Boston Herald" wrote "Carey's musical stiff-arm ends with some vocal acrobatics to let us know she's still got it. Expect to get 'Obsessed' this summer." MTV News rated the song as one of the contenders for the "best of the summer", writing "Mimi returns, this time with an Auto-Tuned kiss-off to wannabe lotharios (and Eminem?) that will probably be the soundtrack to a million summer hookups and just as many public-intoxication collars. Glossy, flossy and decidedly "urban", Mariah strikes back. Your radio has been warned. AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine chose the song as a "top pick" from "Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel", while Amos Barshad of "The New York Times" listed it as the fifth top song of the summer. In contrast, "Obsessed" received a mixed review from the "Los Angeles Times" writer, Todd Martens, who wrote that although "its feistier Mimi than [they]'re used to", she ultimately "has been molded to fit current trends" and that the single "again sells out the songbird to her producers." At the ASCAP 27th Annual Pop Music Awards, "Obsessed" won "Most Performed Song".


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: "Obsessed" debuted at number 11 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, with sales of 119,266 digital downloads, making it Carey's highest debut in over a decade, since "My All" (1998). This marked her 40th entry on the Hot 100, making her just the eighth woman in the chart's history to make 40 or more appearances. The song peaked at number seven on the Hot 100, making it her 27th and last top 10 hit, the second greatest number among female artists, and tying her achievements to those of Janet Jackson. The song stayed in the top 40 for 20 weeks, longer than her number-one hit "Touch My Body" (2008). In terms of total top 10 chart entries amongst all artists in the chart's history, Carey is now tied for fifth place with Jackson and Elton John. The song made an early debut at number 52 on the "Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs" chart and has since peaked at number 12, marking Carey's 40th chart entry and placing her in second place for most charted songs among women in the 1990s and 2000s (decade) (the first being Mary J. Blige). Carey made her 29th appearance on the Pop Songs/Mainstream Top 40 radio chart, with "Obsessed" debuting at number 39, and peaking at eight. The arrival extends her lead for the most overall chart entries in the tally's nearly 17-year history. She is now three titles ahead of the second-place Madonna (26).


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: On August 11, 2009, it was announced that the single would be released as a CD single at Wal-Mart store locations in the United States, her first commercial single release physically since 2002 in the country. The CD single was released early at various Wal-Mart store locations, however selling enough copies an entire week before its release date to debut at number one on the Billboard Hot Singles Sales chart, where it remained for four consecutive weeks on the chart. On July 31, 2019, "Obsessed" was certified 3× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of over three million units. This marked Carey's 12th platinum single, more than any other female artist in history. According to Nielsen SoundScan, "Obsessed" has sold over 1,742,000 copies in the United States as of July 2013. On the Canadian Hot 100, the song peaked at number 20, and spent only four weeks within the singles chart.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: Internationally, the song achieved moderate charting due to its limited release. It was not released commercially throughout Europe, in order to give way for the album's second single, Carey's cover of Foreigner's classic "I Want to Know What Love Is". On July 26, 2009, the song debuted at number 26 on the Australian Singles Chart. "Obsessed" peaked at number 13 in the following weeks, placing higher than "Touch My Body" (#17 in 2008), and spent a total of 13 weeks on the chart. "Obsessed" was certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of over 35,000 units. In France, "Obsessed" debuted at its peak position of number eight, during the week dated September 26, 2009. The song charted for a total of 23 weeks, before dropping out on February 27, 2010. Similarly, the song peaked at number six on the Italian Singles Chart on July 16, as well as number 61 on the Dutch Top 40 on September 5, 2009. On both the Japan Hot 100 and New Zealand Singles Chart, "Obsessed" peaked at numbers 16 and 21, while spending four weeks on both charts, respectively. In the United Kingdom, "Obsessed" was lined up to be released in August before the release of "Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel", but was pushed back several times and was ultimately cancelled in October, despite receiving heavy radio and video airplay. After the album was released, the song peaked at number 52 from downloads alone.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: On June 16, 2009, an accompanying remix featuring rapper Gucci Mane was released alongside the original. The song kept to its original arrangement and vocals, only adding ad libs throughout the song, as well as adding a new intro and replacing the bridge with another verse by Mane. Two days before the remix's release, Jasmine Dotiwala, Carey's longtime friend tweeted regarding it, saying "Listening to 'Obsessed' remix on repeat, -guest rapper-cant tell u who it is but he put the G in Ghetto! Sick combo-hotness." In an interview with MTV News, Mane described the remix as his "biggest collaboration yet":


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: Shout-out to Mariah Carey and her whole squad and my boy Chris Lighty. He got me and Mariah together. I appreciate it. He put me on there as well as her. Both of them are smart for doing that. The song came out hard. Mariah knew I wanted to do a song with her. It finally happened, and it turned out hard. I just flew up there to New York, went in the studio with her. I flew right out and went back on the road. When I do a song with people, I like to really get in the studio with them so I could feel they swag and they could feel mine. The music comes out better.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: Gucci Mane mentioned in his book, "The Autobiography of Gucci Mane", that Mariah Carey wanted him to fly out to New York City just to meet her, but when he got to the studio she wasn't there. Mane first thought that it was a waste of time and he could have easily done the song from Atlanta. He was ready to leave after finishing his verse on the song when Carey appeared and it seemed like she had been there the whole time waiting for him to finish. Carey loved Mane's verse and even asked for his advice on some of the other songs she had for her upcoming album.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: Aside from the primary remix, "Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel" included four additional remixes that were released on a separate CD along with the original. It was packaged in a separate sleeve, and included the remix featuring Mane, and versions done by Jump Smokers, Tim Cahill, Seamus Haji and Friscia & Lamboy.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: The song's music video was directed by Brett Ratner, who had previously worked with Carey on six other music videos, and was shot from June 28 to 29, 2009. Throughout the video, Carey plays herself and a male stalker, dressed as both a bellhop and a man wearing a gray hoodie and sweatpants. Two videos were shot for "Obsessed", one for the original version, and one for the remixed version, which features Gucci Mane. The video was shot predominantly at the Plaza Hotel, and on the streets of New York City. After several photographs of Carey dressed as the stalker were leaked, critics and bloggers immediately compared Carey's costume to Eminem's usual attire, and many wrote that aside from the goatee, the pair looked alike. Carey tweeted "I am "not" at any point in the video playing a specific person. I'm dressed as a 'stalker' in 3 different ensembles." Carey also revealed that the music video would reference several of her favorite films, such as "Mean Girls" (2004), with the line "Why are you so obsessed with me?", as well as "The Devil Wears Prada" (2006).


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: In an interview with MTV News, Carey described going under-cover as the stalker role: "Well, we had a lot of people outside. I'm walking up to the Plaza [Hotel], and when I was dressed as Mariah Carey, there were a lot of people just standing there taking pictures, and the street was closed down, and it was a whole rigmarole. It is what it is. So, basically, I went into costume as the stalker, and I told my bodyguard, 'I don't want you to walk with me.' So, a friend of mine was there, and I was like, 'Let's walk together.'" After reports continued to speculate regarding the video's subject, Ratner explained that the main inspiration behind the video was the 1983 film, "The King of Comedy". On July 10, 2009, Carey announced through her Twitter account that the video would premiere on the talent competition program, "America's Got Talent", which was hosted by Cannon. The full version premiered two days later on "106 & Park". Carey was present at the show and discussed the making of the video.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: The video begins with Carey at a photoshoot in a private room at the Plaza Hotel, speaking the line, "And I was like, why are you so obsessed with me?" Next, a Rolls-Royce Phantom is shown pulling up to the hotel, with Carey stepping out of the vehicle. As she gets out of the car, Carey dressed as a bellhop, assists her to the ramp where she is walking and greeting fans. The next scene finds Carey walking into the hotel, and waving to everyone, with the camera zooming to the bellhops face to reveal him intently staring at her. As the first verse begins, Carey is shown at the photo-shoot in the hotel, with a cameo by Patrick Demarchelier as the photographer. The bellhop, now dressed in a gray hoodie and sweatpants, is shown holding a hair-blower at Carey, apparently assisting with the shoot. As the shoot continues, scenes of the bellhop are shown in his room, where he has dolls of Carey on the wall, as well as quilts with the cover of her 2005 album, "The Emancipation of Mimi".


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: The video progresses as Carey, now on the streets of New York, is walking towards the hotel. As she begins to notice the bellhop, dressed in the sweats, pursuing her, she turns around in haste and begins jolting back to the hotel while holding several shopping bags. Additionally, scenes of the stalker's home are shown again, this time more elaborately, with his walls covered with portraits of the singer, as well as album covers and lights around a large photo of her. As the video comes to an end, she waits for her limousine to arrive at the hotel. However, before she gets inside, she notices the stalker attempting to take a picture of her. She then looks directly into his camera and gives a smile. The video then shows him again, still attempting to take a picture, right before a bus hits him. Carey gasps in shock after witnessing the incident. The remix video for the song features the same story-line and footage, only showing inter-cut scenes of Carey dressed in a white ensemble, while laying on a vintage wooden table. As Gucci Mane stands next to her in a white suit, he pours her champagne and hands her the glass.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: At the time of the video's release, several critics took notice of the similarities in Eminem's attire and Carey's stalker. Nick Levine from Digital Spy wrote: "It isn't quite as ridiculous as we were hoping, and Mariah's insisting the male stalker she plays isn't meant to be a 'specific person', but there's still plenty to enjoy in the 'Obsessed' video. There is a lot of MC cleavage, a not entirely convincing fake beard and a neat "Mean Girls" reference towards the end." "Newsday"s Corris Little described it as "genius!" and continued, "Move over Eminem, I'm officially obsessed with Mariah Carey. Who isn't? She can sing, she's pretty and she has really fun music videos." A writer from the "Evening Standard" called the video "shocking", and felt that Carey's disguise was so convincing, she should assume the role more often if she wants to travel incognito. The "New York Post"s Jarett Wieselman described it as "human butterfly embrac[ing] her macho side", and concluded his review with "I'm guessing the video involves Mariah's butch bellhop becoming a little infatuated with the singer, or something. Basically it's another way to give her double the screentime – much like that Mariah-on-Mariah fight in 'Heartbreaker'!" "New York Daily News" writer Chris Baud joked about Eminem going one step further, writing: "It's great that Mariah seems to be having fun with this whole 'Miminem' thing, but we're afraid of the conflict going any further, because no one wants to see the next step: Eminem in drag." Jennifer Armstrong from "Entertainment Weekly" complimented Carey for "going after" Eminem, and concluded "I like Mariah with a sense of humor, and I love the idea of her turning the tables on the king of celebrity-mocking videos."


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: Carey performed "Obsessed" on several televised appearances since its release. On August 5, 2009, Carey performed the song live for the first time on the fourth season of the talent competition, "America's Got Talent". Carey, appearing in jeans and a black top, was accompanied by several male dancers and three back-up singers. As she performed the song, the dancers hoisted her into the air several times, and carried her to several areas on the stage. During the performance, several white lights flashed, while monitors behind the dancers showed images of Carey and the video. Breanne Heldman from E! Entertainment Television criticized several aspects of the performance. She described the lighting as "anxiety inducing", and wrote, "That said, no one is doubting the singer's impressive set of pipes, but—frighteningly jarring lighting and quick edits aside—did she actually utilize them on 'America's Got Talent' last night?" Aside from questioning the singers live vocals, she also felt Carey seemed "robotic", and didn't show effort or interest in the performance. A reviewer from Idolator also was critical on the performance, asking if there was "anything good about [it]". He claimed Carey was lip-syncing, and described it as "lackadaisical", and wrote, "the backup dancers’ moves would have probably received a big red 'X' from at least one of the judges."


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: In the United States, on October 2, 2009, Carey began promotion of the album on "Today", in the form of a four piece outdoor concert. Wearing a "black leather trench coat and accessorized with a glittery microphone", Carey performed "Obsessed", "I Want to Know What Love Is", "H.A.T.E.U." and her 1991 single, "Make It Happen". The performance of "Obsessed" featured similar choreography as on "America's Got Talent", in which Carey was carried around by her dancers several times. Carey performed "Obsessed" live on "Lopez Tonight" on December 16, 2009, alongside another song from the album, "It's A Wrap". At the Fashion Rocks ceremony in 2009, Carey performed "Touch My Body" and "Obsessed", as well as the remix to her 1995 song "Fantasy". During the short set list, Carey was accompanied by six men in black tie and suits, who hoisted her into the air in front of over 6,000 people during "Obsessed", and rigorous dance routines throughout "Touch My Body". Following the release of "Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel", she held four concerts at the Pearl Concert Theater, where she included the song on the set-list. Similar to the performance at the Fashion Rocks ceremony, Carey was hoisted into the air several times by four to six male dancers, each of whom circled her with intricate dancing throughout the song. Carey featured similar choreography for the song during her Angels Advocate Tour (2009–10), where it was included throughout the entire span of the tour.


title: Obsessed (Mariah Carey song)

text: In the summer of 2019, the song became a viral TikTok challenge "which prompted endless comments, memes and even a response from Carey herself."


title: Cat food

text: Cat food is food for consumption by cats. Cats have specific requirements for their dietary nutrients. Certain nutrients, including many vitamins and amino acids, are degraded by the temperatures, pressures and chemical treatments used during manufacture, and hence must be added after manufacture to avoid nutritional deficiency.


title: Cat food

text: During the 19th century and early 20th centuries, meat for cats and dogs in London, frequently horse meat, was sold from barrows (hand–carts) by traders known as Cat's Meat Men or Women. Henry Mayhew estimated in "London Labour and the London Poor" (1851) that the total number of cats in London might be 300,000. Each cat's meat seller had a particular route and served a few hundred households, their approach marked by mewing cats.


title: Cat food

text: The idea of preparing specialized food for cats came later than dog food and dog biscuits. This was likely due to the idea that cats could readily fend for themselves. In 1837, a French writer Mauny de Mornay critiqued this idea:


title: Cat food

text: He goes on to say that it is all the more unreasonable to expect a cat to live from hunting in that cats take mice more for amusement than to eat: "A good cat takes many and eats few".


title: Cat food

text: In the same year, an advertisement for Spratt (better known for making dog food) said that their cat food entirely superseded "the unwholesome practice of feeding on boiled horse flesh." And, in another book on cats, Stables recommended the company's food:


title: Cat food

text: Spratt, which began by making dog biscuits, appears to also have been the first commercial producer of cat food.


title: Cat food

text: Cats are obligate carnivores—meaning, they are true carnivores and depend upon the nutrients present in animal flesh for their dietary needs. Even domesticated cats will relish freshly killed meat from rodents, rabbits, amphibians, birds, reptiles and fish, but cats are also opportunistic feeders and will readily take cooked food as well as dried cat food when offered, if that food is palatable. The natural diet of cats therefore does not include any vegetable matter, although cats have been known to eat certain plants and grasses occasionally, usually as an emetic.


title: Cat food

text: Cats cannot synthesize some essential nutrients required for survival, including the amino acids taurine and arginine, so these nutrients must be sourced from fresh meat in the natural diet. Cats lack the specific physiology to extract nutrients efficiently from plant-based materials, and require a high protein diet, which is why high-energy meats from freshly killed prey are optimal foods.


title: Cat food

text: In the United States, cat foods labeled as "complete and balanced" must meet standards established by the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) either by meeting a nutrient profile or by passing a feeding trial. Cat Food Nutrient Profiles were established in 1992 and updated in 2014 by the AAFCO's Feline Nutrition Expert Subcommittee. The updated profiles replaced the previous recommendations set by the National Research Council (NRC). Certain manufacturers label their products with terms such as premium, ultra premium, natural and holistic. Such terms currently have no legal definitions. However, "While most of the food supplied comes from within the US, the FDA ensures that standards are met within our borders even when components come from countries with less stringent levels of safety or label integrity."


title: Cat food

text: The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is the source of nutrient absorption, making it integral to overall health. Research shows fiber, prebiotics, probiotics, antioxidants and fatty acids are important in maintaining gastrointestinal health.


title: Cat food

text: To achieve optimal cellular health (especially in the gut) and to maintain a healthy microbiome, proper nutrition is necessary (nutrition is multifactorial and complex).


title: Cat food

text: Cats with gastrointestinal diseases must consume an easily digestible diet with the appropriate nutrients provided by easily digestible ingredients and in the correct ratio which is recommended to be fed in small portions frequently throughout the day, so as not to overwhelm the digestive system.


title: Cat food

text: It is also important for fat to be digestible because too much undigested fat that reaches the end of the digestive tract (colon) has the possibility of being fermented and can worsen the symptoms of GIT disease and induce other reactions like diarrhea.


title: Cat food

text: It has also been suggested that cats should eat diets tailored to the section of the GIT that is diseased.


title: Cat food

text: When certain nutrients like fructooligosaccharides (FOS) are included in the diet, the microbiome and fatty acid content are often changed for the better. An example is less branched-chain fatty acids (BCFAs; which are more difficult and take more time to digest) are produced and more short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs; which are easier to digest and are more readily available sources of energy which can be used for supporting cell turnover keeping cells, like those found in the GIT, thereby improving GIT health and immune function) are produced.


title: Cat food

text: Malnutrition can be a problem for cats fed non-conventional diets. Cats fed exclusively on raw, freshwater fish can develop a thiamine deficiency. Those fed exclusively on liver may develop vitamin A toxicity. Also, exclusively meat-based diets may contain excessive protein and phosphorus whilst being deficient in calcium, vitamin E, and microminerals such as copper, zinc, and potassium. Energy density must also be maintained relative to the other nutrients. When vegetable oil is used to maintain the energy balance cats may not find the food as palatable.


title: Cat food

text: Most store-bought cat food comes in either dry form, also known in the US as "kibble", or wet form (canned or in pouches). Some manufacturers sell frozen raw diets and premix products to cater to owners who feed raw.


title: Cat food

text: Dry food (8–10% moisture) is generally made by extrusion cooking under high heat and pressure. Approximately 95% of dry pet foods are extruded. During the extrusion cooking process, the meat is first ground up then it is cooked under very high heat and processed so it becomes a powder. The powder is fed into a massive mixer. Once it's in this massive mixer, additional supplements are added; then it's then cooked again under a very high heat to turn it into a dough. The dough is formed so that it can be molded into the form of kibble. The kibble is placed again in high heat to be baked in order to make it stay in that shape. Once the piece comes out, it doesn't smell like meat. Fat may be sprayed on the food after the extrusion cooking process to increase palatability, and other minor ingredients, such as heat-sensitive vitamins, which would be destroyed in the extrusion process, may be added. Dry food is most often packed in multi-wall paper bags, sometimes with a plastic film layer; similar bag styles with film laminates or coextrusions are also used.


title: Cat food

text: Dry foods contain high amounts of carbohydrates in order to maintain their shape and structure. Concerns have been raised that there is some association between the carbohydrate content and risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes in felines.


title: Cat food

text: In much of Europe, the UK and the US, canned or wet food (75–78% moisture) generally comes in aluminum or steel cans in sizes. It is also sold in foil pouch form.


title: Cat food

text: A renal diet is formulated for cats that are living with chronic kidney disease, or CKD. This is a highly prevalent condition in the feline population and is most common in the aging and older domesticated feline. It has been shown that the lifespan of cats experiencing CKD can be extended by as much as 2 years when receiving therapeutic diets rather than regular maintenance diets. These diets are low in protein, low in phosphorus, have a high energy density, a higher fat content and include omega-3 fatty acids.


title: Cat food

text: Renal diets with low protein have been adopted by a number of big pet food manufacturers. Although the diet of a healthy cat should be high in protein, at times it is medically necessary for a cat to eat a low protein diet. For cats living with chronic renal disease, low protein diets lower the amount of nitrogenous waste in the body, helping to decrease the strain put on the kidneys. The exact level of protein that is needed for therapeutic CKD diets is unclear.


title: Cat food

text: Low protein diets can be formulated as a wet or dry food, with the main difference being the moisture content. Unfortunately, low protein diets are not as palatable to cats as diets high in protein.


title: Cat food

text: Low protein diets should not be fed to cats with the liver condition known as hepatic encephalopathy because severe protein restriction can be detrimental to animals with this condition. Cats with this condition should be fed a diet with high quality protein sources that have adequate amounts of the amino acids taurine and arginine.


title: Cat food

text: In low protein diets, unless the protein source is a high quality protein such as an animal-based protein, cats (and especially kittens) have been shown to develop retinal degeneration due to a deficiency in taurine, an essential amino acid for cats that is derived from animal protein.


title: Cat food

text: Low protein diets have been linked to health defects such as lack of growth, decreased food intake, muscle atrophy, hypoalbuminemia, skin alterations, and more. Cats on lower protein diets are more likely to lose weight, and to lose lean body mass.


title: Cat food

text: Low protein diets that are high in carbohydrates have been found to decrease glucose tolerance in cats. With a decreased glucose tolerance, clinical observations have confirmed that cats consuming large proportions of metabolizable energy, in the form of carbohydrates rather than protein, are more likely to develop hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, and obesity.


title: Cat food

text: Restricting phosphorus has been proven to decrease the progression of CKD. This is because phosphorus can be deposited into soft tissues and become mineralized, which can cause kidney damage.


title: Cat food

text: Formulating these diets with higher amounts of fat is important to make sure the food is palatable in the absence of protein and promote an increased caloric intake. The higher fat content will also spare the use of protein for energy and help decrease stress on the kidneys. Omega-3 fatty acids are included in therapeutic diets because of their anti-inflammatory properties to aid the diseased kidneys.


title: Cat food

text: A high energy diet is generally high in fat. Compared to carbohydrates and protein, fat provides much more energy, at 8.5 kcal/g. High energy diets generally have a fat content greater than 20% on a dry matter basis. A high energy diet is appropriate for cats who are undergoing growth, recovering from illness, are pregnant or lactating, as their energy requirements are higher than otherwise. A lactating or gestating cat requires a nutrient-dense and highly digestible diet to withstand the high levels of stress being placed on her body. These conditions are found in cat food that is formulated for growth, performance, or high energy during all life stages.


title: Cat food

text: To maintain a neutral energy balance and thus maintain body weight, energy intake should increase with energy expenditure. Studies that relate the number of meals offered to cats per day to their daily activity levels have shown conflicting results. It has been shown that cats offered four meals a day or a random number of meals a day have similar energy levels, greater than those fed only one meal per day. It has been postulated that this increased energy level could be due to purported spikes in activity before being fed, known as food anticipatory activity. Other studies on female cats have found that increasing the daily amount of food may actually decrease their daily activity levels. The age, sex, and whether cats are intact or have been spayed/neutered are all factors controlling activity level.


title: Cat food

text: As cats age, there is evidence that their metabolic energy requirements may increase, especially after 12 or 13 years old, but other evidence suggests that metabolic energy needs are not dissimilar at different ages. Furthermore, it has been shown that cats over 12 years old are more likely to be underweight than younger cats, so a high calorie diet may be appropriate to treat weight loss, and thus to maintain an appropriate body condition score. Weight loss can occur when the cat expends more energy but does not increase its food energy intake. It has also been demonstrated that as cats age, they are less able to digest and thus absorb dietary fats and proteins.


title: Cat food

text: Pregnancy and lactation are strenuous periods on the female cat. During pregnancy a cat should gain 38% of their body weight by the time they are ready to give birth. It is recommended that a cat's diet should contain 4000 kcal per kg of dry food while pregnant; during lactation it is recommended that the cat consumes 240 - 354 kcal ME per kg of body weight. Studies show that increasing the intake of food for a pregnant animal in order to help it gain weight can have negative effects. It is acknowledged that rather than increasing intake, feeding a highly energy dense food is a way to ensure that the female cat, or queen, receives adequate energy and nutrient requirements are met.


title: Cat food

text: It has been found that nutritional support consistent with the resting energy requirement (RER) soon after surgery or the onset of illness decreases the mortality rate and the duration of hospitalization in cats. A recovering cat needs enough energy (calories), as well as more protein and fats. Critical care diets are formulated to be highly palatable and digestible, as well as high energy density. This limits the mass of food required to be consumed to meet the RER. This type of high energy diet has proven to be very important in the nutritional support of post-operative and ill cats.


title: Cat food

text: Raw feeding is providing uncooked ingredients to cats. Most of the diet will consist of animal-based ingredients, though fruits, vegetables and supplements are often added. Commercial raw food is mainly sold in three formats: fresh, frozen and freeze-dried. Thawing and rehydration are necessary before feeding frozen and freeze-dried food respectively. Many available commercial diets are AAFCO certified in meeting the nutrient requirements of the cat. Some diets may be formulated for all life stages or they can also be AAFCO certified for adult maintenance or growth and gestation/lactation. Many people feed their cats raw food believing that it mimics the prey diet that wild cats would consume. Firm believers report that such a diet can bring about many health benefits, such as a shinier coat, cleaner teeth and an improved immunity to various gastrointestinal ailments (with diarrhoea and constipation being the most common), as well as an increase in energy and a decrease in bodily waste odours, although no scientific evidence exists to prove these claims.


title: Cat food

text: Commercial raw diets can undergo High Pressure Pasteurization (HPP), a process which kills bacteria and pathogens, including salmonella, using high water pressure. This technique is USDA approved and allows raw food to remain uncooked while greatly improving its safety and shelf-life. However, every year, many commercial raw pet foods are recalled due to various bacterial contamination, implying that feeding raw comes with a risk.


title: Cat food

text: Weight control simply means ensuring an energy balance: energy in equals energy out. Weight gain means more energy is being consumed than is being expended in exercise and other functions. A weight management diet is designed to allow fewer calories to be consumed in a larger volume of food, allowing for less risk of an energy imbalance.


title: Cat food

text: Adult cats should be fed a diet that promotes maintaining a healthy weight, while at the same time meeting the individual taste preference of the cat. Cats generally prefer to eat smaller meals more frequently, which can lead to less weight gain compared to cats that are fed free-choice (always available) food. Meanwhile, some cats adapt to free-choice feeding and can maintain normal body weight with no weight gain. In general, indoor cats have less opportunity or need for exercise than outdoor cats; indoor cats are much more prone to weight gain. For indoor cats, there are a variety of choices to promote exercise, including various cat toys designed to stimulate chase and play behaviours. Overall, if an adult cat cannot maintain normal body condition on a free-choice feeding diet, despite exercise levels, portion-controlled feeding is recommended. Many pet cats are fed energy-dense, high carbohydrate diets, which provide much more energy than needed. This is a major issue with indoor cats as it has been shown to lead to obesity. To prevent cats from becoming overweight, owners should be more inclined to implement weight control diets, which provide the cat with nutrient-dense, low energy ingredients. Studies show that cats fed lower energy diets have significantly reduced incidences of obesity, as the typical indoor pet cat does not need more energy than their resting energy requirement. For an average cat weighing 10-11 pounds (about 5 kg), it would have a resting energy requirement of 180-200 kcal/day.


title: Cat food

text: Along with energy input and output, specific nutrients can be important in weight control diets. Fiber is an important component that helps control weight, along with various other benefits. A source of soluble and fermentable fiber helps to increase the movement of digesta through the gut and decrease gastric emptying. This helps to increase satiety in cats, potentially decreasing feeding rates and voluntary energy consumption. Fermentable fiber promotes healthy mucosa and commensal bacterial growth and improved digestion/nutrient absorption. Prebiotic fibers like fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and mannonoligosaccharides (MOS) decrease the number of pathogenic bacteria and increase the number of beneficial bacteria in the gut. They also help to maintain microbial balance and a healthy immune system. Fiber is fermented in the colon to produce short-chain fatty acids which can be used as an energy source. Fermentable fiber has been demonstrated to enhance general health and decrease inflammation. Furthermore, non-fermentable fiber is critical to the formation of well-formed stool, and has been known to increase diet bulk while decreasing caloric density. Insoluble fiber has been proposed to regulate appetite by releasing hormones that reduce hunger. Sources of fiber commonly added in weight management cat food include beet pulp, barley, psyllium and cellulose.


title: Cat food

text: Another nutrient important for weight control diets is protein and its component amino acids. Felines, being obligate carnivores, require a natural diet of animal products which consists of protein and fat (i.e. muscle, organs and animal tissue). Dietary protein supplies amino acids that can be utilized and metabolised as energy before using fat stores, even though protein is not stored in the body the same way as fat. Dietary fat is more efficiently converted to body fat than protein; if an animal is consuming more than its energy requirement and if the excess energy is provided by fat, more weight will be gained than if the excess calories are coming from protein. Dietary protein also improves satiety during feed, resulting in decreased overconsumption of food. The protein content of the diet is a key factor in building and maintaining lean body (muscle) mass, which is an important aspect of weight control. Lean body mass maintenance is regulated by protein intake, but more importantly is regulated by exercise. Limited protein and amino acids in the diet will limit lean body mass growth, but exercise or lack of exercise will allow growth or shrinking of muscle. Successful weight control involves maintenance of healthy adipose tissue levels, but most importantly maintenance of lean body mass. Lean muscle is the driver of basal energy metabolism and aids in the use of energy. When sufficient levels of fat are provided, fat will be used by the body as an energy source, but only when there are insufficient levels of protein.


title: Cat food

text: An important component of many weight loss/weight control diets is L-carnitine. This is a vitamin-like substance that is found in animal protein. It can be found in ingredients commonly used in more commercial pet foods, but specifically weight management/weight loss diets. L-carnitine is involved in many biological pathways, more specifically fatty acid metabolism, allowing for the conversion of long-chain fatty acids into energy. The introduction of L-carnitine ensures rapid transport and oxidation of fatty acids as well as efficient usage of dietary fatty acids and protein. Supplementary L-carnitine is used more often in weight loss diets, since its benefits mainly involve fatty acid metabolism to control weight loss. However, since weight control is, in essence, a prevention stage in overall weight management, it still has value in weight control diets in preserving and building lean body mass and inhibiting the storage of excess dietary fat. The majority of studies focusing on supplementary L-carnitine use look at its benefits for weight loss, including its effect on metabolic rate and fatty acid oxidation. At the same time, these studies still show similar results that prove their effects of controlling fatty acid metabolism for weight control, to avoid the need for weight loss diets.


title: Cat food

text: Grain free cat food substitutes the typical carbohydrate sources like wheat, corn or rice with alternative sources such as white potato, peas, sweet potato or tapioca.


title: Cat food

text: A study published in the Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery in 2018 compared the carbohydrate content between grain-free diets and diets containing grains. According to this study the proportion of cat food purchased that is grain free has increased from 4% to 9% between 2012 and 2014. The researchers at Tufts University analyzed the nutritional information and contents of 77 different dry cat food diets. 42 of these diets contained grain, while 35 were labeled as grain free. The major ingredients and amounts were determined for each diet and then analyses were conducted comparing the two groups. It was found that the grain free diets had a lower mean carbohydrate content than the diets containing grain; however, there was a very wide range and lots of overlap between the two groups in both their carbohydrate contents. Some grain free diets even had a higher amount of carbohydrates than the diets containing grain. Calorie amounts were similar for both diets.


title: Cat food

text: A recent study published by the FDA has potentially linked grain free diets to dilated cardiomyopathy in both dogs and cats. While the majority of cases reported were for canines, 14 cases were reported between 2014 and 2019 for cats.


title: Cat food

text: Allergy to grains is very rare in cats. Corn in particular is less likely to cause allergy than meat, fish, and dairy. There is also no evidence of gluten causing ill effects in cats.


title: Cat food

text: Vegetarian or vegan cat food has been available for many years, and is targeted primarily at vegan and vegetarian pet owners. While a small percentage of owners choose such a diet based on its perceived health benefits, the majority do so due to ethical concerns. Despite this, many vegans who feed their cats a vegan diet believe that a vegan diet is healthier than a conventional diet. There is much controversy over feeding cats a vegetarian or vegan diet. While there is anecdotal evidence that cats do well on vegetarian food, hard evidence is lacking on the adequacy (or lack thereof) of a vegetarian diet.


title: Cat food

text: As obligate carnivores, cats require nutrients (including arginine, taurine, arachidonic acid, vitamin A, vitamin B12 and niacin) found in meat sources. Plant sources do not contain enough of these. Vegetarian pet food companies try to correct these deficiencies by adding synthetically produced nutrients.


title: Cat food

text: Cats on a vegan diet can develop abnormally alkaline (high pH) urine as plant-based proteins are more alkaline than the meat-based foods which cats have evolved to eat. When the urine becomes too alkaline (pH > 5.4), there is an increased risk of formation of struvite (also known as magnesium ammonium phosphate) bladder crystals and/or stones. Calcium oxalate stones can also occur if the urine is too acidic. Such stones can create irritation and infection of the urinary tract and require veterinary treatment.


title: Cat food

text: Organizations that advocate vegan or vegetarian diets for people have split opinions regarding vegetarian or vegan cat food. The International Vegetarian Union, the Vegan Society and PETA are some of the organizations that support a vegan or vegetarian diet for cats. But the Vegetarian Society suggests people "consider carefully" and that many cats will not adjust to a vegetarian diet. The Animal Protection Institute also does not recommend a vegetarian diet for cats, and cautions that dietary deficiencies may take months or years to develop and may be untreatable. They do not recommend relying on supplements, because they may not contain necessary co-factors and enzymes and have not been studied for long term implications. The animal welfare organization American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, although suggesting a supplemented vegetarian diet for dogs, recommends against vegetarian and vegan diets for cats. The Association of Veterinarians for Animal Rights (now Humane Society Veterinary Medical Association) accepts that a plant-based diet can be nutritionally adequate, but stated in August 2006 that such diets "cannot at this time be reliably assured".


title: Cat food

text: Many pet owners feed cats homemade diets. These diets generally consist of some form of cooked or raw meat, bone, vegetables, and supplements, such as taurine and multivitamins. Homemade diets either follow a recipe, such as the BARF (bone and raw food) diet which provides a series of options for the pet owner to make, or rely on the constant rotation of ingredients to meet nutrient requirements. A study was conducted that analyzed 95 homemade BARF diets and found that 60% of these were nutritionally imbalanced in either one or a combination of calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D, iodine, zinc, copper, or vitamin A content.


title: Cat food

text: Another 2019 study on a range of homemade diet recipes found online and in books has also found nutritional inadequacies. The authors mention that vegetarianism and support for organics food are common reasons for trying such a diet, but does not specifically address the adequacy of vegetarian or organic diets.


title: Cat food

text: Vitamin deficiencies can lead to wide-ranging clinical abnormalities that reflect the diversity of their metabolic roles. Twelve minerals are known to be essential nutrients for cats. Calcium and phosphorus are crucial to strong bones and teeth. Cats need other minerals, such as magnesium, potassium, and sodium, for nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and cell signaling. Many minerals only present in minute amounts in the body, including selenium, copper, and molybdenum, act as helpers in a wide variety of enzymatic reactions.


title: Cat food

text: The table below lists the AAFCO nutritional profiles for cat foods along with the roles of vitamins and minerals in cat nutrition according to the National Research Council.


title: Cat food

text: Many nutrients can cause a variety of deficiency symptoms in cats, and the skin is a vital organ that is susceptible to dietary changes in minerals, protein, fatty acids, and vitamins A and B. Cats show dietary inadequacies in their skin through excess or inadequate oil production, and skin toughening. This results in dandruff, redness, hair loss, greasy skin, and reduced hair growth.


title: Cat food

text: Cats are unusually dependent on a constant supply of the amino acid arginine, and a diet lacking arginine causes marked weight loss and can be rapidly fatal. Arginine is an essential additive in cat food because cats have low levels of the enzymes which are responsible for the synthesis of ornithine and citrulline in the small intestine (specifically, for pyrroline-5-carboxylate production). Citrulline would typically go on to the kidneys to make arginine, but because cats have a deficiency in the enzymes that make it, citrulline is not produced in adequate quantities to make arginine. Arginine is essential in the urea cycle in order to convert the toxic component ammonia into urea that can then be excreted in the urine. Because of its essential role, deficiency in arginine results in a buildup of toxic ammonia and leads to hyperammonemia. The symptoms of hyperammonemia include lethargy, vomiting, ataxia, and hyperesthesia, and can be serious enough to induce death and coma in a matter of days if a cat is being fed an arginine-free diet. These symptoms appear quickly because diets devoid in arginine will typically still contain all of the other amino acids, which will continue to be catabolized by the body, producing mass amounts of ammonia that very quickly build up with no way of being excreted.


title: Cat food

text: Zinc's connection to skin and coat health is due to its influence on regulating cellular metabolism. Zinc also supports proper immune function and suitable activity within the inflammatory response. Deficiencies result in disorders of the skin and poor immune functioning. When zinc is supplemented in diets, skin scaliness decreases. Dietary sources include poultry, red meat, and eggs.


title: Cat food

text: One of the many functions of copper is to assist in production of connective tissue and the pigment melanin. A deficiency in dietary copper is also related to collagen abnormalities, hypopigmentation of the skin, and alopecia. Sources for cats include liver and supplements in the forms of copper sulphate and cupric oxide.


title: Cat food

text: Selenium works with vitamin E as antioxidants to remove the free radicals that are damaging to the body and the skin. Selenium also plays a role with other antioxidants to help maintain cell membranes which provides further protection from free radicals causing oxidative stress. Oxidative stress plays a role in development of skin diseases. Dietary sources of selenium are naturally occurring in selenomethionine and tuna.


title: Cat food

text: A fatty acid molecule consists of a (COOH) group attached to an aliphatic chain. There are many types of fatty acid with different such chains. These different types have somewhat different properties. Saturated fatty acids have no carbon=carbon double bonds, while polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than one such bond in each molecule. The main form of fatty acids in diet is fats or triglycerides, which consist of three fatty acid groups attached to a glycerin molecule.


title: Cat food

text: Fatty acids can become attached to different molecules such as carbohydrates or proteins, and can implement a wide range of functions in the body. These functions include long-term energy storage, insulation (prevents heat loss, protects vital organs, helps transmit nerve impulses faster), structure, transportation around the body for nutrients and other biological molecules. They can also be precursors to other compounds in the body, such as hormones (some of which are important for gut/immune/overall health). The length, degree of saturation and configuration of a fatty acid affects how it is broken down, absorbed and used in the gastrointestinal tract. Essential fatty acids (EFA) are nutrients that cats are unable to produce in sufficient amounts to meet their needs, or at all. All EFAs are polyunsaturated. EFAs also vary in size, have many different functions and can also be further divided into other categories, two of which are very important for gastrointestinal health: the omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. (The omega number denotes the position of the first double bond in a fatty acid, counting from the methyl end.) These fatty acids are most effective when present in adequate and appropriate balanced ratios dependent upon stage of life and production of the animal. Omega-6 fatty acids at high levels can suppress the functions of the immune system (a large part of which is located in the gastrointestinal tract) and promote inflammation, platelet aggregation and hypersensitive reactions like allergies. Omega-3 fatty acids act in the opposite direction to omega-6 fatty acids, by reducing inflammation and depressing aggregation and immunosuppression. The diet provided will determine the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids consumed; the optimal ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids is considered to be within the range of 5:1 to 10:1. The right ratio helps reduce inflammation and mediate immune responses, as both types of fatty acid use the same enzymes in their metabolic journey.


title: Cat food

text: There are three essential fatty acids that should be included in a cat's diet: alpha-linolenic acid, linoleic acid, and arachidonic acid. Alpha-linolenic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid that aids in the maintenance of the skin's water barrier. Ingredients that are high in alpha-linolenic acid, such as flaxseed, should be included in the cat's diet. Another source of omega-3s is fish oil. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are omega-3 fatty acids which have anti-inflammatory properties. Linoleic acid is an example of an omega-6 fatty acid that helps with the health of the cat's skin by maintaining the integrity of their epithelial tissues. Linoleic acid is commonly found in plant-based oils like sunflower oil. Arachidonic acid is also essential to cats because they are unable to create it from linoleic acid due to an absence of the Delta 6 desaturase enzyme. It can be found in substances such as animal fat.


title: Cat food

text: Vitamin A is a crucial nutritional component in the maintenance of feline skin and coat health. In addition to its many other functions, vitamin A plays an important role in the keratinization of the skin, hair and nails along with assisting in the development of various epithelial tissues throughout the body. The cells making up the epithelial tissues of the skin, respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts rely on vitamin A to successfully complete the process of mitosis in order preserve these tissues and repair any damages. The mucous secreting cells of the respiratory and gastrointestinal epithelium also specifically require vitamin A to successfully produce a specialized protein referred to as mucoproteins which aid in maintaining the health of these tissues. Unlike most other mammals, the cat is unique in that they are unable to transform B-carotene to vitamin A and therefore explicitly require active forms of vitamin A which are only found in animal products. This difference in metabolism is due to very low levels of activity of the enzyme B-carotene 15, 15' dioxygenase in feline species. The nutrient profiles developed by AAFCO currently advise a minimum of 3332 IU/kg of vitamin A on a dry matter basis included in adult diets and 6668 IU/kg in the diets of raising kittens as well as pregnant or lactating female cats. Common ingredients which help to incorporate the proper levels of vitamin A into feline diets include various types of liver as well as fish oils.


title: Cat food

text: Niacin is an essential vitamin for the cat; dietary deficiency can lead to anorexia, weight loss and an increase in body temperature. Biosynthesis of niacin occurs by metabolism of tryptophan via the kynurenine pathway to quinolinic acid, the niacin precursor. However, cats have a high activity of picolinic acid carboxylase, which converts one of the intermediates to picolinic acid instead of quinolinic acid. As a result, niacin can become deficient and require supplementation.


title: Cat food

text: Biotin can be provided in feline diets by adding cooked eggs, liver, milk, legumes or nuts. Microorganisms living in the gastrointestinal tracts of cats are also able to synthesize and supply an alternative source of biotin if proper nutritional requirements are met. Its main function in metabolism is as a coenzyme for essential carboxylation reactions throughout the body; however it has also been shown to aid in the management of certain skin diseases in cats. Biotin is recommended by AAFCO to be included in feline diets at a minimum level of 0.07 mg/kg on a dry matter basis throughout all stages of development. It is required only when the cat is taking antimicrobials that kill gut bacteria.


title: Cat food

text: Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble antioxidant and a free radical scavenger where it will donate an electron to compounds with unpaired elections or reactive but not radical compounds. Supplements of Vitamin C reduce oxidative DNA damage in cats prone to kidney injury, and can be beneficial to add into diets for cats with renal diseases. Vitamin C is not essential for cats and it is not required by the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO); however, it is commonly added into pet foods as an antioxidant. Ascorbic acid is known to function in gene expression as a co-substrate, and have unique biosynthetic pathways in different organisms.


title: Cat food

text: Unlike humans, felines are able to synthesize Vitamin C in the liver, via the glucuronate pathway. The simple sugars glucose and galactose are used as input. This pathway naturally maintains ascorbic acid (active Vitamin C) at an adequate level; therefore it does not need to be separately included in their diet.


title: Cat food

text: Vitamin D is a dietary requirement for cats as they lack the ability to efficiently synthesize vitamin D3 using sunlight. This fat-soluble vitamin is required in cats for bone formation through the promotion of calcium retention, along with nerve and muscle control through absorption of calcium and phosphorus. Wild cats probably gather vitamin D from prey liver.


title: Cat food

text: Unlike dogs and humans, cats metabolize vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 slightly differently. A dose of Vitamin D2 is approximately 70% as effective as the same amount of vitamin D3.


title: Cat food

text: Vitamin E as an antioxidant in gastrointestinal health cat food diets can have a positive effect of improving the animal's immune function and prevent against infections. Vitamin E is a free radical scavenger that functions as a chain-breaking antioxidant to prevent free radical damage of cell membranes. Vitamin E aids in protecting cells from highly reactive oxygen species within the lungs, muscles, skin, brain, tissues and red blood cells. Supplementation of vitamin E in the diet benefits the immune system and improves resistance to infections and diseases.


title: Cat food

text: The National Research Council (NRC) suggested a ratio of vitamin E to polyunsaturated fatty acids be 0.6:1 to ensure enough vitamin E to combat any free radicals. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are prone to oxidative destruction in cellular membranes and increase the requirement for antioxidants.


title: Cat food

text: Vitamin E is an essential nutrient which needs to be included in the feline diet in order to protect the lipid components within cellular membranes of various tissues in the body. Vitamin E is able to accomplish this through working with selenium and acting as an antioxidant to prevent free radicals from interacting with these fatty acid membrane components, resulting in reduced levels of oxidative stress. This is particularly important in the skin as various oxidative environmental components can have very damaging effects if not protected by vitamin E. The nutrient profiles developed by AAFCO currently advise a minimum dry matter inclusion of 40 IU/kg of vitamin E in the diet of cats throughout all stages of development. Lipid metabolism is also a major contributor of free radicals, leading to an increased dietary requirement of vitamin E as the levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the diet increase. Ingredients such as wheat germ as well as certain plant oils contain high levels of active vitamin E and are commonly added to feline diets which are carefully stored in order to prevent oxidative destruction of vitamin E prior to consumption.


title: Cat food

text: The addition of fiber at optimal levels in a diet is essential for the normal function and health of the gastrointestinal tract. Cats are to occasionally consume plant material, mainly leaves, in response to a diet deficient in fiber.


title: Cat food

text: Dietary fibers are plant carbohydrates which cannot be digested by mammalian enzymes. These structural plant carbohydrates include pectin, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, muclinage, and gums. Different types of fibers have varying levels of solubility and fermentation; this ranges from pectin which is highly fermentable, to beet pulp which is moderately fermentable, to cellulose which is non-fermentable. Non-fermentable fibers helps with satiety, maintenance of a normal intestinal transit time and gastrointestinal motility as well as increasing diet bulk. Fermentable fibers, on the other hand, are fermented to short-chain fatty acids by bacteria in the colon and have variable effects on gastric emptying. Moderately soluble fibers have been linked to increased colon weight as well as an increased mucosal surface area for absorption of nutrients.


title: Cat food

text: Fiber, though it is not an essential nutrient, is important for a healthy gastrointestinal tract. The microbes found in the cat's large intestine have the ability to ferment dietary fibers to short-chain fatty acids. Cells of the gastrointestinal tract are constantly dying and being replaced by new cells, which requires a lot of energy. The fatty acids produced are used as energy sources for these epithelial cells which line the gastrointestinal tract. As a result of the presence of energy from the fatty acids, colonic cell proliferation is increases.


title: Cat food

text: Short-chain fatty acids production from dietary fibers have many other advantageous effects on the gastrointestinal tract. They increase motility by stimulating rhythmic contractions of the distal portion of the small intestine, which potentially decreases fermentation in the small intestine while increasing it in the large intestine for further fatty acid absorption. Blood flow to the colon also increases with the presence of short-chain fatty acids. These fatty acids also increase sodium absorption which helps maintain normal electrolyte and fluid balance in the intestine, reducing the risk for diarrhea . These homeostatic conditions of the intestinal tract promote the growth of beneficial bacteria while inhibiting the proliferation of pathogenic ones. A healthy and balanced gut microbiome is important for maintaining a healthy digestive tract.


title: Cat food

text: Fibers promote bacterial growth and activity in the large intestine. It is essential for a healthy gastrointestinal tract to have a healthy and stable gut microbiota. The microorganisms present in the colon are responsible for the fermentation of the fiber into short-chain fatty acids and for the production of some vitamins.


title: Cat food

text: Prebiotics are short-chain carbohydrates classified as fibers with an added aspect as they selectively promote the growth of beneficial bacteria. By promoting the health and proliferation of beneficial bacteria, they suppress the growth of pathogenic ones by outcompeting them. inulin, galactooligosaccharides, lactulose, fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and mannanoligosaccharides (MOS) are all examples of prebiotics.


title: Cat food

text: Probiotics (live microbes) are becoming increasingly popular in the diets of felines. They are included in the diet to increase the number of bacteria and microbes that are normally present in a healthy gut. Probiotics are considered a supplement rather than part of nutrition. Therefore, there are no strict regulations to the amount of probiotics that should be included in foods.


title: Cat food

text: The function of probiotics goes beyond basic nutrition and has many benefits to the health of the organism. The use of probiotics can help in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases or disorders of felines. Examples include prevention of allergies, diarrhea, symptoms relating to stress, etc. The health of the cats is very much dependent on the fermentation that occurs through gut biota. The gut biota has an important role in the metabolism, absorption, and protective functions of the gastro intestinal tract. Felines have different gut bacteria than canines. However, the most common biota that are found in both felines and canines are Bacillota, Bacteroidota, Pseudomonadota, and Fusobacteriota. Although these are the most common types of gut biota found in felines, there are variances between independent cats. Each cat has their own unique and independent number and type of gut microbes.